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Velasquez 2021 Soilrecoveryofalluvialgoldminespoilsinthe Peruvian
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Soil recovery of alluvial gold mine spoils in the Peruvian Amazon using
Stylosanthes guianensis, a promising cover crop
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10 authors, including:
All content following this page was uploaded by Manuel Gabriel Velásquez Ramírez on 06 August 2022.
Soil recovery of alluvial gold mine spoils in the Peruvian Amazon using
Stylosanthes guianensis, a promising cover crop
CITATIONS READS
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10 authors, including:
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Fire- and distance-dependent recruitment of the Brazil nut in the Peruvian Amazon View project
Subproyecto Capsicum del Proyecto Desarrollo de Cadenas de Valor para la conservación de la diversidad y el mejoramiento de las condiciones de vida rurales, en el
marco del programa de cooperación entre la UNALM y el Consejo de Universidades Flamencas de Bélgica (VLIR) - Liderado por Roberto Ugas docente principal en la
Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Manuel Gabriel Velásquez Ramírez on 27 October 2021.
REVIEW ARTICLE
1
Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonía
Peruana (IIAP), Puerto Maldonado, Peru Abstract
2
Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonía The Amazon is an important reservoir of biodiversity and carbon but it is under pres-
Peruana (IIAP), Iquitos, Peru
sure by multiple threats such as artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM). In Peru
3
Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina
(UNALM), Lima, Peru ASGM has degraded 90,000 ha of old-growth forest since the eighties, leaving vast
4
Bioversity International, Lima, Peru areas as wastelands. As most ASGM in the region is illegal, efforts to recover
5
Universidad La Salle (ULASALLE), San José, degraded areas have been scant. Here we assessed the potential of Stylosanthes
Costa Rica
guianensis to recover soil health as a first step in the restoration of gold mine spoils in
Correspondence a Native community and a mining concession in Madre de Dios, Peru. We evaluated
Manuel Gabriel Velásquez Ramírez, Instituto
de Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana
plant growth and analyzed changes in physical, chemical, and biological soil parame-
(IIAP), Jr. Ica N 1162, Apartado postal 17001, ters. After 470 days from sowing, the average plant height was 46.7 cm with a sur-
Puerto Maldonado, Peru.
Email: mvelasquez@iiap.gob.pe
vival rate >50% and yields of 23.9 t ha1 and 450 kg ha1 of dry biomass and
nitrogen, respectively. Multiple soil parameters increased significantly, including cat-
Funding information
Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e
ionic exchange capacity (3.3 to 4.0 cmol [+] kg1), soil organic matter (0.03% to
n Tecnolo
Innovacio gica (CONCYTEC); 0.39%), soil respiration (0.02 to 0.06 mg CO2 g1 d1) and biomass (0.03 to
PROCIENCIA
0.15 mg C g1). Soil macrofauna increased from 2 to 11 taxonomic groups, including
ants, considered as soil engineers. Furthermore, S. guianensis increased soil carbon
sequestration of impacted areas from 0.004 t C ha1 by more than 1650%, up to
0.07 t C ha1. These promising findings clearly illustrate S. guianensis potential to
kick-start natural succession of Amazonian forests after degradation by ASGM and
hence help to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.
KEYWORDS
Amazon, degradation, forest, gold mining, restoration
Land Degrad Dev. 2021;1–11. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ldr © 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1
2
VELASQUEZ RAMÍREZ ET AL.
306,250 km² of Amazonia occupied by mining activity, from considered a suitable plant for use in tropical savannas and the humid
1,628,850 in 2012 to 1,322,600 km² in 2020. (De Almeida, 2019). tropics (Amezquita et al., 1991; CIAT, 1984). Here we hypothesized
ASGM involves logging and burning forest, excavation, removal and that the use of S. guianensis as a cover crop can help to significantly
washing of sediments, amalgamation of mercury with gold followed recover soils health and kickstart the restoration of ASGM mine spoils
by burning to isolate the gold with concomitant volatilization of mer- in Madre de Dios. We particularly focused on S. guianensis adaptation,
cury in the environment (Salinas, 2007; Velásquez Ramírez the contribution of biomass accumulation, ability to improve soil fertil-
et al., 2021). Consequently, it brings about: (i) health risks due to ity and potential carbon sequestration.
exposure to contaminants (mercury, solid waste, fuels, and lubricants),
(ii) loss of soil organic matter; (iii) increased water and wind erosion,
(iv) leaching of sediments to lower areas and water bodies, (v) soil 2 | M A T E R I A L S A N D M ET H O D S
compaction due to the transit of machinery and (vi) loss of ecological
connectivity (Alvarez et al., 2011; Esdaile & Chalker, 2018; Mosquera 2.1 | Assessment area description
et al., 2009).
The Madre de Dios region in the Peruvian Amazon is designated We carried out research in an area degraded by ASGM, located in the
as the national ‘Capital of Biodiversity’. It is part of the Tropical Andes Native Community of San Jacinto and the mining concession of the
Biodiversity Hotspot (Myers et al., 2000) and its vegetation cover Mining Association “Los Rebeldes de Madre de Dios”, in the Peruvian
stores more than 6.9 billion tons of C (Asner et al., 2014). However, Amazon of Madre de Dios (Figure 1). The study area is located on a
ASGM in Madre de Dios has already resulted in the deforestation and low terrace of recent quaternary alluvial deposits, with slopes <2%
severe degradation of 95,750 ha of old-growth forests (Caballero and climax vegetation of subtropical humid forest. An assessment of
Espejo et al., 2018), at an average rate of 6000 ha per year (Asner the area prior to the start of the experiment, found that the concen-
et al., 2013). Gold mine spoils are dominated by sandy soils, inter- tration of mercury in the soil was 0.04 ± 0.05 mg kg1 DM
spersed with mounds of stones and pebbles, characterized by very (Becerra, 2019), which is below the Peruvian Soil Quality Standard
low fertility and potential mercury pollution (Román-Dañobeytia (MINAM, 2017) and Soil Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines
et al., 2020; Velásquez Ramírez et al., 2020). (CCME, 2007) of 6.6 mg kg1 DM.
To recover degraded areas and achieve land degradation neutral-
ity by 2030 (UNCCD, 2019), it is urgent to implement integrated solu-
tions based on a socio-economical-ecological systems analysis, using 2.2 | Experimental design and data collection
concepts such as nature-based solutions and connectivity (Keesstra
et al., 2018). In these processes, healthy soils and healthy land are We established Stylosanthes guianensis (Aubl.) Sw. cv 'Pucallpa' (CIAT
essential to achieving many of the societal goals in the framework of 184) in three plots on land previously degraded by alluvial ASGM.
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Keesstra et al., 2016; Before planting the experimental areas had been abandoned for 1.5 yr
Keesstra et al., 2018). and was devoid of vegetation. Each plot was sown manually on
The use of cover crops is ideal to improve soil health. They 15 January 2018 along rows spaced by 25 cm over a total area of
increase soil fertility, structure, water retention, groundwater recov- 3540 m2 (1080 m2 - plot 1, 840 m2 - plot 2 and 1620 m2 - plot 3).
ery, pest control, soil productivity and environmental quality, and help The plots were adjusted to the erratic form of mine spoils.
reducing soil erosion and nutrient loss (Adetunji et al., 2020; Bren- The survival, height, and plant cover of S. guianensis were evalu-
nan & Acosta-Martinez, 2019; Fageria et al., 2005). Moreover, its ated throughout the experiment up to 470 days after sowing (DAS).
usage as green manure increases microbial carbon biomass and soil We measured plant cover every 15 days in three small subplots of
respiration (Tejada et al., 2008a, 2008b). The selection of suitable spe- 4 m2 per plot, and took pictures for analysis with the software, CobCal
cies is a critical step to achieve the recovery of mine spoils (Citadini- v. 1.0.
Zanette et al., 2018; Román-Dañobeytia et al., 2020), by The ability of S. guianensis to improve soil conditions of recently
reestablishing ecological cycles, facilitating natural succession while at abandoned mine spoils was assessed over a period of 470 DAS
the same time increasing the capacity of the soil to sustain a new for- (2018–2019). The physical and chemical characteristics of the soil
est and capture C (Sabine et al., 2004). Particularly pioneer species in were evaluated from three composite samples per plot at the begin-
the legume family (Fabaceae) are of interest for their ability to fix ning and the end of the experiment (470 DAS), through the following
nitrogen from N2 to NH3, thus increasing soil fertility and lowering variables: pH (1: 1 ratio), electrical conductivity (EC), soil organic mat-
fertilizer costs (García et al., 2002; Thomas, 2014). ter (SOM) (Walkley and Black method), nitrogen (N) (Kjeldahl method),
Stylosanthes guianensis is a native Latin American tropical legume. available phosphorus (P) (Bray II method), available potassium (K), tex-
It is an erect, short-lived perennial shrub that shows optimal produc- ture (Bouyucos method), cation exchange capacity (CEC) (saturation
tion levels at low altitudes (< 850 msnm), high levels of sand (18– with ammonium acetate at pH 7 method) and gravimetric humidity.
56%), low soil organic matter (<3.4%), and low pH (<5.0) (Amezquita We measured also the biological characteristics of the soil using
et al., 1991). Based on initial tests in 32 areas across Latin American the same composite samples per each plot at the beginning and the
(International Tropical Pastures Evaluation Network 1 in 1984), It is end of the experiment (470 DAS). More specifically, we assessed soil
VELASQUEZ RAMÍREZ ET AL. 3
F I G U R E 1 Study area located at mining spoils characterized by minimally mechanized mining technology in the Peruvian Amazon region of
Madre de Dios [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
respiration (capture in alkali method), microbial biomass (fumigation For reference purposes, we also collected soil samples in non-
with chloroform method), bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes colony impacted old-growth forest at the beginning of the experiment. Sam-
forming units (CFU) (sequential series of dilutions method), free-living ples were located 3 km from the mine spoils and characterized
nitrifying bacteria, and nitrifying bacteria (culture and most probable according to the same parameters described above.
number method). In addition, we sampled soil macrofauna in three
subplots of 25 cm2 10 cm separated from each other by 7 m at the
beginning and the end of the research, collecting arthropods based on 2.3 | Statistical analysis
the TSBF (Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility) method (Anderson &
Ingram, 1993), using a metal rear frame. We collected arthropod and Data were analyzed using Kruskal Wallis with Wilcoxon as post hoc
soil samples in: (i) the litter layer, (ii) at 0–10 cm, and (iii) 10–20 cm soil test, considering a significance threshold of 0.05. Residual normality
depths. We conserved all macrofauna present in small containers with and homogeneity of variance were evaluated with the Shapiro–Wilk
96% alcohol for later taxonomic classification in the lab. and Bartlett tests, respectively. Statistical analysis was performed in R
At the end of the experiment, we measured the potential carbon statistical program v 3.2.2 (R Core Team, 2017).
sequestration of S. guianensis according to Global Soil Partnership
(GSP) Secretariat and the Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils
(ITPS) (GSP, 2016), formula 1: 3 | RE SU LT S
SOC stock ¼ d BD ðCtot – Cmin Þ CFst 0:58 ð1Þ At 470 DAS the average height of S. guianensis plants was 46.7 cm
with a survival rate of 45.9%. Close to full soil coverage was reached
Where, SOC = soil organic carbon stock (kg m2). at 290 DAS (Table 1). Average humid biomass at 470 DAS was
1
Ctot and Cmin = total and mineral (or inorganic) carbon content (g g ). 77.1 t ha1, corresponding with 3.0, 60.8, and 13.2 t ha1 for roots,
d = depth of horizon/depth class (m). stems, and leaves, respectively. Average dry biomass was 23.3 t ha1,
3
BD = bulk density (kg m ). corresponding with 1.2, 19.4 and 3.1 t ha1 for roots, stems, and
CFst = correction factor for stoniness (1 - % stones) 1001). leaves, respectively (Figure 2). The contribution of nitrogen to the soil
We consider 0% stoniness. 0.58 = Assuming 58% SOC in SOM (Van was 23.2, 376.9, and 63.3 kg ha1 for the roots, stems, and leaves,
Bemmelen, 1980). respectively (Figure 3).
4
VELASQUEZ RAMÍREZ ET AL.
F I G U R E 2 Biomass of
S. guianensis (kg ha1) at 470 DAS
[Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Nitrifying bacteria
fertility.
Prior to the establishment of S. guianensis, the impacted soil pres-
ented only 11 individuals of arthropods m2 pertaining to 2 taxonomic
0.05
No
groups (Table 3). By contrast, at 470DAS we found 887 individuals of
arthropods m2 pertaining to 11 taxonomic groups. The vertical distri-
a 2.53 103 ± 1.29 103
soil depths prior to planting S. guianensis was 0%, 67%, and 33% and
470 DAS 16%, 82%, and 2%, respectively (Table 4).
According to formula 1 the potential carbon sequestration of the
dry soil)
0.05 ence forest were 0.004, 0.07, and 0.43 t C ha1, respectively
No
(Table 5).
b 0.03 ± 0.01
a 0.15 ± 0.09
Biomass (mg
dry soil)
C g 1
0.03
4 | DI SCU SSION
Yes
b 0.02 ± 0.01
a 0.06 ± 0.02
(mg CO2 g1
0.03
Microbiological characteristics of the soils before and after the establishment of S. guianensis at 470 DAS
Caruzo et al., 2004) (Table 6). In spite of the initial degraded soil con-
ditions, we obtained 100% coverage as of 290 DAS, which was faster
than the 63% after 360 DAS reported by Caruzo et al. (2004), but
slower than observed in the study of Amezquita et al. (1991) who
reported 100% coverage in 150 DAS. The contribution to dry matter
formation in the present study (Table 1 and Figure 2) was comparable
0.01
Yes
this can increase to more than 0.30% of the dry matter (T'Mannetje &
Jones, 1992). Nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere also depends on
b 1.36 106 ± 1.90 106
a 13.56 ± 3.07
humidity (%)
Gravimetric
Differences (p
Impacted soil
in the infertile soils of ASGM areas (Table 1 and Table 6), at least dur-
S. guianensis
470DAS
plots at
TABLE 2
value)
TABLE 3 Population density (individual m2) of the most representative taxonomic groups based on the type of vegetation
Type of vegetation
Brachiaria Leucaena
Impacted soil (start Impacted area S. Arachis pintoi brizantha leucocephala Solanum rugosum
Soil
experiment in this guianensis (this (Velásquez (Velásquez (Velásquez (Velásquez
macrofauna
research) research) et al., 2012) et al., 2012) et al., 2012) et al., 2012)
taxonomic
groups Population density (individual m2)
Isoptera 0 0 1,194 3605 978 120
Formicidae 9 683 990 24 28 24
Oligochetos 0 0 253 116 217 270
Coleoptera 0 124 37 37 14 53
(adult)
Coleoptera 0 37 5 11 5 21
(larva)
Thysanoptera 2 0 0 0 0 0
T A B L E 4 Vertical distribution (%) of soil macrofauna in plots the start of the experiments. From this perspective of SOM dynamics,
planted with S. guianensis the diversity of soil organisms is very important, as both macro fauna
Impacted soil Impacted area like beetles and earthworms and microbiota like fungi and bacteria,
Sol (start experiment S. guianensis can increase the stabilization of SOM as well as speed up its decom-
depth (cm) in this research) (this research) position (Jackson et al., 2017).
Litter 0 16 While cover crops in dry and semiarid climate can decrease the
0–10 67 82 soil water content in the first soil layers due to the increase of transpi-
10–20 33 2 ration, they can at the same time improve water storage due to
increased soil permeability and porosity and reduced soil and water
losses (Celano et al., 2011; Novara et al., 2021). In contrast, under our
gold mine spoils. According to García et al. (2002) a good green tropical conditions we found higher gravimetric humidity in oils
manure is characterized by providing a dry matter content of 10 to planted with S. guianensis (13.56%) than the bare impacted soil before
15%, which in our case was 30.9% (Table 1 and Figure 2). The greater planting (8.27%).
the flow of organic matter in the soil, the greater the degree of aggre- Yu et al. (2016) demonstrated that legume species with coarse
gation and the better the performance of functions that depend on it, root axes created substantially more macropores compared to fine-
such as aeration, drainage, and rooting (Mielniczuck et al., 2003). rooted species, thus enhancing soil hydraulic conductivity and effec-
tively reducing surface runoff. Furthermore, plant stems reduce the
runoff velocity and this results in an increase in infiltration due to the
4.2 | Improving chemical and physical soil fertility pond pressure (Novara et al., 2021; Pan & Shangguan, 2006).
TABLE 5 Carbon sequestration in soils from reference forest, impacted areas and S. guianensi
Bulk density SOM (%) Correction factor Van Bemmelen SOC stock
Area (t m3) BD Ctot – Cmin for stoniness CFst factor (t ha2)
Impacted soil (start experiment) ab 1.40 ± 0.16 c 0.03 ± 0.0 0.01 0.58 c 0.004 ± 0.002
S. guianensis plots at 470 DAS a 1.60 ± 0.10 b 0.39 ± 0.1 0.01 0.58 b 0.07 ± 0.01
Reference forest b 1.19 ± 0.05 a 3.1 ± 0.9 0.01 0.58 a 0.43 ± 0.11
Kruskal wallis differences (p value) Yes Yes - - Yes
0.04 0.02 0.02
TABLE 6 Comparison of the biometry of S. guianensis observed in the present study in comparison with findings from other publications
This research biometric at Amezquita et al. (1991) Caruzo et al. (2004) Ciotti et al. (2003)
470 DAS biometric at 360 DAS biometric at 150 DAS biometric at 180 DAS
TABLE 7 Characteristics and physical and chemical properties of the soil samples before and after the establishment of S. guianensis at
470 DAS
Impacted soil (start ab 1.40 ± 0.16 a 93.6 ± 2.3 b 3.3 ± 2.3 b 4.0 ± 0.0 Sand c 3.3 ± 0.2 b 37.0 ± 8.5 c 0.03 ± 0.0 b 4.4 ± 0.2 a 5.4 ± 0.2
of experimen)
S. guianensis. plots a 1.60 ± 0.10 a 93.6 ± 2.3 b 2.6 ± 3.7 b 3.6 ± 0.6 Sand b 4.0 ± 0.3 b 53.3 b 0.39 ± 0.1 b 4.5 ± 1.1 b 4.8 ± 0.2
at 470 DAS ± 14.5
Reference forest b 1.19 ± 0.05 b 13.9 ± 0.0 a 57.8 a 27.9 Silty a 13.1 a 105.15 a 3.1 ± 0.9 a 8.6 ± 2.5 c 4.5 ± 0.2
± 4.0 ± 4.0 loam ± 1.6 ± 0.8
Kruskal wallis Yes Yes Yes Yes - Yes Yes Yes Yes No
differences (p 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.05
value)
growing in clayey and sandy latosols with 5.4–6.8 pH and 22.84– higher population density of Formicidae in our plots at 470 DAS
4.42 ppm P, indicating that Stylosanthes should be able to develop (683 individuals m2) than reported for Brachiaria brizantha, Leucaena
nodules under the conditions at our experimental sites (Table 7). leucocephala, and Solanum rugosum but it was slightly lower than
Hence, the appearance of significant increases nitrifying bacteria reported for Arachis pintoi (Velásquez et al., 2012) (Table 3).
populations might be a matter of time. Formicidae play a key role in recovering soil structure due to their role
S. guianensis positively influenced arthropod populations as one of the most important soil engineers. Overall, these findings
(increases up to 7983% at 470 DAS) and distributions across the soil suggest that even in intensive degraded soils S. guianensis effectively
profile. Similar soil recovery effects were reported by Tapia-Coral, promotes the recolonization and establishment of a variety of soil
Pashanasi (2006) and García-Villacorta et al. (2006) for white sand pri- arthropods, possibly through plant productivity and the accumulation
mary forests and by Villalobos et al. (2000) for maize crop fields. In of soil organic matter which is generally positively correlated to
2
addition, the arthropod density we found (887 m population den- arthropod abundance and diversity (Flores-Rios et al., 2020). In turn,
sity) is higher than reported by Villalobos et al. (2000) in a Zea maiz soil macrofauna are a good indicator of soil development because
crop (246 m2 population density) (Table 9). We particularly found a these organisms decompose organic matter, release nutrients,
8
VELASQUEZ RAMÍREZ ET AL.
TABLE 8 Characteristics and physical and chemical properties of the soil samples before and after the establishment of cover crops
TABLE 9 Taxonomic groups and population density of soil macrofauna in different ecosystems
enhance the mineralization and humification process, transport To achieve land degradation neutrality (UNCCD, 2019) and other
organic material to deeper soil layers and improve soil chemistry by environmental initiatives such as Nationally Appropriate Mitigation
increasing nitrogen and phosphorous stocks that benefit plants, and Adaptation Actions (NAMAs) in tropical alluvial gold mining areas,
microorganisms and other soil organisms (Amador & Görres, 2007; six main issues have to be considered: soil fertility and the role of soils
Frouz & Ilková, 2008; Lavelle et al., 2006; Lavelle, 2002). for food security, soil and public health, soil water, mitigation of cli-
mate change on soils and opportunities for mitigation, functions of
soil Biodiversity and the challenge to implement effective soil conser-
4.4 | Carbon sequestration and land degradation vation. Applied to S. guianensis, its establishment significantly
neutrality improves soil fertility, helps recovering soil C stock, increases soil
water retention, promotes soil biodiversity, and hence seems like a
We found that alluvial gold mining reduced the soil carbon sequestra- promising method to restore degraded ASGM areas (Keesstra
tion capacity of forest soils by 99.9%, from 0.43 ± 0.11 in mature for- et al., 2016). Together, these benefits are essential to achieving many
est to 0.004 ± 0.0028 t C ha1 in ASGM. However, already at of the societal goals in the framework of the Sustainable Develop-
470 DAS S. guianensis increased soil carbon sequestration of impacted ment Goals (SDGS 1,2 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, and 15) (Keesstra
areas by more than 1650%, from 0.004 t C ha1 in, up to et al., 2016; Keesstra et al., 2018).
0.07 t C ha1. Soil carbon is relevant to land-based efforts to hold off
carbon emissions, discharge atmospheric carbon dioxide, and carry
ecosystem services in addition to climate mitigation (Bossio 5 | CONC LU SIONS
et al., 2020; Duarte-Guardia et al., 2020). SOC will increase up to the
point at which a new SOC equilibrium (balance between organic mat- S. guianensis var CIAT 184 turned out to be a pioneer species with
ter inputs and SOM turnover) is reached (Lal, 2003). large potential to kick-start the recovery of soils in areas degraded by
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