36 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 3
FLUID DYNAMICS
1. Fluid is a substance that offers no permanent resistance to deforming forces.
2. The study of fluids has two parts, statics and dynamics.
3. Fluid statics concentrates on fluids at rest, while fluid dynamics concerns with the fluid
in motion.
4. Fluid statics includes atmospheric pressure, liquid pressure, Archimedes’ principle and
Pascal’s law.
5. Motion of fluids is an important application in our daily life; such as river flow, water
distribution systems, gas pipelines, aviation (travels in air) and motion underneath the
surface of water.
6. The study of the flow of liquid is called hydrodynamics, whereas hydrostatic is the
study of liquid at rest.
7. This chapter mainly concerns with hydrodynamics; however a section on surface
tension and capillarity, which are important concepts of hydrostatic, is included at the
end of the chapter.
3.1 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
8. Fluid is either liquid or gas.
9. The volume of a gas depends on pressure and temperature obeying Boyle’s law and
Charles’ law.
10. The volume of a liquid does not depend on pressure if the temperature is constant.
11. The liquid is incompressible (i.e. density of liquid is constant for any pressure provided
that the temperature is kept constant).
12. In the flow of fluids, the path or the flow of the fluid
particles is called streamline. [Fig 3.1 (a).]
13. Motion of fluids can be classified by two types,
Fig 3.1a Stream lines
laminar flow and turbulent flow.
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 37

Laminar Flow
If fluid particles are moving steady in smooth paths in
layers, with each layer moving smoothly past the adjacent
layers with no mixing; such a flow is called laminar flow.
In this steady laminar flow, streamlines do not cross each Fig 3.1b Laminar flow
other and every fluid particle arriving at a given point has the same velocity. [Figure
3.1 (b)].
Turbulent Flow
If the flow or path of the fluid particles are
irregular, their direction is always changing or
whirling; this fluid movement is called turbulent Fig 3.1c Turbulent flow
flow. In turbulent flow, the speed of the fluid at a
point is continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude and direction. [Fig 3.1 (c)]
14. Ideal laminar fluid flow considers the following facts.
 The fluid is incompressible.
 The flow has no friction, or friction may by neglected.
(Internal friction in fluids is called viscosity; and hence, zero viscosity.)
 The fluid flow is laminar (steady), and turbulent flow is not taken into account.
(For example, sea breeze is a laminar flow and storm is a turbulent flow.)
38 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 3: Exercise 3.1

R01: Is motor car brake oil compressible or non-compressible?
Ans: non-compressible
R02: Are gases compressible or non-compressible?
Ans: compressible
R03: What is the difference between laminar flow and turbulent flow?
Ans: laminar flow turbulent flow
fluid particles are moving steady in path of the fluid particles are irregular
smooth paths in layers
each layer moving smoothly past the their direction is always changing or
adjacent layers with no mixing whirling
streamlines do not cross each other streamlines cross each other
every fluid particle arriving at a given the speed of the fluid at a point is
point has the same velocity continuously undergoing changes in both
magnitude and direction
R04: At a river junction, water streams are whirling; is it laminar or turbulent?
Ans: turbulent
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 39

3.2 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY FOR FLUIDS

1. Consider an ideal fluid having laminar flow and no viscosity.
2. The density of the fluid is constant.

Figure 3.2 Illustrating constant volume flow rate in a pipe

3. In Figure 3.2, all the liquid that flow through section 1 (larger cross sectional area A1
flow through section 2 (smaller cross sectional area A2).
4. The mass flowing in section 1 must equal the mass flowing in section 2.
V
5. Hence, the volume flow rate is the same throughout the pipe.
t
m1 = m2
 1 V1 =  2 V2 (⸪ m =  V)
 V1 =  V2 (⸪ the density is the same, 1 = 2 = 
V 1  = V2  (⸪ dividing both sides by 
V1 V2
= (⸪ dividing both sides by t
t t
A1 x1 A2 x2
= (⸪ V1 = A1 x1, V2 = A2 x2)
t t
x1 x2
A 1 v 1 = A2 v 2 (⸪ v1  , v2  )
t t
where v1 and v2 are speed of liquid at section 1 and section 2 respectively.
6. The liquid entering one end of the pipe leaves from the other end with a constant
volume flow rate.
40 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

7. The equation, A1 v1 = A2 v2, is known as equation of continuity for fluid flow.

8. The larger the area of the pipe, the slower is the speed of the fluid.
9. The smaller the area of the pipe, the faster is the speed of the fluid.
10. The speed of water spraying from a hose increases by making the hose area smaller.

Chapter 3: Exercise 3.2

R01: Why does the river flow faster in passing the defile (narrow river passage)?
Ans: By equation of continuity, A1 v1 = A2 v2.
The smaller the area, the faster is the speed of water flow.
Q01:How are the flow rate and fluid velocity related?
Ans: V
The flow rate, =Av
t
where, V = the volume of the fluid, t = time taken,
A = area of the pipe, v = velocity of the fluid
R02: A shower head has 20 circular openings, each with radius 1 mm. The shower head is
connected to a pipe with radius 0.8 cm. If the speed of water in the pipe is 3 m s-1,
what is its speed as it exits the shower-head openings?
Ans: radius of one opening of shower head, r2 = 1 mm = 1  10-3 m
area of 20 openings of shower head, A2
A2 = 20 ( r22) = 20  3.142  (10-3)2 = 6.284  10-5 m2
radius of the pipe, r1 = 0.8 cm = 8  10-3 m
area of the pipe, A1 =  r12 = 3.142  (8  10-3)2 = 2.01  10-4 m2
speed of water in the pipe, v1 = 3 m s-1
speed of water exits from the shower-head, v2 = ?
Using equation of continuity for fluid flow,
A1 v1 = A2 v2
A1 v1 2.01  104  3
v2 =  = 9.6 m s-1
A2 6.284 105
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 41

E01: A gardener uses a water pipe of 2.5 cm diameter. It takes 1 min to

fill 30 litre bucket. What is the initial speed of water coming out
of the hose? Then, nozzle with an opening 0.5 cm2 is attached to
the hose. Find the water speed coming out from the nozzle.
2
Ans: Initial pipe area, Apipe =  r 2    2.5  = 4.91 cm2
 2 
Volume of water flow in 1 min (60 s), V = 30 litre = 30 × 1000 cm3
V 30  1000
Volume flow rate, = = 500 cm3 s-1
t 60
Volume flow rate is constant at any point for the system.
V
Since volume flow rate = = A v,
t
V
500
The initial speed of water coming out of the hose, vi = t = = 101.83 cm s-1
Apipe 4.91

When nozzle is attached, nozzle area, Anozzle = 0.5 cm2

Using continuity equation,
Apipe vi = Anozzle vnozzle
Apipe vpipe 4.91  101.83
vnozzle = = = 1000 cm s-1
Anozzle 0.5

E02: What area must a heating duct have, if air moving 3 m s-1 along it can replenish the
air every 15 min in a room of volume 300 m3? Assume the density of air remains
constant.
Ans: The velocity of air at duct, v = 3 m s-1; time, t = 15 min = 15  60 s = 900 s
The volume of air coming in the room = volume of the room, V = 300 m3
V
=A v
t
V 1 V 300
A=    = 0.11 m2
t v v t 3  900
42 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

E03: Water runs into a fountain, filling all the pipes, at a steady rate of 0.75 m3 s-1. (i) How
fast will it shoot out of a hole 4.5 cm in diameter? (ii) At what speed will it shoot out
if the diameter of the hole is three times as large?

Ans: Volume flow rate, V = 0.75 m3 s-1; radius of the hole, r = 4.5 = 2.25 cm = 0.0225 m
t 2
(i) V
= A v = π r2 v
t
V 1 1
v = t  2  0.75  = 471.51 m s-1
3.142   0.0225 
2
πr

(ii) d2 = 3d
π 2 π π
d 2   3d   9  d 2  9 A
2
A2 =
4 4 4
A v = A2 v 2 (continuity equation)
Av Av v 471.51
v2 =    = 52.39 m s-1
A2 9 A 9 9
E04: Water tank of dimension 3 m  3 m  3 m and the base of the tank is 10 m above the
ground. It takes 1 h to fill. (i) Find the power output of the pump to fill the tank. (ii)
Find the flow rate through the pipe and the speed of the water flow in the pipe which
has 5 cm radius.
Ans: (i) volume of water, V = l w h = 3  3  3 = 27 m3
W PE mgh Vgh 1000  27  9.8  13
Power, P      = 955.5 W
t t t t 3600
V 27
(ii) volume flow rate, = = 7.5×10-3 m3 s-1 3m
t 3600
radius of the pipe, r = 5 cm = 5 × 102 m
10 m
area of the pipe, A = r = 3.142 × (5 × 10 ) m
2 2 2 2

V
=A v
t
V 1 V 27
v=    = 0.96 m s1
 
t A At 3.142  5  102 2
 3600
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 43

Q04:In an adult, the radius of aorta is normally ~ 1.5 cm

and blood moves through it at an average speed of 30
cm s-1. If typical capillary has a radius of 5  10-6 m,
and blood passes through them with a velocity of
0.1 cm s-1 approximately how many capillary are in
the body?
Ans: Let there are n capillaries.
the radius of aorta, r1 = 1.5  102 m,
the radius of a capillary, r2 = 5  106 m
the area of the aorta, A1 = r12 = (1.5  102)2 m2
the area of the aorta, A1 = r12 = (1.5  102)2 m2
area of all the capillaries, A2 = n r22
= n (5  106)2 m2
velocity of blood in aorta, v1 = 30 cm s-1 = 0.3 m s-1
velocity of blood in capillaries, v2 = 0.1 cm s-1
= 0.001 m s-1
Using continuity equation,
A1 v 1 = A2 v 2
(1.5  102)2  0.3 = n (5  106)2  0.001
n= 27  108
44 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

3.3 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

1. Bernoulli’s equation, in fluid dynamics, relates the pressure, flow speed, and height for
the steady (laminar) flow of an ideal incompressible fluid.
2. The internal friction of the fluid flow is negligible (i.e. no viscosity).
3. This equation was first derived in 1783 by the Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli.
4. Bernoulli’s equation can be derived using the work-energy principle to a fluid flowing
in a tube.
5. Consider a section of the fluid flowing in the tube with uneven cross section as shown
in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 A section of a tube of flowing fluid

6. This fluid section is initially between two cross sections a and c.

7. After a small time interval the fluid at a moves to b, and the fluid at c moves to d.
[The fluid between a and b, becomes the fluid between c and d.]
8. The cross-sectional area, speed and pressure at the two ends of the fluid section are
A1, v1, p1 and A2, v2, p2 respectively.
9. According to work-energy principle, the work done on this section of fluid must equal
the change in total mechanical energy.
total mechanical energy = kinetic energy + potential energy
10. Since the fluid is incompressible,
A1  x 1 = A2  x 2 =  V
The work done on the fluid in this case is due to the pressure of the fluid.
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 45

The work done  W = F1 x1 + (- F2)x2

= p1 A1 x1 – p2 A2 x2
= p1 V – p2 V
= (p1 – p2)V
11. (F2 has a negative sign because the force at c opposes the force at a.)
12. The mass of the fluid between a and b = m1 =  A1 x1 =V
13. The mass of the fluid between c and d = m2 =  A2 x2 =V
1 1 1
14. The change in kinetic energy KE = m2 v2 2  m1v12 =  V (v2 2  v12 )
2 2 2
15. The change in potential energy PE =  V g ( h2  h1 )

16. Using the work-energy principle,

W = KE + PE
1
(p1 – p2) V =   V (v2 2  v12 )   Vg (h2  h1 )
2
1
(p1 – p2) =  (v2 2  v12 )   g (h2  h1 )
2
1 1
p1 +  v12 +  g h1 = p2 +  v2 2 +  g h2
2 2
1
p+  v 2 +  g h = constant
2
17. This equation is known as Bernoulli’s equation.
In words, Bernoulli’s theorem states that the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy
and potential energy per unit volume of an incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a
streamlined laminar flow remains constant.
46 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 3: Exercise 3.3

R01: As water in a level pipe pass from narrower cross-sectional area of pipe to a wider
cross-sectional area, does the pressure change? Explain.
Ans: Let 1 = the point at the narrower section, and 2 = the point at the wider section
1 1
By Bernoulli’s theorem, p1 +  v12 +  g h1 = p2 +  v2 2 +  g h2
2 2
1 1
For a level pipe, h1 = h2; p1 +  v12 = p2 +  v2 2
2 2
By continuity equation, A1 v1 = A2 v2
A1 < A2
v1 > v2
1 1
 v12 >  v2 2
2 2
p1 < p2
Pressure changes.
R02: A small circular hole 6.00 mm in diameter is cut in the side of a large water tank,
14.0 m below the water level in the tank. The top of the tank is open to the air. Find
(i) the speed of efflux of the water, and (ii) the volume discharged per second.
Ans: the speed of efflux of the water = v2 = ?
assume the velocity of water at the top = v1 = 0
v2  2 gh  2  9.8  14 = 16.57 m s-1 [v22 = v12 + 2gh]

the diameter of outlet hole = d2 = 6 mm = 6  10-3 m

π 3.142
 
2
the area of outlet hole = A2   d 2 2   6  103 = 2.83  10-5 m2
4 4
V
the volume discharged per second = =?
t
V
 A2 v2 = (2.83  10-5 m2)  (16.57 m s-1) = 4.68  10-4 m3 s-1
t
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 47

E05: Water flowing through a restriction in a horizontal

pipe is shown in the given figure. The radius of
the pipe at the left end and right end are 6 cm and
r2, v2, p2
2 cm respectively. If the velocity and pressure of
r1, v1, p1
water at the left end of pipe are 1 m s-1 and
200 kPa, find the velocity and pressure of water at the right end of the pipe.
Ans: radius of the left end, r1 = 6 cm = 0.06 m, radius of the right end, r2 = 2 cm = 0.02 m;
pressure of water at the left end, p1 = 200 kPa;
pressure of water at the right end, p2 =?
velocity of water at the left end, v1 = 1 m s-1;
velocity of water at the right end, v2 = ?;
Using continuity equation,
A1 v 1 = A2 v 2
π r12 v1 = π r22 v2
2 2
r   0.06  -1
v2 = v1  1  =1×   =9ms
 r2   0.02 
Using Bernoulli’s theorem,
1 1
p1 +  v12 +  g h1 = p2 +  v2 2 +  g h
2 2
1 1
p1 +  v12 = p2 +  v2 2 (⸪ h1= h2)
2 2
1
P2 = p 1 -   v2 2  v12 
2
1
= 200 × 103 - 1000   92  12 
2
= 160 × 103 Pa = 160 kPa
48 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

E06: Calculate the pressure and speed of water at points B and C shown below. (density
of water is 1000 kg m-3)

Ans: area of point A, A1 = 3 m2; area of point B, A2 = 3 m2;

area of point C, A3 = 6 m2;
velocity of water at point A, v1 = 10 m s-1; velocity of water at point B,v2 =?
velocity of water at point C, v3 =?
pressure at point A, p1 = 300 kPa; pressure at point B, p2 =?
pressure at point C, p3 =?
height of point A, h1 = 20 m; height of point B, h2 = 0; height of point C, h3 = 0;
Using continuity equation for point A and point B,
A1 v 1 = A2 v 2
v1 = v2 = 10 m s-1 (⸪ A1= A2)
Using continuity equation for point B and point C,
A2 v 2 = A3 v 3
A2 v2 3  10
v3 =  = 5 m s-1
A3 6
Using Bernoulli’s theorem for point A and point B,
1 1
p1 +  v12 +  g h1 = p2 +  v2 2 +  g h2
2 2
p1 +  g h1 = p2 +  g h2 (⸪ v1= v2)

p2 = p1 +  g h1   g h2
= 300 000 + 1000  9.8 (20 – 0)
= 496 000 Pa = 496 kPa
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 49

Using Bernoulli’s theorem for point B and point C,

1 1
p2 +  v2 2 +  g h2 = p3 +  v32 +  g h3
2 2
1 1
p2 +  v2 2 = p3 +  v32 (⸪ h2= h3)
2 2
1 1
p3 = p2 +  v2 2   v32
2 2
= 496 000 + 0.5  1000  (102 – 52)
= 533 500 Pa = 533.5 kPa

E07: A sealed tank containing seawater to a height of 11 m also contains air above the
water at a pressure of 4 atm. Water flows out from the bottom through a small hole.
How fast is this water moving?
Ans: At point A (top water surface)
p1 = 4 atm = 4 × 1.01 × 105 Pa = 4.04 × 105 Pa
p1, v1, h1
h1 = 11 m A
Since the cross-sectional area of water tank is much h
greater than area of small hole, water level in the p2, v2, h2
tank drops very slowly, we take v1  0. B
At point B (small hole at the bottom)
p2 = 1 atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa, h2 = 0 m
For points A and B, using Bernoulli’s theorem,
1 1
p1 +  v12 +  g h1 = p2 +  v2 2 +  g h2
2 2
1
p1 +  g h1 = p2 +  v2 2
2
1
4.04 × 105 + 1000 × 9.8 × 11 = 1.01 ×105 +  1000  v2 2
2
4.11 × 105 = 500 v22
v2 = 28.66 m s-1
50 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

E08: Air streams horizontally past a small airplane’s wings such that the speed is 70 m s-1
over and 60 m s-1 past the bottom surface. If the plane has a wing area of 16.2 m2 on
the top and on the bottom, what is the net vertical force that the air exerts on the
airplane? The density of the air is 1.2 kg m-3.
Ans: Let 1 = over the wing, 2 = bottom of the wing
v1 = 70 m s-1, v2 = 60 m s-1, A = 16.2 m2,  = 1.2 kg m-3, h1  h2
For the top and the bottom surfaces of the wing, using Bernoulli’s theorem,

1 1
p1 +  v12 +  g h1 = p2 +  v2 2 +  g h2
2 2
1 1
p1 +  v12 = p2 +  v2 2 (h1  h2)
2 2
1 1
p2 p1 =  v12 -  v2 2
2 2
1
= × 1.2 [(70)2 – (60)2] = 780 Pa
2
F = p A = 780 × 16.2 = 12 636 N
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 51

Q03 One hypodermic syringe contains medicine with density 1010 kg m-3. The barrel of
the syringe has a cross-sectional area 2.5  10-5 m2, and the needle has a cross-
sectional area 10-8 m2. The syringe is in horizontal position and injection is forced
by 2 N acting on the plunger. Find the speed of the injection that enters into the
patient. (The volume of syringe is 3 cc and injection time is 2 s)

Ans: cross-sectional area of syringe, A1 = 2.5  10-5 m2

cross-sectional area of needle, A2 = 1  10-8 m2,
F 2
p1 – p2 =  = 8  104 Pa
A1 2.5  105

V 3 cm3
volume flow rate =   1.5 cm3 s 1  1.5  106 m3 s 1
t 2s

By Equation of continuity, A1 v1  A2 v2

A2 1  108
v1  v2  5
= 4  10-4 v2
A1 2.5  10

Density of medicine,  = 1010 kg m-3

Using Bernoulli’s theorem,
1 1
p1 +  v12 +  g h1 = p2 +  v2 2 +  g h2
2 2
1 1
p1 +  v12 = p2 +  v2 2 (h1  h2)
2 2
1 1
 v2 2   v12 = p1 p2
2 2
1
  v2 2  v12  = p1 p2
2
52 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

1
2  
 1010  v2 2   4 104 v2  = 8  104
2

505 v22  8  10
4
v2
2
 v12 
v2 12.59 m s-1

Q05: An aeroplane’s wings have a total surface area of 480 m2. The pressure difference
between the upper and lower surfaces of each wing is 6500 Pa. Calculate the lift
created.
Ans: surface area, A = 480 m2; pressure difference, p = 6500 Pa
the lift, F =?
F = p  A = 6500  480 = 3.12  106 N