Coordination, Response & Gene Technology

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YOUR NOTES
International A Level Biology Edexcel 
8. Coordination, Response & Gene Technology
CONTENTS
The Nervous System
8.1 Neurones: Types and Functions
8.2 How a Response is Generated by Effectors
8.3 The Reflex Arc
8.4 The Nerve Impulse
8.5 Myelination & Saltatory Conduction
8.6 Synapses & Neurotransmitters
8.7 The Effects of Drugs on Nervous Transmission
8.8 Detection of Stimuli
8.9 Habituation
8.10 Central & Peripheral Nervous System
Plant Hormones
8.11 Effects of Plant Hormones
8.12 Core Practical 18: Amylase in Germinating Cereal Grains
8.13 Nervous & Hormonal Coordination
The Brain
8.14 Human Brain Structures & Functions
8.15 Techniques to Investigate the Brain
8.16 Brain Disease
Gene Technology
8.17 Drug Production from Genetically Modified Organisms
8.18 Recombinant DNA
8.19 Transfer of Recombinant DNA into Other Cells
8.20 Identification of Active Genes
8.21 Bioinformatics
8.22 Risks & Benefits of Using GMOs
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The Nervous System YOUR NOTES


8.1 Neurones: Types and Functions
Neurones: Types & Functions

Neurones are specialised cells of the nervous system which carry electrical
impulses around the body
A bundle of neurones is known as a nerve
There are different types of neurones, but the following features are found in all types
A long fibre known as an axon
A cell body that contains the nucleus and other cellular structures
The end of the axon, known as the axon terminal, has many nerve endings
The nerve endings at the axon terminals allow neurones to connect to and
receive impulses from other neurones, forming a network for
easy communication
Some neurones are myelinated, meaning that their axon is insulated by a fatty layer known
as the myelin sheath
The myelin sheath is made up of specialised cells known as Schwann cells which wrap
themselves around the axon
There are uninsulated gaps between the Schwann cells known as the nodes of
Ranvier
Electrical impulses in myelinated cells do not travel down the whole axon, but jump
from one node to the next, speeding up impulse transmission
In non-myelinated neurones the axon is not insulated by Schwann cells
The impulse travels more slowly as it moves through the entire length of the axon
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Neurones have a long axon, a cell body, and an axon terminal, and some neurones are YOUR NOTES
myelinated 
There are three main types of neurones
Sensory neurones carry impulses from receptors to the brain and spinal cord in
the CNS
Relay neurones are found entirely within the CNS
and connect sensory and motor neurones
Motor neurones carry impulses from the CNS to effector muscles or glands
Each type of neurone has a slightly different structure
Motor neurones
A large cell body at one end that lies within the spinal cord or brain
Many highly-branched dendrites extending from the cell body, providing many
connections with the axon terminals of other neurones
Relay neurones
Short neurones with axons and highly branched dendrites
Sensory neurones
A cell body that branches off in the middle of the axon and has no dendrites
The axon terminal is attached to a receptor cell
The section of neurone that links the axon terminal with the cell body is known as a
dendron
The section of neurone that connects the cell body with the CNS is the axon
Different types of neurone differ in both structure and function
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8.2 How a Response is Generated by Effectors YOUR NOTES

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How a Response is Generated by Effectors
The nervous system enables the body to detect changes in the environment and brings
about appropriate responses to ensure its safety
Receptor cells detect changes in the environment, or stimuli
Nerve impulses travel from the receptor cells along sensory neurones to the central
nervous system, or CNS
The CNS acts as a coordinating centre for the impulses that arrive from the receptors,
determining which part of the body needs to respond and sending out a new set of
impulses along motor neurones
Motor neurones send impulses to the effectors to bring about a response
Effectors may be muscles or glands
Nerve impulses pass through the nervous system along the following pathway
stimulus → receptor → sensory neurone → CNS → motor neurone → effector
Receptors detect stimuli and impulses are sent through to the nervous system to bring
about a response in the effector
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8.3 The Reflex Arc YOUR NOTES

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The Reflex Arc
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord
The brain processes information about external and internal stimuli and co-ordinates
the body's responses
The spinal cord connects the brain to the rest of the nervous system as well as
coordinating some reflex responses
Reflex responses are actions of the body that occur without conscious thought
Reflexes are automatic and rapid, minimising damage to the body and
therefore aiding survival
Awareness of a reflex response occurs after it has been carried out; this is because
the information takes longer to reach the conscious parts of the brain
Examples of reflexes include blinking, coughing, and the pupil and knee reflexes
Blinking prevents the outer surface of the eye from drying out as well as protecting it
from foreign objects
Coughing prevents food from entering the airways and removes mucus from the
airways during infection or an allergic reaction
The pupil reflex prevents damage to the eye from bright light
The knee reflex aids balance when standing upright
A reflex arc is a pathway along which impulses are transmitted from a receptor to an
effector without involving conscious regions of the brain
A reflex arc therefore brings about a reflex response
Sensory neurones, relay neurones and motor neurones work together in a reflex arc
Spinal reflexes
The pathway of a spinal reflex involves relay neurones located in the spinal cord
The spinal cord is made up of types of tissue known as grey matter and white matter
Grey matter contains the cell bodies of motor neurones along with relay
neurones
White matter contains long myelinated axons that carry information through the
spinal cord
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YOUR NOTES

The spinal cord contains both grey matter and white matter
Pulling a foot away from a sharp object is an example of a spinal reflex
The stimulus of a sharp pin is detected by a receptor cell in the skin of the foot
The skin has receptors for pressure, touch, and pain
A sensory neurone sends electrical impulses to the CNS
An electrical impulse is passed to a relay neurone in the spinal cord
A relay neurone synapses with a motor neurone
A synapse is the junction between neurones; nerve impulses cross synapses by
diffusion of a chemical called a neurotransmitter
A motor neurone carries an impulse to an effector muscle in the leg
When stimulated by the motor neurone the muscle will contract and pull the foot up
and away from the sharp object; this is the reflex response
The reflex arc for a spinal reflex is as follows
stimulus → receptor → sensory neurone → relay neurone in spinal cord → motor neurone
→ effector → response
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YOUR NOTES

Spinal reflexes involve relay neurones in the spinal cord

Cranial reflexes
The pathway of a cranial reflex involves relay neurones located in the brain
The pupil reflex is an example of a cranial reflex
Changing pupil diameter enables the eye to control the amount of light hitting the
retina
The diameter of the pupil in the eye is determined by two sets of muscles
The circular muscles contract to constrict the pupil
The radial muscles contract to dilate the pupil
The two sets of muscles work antagonistically, meaning that when one set of muscles
contracts the other relaxes, and vice versa
When bright light falls on the eye, the following events occur
The light level is detected by photoreceptors in the retina
A sensory neurone sends electrical impulses to the CNS
An electrical impulse is passed to a relay neurone in the brain
A relay neurone synapses with a motor neurone
A motor neurone carries an impulse to the effector muscle; in this case the circular
muscle in the iris
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When stimulated by the motor neurone the muscle will contract and constrict the YOUR NOTES
pupil; this is the reflex response 
When in dim light the same process occurs, but the motor neurone stimulates the radial
muscles in the iris, causing them to contract and dilate the pupil
The reflex arc for a cranial reflex is as follows
stimulus → receptor → sensory neurone → relay neurone in brain → motor neurone →
effector → response
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8.4 The Nerve Impulse YOUR NOTES

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The Nerve Impulse
Neurones transmit electrical impulses which travel along the neurone cell surface
membrane from one end of a neurone to the other
Note that an impulse is not an electrical current that flows along neurones as if they
were wires
Instead, an impulse is a momentary reversal in the electrical potential
difference across the neurone cell surface membrane
The electrical potential difference across a membrane can also be described as
the voltage across a membrane, the difference in charge across a membrane, or
the membrane potential
The different states of membrane potential across a neurone cell surface membrane during
transmission of a nerve impulse include
Resting potential
Action potential
Resting potential
In a resting axon, i.e. one that is not transmitting impulses, the inside of the axon always
has a negative electrical potential compared to outside the axon
The difference in charge between the inside and outside of the neurone is due to
different numbers of ions on each side of the neurone cell surface membrane
When there is a difference in charge across a membrane, we say that the membrane is
polarised
This potential difference, or difference in charge, across the membrane when there are
no impulses is usually about -70 mV (millivolts) i.e. the inside of the axon has an electrical
potential about 70 mV lower than the outside
-70 mV is the resting potential of the neurone
Two factors contribute to establishing and maintaining resting potential
The active transport of sodium ions and potassium ions
A difference in membrane permeability to sodium and potassium ions
The active transport of sodium ions and potassium ions
Carrier proteins called sodium-potassium pumps are present in the cell surface
membranes of neurones
These pumps use ATP to actively transport sodium ions (Na⁺) out of the axon
and potassium ions (K⁺) into the axon
The two types of ions are pumped at an unequal rate; for every 3 sodium ions that are
pumped out of the axon, only 2 potassium ions are pumped in
This creates a concentration gradient across the membrane for both sodium ions and
potassium ions
Difference in membrane permeability to sodium ions and potassium ions
Because of the concentration gradient generated by the sodium-potassium pumps, both
sodium and potassium ions will diffuse back across the membrane
The neurone cell surface membrane has sodium ion channels and potassium ion
channels that allow sodium and potassium ions to move across the membrane by
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facilitated diffusion YOUR NOTES

The neurone membrane is less permeable to sodium ions than potassium ions, so 
potassium ions inside the neurone can diffuse out at a faster rate than sodium ions can
diffuse back in
This results in more positive ions on the outside of the neurone than on the inside,
generating a negative charge inside the neurone in relation to the outside
The result of this is that the neurone has a resting membrane potential of around -70
millivolts (mV)
Sodium-potassium pumps in the membrane of a resting neurone generate a concentration

gradient for both sodium ions and potassium ions. This process, together with the
facilitated diffusion of potassium ions back out of the cell, generates a negative resting
potential across the membrane.
Action potential
Once resting potential is reached the neurone membrane is said to be polarised
To initiate a nerve impulse in a neurone the membrane needs to be depolarised
Depolarisation is the reversal of the electrical potential difference across the
membrane
The depolarisation of the membrane occurs when an action potential is generated
Action potentials lead to the reversal of resting potential from around -70 mV to
around +30 mV
Action potentials involve the rapid movement of sodium ions and potassium ions across
the membrane of the axon
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An action potential is the potential electrical difference produced across the axon YOUR NOTES
membrane when a neurone is stimulated e.g. when an environmental stimulus is detected 
by a receptor cell
Generating an action potential
Some of the ion channels in the membrane of a neurone are voltage gated, meaning that
they open and close in response to changes in the electrical potential across the
membrane
Voltage gated ion channels are closed when the membrane is at rest, but they are
involved in the generation and transmission of action potentials
Note that not all of the channels in a neurone membrane are voltage gated e.g. some
types of potassium ion channels are open when a neurone is at rest to enable
potassium ions to diffuse out of the axon and generate a resting potential
When a neurone is stimulated the following steps occur
A small number of sodium ion channels in the axon membrane open
Sodium ions begin to move into the axon down their concentration gradient
During resting potential there is a greater concentration of sodium ions outside
the axon than inside due to the action of sodium-potassium pumps
This reduces the potential difference across the axon membrane as the inside of the
axon becomes less negative
If the potential difference reaches around -55 mV, known as the threshold potential,
more sodium ion channels open, leading to a further influx of sodium ions
This second set of sodium ion channels are voltage gated channels
Note that an action potential is only initiated if the threshold potential is
reached
Once the charge has been reversed from -70 mV to around +30 mV the membrane is
said to be depolarised and an action potential has been generated
Repolarisation
About 1 millisecond after an action potential is generated all the voltage gated sodium
channels in this section of membrane close
Voltage gated potassium channels in this section of axon membrane now open, allowing
the diffusion of potassium ions out of the axon down their concentration gradient
Remember that the sodium-potassium pumps have not stopped working during the
action potential; hence the potassium ion gradient is still present
This movement of potassium ions causes the inside of the axon to become negatively
charged again, a process known as repolarisation
There is a short period during which the membrane potential is more negative than
resting potential; this is known as hyperpolarisation
The period during which the membrane is hyperpolarised is known as the refractory
period
The membrane is unresponsive to stimulation during the refractory period, so a
new action potential cannot be generated at this time
This makes the action potentials discrete events and means the impulse
can only travel in one direction
This is essential for the successful and efficient transmission of nerve impulses
along neurones
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The voltage gated potassium channels then close, and the sodium-potassium YOUR NOTES
pumps work to restore resting potential 
Only once resting potential is restored can the membrane be stimulated again
The depolarisation and repolarisation of an action potential can be clearly seen in a graph of
membrane potential against time
Transmission of an action potential
Once an action potential has been generated it can be propagated, or transmitted, along
the length of the axon
The depolarisation of the membrane at the site of the first action potential
causes sodium ions to diffuse along the cytoplasm into the next section of the
axon, depolarising the membrane in this new section, and causing voltage gated
sodium channels to open
This triggers another action potential in this section of the axon membrane
This process then repeats along the length of the axon
Note that any sodium ions that diffuse backwards along the membrane are
unable to initiate a new action potential due to the hyperpolarised nature of the
membrane in the moments following an action potential
The action potential is said to move along the axon in a wave of depolarisation
In the body, this allows action potentials to begin at one end of an axon and then pass
along the entire length of the axon membrane
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YOUR NOTES

Nerve impulses can be transmitted along axons by the diffusion of sodium ions
The all-or-nothing principle
Action potentials are either generated or not generated depending on whether the
threshold potential is reached; there is no such thing as a small or large action potential
If a stimulus is weak only a few sodium ion channels will open and the membrane won’t
be sufficiently depolarised to reach the threshold potential; an action potential will
not be generated
If a stimulus is strong enough to raise the membrane potential above
the threshold potential, then an action potential will be generated
This is the all-or-nothing principle
An impulse is only transmitted if the initial stimulus is sufficient to increase the
membrane potential above a threshold potential
Stimulus size can be detected by the brain because as the intensity of a
stimulus increases, the frequency of action potentials transmitted along the
neurone increases
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This means that a small stimulus may only lead to one action potential, while a large YOUR NOTES
stimulus may lead to several action potentials in a row 
As the strength of a stimulus increases, the frequency at which action potentials are
generated also increases
Preventing impulse transmission
The transmission of nerve impulses is essential to survival as it allows the body to detect
and respond to stimuli
On occasion, however, it is useful to be able to prevent the transmission of impulses e.g. in
painkillers and anaesthetics
Our understanding of the way that action potentials are transmitted means that it is
possible to design medications that prevent impulse transmission
Such drugs may bind to sodium ion channels, preventing them from opening and
therefore preventing an influx of sodium ions when an axon is stimulated
Preventing sodium ion influx prevents membrane depolarisation and an action
potential cannot be generated
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8.5 Myelination & Saltatory Conduction YOUR NOTES

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Myelination & Saltatory Conduction
In unmyelinated neurones the speed of conduction is relatively slow because
depolarisation must occur along the whole membrane of the axon
By insulating the axon membrane myelin increases the speed at which action potentials
can travel along the neurone
In sections of the axon that are surrounded by a myelin sheath depolarisation cannot
occur as the myelin sheath stops the diffusion of sodium and potassium ions
Action potentials can only occur at the nodes of Ranvier
Nodes of Ranvier are the gaps between the Schwann cells that make up the
myelin sheath
Sodium ions diffuse along the axon within the Schwann cells and the membrane at the
nodes of Ranvier depolarises when the sodium ions arrive
The diffusion of sodium ions in this way is known as local currents, or local
circuits
The action potential therefore appears to ‘jump’ from one node to the next; this is
known as saltatory conduction
Saltatory conduction allows the impulse to travel much faster than in an unmyelinated
axon of the same diameter
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YOUR NOTES

Action potentials are transmitted along myelinated axons by saltatory conduction
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8.6 Synapses & Neurotransmitters YOUR NOTES

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Synapses & Neurotransmitters
Structures known as synapses are found at the junctions between cells in the nervous
system e.g.
In the sense organs there are synapses between sensory receptor cells and sensory
neurones
In muscles there are synapses between motor neurones and muscle fibres
The structure of a synapse includes the following features
A gap between the neurones known as the synaptic cleft
The neurone before the synapse is known as the presynaptic neurone and has a
rounded end known as the synaptic knob
The neurone after the synapse is known as the postsynaptic neurone
Nerve impulses are passed across the synaptic cleft by the diffusion of chemicals
known as neurotransmitters e.g. acetylcholine
Neurotransmitters are contained within vesicles in the synaptic knob
Synapses are the junctions between neurones e.g. between a sensory neurone and a relay
neurone
Synaptic transmission
Electrical impulses cannot ‘jump’ across the synaptic cleft
When an action potential arrives at the end of the axon of the presynaptic neurone the
membrane becomes depolarised, causing voltage gated calcium ion channels to open
Calcium ions diffuse into the synaptic knob via calcium ion channels in the membrane
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The calcium ions cause vesicles in the synaptic knob to move towards the presynaptic YOUR NOTES
membrane where they fuse with it and release chemical messengers called 
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis
A common neurotransmitter is acetylcholine, or ACh
The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind with receptor
molecules on the postsynaptic membrane; this causes associated sodium ion
channels on the postsynaptic membrane to open, allowing sodium ions to diffuse into the
postsynaptic cell
If enough neurotransmitter molecules bind with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane,
then an action potential is generated, which then travels down the axon of
the postsynaptic neurone
Whether or not an action potential is generated depends on whether or not threshold
potential is reached, which in turn depends on the number of action potentials
arriving at the presynaptic knob
Many action potentials will cause more neurotransmitter to be released by
exocytosis
A large amount of neurotransmitter will cause many sodium ion channels to open
Many sodium ion channels opening will allow a large influx of sodium ions,
increasing the likelihood of threshold being reached
The neurotransmitters are then broken down to prevent continued stimulation of the
postsynaptic neurone
The enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine is acetylcholinesterase
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YOUR NOTES

Impulses are transmitted across the synaptic cleft by the diffusion of neurotransmitters
such as acetylcholine
Additional roles of synapses
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Synapses enable YOUR NOTES

Unidirectionality of impulse transmission 
Synapses ensure the one-way transmission of impulses
Impulses can only pass in one direction at synapses because neurotransmitter
is released on one side and its receptors are on the other; chemical transmission
cannot occur in the opposite direction
Divergence of nerve impulses
One neurone can connect to several other neurones at a synapse, allowing nerve
signals to be sent in several directions from a single presynaptic neurone
Amplification of nerve signals by summation
When an impulse arrives at a synapse it does not always cause an impulse to be
generated in the next neurone; a single impulse that arrives at a synaptic knob
may be insufficient to generate an action potential in the post-synaptic neurone
Only a small amount of acetylcholine may release into the synaptic cleft
A small number of sodium ion channels are opened in the postsynaptic axon
membrane
An insufficient number of sodium ions pass through the membrane
The threshold potential is not reached
The effect of multiple impulses can be added together to overcome this in a
process known as summation
Summation can be achieved by
Several presynaptic neurones converging to meet a single postsynaptic
neurone
This is known as synaptic convergence
Many action potentials arriving at a postsynaptic knob in quick succession
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The Pupil Reflex YOUR NOTES

The connections between neurones at synapses enable the sequence of events that leads 
to a change in the diameter of the pupil in the eye; this is known as the pupil reflex
Changing pupil diameter enables the eye to control the amount of light hitting the
retina, avoiding damage that could be caused by bright light
The diameter of the pupil in the eye is determined by two sets of muscles
The circular muscles contract to constrict the pupil
The radial muscles contract to dilate the pupil
The two sets of muscles work antagonistically, meaning that when one set of muscles
contracts the other relaxes, and vice versa
In bright light the following events occur
bright light → light receptors in eyes → sensory neurone → CNS → motor neurone →
circular muscles in iris
Contraction of the circular muscles in the iris of the eye causes the pupil to constrict
This limits the amount of light entering the eye and prevents damage to the retina
In low light the following events occur
low light → light receptors in eyes → sensory neurone → CNS → motor neurone →
radial muscles in iris
Contraction of the radial muscles in the iris of the eye causes the pupil to dilate
This maximises the amount of light entering the eye, improving vision
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YOUR NOTES

The pupil reflex allows unconscious control of the amount of light entering the eye; this
prevents damage to the retina by bright light
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8.7 The Effects of Drugs on Nervous Transmission YOUR NOTES

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The Effects of Drugs on Nervous Transmission
The chemicals in drugs can have a major impact on the functioning of the brain and
nervous system
Many drugs impact the nervous system by altering the events that occur at synapses
Drugs can increase transmission of impulses at a synapse by
Causing more neurotransmitter to be produced in the synaptic knob
Causing more neurotransmitter to be released at the presynaptic membrane
Imitating the effect of a neurotransmitter by binding to and activating receptors on
the postsynaptic membrane
Preventing the breakdown of neurotransmitters by enzymes
Preventing the reuptake of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic cell
Drugs can decrease transmission of impulses at a synapse by
Preventing production of neurotransmitter in the presynaptic knob
Preventing the release of neurotransmitter at the presynaptic membrane
Enabling neurotransmitter to gradually leak out of the presynaptic knob so there is little
left when an action potential arrives
The neurotransmitter that leaks out of the cell is destroyed by enzymes
Binding to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane and so preventing
neurotransmitters from binding
Drugs can influence the transmission of nerve impulses at synapses

Nicotine
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Nicotine is the addictive chemical found in tobacco YOUR NOTES

Nicotine affects synapses in more than one way 
It mimics acetylcholine
Nicotine binds to a type of acetylcholine receptor on the postsynaptic neurone
known as a nicotinic receptor
The binding of nicotine to nicotinic receptors initiates an action potential in the
postsynaptic neurone
After stimulation by nicotine these receptors become unresponsive to other
stimulation
While it is normal for receptors to be briefly unresponsive to further
stimulation after being activated, nicotine causes a prolonged period of
unresponsiveness
It stimulates release of dopamine
Dopamine is released from the pleasure centres in the brain in response to
nicotine
The release of dopamine is thought to reinforce rewarding behaviours, in this
case smoking, increasing the likelihood that we will carry out that behaviour again
Nicotine increases heart rate and blood pressure, as well as increasing the likelihood
that an individual will continue smoking; this further impacts the circulatory system as
well as increasing the risk of other health problems such as lung cancer
Lidocaine
Lidocaine is often used as a local anaesthetic for numbing small areas of the body
E.g. it is used by dentists before dental procedures such as tooth extraction
It can also be used to regulate the heart beat in people suffering from irregular heart
rhythms
Lidocaine works by blocking voltage gated sodium channels
This prevents a large influx of sodium ions in the postsynaptic neurone, therefore
preventing an action potential from being generated
Cobra venom
Cobra venom, also known as α-cobratoxin, is a type of venom produced by some species
of cobra
Receiving a snake bite from a cobra can be fatal
α = alpha
α-cobratoxin binds to acetylcholine receptors on the postsynaptic membrane,
preventing an influx of sodium ions and therefore the generation of an action potential
When this occurs at the synapses between motor neurones and muscle fibres, known as
neuromuscular junctions, this can lead to muscle paralysis
Eventual paralysis of the muscles that control breathing leads to death
Small quantities of α-cobratoxin can be used as a muscle relaxant during asthma attacks
L-dopa
L-dopa is a drug used to treat the symptoms of Parkinson's disease
It has a very similar structure to dopamine; a neurotransmitter present at lower levels than
usual in the brains of those who suffer from Parkinson's disease
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L-dopa is transported from the blood into the brain, where it is converted into dopamine in YOUR NOTES
a reaction catalysed by the enzyme dopa-decarboxylase 
The effect is to increase levels of dopamine in the brain
Note, dopamine cannot be given directly to those who have Parkinson's disease as it
cannot cross the barrier between the blood and the brain
Increased levels of dopamine mean that more nerve impulses are transmitted in parts of
the brain that control movement, giving sufferers better control over their movement and
lessening the symptoms of Parkinson's disease
MDMA
MDMA is a recreational drug that is also known as ecstasy
Its use and sale are criminal offences in most parts of the world
MDMA effects multiple neurotransmitters, most notably serotonin
MDMA inhibits the reuptake of serotonin into the presynaptic neurone by binding to
the specific proteins that enable serotonin reuptake, located on the presynaptic
membrane; this increases the amount of serotonin present in the brain
Serotonin is usually reabsorbed into the presynaptic neurone to be recycled for
future action potentials
MDMA also triggers the release of further serotonin from presynaptic neurones,
further adding to the increase
Serotonin can affect people in many ways including their mood, anxiety and sleep
When an individual takes MDMA they may feel extreme euphoria and enhanced touch and
bodily sensations
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8.8 Detection of Stimuli YOUR NOTES


Detection of Stimuli
The eye is a sense organ containing receptors sensitive to light intensity and wavelength
Receptors are specialised cells that can generate an electrical impulse in a sensory
neurone when stimulated by a particular stimulus e.g. light receptors are stimulated
when light falls on them
Light enters the eye through the pupil and is focused onto a region of the retina called the
fovea
The amount of light that enters the eye is controlled by the muscles of the iris
Light is focused using the lens, the shape of which is controlled by ciliary muscles
attached to the lens by suspensory ligaments
The muscles change the shape of the lens to allow it to focus light reflected from
objects at different distances from the eye
The fovea contains many light receptors, or photoreceptors
The retina contains two types of photoreceptors
Rod cells
Primarily located around the outer retina
Sensitive to light intensity so can detect the presence and brightness of light
Images generated using information from only rod cells is black and white
Cone cells
Mostly found grouped together in the fovea
Sensitive to different wavelengths of visible light so detect colour
Cone cells can be red-sensitive, green-sensitive, or blue-sensitive
The number of red-, green-, and blue-sensitive cone cells stimulated will
determine the colours seen
Images generated using information from cone cells will be in colour
Action potentials generated in the photoreceptor are transmitted to the brain via the optic
nerve
The optic nerve leaves the back of the eye from a region known as the blind spot
The blind spot contains no photoreceptors
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YOUR NOTES

The eye focuses light on the retina, which contains many light receptors
Photoreceptors generate nerve impulses
Photoreceptors in the eye generate action potentials when stimulated by bright enough
light (rods), or by light of a particular wavelength (cones)
Light-sensitive pigments inside the photoreceptors are bleached when light falls on them
e.g.
Rod cells contain a light-sensitive pigment called rhodopsin
When light hits rhodopsin it breaks apart into constituent parts retinal and opsin
The breaking apart of rhodopsin is known as bleaching
The bleaching of light-sensitive pigments causes a chemical change in the photoreceptor
that results in the generation of a nerve impulse
Nerve impulses travel along a bipolar neurone to the optic nerve, which carries information
to the brain
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YOUR NOTES

Information passes from rod and cone cells to the optic nerve via bipolar neurones. Note
that you do not need to know about ganglion cells here
The action of rod cells
The way in which rod cells pass information to the optic nerve is a bit back-to-front in
comparison to the action of other nerve cells; rather than initiating an action potential when
they are depolarised, rod cells initiate action potentials in neighbouring bipolar neurones
when they are hyperpolarised
In the dark the following occurs inside rod cells
Sodium ions are actively pumped out of rod cells, generating a concentration
gradient
Sodium ions (Na+) are positively charged ions, also known as cations
Sodium ions diffuse back down this concentration gradient into the rod cell via
sodium channels
Sodium channels are also known as cation channels because they allow the
movement of positively charged ions
At this stage there is little difference in charge between the outside and inside of the
rod cell, and the cell is said to be depolarised
In reality the inside of the rod cell is slightly negative in comparison to the outside
The depolarised rod cell releases neurotransmitters which diffuse across a synapse
to a bipolar neurone
Rather than initiating an action potential in the bipolar neurone this neurotransmitter
inhibits the generation of an action potential, preventing a nerve impulse from being
sent to the optic nerve
This neurotransmitter is said to be an inhibitory neurotransmitter
In the light the following occurs inside rod cells
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Light bleaches rhodopsin, causing it to break apart into retinal and opsin YOUR NOTES
The bleaching of rhodopsin causes the sodium ion channels in the cell surface 
membrane of the rod cell to close, preventing sodium ions from diffusing back into
the rod cell
The active transport of sodium ions out of the cell is still taking place, so sodium
ions are removed from the cell but not able to return
The lack of positively charged ions entering the rod cell causes its interior to become
more negative until it reaches a hyperpolarised state
A membrane that is hyperpolarised has a more negative potential difference
across it than the resting -70 mV
The hyperpolarised rod cell stops releasing an inhibitory neurotransmitter, so the
generation of an action potential in the neighbouring bipolar neurone is no longer
inhibited
An action potential is generated in the bipolar neurone attached to the rod cell and an
impulse is sent to the optic nerve
Rod cell membranes are depolarised in the dark and hyperpolarised in the light
Page 29 of 78
8.9 Habituation YOUR NOTES


Habituation
Animals must respond to changes in their external and internal environments in order to
survive
Changes in the environment, or stimuli (singular stimulus) are detected by
specialised receptor cells
Receptor cells send signals via either the nervous system or the hormonal system to
the body's co-ordination centres in the brain or spinal cord
Signals are then sent on to the parts of the body which respond, known as
the effectors
The process of detecting and responding to stimuli requires energy, so it is important that
animals don't waste energy responding to non-threatening stimuli
Animals need to conserve energy for essential processes that increase their survival
chances
If a stimulus is repeated many times with no negative outcome then an animal will learn
not to respond to it; this process is known as habituation
An animal that doesn't respond to a stimulus is said to be habituated to that stimulus
Examples of habituation include
Humans no longer noticing a new smell or sound after a period of exposure
Wild animals losing their fear of humans after regular non-harmful contact
Animals learning not to be alarmed by the presence of non-predatory species
If a stimulus to which an animal has become habituated changes, then the nervous system
will respond to it again
E.g. a constant low-level sound that suddenly becomes louder
The process of habituation
Animals become habituated due to changes in the transmission of nerve impulses from
one neurone to the next
Nerve impulses are transmitted across synapses by the diffusion of chemical
neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are released at the presynaptic membrane in response to an influx
of calcium ions
When habituation has taken place fewer calcium ions move into the presynaptic neurone
on arrival of a nerve impulse
As a result, less neurotransmitter is released and an action potential is less likely to be
generated in the postsynaptic neurone
Fewer molecules of neurotransmitter bind to receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane
Fewer sodium ion channels open
Fewer sodium ions move into the axon and the charge inside the axon remains
negative
Threshold potential is not reached
The nerve impulse therefore does not reach the effector organ and the animal does not
respond to the stimulus
Investigating habituation
Page 30 of 78
Habituation to a stimulus can be studied by measuring the changes in an animal's YOUR NOTES
response to a non-harmful stimulus e.g. 
Snails often respond to a stimulus by withdrawing into their shell, waiting to emerge
again until the harmful stimulus is likely to be gone
As snails become habituated to a stimulus the time taken for them to re-emerge from
their shells after a stimulus gets shorter
Apparatus
Snail
A soft object with which to provide a stimulus e.g. a damp cotton bud or a blade of grass
Stopwatch
Method
1. Place a snail on a clean, flat surface and give it time to emerge from its shell
The same surface should be used throughout the experiment
Ensure that humidity remains the same throughout as snails will withdraw in a dry
environment
2. Gently brush the snail's head with a damp cotton bud or blade of grass
It is expected that the snail will withdraw into its shell in response to the touch
3. Start the stopwatch and measure the time taken until the snail re-emerges from the shell
and fully extends its eye-stalks again
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 10-15 times, recording the time taken until full re-emergence each
time
Ensure that the same soft object is used throughout and that the location of the
touch on the snail's body remains the same
Waiting for full extension of the eye stalks ensures that the same end-point is used
each time
5. Plot a graph of touch number against time taken for full re-emergence
The graph would be expected to show a gradual decrease in the time taken for full
re-emergence as the snail becomes habituated to the stimulus
Note that snails are living organisms and so welfare considerations should be taken into
account when using them for experimental purposes
Snails should be returned to a suitable environment that replicates their natural
habitat at the end of the experiment
If snails were taken from a garden or the school grounds then they should be
returned to the exact location from which they were removed
Any handling and transfer of snails should be carried out gently and quickly
Snails should not be exposed to high temperatures or an overly dry environment
Page 31 of 78
8.10 Central & Peripheral Nervous System YOUR NOTES


Central & Peripheral Nervous System
The human nervous system consists of
Central nervous system (CNS) – the brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – the parts of the nervous system that are not within
the central nervous system and that extend to the rest of the body
The nervous system allows detection of stimuli in the surroundings and the coordination of
the body's responses to the stimuli
Stimuli are detected by cells called receptor cells
Receptor cells are gathered together in the sense organs, e.g.
Photoreceptors that are stimulated by light are found in the eye
Chemoreceptors that are stimulated by chemicals are found on the tongue
Pressure receptors that are stimulated by pressure are found on the skin and
inside the blood vessels
The parts of the body that respond to stimuli are known as the effectors
Effectors can be muscles or glands
Information is sent through the nervous system in the form of electrical impulses that pass
along nerve cells known as neurones
There are different types of neurones including sensory neurones, relay
neurones, and motor neurones
The PNS connects the receptor cells in the sense organs with the CNS, and connects the
CNS with effectors
The CNS acts as a central coordinating centre for the impulses that come in from, and
are sent out to, any part of the body
Page 32 of 78
YOUR NOTES

Page 33 of 78
YOUR NOTES

The nervous system consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system
Page 34 of 78
Plant Hormones YOUR NOTES


8.11 Effects of Plant Hormones
Effects of Plant Hormones

Just like animals, the survival of plants is dependent on their ability to respond to
changes in their environment; this maximises their survival chances e.g.
Growing towards light maximises the rate of photosynthesis and therefore glucose
production
Producing harmful or foul-tasting chemicals in response to being eaten by a
herbivore reduces the likelihood of being eaten
Producing flowers at the right time of year increases the chances of reproducing
successfully
Plants can respond to several types of stimuli e.g.
Light
Gravity
Physical objects
Herbivory
Water
Physical touch
Unlike many animals, plants do not possess a nervous system; the responses of plants rely
on chemical substances that are released or altered in response to a stimulus
Phytochrome
Phytochromes are plant pigments that react to different types of light, leading to different
plant responses
Phytochrome pigments exist in two forms
PR is the inactive form of phytochrome, it absorbs light from the red part of the
spectrum (wavelength 660 nm)
PFR is the active form of phytochrome, it absorbs light from the far red part of the
spectrum (wavelength 730 nm)
Absorption of different wavelengths of light causes a reversible conversion between the
PR and PFR forms of phytochrome
When PR absorbs red light (660 nm) it is converted into PFR
When PFR absorbs far red light (730 nm) it is converted back into PR
In the absence of red light, the unstable PFR gradually converts back into PR
Phytochrome and germination
Early observations of light exposure and seed germination showed that seeds exposed to
red light would germinate, while seeds exposed to far-red light would not.
It is now thought that phytochrome is responsible for these observations
Exposure to even a short burst of red light converts PR into PFR, triggering germination
in seeds
Far-red light causes PFR to be converted back into PR, reversing the effects of any red
light exposure and preventing germination
Phytochrome and Flowering
Page 35 of 78
Flowering in plants is controlled by the stimulus of night length YOUR NOTES

Nights are shorter during the spring and summer and longer in the autumn and winter 
Some plants flower when nights are short and some flower when nights are long
When the nights reach a certain length, genes that control flowering may be switched
on or off, leading to the activation or inhibition of flowering
Genes that are switched on are expressed, leading to production of the
polypeptides for which they code, while genes that are switched off are not
expressed, so the polypeptides for which they code are not produced
The length of night can be detected by a plant because it determines the quantities of
different forms of a pigment called phytochrome in the leaf
During the day levels of PFR rise
Sunlight contains more wavelengths at 660 nm than 730 so the conversion from PR to
PFR occurs more rapidly in the daytime than the conversion from PFR to PR
During the night levels of PR rise
Red light wavelengths are not available in the darkness and PFR converts slowly back to
PR
PR is converted to PFR in a reversible reaction which controls flowering

E.g. long day plants
Long day plants flower when the nights are short e.g. in summer
When nights are short, the day length is longer, hence the term 'long day plants'
In long day plants high levels of the active form of phytochrome activate flowering
Flowering occurs due to the following process
Days are long so PR is converted to PFR at a greater rate than PFR is converted to
PR
The active form of phytochrome, PFR, is present at high levels
High levels of PFR activate flowering
PFR activates expression of genes that stimulate flowering
It is thought that PFR acts as a transcription factor
The active gene is transcribed and translated
The resulting protein causes flowers to be produced rather than stems and
leaves
Phytochrome and transcription
Evidence suggests that in addition to their role in germination and flowering,
phytochromes are also involved in plant responses to light and gravity
Page 36 of 78
Phytochromes are thought to influence gene expression in plants by acting as YOUR NOTES
transcription factors 
PR is converted into PFR in the presence of red light
PFR can move into the nucleus via the nuclear pores
PFR binds to a protein in the nucleus known as phytochrome-interacting factor 3
(PIF3)
Once bound to PFR, PIF3 can initiate transcription
It is thought that PFR and PIF3 together are able to activate various different genes and so
control many different aspects of plant growth and development
Growth factors
Plants can respond to stimuli in various ways, including by altering their growth
E.g. a seedling will bend and grow towards the light because there is more growth on
the shaded side than on the illuminated side
This type of directional growth response is referred to as a tropism
Phototropism is a growth response to light
Geotropism is a growth response to gravity
The response to gravity is also known as gravitropism
Tropisms can be positive or negative
Positive tropisms involve growth towards a stimulus
E.g. positive phototropism is a growth response towards light
Negative tropisms involve growth away from a stimulus
E.g. negative geotropism is a growth response away from gravity i.e. upwards
The growth responses of plants rely on chemical substances that are released in response
to a stimulus
These chemical growth factors act in a similar way to the hormones that are found in
animals
Plant growth factors are sometimes referred to as plant hormones as they
are chemical messengers
Growth factors are produced in the growing parts of a plant before moving from the
growing regions to other tissues where they regulate cell growth in response to a
directional stimulus
E.g. auxin is a growth factor that stimulates cell elongation in plant
shoots and inhibits growth in cells in plant roots
Other examples of plant hormones along with some of their regulatory roles include
Gibberellins
Stem elongation
Flowering
Seed germination
Cytokinins
Cell growth and division
Abscisic acid (ABA)
Leaf loss
Seed dormancy
Ethene
Fruit ripening
Flowering
Page 37 of 78
Indoleacetic acid YOUR NOTES

Indoleacetic acid, or IAA, is a type of auxin 
Auxins are a group of plant growth factors that influence many aspects of plant
growth, e.g.
Apical dominance; the suppression of the growth of side shoots by auxins in the
growing shoot tip
Promoting the growth of roots at low concentrations and inhibiting the growth of
roots at high concentrations
Phototropism in shoots
It is thought that IAA brings about plant responses such as phototropism by altering the
transcription of genes inside plant cells
Altering the expression of genes that code for proteins involved with cell growth can
affect the growth of a plant
IAA is produced by cells in the growing parts of a plant before it is redistributed to other
plant tissues
IAA can be transported from cell to cell by diffusion and active transport
Transport of IAA over longer distances occurs in the phloem
The redistribution of IAA is affected by environmental stimuli such as light and gravity,
leading to an uneven distribution of IAA in different parts of the plant
This brings about uneven plant growth
IAA in plant shoots
Light affects the growth of plant shoots in a response known as phototropism
The concentration of IAA determines the rate of cell elongation within the stem
A higher concentration of IAA causes an increase in the rate of cell elongation by
increasing the stretching ability of cell walls
If the concentration of IAA is not uniform across the stem then uneven cell growth can
occur
When light shines on a stem from one side, IAA is transported from the illuminated side of
a shoot to the shaded side
An IAA gradient is established, with more on the shaded side and less on the illuminated
side
The higher concentration of auxin on the shaded side of the shoot causes a faster rate of
cell elongation, and the shoot bends towards the source of light
Page 38 of 78
YOUR NOTES

IAA stimulates cell elongation in shoots

IAA in roots
Roots respond to gravity in a response known as geotropism
In roots, IAA concentration also affects cell elongation, but high concentrations of IAA
result in a lower rate of cell elongation
Note that this is the opposite effect to that of IAA on shoot cells
IAA is transported towards the lower side of plant roots
The resulting high concentration of auxin at the lower side of the root inhibits cell
elongation
As a result, the lower side grows at a slower rate than the upper side of the root, causing
the root to bend downwards
Page 39 of 78
YOUR NOTES

IAA inhibits cell elongation in shoots. Note that you do not need to know about the role
played by amyloplasts in detecting the direction of gravity
Gibberellins
Gibberellins are a type of plant growth regulator involved in controlling seed
germination, stem elongation, flowering, and fruit development
When a barley seed is shed from the parent plant, it is in a state of dormancy, containing
very little water and being metabolically inactive
This allows the seed to survive harsh conditions until the conditions are right for
successful germination, e.g. the seed can survive a cold winter until temperatures rise
again in spring
The barley seed contains
An embryo
This will grow into the new plant when the seed germinates
An endosperm
This is a starch-containing energy store surrounding the embryo
An aleurone layer
This is a protein-rich layer on the outer edge of the endosperm
When the conditions are right the barley seed starts to absorb water to begin the process
of germination
This stimulates the embryo to produce gibberellins
Gibberellin molecules diffuse to the aleurone layer and stimulate the cells there
to synthesise amylase
In barley seeds it has been shown that gibberellin does this by causing an increase in
the transcription of genes coding for amylase
The amylase hydrolyses starch molecules in the endosperm, producing
soluble maltose molecules
Page 40 of 78
The maltose is converted to glucose and transported to the embryo YOUR NOTES
This glucose can be respired by the embryo, providing the embryo with the energy needed 
for growth
Gibberellins in barley seeds cause the synthesis of amylase enzymes which break down
starch stores in the endosperm
Page 41 of 78
8.12 Core Practical 18: Amylase in Germinating Cereal Grains YOUR NOTES

Amylase in Germinating Cereal Grains
Cereal grains such as barley contain
An embryo
This will grow into the new plant when the seed germinates
An endosperm
This is a starch-containing energy store surrounding the embryo
An aleurone layer
This is a protein-rich layer on the outer edge of the endosperm
Barley seeds are shed from the parent plant in a state of dormancy, but when conditions
are right for germination the starch in the endosperm is broken down into first maltose and
then glucose, which provides a source of energy for the developing embryo
The breakdown of the endosperm is stimulated by production of the plant growth factor
gibberellin in the seed embryo, which initiates the production of amylase in the aleurone
layer
Amylase breaks down amylose in starch into maltose
The effect of gibberellin concentration on the production of amylase in germinating
barley seeds can be investigated using a technique called a starch agar assay
As part of this process, cereal grains need to be cut in half to remove the embryo part
of the seed; the embryo in a germinating seed would normally produce gibberellin, so
removing it allows the investigator to control the amount of gibberellin the grain is
exposed to
The embryo is found in the more pointed end of the seed, so this section must be
discarded during the investigation
Cutting the grain in half allows the part of the seed containing the embryo to be removed and
discarded; this removes the part of the seed that produces gibberellin, allowing the
investigator to control the gibberellin exposure of the remaining part of the grain
Apparatus
Measuring cylinders and pipettes
Marker pen
Cereal grains e.g. barley
3 % sodium hypochlorite solution
Filter cloth e.g. muslin
Page 42 of 78
Distilled water YOUR NOTES

Beakers 
Scalpel
Forceps
Cutting tile
1 g dm-3 gibberellic acid solution
Petri dishes containing starch agar gel
Sticky tape
Iodine
Large beaker for waste iodine solution
Ruler
Method
1. Use measuring cylinders and pipettes to make up several gibberellic acid solutions at
different concentrations; place these in labelled beakers
2. Remove any outer husks from cereal grains
This allows the shape of the grain to be seen clearly, helping to identify the half of the
grain that contains the embryo in step 3
3. Cut seeds horizontally using a scalpel on a cutting tile and discard the seed half containing
the embryo
This prevents any gibberellin produced by the embryo from influencing the results
4. Place grain halves into sodium hypochlorite solution for 5 minutes
This sterilises the grains
5. Wash the seeds with distilled water, draining the water through a filter cloth; this should be
repeated several times to remove all of the sodium hypochlorite solution
The sodium hypochlorite solution will smell of chlorine, so washing should be repeated
until this smell is no longer present
6. Use forceps to place the grain halves into gibberellin solutions at different concentrations,
cover lightly and leave for 12-48 hours
Covering prevents contamination, but doing so lightly ensures that the covers are not
air tight so that oxygen can enter
7. Place several grain halves from one gibberellin concentration onto a sterile starch agar petri
dish and label dish with relevant gibberellin concentration; place seeds with cut half facing
downwards
8. Lightly tape the lid onto the petri dish with 2-4 small pieces of sticky tape and leave for 24-
48 hours
Any amylase being produced inside the seed will diffuse out of the cut seed and into
the starch agar, digesting the starch and leaving areas of agar around the seed in
which no starch is present
9. Repeat steps 7-8 for seeds at all gibberellin concentrations
10. Pour iodine solution onto the surface of each petri dish, ensuring that it covers the entire
surface of the agar and that the lid of each dish is only raised enough to allow iodine to be
poured
Only lifting the lid slightly will prevent contamination of the agar with any other
potential sources of starch
11. Leave for a few minutes until the starch in the agar becomes stained with the iodine, and
then pour excess iodine into a waste container
Page 43 of 78
Areas of the agar containing starch will stain blue-black YOUR NOTES
12. Measure the diameter of the clear zone around each cereal grain, recording the results for 
each gibberellin concentration in a table
The larger the clear area, the more amylase was produced by the cereal grain
If several grains were used at each concentration then an average can be calculated
13. Plot a graph of gibberellin concentration against diameter of clear agar area
The diameter of the clear zone around each cereal grain indicates the amount of amylase
released; the larger the clear zone, the more amylase has been produced by the grain
Page 44 of 78
8.13 Nervous & Hormonal Coordination YOUR NOTES


Nervous & Hormonal Coordination
Both plants and animals must respond to changes in their external and internal
environments in order to survive
They need to
Find favourable external conditions e.g. avoiding locations that are too hot or cold
Find food
Avoid harm e.g. from predators or high blood glucose
While plants use chemical signals to co-ordinate responses to stimuli, animals bring about
coordination by both nervous and hormonal control
Changes in the environment, or stimuli (singular stimulus) are detected by specialised
receptor cells
Receptor cells are located in the sense organs e.g. the nose and eyes
Receptor cells can also be found inside the body e.g. pressure receptors in the blood
vessels
Receptor cells send signals via either the nervous system or the hormonal system to the
body's co-ordination centres in the brain or spinal cord
Signals are then sent on to the parts of the body which respond, known as the effectors
Effectors can be either muscles or glands e.g.
An arm muscle would respond to a hot surface by contracting to move the hand
away
The pancreas responds to high blood sugar by secreting insulin
Receptors are cells that detect stimuli in the internal and external environment
The nervous system
Page 45 of 78
The human nervous system consists of YOUR NOTES

Central nervous system (CNS) – the brain and spinal cord 
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – all of the nerves in the body
The nervous system allows detection of stimuli in our surroundings and the coordination of
the body's responses to the stimuli
Information is sent through the nervous system in the form of electrical impulses that pass
along nerve cells known as neurones
There are different types of neurones including sensory neurones, relay neurones,
and motor neurones
The nerves connect the receptors in the sense organs with the CNS, and connect the CNS
with effectors
The CNS acts as a central coordinating centre for the impulses that come in from, and
are sent out to, any part of the body
An example of this nerve pathway in action might be
hot surface → pain receptor in skin of hand → sensory neurone → CNS → motor neurone
→ arm muscle
The muscle in the arm responds by contracting to move the hand away from the hot
surface
Page 46 of 78
YOUR NOTES

Page 47 of 78
YOUR NOTES

The nervous system allows the detection of stimuli and the co-ordination of appropriate
responses
The hormonal system
Hormones are chemical substances produced by endocrine glands and carried by
the blood
Endocrine glands are ductless and secrete hormones directly into the blood
Hormones are sometimes known as chemical messengers
Hormones transmit information from one part of an organism to another and bring
about change by altering the activity of one or more specific target organs
Hormones can leave the blood and bind to specific receptors on the cell surface
membranes of target organs
Hormones are slower in action than nerve impulses and are therefore used to control
functions that do not need instant responses
Endocrine glands that produces hormones in animals are known collectively as the
endocrine system
Endocrine glands can be stimulated to secrete hormones by the action of another
hormone or by the arrival of a nerve impulse
The pathway of hormone action is as follows
Page 48 of 78
stimulus → receptor → hormone → effector YOUR NOTES

An example of this pathway in action might be 
high blood sugar → cells in the pancreas → insulin → liver cells

The liver cells respond to insulin by converting glucose into glycogen
Hormones are secreted into the blood by the endocrine glands

Comparison of Nervous and Hormonal control Table
Page 49 of 78
YOUR NOTES

Page 50 of 78
The Brain YOUR NOTES


8.14 Human Brain Structures & Functions
Human Brain Structures & Functions

The brain, alongside the spinal cord, is part of the central nervous system (CNS)
The brain is made of billions of interconnected neurones
Within the brain are different regions that carry out different functions
Different regions of the brain carry out different functions

You need to know the functions of the following brain regions
The cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain in humans, accounting for about 80% of the
total mass of the brain
It carries out a large variety of functions involved with conscious activities, including:
Vision
Hearing
Speech
Thinking
Memory
The cerebrum is divided into two halves known as the cerebral hemispheres
The hemispheres are joined together by a band of nerve fibres known as the corpus
callosum
The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and the left one controls
the right side
The cerebrum has a thin outer layer known as the cerebral cortex or 'grey matter'
The cerebral cortex consists of the cell bodies of neurones
Page 51 of 78
It is highly folded, which increases its surface area and allows it to contain a greater YOUR NOTES
number of neurones 
With more neurones in the brain, more neurone connections can be made
This is important, as the more connections between neurones in the brain,
the greater the ability of the brain to carry out more complex behaviours
Beneath the cerebral cortex or grey matter layer is the 'white matter'
The white matter consists of the myelinated axons of neurones
The cerebrum consists of two hemispheres joined by the corpus callosum

The hypothalamus
The hypothalamus monitors the blood as it flows through the brain and, in
response, releases hormones or stimulates the neighbouring pituitary gland to release
hormones
The hypothalamus plays an important role in some homeostatic mechanisms
Hypothalamus functions include
Regulating body temperature
The hypothalamus monitors blood temperature and initiates a homeostatic
response if this temperature gets too high or too low
Osmoregulation
Cells in the hypothalamus monitor the water balance of the blood and releases
the hormone ADH if the blood becomes too concentrated
ADH increases absorption of water in the kidneys
Regulating digestive activity
The hypothalamus regulates the hormones that control appetite as well as the
secretion of digestive enzymes
Controlling endocrine functions
The hypothalamus causes the pituitary gland to release hormones that control a
variety of processes e.g. metabolism, growth and development, puberty, sexual
functions, sleep, and mood
Page 52 of 78
Pituitary gland YOUR NOTES

The pituitary gland is located below the hypothalamus 
Its role is to produce a range of hormones
Some of these directly influence and regulate processes in the body while some
stimulate the release of further hormones from other endocrine glands
The pituitary gland is divided into two sections; the anterior pituitary and posterior
pituitary
The anterior pituitary produces and releases hormones
The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus
e.g. ADH and oxytocin
The cerebellum
The cerebellum coordinates movement
This includes balance; a highly complex function that requires coordination between
multiple parts, including the eyes, semicircular canals in the ears, and many muscles
The medulla oblongata
Also known as the medulla
The medulla contains co-ordination centres that control different unconscious functions
e.g.
The cardiac centre controls heart rate
The respiratory centre controls breathing rate
The medulla controls functions that are able to maintain life even if other parts of the brain
are damaged
Page 53 of 78
8.15 Techniques to Investigate the Brain YOUR NOTES


Techniques to Investigate the Brain
It is extremely difficult for neuroscientists to study the brain and find out how it works
The brain is incredibly complex and very delicate and it is protected by the skull
Different regions work together to bring about brain function so can’t be studied
in isolation
Specialised scanners and techniques can be used to study the brain without having to
resort to surgical intervention
Computerised Tomography
Computerised tomography, or CT, scans produce cross-section images of the brain
using x-ray radiation
A beam of x-rays is aimed at a patient from all angles around the body
Digital x-ray detectors are used to pick up the x-rays as they exit the patient's body
Denser tissue absorbs more of the x-ray radiation so shows up as a lighter region on a
scan
A scan produced in this way shows physical structures of the brain and allows visualisation
of any tissue damage
E.g. blood is less dense than brain tissue so a CT scan can be used to locate damaged
blood vessels and areas of bleeding after a patient has had a stroke
The scans don't directly show the functions of the regions of the brain but it is possible to
link visible symptoms with the location of any tissue damage
This can allow neurologists to work out which regions of the brain are responsible for
which functions
CT scans are not recommended for pregnant patients or children due to the risks of
exposure to the X-ray radiation, which is given at a higher level than in a normal X-ray
The risk of damage from such scans is still very low
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Magnetic Resonance Imaging, or MRI, uses a combination of a magnetic field and radio
waves to generate images through the body
The patient being scanned must remain very still while inside a large magnet
Soft tissues can be seen clearly using MRI, and images produced are at a higher resolution
than those produced from CT scanning
As with CT scanning, MRI is useful for identifying areas of abnormal or damaged tissue,
but only enables brain function to be analysed by linking damage on a scan with visible
symptoms in a patient
MRI is especially useful for tumour diagnosis as tumours show up clearly in images
generated in this way
MRI scans can therefore be used to identify and locate tumours in the brain
MRI scans are considerably more expensive to carry out than CT scans but do not carry
the risk associated with the use of potentially harmful x-rays
MRI scans are often the imaging method of choice during long-term therapies
The magnetic field of an MRI scanner can interfere with medical devices such as
pacemakers and insulin pumps, so patients with such devices cannot have MRI scans
Page 54 of 78
Functional MRI YOUR NOTES

Functional MRI, or fMRI, functions in a similar way to MRI, making use of a magnetic field 
and radio waves to generate images of brain structure
The difference between MRI and fMRI is that fMRI scans allow brain function to be studied
in real time
fMRI scans show the location of oxygenated blood in the brain, therefore indicating
which brain regions are active at any one time
The scanner measures the ratio of oxygenated to deoxygenated haemoglobin
Patients can be asked to carry out particular actions, answer questions, or think about
a specific topic while inside a scanner and the change in blood flow to regions of the
brain can be assessed
The region of the brain associated with the activity or thought will 'light up' in the
scanner
This can be used in medical diagnosis e.g. searching for the cause of seizures, or in
psychology research
Positron Emission Tomography
PET scans use radioactive tracers which collect in areas where there is increased blood
flow, metabolism, or neurotransmitter activity
The tracer is introduced to the blood in advance of the scan so that it can be detected
by the scanner
E.g. a radioactive tracer might be radioactively labelled glucose; glucose will be
transported in the blood and will be present in high concentrations in metabolically
active areas of the brain
The scanner can detect areas of high radioactivity, and so the movement of the tracer
through the body and any accumulation of tracer in the brain can be seen
The amount of radioactive tracer present in a brain region can indicate whether that region
is active or inactive
This has been useful in building an understanding of specific diseases such as
Alzheimer's where brain activity in certain regions decreases
Neurologists can use the images to study the structure and function of the brain in real
time
Page 55 of 78
YOUR NOTES

Some types of scan show only structure, while other allow the study of structure and
function in real time
Page 56 of 78
8.16 Brain Disease YOUR NOTES


Brain Disease
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit nerve impulses across synapses
Some disorders and diseases are linked to an imbalance of neurotransmitters in the brain
Two examples are
Parkinson's disease
Depression
Parkinson's disease
Parkinson's disease is a brain disorder that affects the co-ordination of movement,
caused by the loss of neurones in some parts of the brain
Symptoms include
A tremor to the specific parts of the body
Slow movement
Stiff and inflexible muscles
Difficulties with balance
Changes to speech
The lost neurones normally produce the neurotransmitter dopamine
Dopamine is involved in muscle control
Individuals that suffer from Parkinson's disease produce insufficient amounts of
dopamine due to the loss of dopamine-producing neurones
Less dopamine is released into the synaptic cleft meaning less is able to bind with
receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
Fewer sodium channels on the membrane are opened so depolarisation of the
postsynaptic neurone does not occur
This leads to fewer action potentials which creates the symptoms such as tremors
and slow movement
Different types of drug can be used to treat this disease
Dopamine agonists
Produce the same effect as dopamine by binding to and activating the dopamine
receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
Dopamine precursors
These are chemicals that can be converted into dopamine in the neurones
E.g. L-dopa
Enzyme inhibitors
Monoamine oxidase B (MAOB) inhibitors inhibit the activity of enzymes that would
normally break down dopamine in the synaptic cleft, raising levels of dopamine
present in the brain
Research into other treatments for Parkinson's disease is currently ongoing, with some
promising future possibilities in the areas of
Gene therapy
This would involve the addition of genes to the affected cells in the brain to either
increase dopamine production or prevent the destruction of dopamine-
producing cells
Stem cell therapy
Page 57 of 78
Stem cells could be used to replace the lost dopamine-producing cells in the YOUR NOTES
brain 
Depression
Low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin have been linked to depression
Serotonin transmits nerve impulses through the areas of the brain that control mood
Low levels of serotonin increase episodes of depression
Other brain chemicals linked to depression include noradrenaline and dopamine
Some drugs that have been developed for the treatment of depression, known as
antidepressants, work by increasing the levels of relevant neurotransmitters in the brain
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) are a class of antidepressant that
prevent the uptake of serotonin at synapses; this increases the overall levels of
serotonin in the brain
TCAs (tricyclic antidepressants) increase levels of both serotonin and noradrenaline
in the brain
MAOB inhibitors inhibit enzymes that would otherwise break down
neurotransmitters in the synaptic clefts in the brain
Page 58 of 78
Gene Technology YOUR NOTES


8.17 Drug Production from Genetically Modified Organisms
Drug Production from Genetically Modified Organisms

Genetic engineering is a technique used to deliberately modify a specific characteristic of
an organism
The technique involves removing a gene that codes for a desired characteristic
from one organism and transferring the gene into another organism where
the desired gene is then expressed
The genetically engineered organism is said to contain recombinant DNA and will be a
genetically modified organism (GMO)
Micro-organisms, plants and animals have been genetically engineered to produce
proteins used in medicine
Genetically modified micro-organisms
Restriction enzymes are used to remove the gene coding for a desired protein from an
organism's genome
The protein coded for here will be responsible for the characteristic desired in the
GMO e.g. the ability to produce insulin
Many copies of the gene are made using the polymerase chain reaction, or PCR
The enzyme DNA polymerase is used to join free nucleotides into new strands of DNA
that are complementary to the original strand
These copies are inserted into small loops of DNA called plasmids, which then transfer
the copies into micro-organisms
The plasmids are said to be DNA vectors
The enzyme DNA ligase catalyses the joining of the desired gene to the plasmid vector
The genetically modified micro-organisms are grown in large fermenters containing
nutrients, enabling them to multiply and produce large quantities of the new protein
The protein can be isolated and purified before being packaged and distributed
Human insulin and human blood clotting factors are examples of medicinal proteins
produced by genetically modified bacteria
Page 59 of 78
YOUR NOTES

The human insulin gene can be inserted into bacterial plasmid vectors which are then
transferred into bacterial cells
Genetically modified plants
A similar process can be used to insert desired genes from other organisms into plant cells
After the gene is inserted into a plasmid and then transferred to a bacterial cell, the bacteria
can be used to infect plant cells; the bacterium acts as a vector for introducing the gene
into the plant DNA
Note that this isn't the only method of introducing new genes into plant cells
Another method involves a 'gene gun'; tiny pellets are coated with the desired
DNA and then fired into the plant cells
The gene is transferred from the bacterial cell into the plant cell nucleus, after which
the plant cell is stimulated to multiply and grow into an adult plant
Each cell of the plant contains a copy of the gene coding for the desired protein
The protein can now be purified from the plant tissues, or the plant can be eaten to deliver
the drug
Page 60 of 78
Human insulin and a cholera vaccine are examples of drugs produced by modified YOUR NOTES
plants 
Genetically modified animals
The gene that codes for the desired protein is injected into the nucleus of a zygote
The zygote is implanted into the uterus of a surrogate animal where it develops into an
adult animal
Every cell of this genetically modified animal will contain a copy of the gene coding for
the desired protein
The protein can be purified from e.g. the milk of the animal
Human blood clotting proteins can be produced from the milk of genetically modified
animals
Page 61 of 78
8.18 Recombinant DNA YOUR NOTES


Recombinant DNA
The genetic code is the basis for storing instructions that, alongside environmental
influences, dictate the characteristics of organisms
The genetic code is universal, meaning that almost every organism uses the same four
nitrogenous bases A, T, C, and G
The universal nature of the genetic code means that the same codons code for the
same amino acids in all living things; genetic information is therefore transferable
between species
The mechanisms of transcription and translation are also universal which means that
the transferred DNA can be translated within cells of another species
Scientists can artificially change an organism's DNA by combining lengths of nucleotides
from different sources; typically the nucleotides are from different species
The altered DNA, with the introduced nucleotides, is called recombinant DNA
If an organism contains nucleotide sequences from a different species it is known as
a transgenic organism or a genetically modified organism (GMO)
Transferring genes from bacteria into the DNA of maize plants creates recombinant DNA
Producing a transgenic organism involves the following process
Identification of the desired gene
This gene will code for a desired characteristic, e.g.
Pest resistance genes in crops
The human insulin gene
Isolation of the desired gene by, e.g.
Page 62 of 78
Using an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert a desired length of YOUR NOTES
mRNA back into DNA; DNA produced in this way is known as complementary DNA, 
or cDNA
Cutting the gene from its location on a chromosome using enzymes
called restriction endonucleases
Designing and building synthetic DNA sequences in a lab
Multiplication of the gene, i.e. producing many copies, or clones; this can be carried
out using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
PCR machines known as thermocyclers use free nucleotides, DNA polymerase,
and DNA primers to produce many identical copies of a desired gene
Transfer of the desired gene into another organism's DNA using a vector, e.g. DNA
plasmids, viruses, or fatty envelopes known as liposomes
Once another organism has taken up the vector it is said to be transformed
Identification of the cells that contain the new gene by using a marker gene alongside
the desired gene; this means that any cells that take up the desired gene will take up
the marker gene as well e.g.
Antibiotic resistance; transformed cells will survive if treated with a specific
antibiotic
Fluorescence; transformed bacterial cells will fluoresce under UV light
Once the transformed cells have been identified they can be cloned, ensuring that all new
cells contain copies of the desired gene
In the case of bacteria this can be carried out in a large container known as a fermenter
Page 63 of 78
YOUR NOTES

Page 64 of 78
YOUR NOTES

DNA can be transferred from one organism to another to produce recombinant DNA; this
process involves identification, isolation, multiplication, and transfer of the desired gene,
followed by identification and cloning of the transformed organisms
Isolating the desired gene using restriction endonucleases
Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that cut DNA
They are sometimes referred to as restriction enzymes
There are many different restriction endonucleases, each of which binds to a specific
sequence of bases known as a restriction site on DNA, e.g. the restriction endonuclease
HindIII will always bind to the base sequence AAGCTT
Restriction endonucleases separate DNA at restriction sites by cutting the sugar-
phosphate backbone in an uneven way; this leaves exposed single-stranded sequences
of bases known as 'sticky ends'
Sticky ends result in one strand of the DNA fragment being longer than the other strand
The sticky ends make it easier to insert the desired gene into another organism's DNA
or into vector DNA as they can easily form hydrogen bonds with complementary base
sequences that have been cut with the same restriction endonucleases
Page 65 of 78
YOUR NOTES

Restriction enzymes produce a jagged cut at a restriction site, leaving 'sticky ends'
Inserting the desired gene into a vector using DNA ligase
Once the desired gene has been cut from DNA using the relevant restriction endonuclease,
it can then be transferred into the DNA of a vector, e.g.
A DNA plasmid
A vector organism such as a virus or bacterium
The DNA of the vector will be cut using the same restriction endonuclease as the desired
gene, leaving complementary sticky ends
The enzyme DNA ligase is used to catalyse the formation of phosphodiester bonds
between the sugar-phosphate backbone of the desired gene and that of the vector DNA
If this is carried out using a plasmid, the plasmid will be known as a recombinant
plasmid
Page 66 of 78
YOUR NOTES

DNA ligase is used to join the isolated gene to the vector DNA
Page 67 of 78
8.19 Transfer of Recombinant DNA into Other Cells YOUR NOTES


Transfer of Recombinant DNA into Other Cells
Sections of DNA can be transferred from one organism's DNA to that of another,
creating recombinant DNA
In order to create recombinant DNA, desired genes, such as the gene for human insulin,
need to be transferred into new types of cell; there are several different ways of doing
this, e.g.
Vectors, e.g.
DNA plasmids
Viruses
Liposomes
Gene guns
Microinjection
Once a section of DNA has been transferred into a new cell it needs to be incorporated into
the cell's genetic material in order to be transcribed and translated; the success rate for
transferred genes entering the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell is currently very low
The problem of transferred genes not reaching the nucleus is a barrier to the success
of gene therapy
Gene therapy is a medical technique that involves inserting non-mutated genes
into the cells of individuals with genetic disorders
Plasmid vectors
Plasmids are small, circular rings of double-stranded DNA that can be found in some
bacterial cells, as well as some other cell types
To insert the desired gene into the circular DNA of a plasmid, it is cut open using a
restriction endonuclease
DNA ligase is then used to join the desired gene to the plasmid DNA; this creates a
recombinant plasmid
The recombinant plasmid DNA can then be transferred into other cells, usually bacteria,
by a process called transformation
Only a small proportion of bacteria will become transformed and therefore marker
genes such as antibiotic resistance are used to identify them
Scientists can modify or design bacterial plasmids so that they contain one or
more marker genes, e.g. genes for antibiotic resistance
Transformation can occur by
Bathing the plasmids and bacteria in an ice-cold calcium chloride solution and then
briefly incubating at 40°C; this makes the bacterial outer membrane permeable
Electroporation; the bacteria are given a small electrical shock, making the membrane
porous
Page 68 of 78
YOUR NOTES

Plasmid vectors can be used to transform bacterial cells

Viral vectors
Viruses reproduce by inserting their DNA into the cells of other organisms, making them
ideal vectors for the process of creating transformed cells
Viruses exist that infect animal cells, plant cells, and bacterial cells, so viral vectors can be
used to transform many cell types
Viruses used as vectors need to be non-harmful to the cells being transformed
Viruses are useful for ensuring that transferred DNA reaches the nucleus of cells, but
despite being harmless they can sometimes initiate an immune response
Viruses can be used as vectors in the process of gene therapy, which can be used to treat
genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis in humans
Page 69 of 78
YOUR NOTES

Viral vectors can be used to insert genes into human cells

Liposome vectors
Liposomes are small, spherical vesicles, surrounded by a phospholipid bilayer
Liposomes can be used as vectors because they can fuse with the cell surface
membranes of host cells
These vesicles can also be used in gene therapy to carry non-mutated genes into host
cells
Liposomes can enter cells by fusing with the cell surface membrane. Note that you do not
need to know the term endosymbiosis here
Page 70 of 78
Gene guns YOUR NOTES

The fragments of DNA containing the desired gene can be used to coat tiny pellets of gold 
or tungsten which are then fired at high speed into the cells that are to be transformed
Cells that avoid damage are able to incorporate the new DNA into their genome
Microinjection
A fine glass micropipette is used to transfer DNA into a cell
This is a common laboratory technique for transferring genetic material into animal cells for
the creation of transgenic animals
Page 71 of 78
8.20 Identification of Active Genes YOUR NOTES


Identification of Active Genes
Microarrays are laboratory tools used to identify active genes
Active genes are genes that are expressed; mRNA is transcribed from them and the
resulting mRNA strand is translated into a polypeptide
Microarrays can be used to identify active genes in thousands of gene samples at a time
Microarrays are used for
Medical diagnosis and treatment, e.g. identification of harmful mutations
Biotechnology, e.g. identifying genes for the process of producing recombinant DNA
Forensic analysis, e.g. in criminal investigations
A microarray consists of a small piece of glass, plastic or silicon that has DNA
probes attached to many spots, called gene spots, in a grid pattern
DNA probes are short, single stranded lengths of DNA linked to an easily identifiable
label such as a fluorescence protein or a radioactive tag; these single stranded
probes bind to any complementary sequences present in a DNA sample, indicating
their presence by fluorescing or under an x-ray
There can be 10 000 or more spots per cm2
When producing a microarray, scientists compare experimental samples of genetic
material with a known reference sample, e.g. a genetic sample taken from an individual
known to have a particular disease mutation
When a microarray is used to analyse genomes
Samples of genetic material, known as chips, are collected from
A reference source, e.g. an individual known to have a particular genetic
mutation; this provides a control sample for comparison
An unknown source, e.g. a patient to be diagnosed
Note that many unknown samples can be simultaneously compared to a
single reference sample
Collecting mRNA rather than DNA at this stage enables active genes to be identified;
only active genes will be undergoing the process of transcription into mRNA
Enzymes called reverse transcriptase enzymes are used to convert the mRNA back
into DNA; the DNA produced in this way is known as complementary DNA, or cDNA
The cDNA samples are labelled, e.g. using fluorescence labels
The reference samples are labelled with a different label to the unknown
experimental samples
Usually the reference samples fluoresce green while the unknown samples
fluoresce red
Once the reference and unknown samples are mixed together, they are then allowed
to hybridise with the probes on the microarray
After a set period of time any DNA that did not hybridise with the probes is washed
off
The microarray is then examined using ultraviolet light which causes the tags to
fluoresce, or scanned; colours are detected by the computer and the information is
analysed
The fluorescence colour detected indicates where hybridisation has occurred, as the
DNA fragment is complementary to the probe
Page 72 of 78
If reference (green) and unknown (red) samples both hybridise in equal YOUR NOTES
proportions then the overall colour detected will be yellow; this shows that the 
gene in question is being expressed in equal quantities in the reference individual
and the individual from whom the unknown sample was taken
If reference samples hybridise more than the unknown samples then the overall
colour detected will be green; this shows that the gene is being expressed more
in the reference individual than in the individual providing the unknown sample
If unknown samples hybridise more than the reference samples then the overall
colour detected will be red; this shows that the gene is being expressed more in
the individual providing the unknown sample than in the reference individual
Note that a lack of fluorescence indicates that the gene in question is not being
expressed at all
Page 73 of 78
YOUR NOTES

Microarrays can be used to identify active genes

Microarrays can be used to test for expression of genes that increase the risk of certain
cancers
Page 74 of 78
E.g. High levels of expression of genes that code for receptors that bind to the YOUR NOTES
hormone oestrogen can be a factor in the progression of some cancers; if doctors 
know that these genes are being expressed at high levels then drugs that block
oestrogen receptors are likely to be an effective treatment
Page 75 of 78
8.21 Bioinformatics YOUR NOTES


Bioinformatics
New DNA technologies such as microarrays and sequencing generate enormous
quantities of data, e.g.
Genome sequences
Information on gene expression
The amino acid sequence and functions of proteins
To analyse all of this data scientists use bioinformatics
Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary science that incorporates biology with computer
technology and statistics in order to collect, organise, store, and analyse biological data
Large databases are created containing information such as gene sequences and amino
acid sequences of proteins
The databases are available online and can perform analysis of the data selected
Multiple scientific research groups around the world can contribute to central
databases; other groups can then analyse the research and raise queries
There are a number of different applications of bioinformatics, e.g.
Gene function can be studied and compared across different species
The DNA sequences of different species can be compared and evolutionary
relationships can be established
New drug candidates can be identified quickly by scanning libraries of molecules
Drug candidates can be tested safely; the impacts of different molecules on cells can
be simulated using computer models
Data from microarrays and gene sequencing can be analysed to develop
personalised medical treatments for individuals
New types of genetic testing can be developed to enable identification of genetic
disease
Desired genes for the production of recombinant DNA can be identified, as well as
determining where it is best to insert new desired genes into the genome of a
genetically modified organism
This is useful for the development of new gene therapies
Page 76 of 78
YOUR NOTES

Bioinformatics enables the effective storage and analysis of biological data. Note that you
do not need to know about BLAST analysis
Page 77 of 78
8.22 Risks & Benefits of Using GMOs YOUR NOTES


Risks & Benefits of Using GMOs
While GMOs can be used for medical benefit, there is still much concern about the
potential impacts of changing the genes of organisms, as well as the ethics of genetically
modifying animals
These concerns are often amplified when the GMOs are crop plants destined for
human consumption
Risks and Benefits of Genetic Engineering Table
Page 78 of 78

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8. Coordination, Response & Gene Technology

The Nervous System YOUR NOTES

Neurones: Types & Functions

Different types of neurone differ in both structure and function

8.2 How a Response is Generated by Effectors YOUR NOTES

8.3 The Reflex Arc YOUR NOTES

Spinal reflexes involve relay neurones in the spinal cord

8.4 The Nerve Impulse YOUR NOTES

facilitated diffusion YOUR NOTES

Sodium-potassium pumps in the membrane of a resting neurone generate a concentration

8.5 Myelination & Saltatory Conduction YOUR NOTES

Action potentials are transmitted along myelinated axons by saltatory conduction

8.6 Synapses & Neurotransmitters YOUR NOTES

Synapses enable YOUR NOTES

The Pupil Reflex YOUR NOTES

8.7 The Effects of Drugs on Nervous Transmission YOUR NOTES

Drugs can influence the transmission of nerve impulses at synapses

Nicotine is the addictive chemical found in tobacco YOUR NOTES

8.8 Detection of Stimuli YOUR NOTES

8.9 Habituation YOUR NOTES

8.10 Central & Peripheral Nervous System YOUR NOTES

Plant Hormones YOUR NOTES

Effects of Plant Hormones

Flowering in plants is controlled by the stimulus of night length YOUR NOTES

PR is converted to PFR in a reversible reaction which controls flowering

Indoleacetic acid YOUR NOTES

IAA stimulates cell elongation in shoots

Distilled water YOUR NOTES

8.13 Nervous & Hormonal Coordination YOUR NOTES

The human nervous system consists of YOUR NOTES

stimulus → receptor → hormone → effector YOUR NOTES

high blood sugar → cells in the pancreas → insulin → liver cells

Hormones are secreted into the blood by the endocrine glands

The Brain YOUR NOTES

Human Brain Structures & Functions

Different regions of the brain carry out different functions

The cerebrum consists of two hemispheres joined by the corpus callosum

Pituitary gland YOUR NOTES

8.15 Techniques to Investigate the Brain YOUR NOTES

Functional MRI YOUR NOTES

8.16 Brain Disease YOUR NOTES

Gene Technology YOUR NOTES

Drug Production from Genetically Modified Organisms

8.18 Recombinant DNA YOUR NOTES

8.19 Transfer of Recombinant DNA into Other Cells YOUR NOTES

Plasmid vectors can be used to transform bacterial cells

Viral vectors can be used to insert genes into human cells

Gene guns YOUR NOTES

8.20 Identification of Active Genes YOUR NOTES

Microarrays can be used to identify active genes

8.21 Bioinformatics YOUR NOTES

8.22 Risks & Benefits of Using GMOs YOUR NOTES

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