Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Module 3

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MODULE III
REFRIGERATION & AIR CONDITIONING

3.1 REFRIGERATION

Refrigeration can also be defined as the process of cooling of bodies or fluids to

temperatures lower than the surrounding.

Refrigeration is therefore the science of moving heat from low temperature to high
temperature Ex. Refrigerator. A refrigerator removes heat from the food products and rejects
the heat to the atmosphere. The equipment used to maintain a lower temperature inside the
system than its surroundings is known as refrigerating system and the working fluid inside the
system is known as refrigerant.

Various types of refrigerants are Ammonia, Sulfur dioxide, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s)

etc… An ideal refrigerant would, be noncorrosive to mechanical components, and be safe,
including free from toxicity and flammability. Chlorofluorocarbons became commonplace in
the 20th century, but they are not used now a days because of the bad effect of on the
environment which causes ozone layer depletion and climate change.

Most of the present day refrigeration use one of the following systems.
1. Vapour Compression Refrigeration System.
2. Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System.

1. VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

In vapour compression refrigeration system, the working fluid (Refrigerant) undergoes
phase change (Liquid to vapour and vice versa) and refrigeration effect is due to the
vaporisation of refrigerant liquid. This system is used in Refrigerators, Air conditioning
systems etc…The major components of vapour compression refrigeration system are
Compressor: The function of the compressor is to compress the vapour refrigerant to
high pressure.

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Condensor: Condensor consists of coil of pipes and is used to condense the vapour
refrigerant to liquid state by rejecting heat to the outside.
Throttle valve/Expansion Valve: It is used to reduce the pressure of the refrigerant
(Which was compressed to high pressure at the compressor) and to control the flow of
refrigerant in to the evaporator. During this process a very small quantity of liquid refrigerant
get converted to its vapour state.
Evaporator: Here evaporation of the liquid refrigerant occurs. In evaporator liquid the
refrigerant absorbs heat from the substance to be cooled or space to be cooled and converts to
vapour state.

Refrigerant flows through the compressor, which raises the pressure of the refrigerant. Next
the refrigerant flows through the condenser, where it condenses from vapor form to liquid form,
giving off heat in the process. The heat given off is what makes the condenser "hot to the
touch." After the condenser, the refrigerant goes through the expansion valve, where it
experiences a pressure drop. Finally, the refrigerant goes to the evaporator. The refrigerant
draws heat from the evaporator which causes the refrigerant to vaporize. The vaporized
refrigerant goes back to the compressor to restart the cycle.

2. VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

The absorption refrigeration system differs fundamentally from vapour compression
system only in the method of compressing the refrigerant. The compressor in vapour
compression system is replaced by an absorber, generator and a pump assembly. These
components vapour absorption system perform the same function as that of a compressor in

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vapour compression system. In addition to the refrigerant, the system contains another fluid
called the absorbent.
In this system, the liquid refrigerant absorbs heat from the evaporator and is converted
in to low pressure vapour refrigerant. This vapour refrigerant is drawn in to the absorber where
an absorbent absorbs the refrigerant vapour and forms a solution. This solution is pumped to
the generator where it is heated by some external source. During this process the vapour
refrigerant is separated from the absorbent and the pressure of both absorbent and refrigerant
increases. High pressure liquid absorbent is again re supplied to the absorber through a
throttling valve which reduces its pressure and the absorbent is re used. The high pressure
vapour refrigerant is passed in to the condenser where it is liquefied by rejecting heat to the
outside. The liquid refrigerant then flows in to the evaporator and thus the cycle repeats.

3.2 HISTORY AND SCOPE OF REFRIGERATION.

History of refrigeration can be divided in to two,

I. Age of Natural Refrigeration
i. Use of Natural Ice that is,
 Transported from Colder Regions.
 Harvested in Winter & Stored for summer.
ii. Use of Evaporative Cooling.
iii. Cooling by Salt Solutions.

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II. Age of artificial Refrigeration

i. The earliest recorded patent for a refrigeration machine was issued in Great
Britain in 1790 to Thomas Harris and John Long.
ii. In 1834 Jacob Perkins developed a hand operated refrigeration system using
ether as the working fluid.
iii. Natural ice based domestic ice box is invented in 1803 and used for more than
a century.
iv. Americal engineer Alexander Twining receives a british patent in 1850 for a
vapor compression system that uses ether, ammonia and carbon di oxide.
v. General Electric introduces the first mechanical domestic refrigerator in 1911
in USA, followed by Frigidaire in 1915 and Kelvinator in 1918.
vi. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) were invented in 1920 and became one of the
most widely used refrigerant.
vii. Because of the harmful effects of CFC’s on the environment, they were banned
in 1996.

Natural ice can be obtained from colder regions and it can be transported to regions where
it is not available. Then the second methods are harvest the ice in winter and store it for use in
summer. There are several countries where the winters are very harsh so you can actually make
ice lakes and rivers freeze in winter so you cut the ice blocks and store them in ice houses and
use them in summer. This is the second popular method. When water evaporates into
surrounding air it produces a cooling effect. So this is the principle behind the cooling of water
stored in earth and vessels. Evaporative cooling is very effective when the surrounding air is
dry. If the surrounding air is very humid then the evaporation cannot be effective. So that is the
reason evaporative cooling works very well in dry area such as desert but it does not work well
in coastal regions.

When we dissolve certain salts and certain materials in water the water temperature drops.
This is because of the mixing of these salts with water is an endothermic process. So it takes
heat from surrounding water and the resulting solution becomes cold, and by changing the salt
you can get different temperatures. However this method again have its own practical
limitations because cooling that is produced is generally limited and also the recovery of salt
is a difficult process.

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So let us summarize the limitations of natural methods. The first limit limitation that they
depend on local conditions, and they are uncertain due to dependence on weather, and it is
difficult to produce large amount of refrigeration using any of these natural methods, and the
they were nor really available to everybody. So these are the main problems with natural
methods hence people have tried to produce refrigeration artificially.

In the early days of artificial refrigeration, the equipment available was bulky, expensive,
and not too efficient also it was of such a nature that a mechanic or operating engineer was
needed on duty at all times. This limited the use of mechanical refrigeration to a few large
applications such as ice plants, meat packing plants, and large storage warehouses.

In the span of only a few decades refrigeration has grown into the giant and rapidly
expanding industry that it is today. This explosive growth came about as the result of several
factors. First, with the development of precision manufacturing methods, it became possible to
produce smaller, more efficient equipment. This, along with the development of "safe"
refrigerants and the invention of the fractional horsepower electric motor, made possible to
attain small refrigerating limit which is widely used at in domestic refrigerators and freezers,
small air conditioners.

3.3 SCOPE OF REFRIGERATION.

It would not be possible, for instance, to preserve food in sufficient quantities to feed the
growing urban population without mechanical refrigeration. Too, many of the large buildings
which house much of the nation's business and industry would become unusable in the summer
months because of the heat if they were not air conditioned with mechanical refrigerating
equipment.
In addition to the better known applications of refrigeration, such as comfort air
conditioning and the processing, freezing, storage, transportation, and display of perishable
products, mechanical refrigeration is used in the processing or manufacturing of almost every
article or commodity on the market today. The list of processes or products made possible or
improved through the use of mechanical refrigeration is almost endless. For example,
refrigeration has made possible the building of huge dams which are vital to large scale
reclamation and hydroelectric projects. It has made possible the construction of roads and
tunnels and the sinking of foundation and mining shafts through and across unstable ground
formations. It has made possible the production of plastics, synthetic rubber, and many other
new and useful materials and products. Because of mechanical refrigeration, bakers can get

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more loaves of bread from a barrel of flour, textile and paper manufacturers can speed up their
machines and get more production, and better methods of hardening steels for machine tools
are available. These represent only a few of the hundreds of ways in which mechanical
refrigeration is now being used and many new uses are being found each year. In fact, the only
thing slowing the growth of the refrigeration industry at the present time is the lack of an
adequate supply of trained technical manpower.

3.4 APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION.

Domestic Refrigeration. Domestic refrigeration is rather limited in scope, being concerned

primarily with household refrigerators and home freezers. Domestic units are usually small in
size and capacity. However, because the number of units in service is quite large, domestic
refrigeration represents a significant portion of the refrigeration industry.
Commercial Refrigeration. Commercial refrigeration is concerned with the designing,
installation, and maintenance of refrigerated fixtures of the type used by retail stores,
restaurants, hotels, and institutions for the storing, displaying, processing, and dispensing of
perishable commodities of all types.
Industrial Refrigeration. Industrial refrigeration is often confused with commercial
refrigeration because the division between these two areas is not clearly defined. As a general
rule, industrial applications are larger in size than commercial applications and have the
distinguishing feature of requiring an attendant on duty, usually a licensed operating engineer.
Typical industrial applications are ice plants, large food-packing plants (meat, fish, poultry,
frozen foods, etc.), breweries, creameries, and industrial plants, such as oil refineries, chemical
plants, rubber plants, etc..
The main application of refrigeration in chemical and process industries involve the following
categories.
Separation of gases: Some gases condenses easily at lower temperatures from a mixture
of gases thus can be easily separated.
Condensation of gases: Some gases are condensed to liquid state by cooling for easy
storing and transportation.
Dehumidification of air: Air is cooled down to a lower temperature such that the water
vapour in it condenses and air get dehumidified.
Solidification of solute: For Separating solute from a solvent. At low temperature solute
solidifies and separates from the solvent.

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Removal of heat of a reaction: For controlling and optimising a chemical reaction

involving heat.
Preservation of drugs, explosives, natural rubber etc.. for long periods.
Marine and Transportation Refrigeration. Applications falling into this category could be
listed partly under commercial refrigeration and partly under industrial refrigeration. However,
both these areas of specialization have grown to sufficient size to warrant special mention.
Marine refrigeration, of course, refers to refrigeration aboard marine vessels and includes, for
example, refrigeration for fishing boats and for vessels transporting perishable cargo as well as
refrigeration for the ship's stores on vessels of all kinds. Transportation refrigeration is
concerned with refrigeration equipment as it is applied to trucks, both long distance transports
and local delivery, and to refrigerated railway cars.
Food Preservation. Food preservation involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi, or
other microorganism which causes the deterioration of food. Various food preservation
techniques include,
Drying: Drying is one of the oldest techniques. Here vegetables and fruits are naturally dried
by the sun, wind and fire.
Cooling: Cooling to lower temperatures (3˚C - 7˚C) preserves food by slowing down the
growth and reproduction of micro-organisms and the action of enzymes that cause food to rot.
Device used for this purpose is called refrigerator.
Freezing: Freezing is the process of cooling below sub-zero temperatures (temperatures below
0˚C). Freezing causes the water in the food to turn into ice. Freezing eliminates the free water
available for bacterial growth, chemical and biochemical reactions. Frozen foods can be stored
for longer periods (up to 6 months) compared to a maximum of 7 days by normal cooling.
Device used for this purpose is called freezer.
Deep Freezing: Deep-freezing involves cooling rapidly (a few minutes to an hour) by exposing
to very low temperatures from -30 ° C to -50 ° C. Thus the products retain their freshness,
textures, flavours, essential nutrients and vitamins. Device used for this purpose is called deep
freezer.
Cooling, Freezing and Deep Freezing are methods of preserving and storing foods by
refrigeration techniques. The devices used for this purpose are called refrigerated storages.
Salting: Salting is the preservation of food with dry edible salt. Salting is used because most
food deteriorating bacteria’s, fungi and other potentially pathogenic organisms cannot survive
in a highly salty environment.

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Sugaring: Sugaring is the preservation of food with dry edible sugar. Sugaring is used because
most food deteriorating bacteria’s, fungi and other potentially pathogenic organisms cannot
survive in a highly sugary environment.
Smoking: Here food is preserved by exposing it to smoke from burning plant materials such as
wood.
Canning: Canning involves cooking food, sealing it in sterile cans or jars, and boiling the
containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria.
Fermentation: Fermentation utilises the help of microorganisms to prevent food spoilage.
Some foods, such as many cheeses, wines, and beers are made and preserved with the help of
specific micro-organisms (such as yeast) that prevents the growth of other microorganism their
by preventing food spoilage.
Air Conditioning. As the name implies, air conditioning is concerned with the condition of
the air in some designated area or space. This usually involves control not only of the space
temperature but also of space humidity and air motion, along with the filtering and cleaning of
the air.

3.5 SPECIAL APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION

Cold Treatment of Metals: The dimensions of precision parts and gauge blocks can be
stabilized by soaking the product at temperature around – 90˚C. The hardness and wear
resistance of carburized steel can be increased by this process. Keeping the cutting tool at –
100˚C for 15 minutes can also increase the life of cutting tool. In deep drawing process the
ductility of metal increases at low temperature. Mercury patterns frozen by refrigeration can
be used for precision casting.

Medical: Blood plasma and antibiotics are manufactured by freeze drying process where water
is made to sublime at low pressure and low temperature. This does not affect the tissues of
blood. Centrifuges refrigerated at –10˚C, are used in the manufacture of drugs. Localized
refrigeration by liquid nitrogen can be used as anesthesia also.
Ice Skating Rinks: Due to the advent of artificial refrigeration, sports like ice hockey and
skating do not have to depend upon freezing weather. These can be played in indoor stadium
where water is frozen into ice on the floor. Refrigerant or brine carrying pipes are embedded
below the floor, which cools and freezes the water to ice over the floor.
Construction: Setting of concrete is an exothermic process. If the heat of setting is not
removed the concrete will expand and produce cracks in the structure. Concrete may be cooled

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by cooling sand, gravel and water before mixing them or by passing chilled water through the
pipes embedded in the concrete. Another application is to freeze the wet soil by refrigeration
to facilitate its excavation.
Desalination of Water: In some countries fresh water is scarce and seawater is desalinated to
obtain fresh water. Solar energy is used in some cases for desalination. An alternative is to
freeze the seawater. The ice thus formed will be relatively free of salt. The ice can be separated
and thawed to obtain fresh water.
Ice Manufacture: This was the classical application of refrigeration. Ice was manufactured in
plants by dipping water containers in chilled brine and it used to take about 36 hours to freeze
all the water in cans into ice. The ice thus formed was stored in ice warehouses. Now that small
freezers and icemakers are available. Hotels and restaurants make their own ice, in a hygienic
manner. Household refrigerators also have the facility to make ice in small quantities. The use
of ice warehouses is dwindling because of this reason. Coastal areas still have ice plants where
it is used for transport of iced fish.

3.6 HYSTORY OF AIRCONDITIONING

The basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in ancient Egypt,
where reeds were hung in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation
of water cooled the air blowing through the window. This process also made the air more
humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate.
In Ancient Rome, water from aqueducts was circulated through the walls of certain
houses to cool them. Other techniques in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind
towers to cool buildings during the hot season.
The modern day air conditioning actually has roots in second century China, where an
inventor named Ding Huane crafted a manually powered rotary fan. The concept of air cooling
also intrigued the great American inventor and statesman Benjamin Franklin, who in 1758
conducted experiments with evaporation and alcohol to attain freezing temperatures.
The first modern air conditioner was invented in 1902 by Willis Haviland Carrier.
Hence Willis Haviland Carrier is known as the father of airconditioner.

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3.7 SCOPE OF AIR CONDITIONING

To the average person, air conditioning simply means "the cooling of air." For our
purposes, this definition is neither sufficiently useful nor accurate, so we will use the following
definition instead:
Air conditioning is the process of treating air in an internal environment to establish
and maintain required standards of temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and motion.
Let us see how each of these conditions is controlled.
Temperature: Air temperature is controlled by heating or cooling the air.
Humidity: Air humidity, the water vapour content of the air, is controlled by adding or
removing water vapour from the air (humidification or dehumidification).
Cleanliness: Air cleanliness, or air quality, is controlled by either, filtration, the
removal of undesirable contaminants using filters or other devices, or by ventilation, the
introduction of outside air into the space which dilutes the con-centration of contaminants.
Often both filtration and ventilation are used in an installation.
Motion: Air motion refers to air velocity and to where the air is distributed. It is
controlled by appropriate air distributing equipment.

3.8 APPLICATIONS OF AIR CONDITIONING

Industrial Application: Air conditioning is used to provide conditions that some

processes require. For example.

i. Laboratories: This may involve precision measurement to performance testing

of materials, equipment and processes at controlled temperature and relative
humidity. Laboratories carrying out research in electronics and biotechnology
areas require very clean atmosphere. Many laboratories using high voltage like
in LASERS require very low humidity to avoid the sparking.
ii. Manufacturing of Precision Parts: If the metal parts are maintained at uniform
temperature during manufacturing process, these will neither expand nor shrink,
maintaining close tolerances. A lower relative humidity will prevent rust
formation also. A speck of dust in a switch or relay can cause total or partial
malfunction in spacecraft. The manufacture of chips, microprocessors,
computers, aircraft parts, many areas of modern progress require a very clean
atmosphere and proper control over humidity. Any impurity in the atmosphere

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will spoil the work. The concept of Clean rooms has been introduced for such
industries.
iii. To study the effect of temperature and moisture on living beings
iv. Print Industry: Some colour printing presses have one press for each colour. The
paper passes from one press to another press. The ink of one colour must get
dried before it reaches the second press, so that the colours do not smudge. And
the paper should not shrink, so that the picture does not get distorted. This
requires control over temperature as well humidity. Improper humidity may
cause static electricity, curling and buckling of paper.
v. Textile manufacture greatly depends on moisture content.
vi. Dry air is required in steel manufacture as it improves the quality of steel and
reduces the coal requirements per ton of steel produced.
vii. Pharmaceutical industry needs refrigeration to reduce air borne bacteria and dirt
to preserve products i.e. Gelatin capsules requires very dry air, and pills and
tablets require air-conditioning to maintain their quality.
viii. Photographic Industry. The raw material used for filmmaking has to be
maintained at low temperature, since it deteriorates at high temperature and
humidity. The film also has to be stored at low temperature. The room where
film is developed requires 100% replacement by fresh air of the air polluted by
chemicals.
ix. Farm animals: The yield of Jersey cows decreases drastically during summer
months. Low temperature results in more efficient digestion of food and
increase in weight of cow and the milk yield. Animal barns have to be ventilated
in any case since their number density is usually very large. In many countries
evaporative cooling is used for creating comfort conditions in animal houses.
x. Computer Rooms/Server Rooms: These require control of temperature,
humidity and cleanliness. The temperature of around 25 oC and relative
humidity of 50% is maintained in these rooms. The dust spoils the CD drives
and printers etc.; hence the rooms have to be kept clean also by using micro
filters in the air conditioning system.

Commercial Applications: Example. Theatres, Hotels, Hospitals, Banks etc…To

provide comfortable atmosphere to the peoples in it.

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Transport Applications: Example. Automobiles, Trains, Aircrafts, Ships etc… To

provide comfortable atmosphere to the passengers.
Domestic Applications: Example. Houses, Rooms etc… To provide comfortable
atmosphere to the occupants.

3.9 COMPONENTS OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

Heat always travels from a warmer to a cooler area. In summer, heat continually enters
the building from the outside. In order to maintain the room air at a comfortable temperature,
this excess heat must be continually removed from the room. The equipment that removes this
heat is called a cooling system.

In winter, there is a continual heat loss from within a building to the outdoors. If the air
in the building is to be maintained at a comfortable temperature, heat must be continually
supplied to the air in the rooms. The equipment that furnishes the heat required is called a
heating system. An air conditioning system may provide heating, cooling, or both.
Most heating and cooling systems have at a minimum the following basic components.
1. A heating source that adds heat to a fluid (air. water, or steam)
2. Cooling source that removes heat from a fluid (air or water)
3. A distribution system (a network of ducts or piping) to carry the fluid to the rooms to
be heated or cooled·
4. Equipment (fans or pumps) for moving the air or water
5. Devices (e.g., radiation) for transferring heat between the fluid and the room
6.
3.10 TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

1. WINTER AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

In winter air conditioning, the air is heated which is generally followed by

humidification. The schematic arrangement of the system is shown in Fig. The outside air flows
through a damper and mixes up with the re-circulated air (which is obtained from the
conditioned space). The mixed air passes through a filter to remove dirt, dust and other
impurities. The air now passes through a preheat coil in order to prevent the possible freezing
of water and to control the evaporation of water in the humidifier. After that, the air is made to
pass through a reheat coil to bring the air to the designed temperature. Now, the conditioned

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air is supplied to the conditioned space by a fan. From the conditioned space, a part of the used
air is exhausted to the atmosphere by the exhaust fans or ventilators. The remaining part of the
used air (Known as re-circulated air) is again conditioned as shown in Fig. The outside air is
sucked and made to mix with re-circulated air, in order to make up for the loss of conditioned
(or used) air through exhaust fans or ventilation from the conditioned space.
Various Psychrometric operations involved in winter air conditioning system are
Heating (Generally known as Sensible Heating), Humidification.

2.SUMMER AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

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It is the most important type of air conditioning, in which the air is cooled and generally
dehumidified. The schematic arrangement of a typical summer air conditioning system is
shown in Fig. The outside air flows through the damper and mixes up with re-circulated air
(which is obtained from the conditioned space) The mixed air passes through a filter to remove
dirt dust and other impurities. The air now passes through a cooling coil. The cooled air passes
through a perforated membrane and loses its moisture in the condensed from which is collected
in a sump. After that, the air is made to pass through a heating coil which heats up the air
slightly. This is done to bring the air to the designed temperature and relative humidity. Now
the conditioned air is supplied to the conditioned space by a fan. From the conditioned space,
a part of the used air is exhausted to the atmosphere by the exhaust fans or ventilators. The
remaining part of the used air (Known as re-circulated air) is again conditioned as shown in
Fig. 18.5. The outside air is sucked and made to mix with the re-circulated air in order to make
up for the loss of conditioned (or used) air through exhaust fans or ventilation from the
conditioned space.
Various Psychrometric operations involved in summer air conditioning system are,
Cooling (Generally known as sensible cooling), Heating (Generally known as Sensible
Heating) and Dehumidification.

3. YEAR ROUND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

The year-round air conditioning system is a combination of both the summer and winter air
conditioning. The schematic arrangement of a modern summer year-round air conditioning
system is shown in Fig. The outside air flows through the damper and mixed up with the re-
circulated air (which is obtained from the conditioned space). The mixed air passes through a
filter to remove dirt, dust and other impurities. In summer air conditioning, the cooling coil
operates to cool the air to the desired value. The dehumidification is obtained by operating the
cooling coil at a temperature lower than the dew point temperature (apparatus dew point). In
winter, the cooling coil is made inoperative and the heating coil operates to heat the air. The
spray type humidifier is also made use of in the dry season to humidify the air.

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3.11 HUMAN COMFORT

Since the purpose of most air conditioning systems is to provide a comfortable indoor
environment, the system designer and operator should understand the factors that affect
comfort.

The human body creates heat when it metabolizes (oxidizes) food. This body heat is
continually lost to its cooler surroundings. The factor that determines whether one feels hot or
cold is the rate of body heat loss. When the rate of heat loss is within certain limits, a
comfortable feeling ensues. If the rate of heat loss is too great, cold is felt; if the rate is too low,
one feels hot.
The processes by which the body loses heat to the surroundings are: convection,
radiation, and evaporation.
In convection, the air immediately around the body receives heat from the body. The
warmed air continually moves away by rising naturally through the cooler air around it or by
being blown away and is replaced by more air which in turn receives heat.
In radiation body heat is transmitted through space directly to nearby objects (e.g. walls) which
are at a lower temperature than the body this is why it can be uncomfortable to sit near a window
or wall in cold weather, even in a warm room.
The body is also cooled by evaporation: water on the skin (perspiration), which has
absorbed heat from the body, evaporates into the surrounding air, taking the heat with it.
The rate of body heat loss is affected by five conditions:

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1. Air temperature
2. Air humidity
3. Air motion
4. Temperature of surrounding objects
5. Clothing
The system designer and operator can control comfort primarily by adjusting three of these
conditions: temperature, humidity, and air motion. How are they adjusted to improve comfort?
The indoor air temperature may be raised to de-crease body heat loss (winter) or
lowered to in-crease body heat loss (summer) by convection.
Humidity may be raised to decrease body heat loss (winter) and lowered to increase
body heat loss (summer) by evaporation.
Air motion may be raised to increase body heat loss (summer) and lowered to decrease
body heat loss (winter) by convection.
Occupants of the buildings, of course, have some personal control over their own
comfort. For instance, they can control the amount of clothing that they wear, they can use
local fans to increase convection and evaporative heat loss, and they can even stay away from
cold walls and windows to keep warmer in winter.

3.12 COMFORT STANDARDS

Studies of the conditions that affect human comfort have led to the development of
recommended indoor air conditions for comfort. Some of the results of these studies are shown
in Figure.
The shaded regions in Figure are called the comfort zones. They show the regions of air
temperature and relative humidity where at least 80% of the occupants will find the
environment comfortable. Note that there are separate zones for winter and summer, with a
slight overlap. For human comfort, air should have the following properties.

Temperature - 22˚C to 27˚C

Humidity – 55% to 65% Relative Humidity

Velocity – 0.3 to 0.5 m/s.

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3.13 PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES OF AIR

Air is a mixture of gases and water vapor. Dry air (air without water vapor) is composed
chiefly of nitrogen (approximately 78 % by volume) and oxygen (approximately 21%, the
remaining 1 % being made up of carbon dioxide and minute quantities of other gases, such as
hydrogen, helium, neon, argon, etc. With regard to these dry air components, the composition
of the air is practically the same everywhere. On the other hand, the amount of water vapor in
the air varies greatly with the particular locality and with the weather conditions. Since the
water vapor in the air results primarily from the evaporation of water from the surface of
various bodies of water, atmospheric humidity (water vapor content) is greatest in regions
located near large bodies of water and is less in the more dry regions.
Psychrometry is the study of air. Some of the terms associated with psychrometry are
Dry Air: "Dry air" is used to denote air without water vapor.

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Air: Mixture of "dry air" and water vapor.

Since all air in the natural state contains a certain amount of water vapor, no such
thing as "dry air" actually exists. Nevertheless, the concept of "dry air" is a very useful one in
that it greatly simplifies psychrometric calculations.
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure: Dalton's law of partial pressures states that in any
mechanical mixture of gases and vapors ( those which do not combine chemically): (1) each
gas or vapor in the mixture exerts an individual partial pressure which is equal to the pressure
that the gas would exert if it occupied the space alone and (2) the total pressure of the gaseous
mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures exerted by the individual gases or vapors.
Saturated Air: If the water vapour is continuously added to dry air, a limit will be
reached when the air is saturated. Beyond this limit, the air cannot hold any more water. At this
stage the air is called saturated air.
Absolute Humidity: The water vapor in the air is called humidity. The absolute
humidity of the air at any given condition is defined as the actual weight of water vapor
contained in 1 m3 of air at that condition. Its unit is in gram/m3.
Relative Humidity: Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the actual weight of water
vapor per given volume of air (Eg: 1 m3) relative to the weight of water vapor contained in
same volume of saturated air at the same temperature. It is expressed in percentage.
=
ℎ
×100
ℎ ℎ

For instance, if air at a certain temperature contains only half as much water vapor per m3 of
air as the air could contain at that temperature if it were saturated, the relative humidity of the
air is 50 %. The relative humidity of saturated air, of course, is 100 %.
Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio: Specific humidity (SH) or humidity ratio is
defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air in a given volume of the
mixture. It is denoted by the symbol “ω”. Unit of specific humidity is “kg of water vapor per
kg of dry air”.
=
ℎ ( )
×100
ℎ ( )

Dew Point Temperature (DPT): It is the temperature of air at which the water vapour
in air starts condensing in to water.

Dept. of ME VISAT
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Module 3

Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT): The dry bulb temperature of the air is the temperature
as measured by an ordinary dry bulb thermometer.
Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT): The wet bulb temperature of the air is the temperature
as measured by a wet bulb thermometer. A wet bulb thermometer is an ordinary thermometer
whose bulb is enclosed in a wetted cloth and during measurement this cloth is exposed to a
stream of moving air.
If the air is 100% saturated, then the dry bulb, wet bulb, and dew point temperatures of
the air will be one and the same.
Also the temperature recorded by a wet bulb thermometer will always be lower than
the dry bulb temperature of the air. The amount by which the wet bulb temperature is reduced
below the dry bulb temperature depends upon the relative humidity of the air and is called the
wet bulb depression.
Wet Bulb Depression (WBD): It is the difference between dry bulb and wet bulb
temperature.
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
These are the various operations or process performed on air. It consists of
Sensible heating: The heating of air, without any change in its specific humidity, is known as
sensible heating
Sensible cooling: The cooling of air, without any change in its specific humidity, is known as
sensible cooling.
Humidification: The addition of moisture to the air, without change in its dry bulb
temperature, is known as humidification.
Dehumidification: Removal of moisture from the air, without change in its dry bulb
temperature is known as dehumidification.

3.14 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN REFRIGERATION & AIRCONDITIONING

Refrigeration and air conditioning are interconnected. Air conditioning is one of the
applications of refrigeration.

In air conditioning besides heating or cooling it controls humidity, air flow and air
quality. Refrigeration is concerned with cooling only.

Dept. of ME VISAT
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Module 3

PREVIOUS UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS

1. List the application of refrigeration in construction industry.
2. When you purchase an air conditioning unit, one of its specifications is given in TR.
What does this mean?
3. Define Humidity Ratio and Relative humidity.
6 Mark Questions
1. Give 6 different applications of refrigeration.
2. What are the different psychrometric operations in an air conditioning system?
3. What are the different methods of food preservation? Which is the best method.
4. Explain the components of Air conditioning system.
5.
a) Give 3 historically significant inventions in the development of refrigeration
b) What are the different types of refrigerated storages?
6.
a) Differentiate between refrigeration and Air Conditioning
b) State briefly the impact of Freon’s (CFC’s) on refrigeration and air conditioning
7.
a) What are conditions required for human comfort (4 Marks)
b) Draw comfort chart (2 Marks)
Prepared by
Amal R
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Vijnan Institute of Science and Technology

Dept. of ME VISAT