Defect formation in cast iron

Lennart Elmquist
School of Engineering
Jönköping University
Sweden

Tammerfors, Finland, November 8, 2012

 Introduction
Casting
• Mould cavity
• Melting process
• Pouring
• Solidification Advantages
• Mould removal
• Complex shapes
• Cleaning and finishing
• Holes and inner cavities
• Wide range of alloys
• Melt treatment
• Economical
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 Introduction
DEFECTS!
Common defects:
• Blowholes
• Pinholes Slag inclusion defect Shrinkage porosity
• Shrinkage
• Penetration
• Inclusions
• etc…

Carbon monoxide blowhole Metal expansion penetration

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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary

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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary

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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary
(Source: Torsten Sjögren)

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 Gas defects – Introduction

Source: Diószegi, 2005 Source: UAB Casting Engineering Laboratory (CEL), 2005

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 Gas defects – Introduction
• Degradation of binder material
• Gas precipitate during solidification due to
decreased solubility
• Gas may be picked up by the melt during
mould filling
• Slag constituents can react with alloying
additions in the metal and form gaseous
reaction products
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 Gas defects – Introduction
• Hydrogen pinholes
• Nitrogen pinholes
• Blowholes
• Fissures
• Carbon monoxide
• Slag blows

Source: www.ikominerals.de

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 Pinholes
• Hydrogen, nitrogen, CO
• Revealed after machining
• Usually small
• Round shape
• Graphite lining
Remedies
• Low levels of Al and Ti
• Control of steel scrap
• Cores and water‐based
coatings fully cured and
dried

Source: www.ikominerals.de

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 Pinholes
Hydrogen pinholes
• Water and organic materials
• Air humidity
• Rusty charge material Nitrogen pinholes
• Damp refractory material • Resin‐bonded cores and
• Moisture in mold and core molds
• Core binder • Sand additives
• Coatings and glues
• Charge materials

Source: http://www.objet.sk/content/products/sand_casting_a4.pdf

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 Pinholes
Carbon monoxide pinholes
• Reaction of carbon and oxygen
– Liquid slag rich in iron oxide
– CO2 react with iron
– Carbon react with water
• No graphite lining
• MnS and slag inclusions Source: www.ikominerals.de

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 Blowholes
• Large cavities
• Normally irregular in shape
• Smooth walls
• Graphite lining
• High turbulence during
mold filling
• High gas pressure in the
mold

Source: www.ikominerals.de

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 Blowholes
• Casting design
• Gating
• Sand permeability
• Core print area
• Type of resin system
• Extent of cure and drying
• Pouring temperature
Source: www.ikominerals.de
• Rusty chaplets
• Clogged vents
• ……etc

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 Fissures
• Narrow crack‐like cavities
• Frequently have dendritic
structures Source: www.ikominerals.de

• Excessive nitrogen main Sources

cause
• Nitrogen content high
• Hydrogen may intensify the
defect • High nitrogen content in
core binder
• Poor core venting

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 Solubility of gases
1. Diffusion of gas to the surface
2. Chemical reaction on the
surface
3. Diffusion of one or more
reaction products away from
the surface

H 2 g   2 H

H   K H P H 2 
Source: Svensson et al, 1980

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 Solubility of gases
Influence of alloying elements on solubility
Hydrogen Nitrogen

Source: Weinstein et al, 1963 Source: Dawson et al, 1965

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 Solubility of gases
N   K N PN 2 

• The solubility of hydrogen

and nitrogen affect each
other

PTOT  PH 2  PN 2
• Cumulative effect that
increase the risk for
porosity

Source: Svensson et al, 1980

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 Gas levels in production
• Melting methods
• Different foundries
• Different furnaces
• Long period of time

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 Gas levels in production
Hydrogen Nitrogen
• Preheating • Melting method
• Holding‐time • Charge material
3.5 160
Cup. melt, sampling 1
Cup. melt, sampling 2
3
Ind. melt, sampling 1
Ind. melt, sampling 2
Hydrogen concentration [ppm]

Nitrogen concentration [ppm]

2.5
120

1.5

80
1
Cup. melt, sampling 1
Cup. melt, sampling 2
0.5
Ind. melt, sampling 1
Ind. melt, sampling 2
0 40
1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550

C
]
Temperature [C] Temperature [

Lennart Elmquist Source: Orlenius, Elmquist, Diószegi, 2007

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 Gas levels in production
Oxygen Total amount of oxygen
• Dissolved oxygen • Difference between
• Oxygen found in oxides processes
4 12

3.5
Dissolved oxygen [ppm]

Total oxygen [ppm]

8
2.5

1.5
4

0.5 Cupola furnace

Induction furnace

0 0
1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1280 1320 1360 1400 1440 1480
Temperature [°C] Temperature [°C]

Lennart Elmquist Source: Elmquist, Orlenius, Diószegi, 2007

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 Gas levels in production
After mold filling

140
Before casting
In the mold
120

Nitrogen concentration [ppm]

100

80

60

40

20

0
1 2
Sample No

Lennart Elmquist Source: Orlenius, Elmquist, Diószegi, 2007

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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary

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 Gas absorption

Source: Orlenius et al, 2008

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 Gas absorption
• Investigate relationship gas absorption – mold filling
• Compare simulation – reality
– Turbulence during filling
– Permeability
– Binders

Source: Orlenius et al, 2008

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 Gas absorption

Source: Orlenius et al, 2008

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 Gas absorption
Filling velocity

Source: Orlenius et al, 2008

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 Gas absorption
• Turbulent mould filling

Source: UAB Casting Engineering Laboratory (CEL), 2005

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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary

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 Mould and core gas evolution
Volume and rate of gas evolution

Source: Orlenius et al, 2008

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 Gas evolution
Core geometry
• Volume equal
• Amount of binder equal

• Highest rate for parallelepiped

Source: Orlenius et al, 2008

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 Gas evolution
Binder type
• Inorganic binder
• Organic binder
• Amount of binder

• Storage time
• Temperature

Source: Orlenius et al, 2008

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 Gas evolution
Coatings
• Improve surface
• Aluminium silicate
• Zircon

• Drying process

Source: Orlenius et al, 2008

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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary

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 Inclusions – sand
• Occur at widely varying • Edge disintegration
positions • Sand crust formation
• Sand torn away by metal • Erosion
stream
• In association with CO
blowholes and slag
• Carefully blow out mold
cavities
• Avoid high pouring rates
• Ensure uniform mold
compaction Source: www.ikominerals.de

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 Inclusions – slag
• Irregular‐shape
• Non‐metallic inclusions
• Upper casting surfaces
• Formation of CO
Possible causes
• Oxide content of the charge
too high
• Poor dissolution of
inoculants
• Poor slag practice
Source: www.ikominerals.de

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 Inclusions – slag
• Filter
• Design of the gating
system – slag traps

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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary

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 Introduction

Source: Elmquist et al, 2008

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 Shrinkage – Introduction
Shrinkage defects Generally
• Open shrinkage defects • Liquid contraction
(macroshrinkage) • Liquid‐to‐solid contraction
• Closed shrinkage defects • Solid contraction
(shrinkage porosity)

Cast iron – graphite

expansion

Source: Stefanescu, 2005

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 Shrinkage – Introduction
Factors promoting shrinkage porosity
• Nature and properties of the sand mould
• Metal composition
• Pouring temperature
• Degree of eutectic nucleation of the metal
• Solidification mode

Compensates for the shrinkage

• Feeding of metal • Atmospheric gas
• Graphite expansion • Dissolved gas (hydrogen,
nitrogen)
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 Shrinkage – Introduction
• Different types of
shrinkage
• Related to cooling curve

Source: Soivio, Elmquist, 2012

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 Shrinkage – Introduction

Source: Elmquist, Adolfsson, Diószegi, 2008

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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary

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 Defect characterization
Case: Cylinder Heads

 Economy • Shrinkage porosity

 Environment • Characteristic features
• Knowledge about mechanisms
• Two foundries
• Two designs
• Production line
• With and without porosity

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 Defect characterization
Similarities
• Position on casting • Penetrating through the
• Surface defect casting
• Connection surface – • Enclosing certain units
porosity • Primary crystals?

10mm
Source: Elmquist, Adolfsson, Diószegi, 2008

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 Defect characterization
• Border between surface and porosity
• Oxide layer – connection to
atmosphere
• No graphite layer

Shrinkage Porosity vs.

Source: Elmquist, Adolfsson, Diószegi, 2008
Penetration
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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary

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 Migrating hot spot
•
•
Heat is removed during solidification
Different cooling conditions in different parts
L
•
•
Initial temperatures in casting/mold
Part of the casting that solidifies last
T
Y
• Migrates during solidification
• Depends on geometry
• Heat removal

• Global/Local hot spots

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 Migrating hot spot
CH1 CH2

Source: Elmquist, Adolfsson, Diószegi, 2008

• Thermal centre at mold/metal interface

• Migrating hot spot

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 Migrating hot spot
SOLTIME [s]

1200 Hot spot migrates

1100
1000 • Casting/mold interface
900
• Shrinkage porosity
800
700 • Metal expansion penetration
600
500

• Geometry developed by
simulations
• Final position of hot spot

Source: Elmquist, Adolfsson, Diószegi, 2008

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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary

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 Shrinkage Porosity
Develop a casting that generates shrinkage porosity

Source: Elmquist, Diószegi, 2008

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 Shrinkage Porosity
Geometry generating porosity

Migrating hot spot Source: Elmquist, Diószegi, 2008

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 Solidification
Solidification of grey cast iron
• Nucleation • Primary austenite
• Growth • Eutectic cells

Source: Elmquist et al, 2008

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 Solidification
Columnar
Macrostructure zone
Equiaxed zone

• Columnar dendrites
• Equiaxed dendrites
• CET

Microstructure
• Dendrite Arm Spacing (SDAS)
• Fraction Austenite
• Eutectic cell size
Source: Elmquist et al, 2008

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 Shrinkage and the macrostructure
Similarities
• Shrinkage porosity
• Surface defects
• Penetrating network
• Contact with atmosphere

Source: Elmquist, Diószegi, 2008

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 Shrinkage and the macrostructure
DAAS (Direct Austempering
After Solidification
Macrostructure
• Equiaxed dendrites
• Columnar dendrites
• CET

 Columnar zone
 Abnormal columnar zone
 Similar CET
Source: Elmquist, Diószegi, 2008

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 Shrinkage and the macrostructure

Porosity between primary crystals

Source: Elmquist, Diószegi, 2008

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 Shrinkage and the macrostructure
Formation of shrinkage
porosity
• Hot spot
• Migration
• Last area of solidification
• Weak columnar zone
• Atmospheric gas
• Shrinkage porosity
• Surface defect
Source: Elmquist, Diószegi, 2008

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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary

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 Penetration – Introduction
• Metal penetration is a casting condition resulting
from reactions at the mould‐metal interface
– Physical
– Mechanical
– Thermo‐chemical

“Metal penetration is defined as the condition in which cast

metal has entered into the pore spaces of the mold and core
beyond the mid‐point of the surface layer of sand grains.”
(Draper and Gaindhar, 1977)

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 Penetration – Introduction
Four basic mechanisms:
• Mechanical (liquid‐state)
• Chemical
Source: Draper and Gaindhar, 1977
• Vapor‐state
• Explosion penetration

The liquid metal exerts:

• Static pressure
• Dynamic pressure
• Pressure because of expansion

Lennart Elmquist Source: Stefanescu, 2008

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 Penetration – Introduction
• Generally occurs at locations where the sand is the hottest
(cores, concave sections) and is of lowest density
• Low surface tension
• High P, Si, or Mn content
• Elevated static or dynamic metal pressure
• High metal and sand temperature
• Sand too coarse, or insufficiently rammed
• Thermal conductivity of sand too low
• Poor quality mold wash or blacking
(AFS International atlas of casting defects)

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 Penetration – Introduction
• Only removed by extensive chipping and grinding
• Often so severe that castings are beyond the point of
economical rework and must be scrapped
• Tool wear

Lennart Elmquist (Source: Levelink and Julien, 1973)

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 Penetration – Introduction

Source: Diószegi and Dugic, 2007

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 Metal Expansion Penetration
CASE Study – Cylinder heads
• Shrinkage – no Penetration
• No shrinkage – Penetration

Source: Elmquist et al, 2008

 Shrinkage Porosity vs. Penetration

Migrating hot spot is related also to penetration problems

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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary

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 Metal Expansion Penetration
Geometry generating metal penetration

Source: Elmquist, Diószegi, 2008

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 Metal Expansion Penetration
Test Casting

Columnar zone
Source: Diószegi and Dugic, 2007 Equiaxed zone

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 Metal Expansion Penetration

Source: Diószegi and Dugic, 2007

The volumetric changes cause either a surplus or a

deficit of melt

Hot spot at casting/mold interface – the weakest part

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 Metal Expansion Penetration
Equiaxed
austenite grains.

Liquid metal.

Columnar
austenite grains.

Eutectic cells.

Eutectic strip.

Sand grains.

Penetrated
eutectic phase.

Source: Diószegi and Dugic, 2007

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 Metal Expansion Penetration
Equiaxed
austenite grains.

Columnar to
equiaxed
transition.

Columnar
austenite grains.

Eutectic cells.

Penetrated
anomalous
phase containing
late nucleated
Sand grains
austenite
dendrites.

Source: Diószegi and Dugic, 2007

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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary

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 Other Problems
• Residual stresses
• Prior history of the material
• Segregation
• Degenerated graphite

Source: Elmquist

Source: Soivio, Elmquist, 2011

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 What About Future?
• Inspection/detection
– Most of the problems never reach the customer
• Research
• Process control/thermal analysis
• Casting simulation
• Optimization
– Many of the problems can be solved or minimized with a
combination of process control and optimal design of
component as well as gating system

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 Future
• Sustainability
– Life cycle analysis
– The influence of defects
• Near‐net shape
– Minimize the need for machining
• High‐performing cast iron materials
– Increased strength
– Less variations in properties

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 Outline
• Gas defects
– Gas absorption
– Gas evolution
• Inclusions
• Shrinkage porosity
– Defect characterization
– Migrating hot spot
– Primary austenite
• Metal expansion penetration
– Primary austenite
• Other quality problems
• What about the future?
• Summary

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 Summary
Casting
• Mould cavity
• Melting process
• Pouring
• Solidification Advantages
• Mould removal
• Complex shapes
• Cleaning and finishing
• Holes and inner cavities
• Wide range of alloys
• Melt treatment
• Economical
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 Summary

Why?
Who cares?

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 Thank you for your
attention!

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