Transport

MUP 6131: Urban and Regional
Transportation Planning and

Policies
Academic Year: First Semester, 2023/24
Instructor: Dr. Dipl-Ing Berhanu Woldetensae
(Associate Professor)
EiABC, Addis Ababa University
1
Reading Assignment One – Students‟ Presentation
1. Current Trends in Transportation

2. Introducing Urban transportation
3. Fundamentals Relations of Traffic Flow
Introduction - key concepts in urban transportation
1. Transportation is vital to urban life for cities consist of spatially
separated and highly specialized land uses
 This necessitates the need to travel to get goods and services.
This why transport is a derived demand.
 That is the spatial separation of human activities/land uses creates
the need for travel/passenger and goods transport
 Although people do sometimes engage in travel entirely for its own
sake (as in taking a family bike ride),
Most urban travel occurs as a by-product of some other, non
travel activity such as
 Work, shopping, living , recreating or getting services.
 In this sense, the demand for urban transportation is referred to as a
derived demand, as
 It is derived from the need or desire to do something else.
Key Concepts in Urban transportation…
2. All movement incurs a cost of some sort, which is usually
measured in time or money.
 Some kinds of travel, such as that made by automobile,
bus, or train, incur both time and monetary costs;
 Other trips, such as those made on foot, involve an outlay
almost exclusively of time.

3. Core concepts in urban transportation:
Mobility/Accessibility
3.1 Mobility
 Mobility is here defined as the ability of any person to move
between points in a community
 By private or public means of transportation.
 The usual obstacles to mobility are
 Long distances,
 Bad weather,
 Steep hills (all constituting friction of space),
 But, above all but such constraints,
 The unavailability of services,
 High fares, and
 Possibly other forms of exclusion.
3.1 Mobility…
 Mobility reflects those travel conditions associated with the
ability to travel, such as
 Average speed,
 Delay,
 Congestion levels, and
 The availability of modal options.
 Mobility is provided by multiple modes, including many trips
that require the use of more than one. For example
 Driving a car to a work place or school usually includes a walk
trip at either end.
 Many transit trips also include not only walk trips but often
transfers to other transit modes.
 Mobility is thus inherently a part of a multimodal measure
of system performance.
3. Core concepts in urban transportation..
3.2 Accessibility
 Accessibility is here defined as the possibility of reaching
any activity, establishment, or land use in a community
 By people (or by conveyances of goods or information)
who have a reason to get there. (So called derived
demand)
 It is a measure of the quality and operational
effectiveness of a community
 Accessibility relates to a traveler‟s ability to reach a
destination, and includes such measures
 As percent of employment within a certain distance of a
transit station.
3.2 Accessibility ….
 Whereas mobility performance reflects the ease with which
travelers can make a trip, in broad terms, mobility is more
directly influenced by
 Physical characteristics of the infrastructure and
 Operating characteristics of the system.
 For example,
 An express/highway may provide
 Provide great mobility,
 But limited accessibility to adjacent land uses,
 While a driveway to an office building provides
 Excellent accessibility to that facility, but limited
mobility.
3. Core concepts in urban transportation..
3.2 Accessibility…
 Accessibility is
 A function of how a transportation network is structured,
 But it also depends on land use patterns, available modes, and
geographic area.
 When land is developed with greater density and multiple land uses are
clustered together,
 Accessibility to goods and services may be enhanced.
 In a suburban setting, a combination of walking, driving, riding transit,
and using parking facilities – an indication of multimodality
 May be needed to accomplish a set of tasks or shopping.
 In a dense urban environment with mixed land uses clustered
together,
 It might be possible to reach all of the desired destinations by
walking or riding a bus
4. Understanding urban Travel -
Approaches to study of
movement patterns
 Aggregate (area approach -

Traffic analysis zone) and
 Disaggregate (individual
level) approaches in study of
movement patterns or urban
travel – Travel Characteristics
4. Changing urban context:
 Residential and employment patterns
 Dynamics in modal share
5. Policy context:
 Climate Change/Global Warming
 Pollution,
 Congestion,
 Increasing distance between work places and residences,
 Role of public transport
Key Concepts in Urban transportation- Traffic Flows
Fundamental
Fundamental
. relations of traffic flow.
 It is the relationship between the fundamental variables of
traffic flow, namely
1. Speed,
2. Volume, and
3. Density
Some terms
1. Speed (u)
 Rate of motion (mph)
2. Density (k)
 Rate of traffic over distance (vpm)
3. Volume (V)
 Amount of traffic (vph)
4. Flow (q)
 Rate of traffic (vph); equivalent hourly rate
Fundamental relations of traffic flow….
 It is a curve which represent the relation between flow and density,
density and speed, speed and flow
 There are three diagrams:
1. Speed-density,
2. Speed-flow and
3. Flow-density.
13
Fundamental relations of traffic flow.
 It is a curve which represent the relation between flow and density,
density and speed, speed and flow
 There are three diagrams
1. Flow Density
2. Speed-density,
3. Speed-flow
14
1. Flow-Density
Some characteristics of an ideal flow-density
relationship is listed below:
1. When the density is zero, flow will also be zero,
since there is no vehicles on the road.
2. When the number of vehicles gradually increases
the density as well as flow increases.
3. When more and more vehicles are added, it
1. The point O refers to the
reaches a situation where vehicles can‟t move.
case with zero density and
This is referred to as the jam density or the zero flow.
maximum density. 2. The point B refers to the
maximum flow and the
 At jam density, flow will be zero because the corresponding density is
vehicles are not moving. kmax.
4. There will be some density between zero density 3. The point C refers to the
maximum density kjam and
and jam density, when the flow is maximum. the corresponding flow
is zero.
 The relationship is normally represented by a
parabolic curve as shown in figure 31:3
2. Speed-Density diagram
Similar to the flow-density relationship,
 Speed will be maximum, referred

to as the free flow speed, when
density is zero and
Corresponding to the zero

density, vehicles will be
flowing with their desire
speed, or free flow speed (K0).
 When the density is maximum,

the speed will be zero (kjam).
3. Speed- Flow relation
 The flow is zero either because
 There is no vehicles or
 There are too many vehicles so
that they cannot move.
 At maximum flow,
 The speed will be in between
zero and free flow speed.
 The maximum flow qmax occurs
at speed u.
 It is possible to have two
different speeds for a given
flow.
u1 and u2 for flow q
1.History of urban transportation system and impact on urban
form – historical evolution of transportation
The founding, shaping, and growth of human agglomerations throughout
history have been products of complex interactions of many forces.
 One major force has always been transportation.
 A review of historic developments will show
 How long-distance transportation had a major role in determining the
locations of cities;
 How their size has been influenced by both
Long-distance
As well as local, intra urban travel and transportation systems;
 How the transportation system have affected the
Urban form (shape of urban area and its basic transportation
network) and
Urban structure (distribution of land uses and population
densities)
1.History of urban transportation system and impact on urban
form – historical evolution of transportation
 Efficiently distributing freight and moving people has always been an

important factor
 For maintaining the cohesion of economic systems from empires
to modern nation states. (Egypt, Rome and China, Germany, USA )
 With technological and economic developments, the means to
achieve such a goal have evolved considerably.
 The historical evolution of transportation is very complex and is
related to
The spatial evolution of economic systems.

Section I - History of urban transportation system and impact on
urban form – stages in the evolution of transportation
It is possible to summarize this economic evolution, from the pre-industrial

era to transportation in the early twenty-first century, in five major
stages,
 Each linked with specific technological innovations in the transport
sector.
1. Transportation in the Pre-industrial era (Pre-1800s)
2. The Industrial revolution and transportation (1800–70)
3. Emergence of modern transportation systems (1870–1920)
4. Transportation in the Fordist era (1920–70)
5. A new context for transportation: the Post-Fordist era (Since 1970)
I. Transportation in the pre-industrial era (pre-1800s)
Before the major technical transformations brought forward by

the industrial revolution at the end of the eighteenth century,
 No forms of motorized transportation existed.
 Transport technology was mainly limited to harnessing
Animal labor for
Land transport and
Wind for
Maritime transport .
Prior to the Industrial Revolution,
transportation was accomplished through
the use of domesticated animals or by
walking.
 The wagon and horse carried most of the
products to market.
 People also traveled by wagon or carriage.
 Actually, people and products didn't
move very far from home.
 Most areas were self-sufficient, so people
didn't have to bring very much from outside.
 Therefore the road systems connecting
different areas were usually poor.
 This situation changed as the Industrial
Revolution spread throughout Great Britain,
Europe, and the United States.
22
Wind powered ships
23
I. Transportation in the pre-industrial era (pre-1800s)…
Hence
The transported quantities were very limited and
So was the speed at which people and freight were moving.
The average overland speed by horse was between 8
and 15 kilometers per hour and
Maritime speeds were barely above these figures.

I. Transportation in the pre-industrial era (pre-1800s)…
 Waterways were the most efficient transport systems available.
 Cities next to rivers were able to
Trade over longer distances and
Maintain political, economic and cultural cohesion over a
larger territory/hinterland.
 It is not surprising to find that the first civilizations emerged
along river systems
For agricultural but also
For trading purposes
Example: Tigris–Euphrates, Nile, Indus, Ganges, Huang He,
Rhine, Danube
I. Transportation in the pre-industrial era (pre-1800s) - Implications
 As the efficiency of the land transport system of this era was

poor,
The overwhelming majority of trade was local* in scope.
Thus the geographical boundaries of communities was
determined by walking distance and
The dominant urban form was compact.
From the perspective of regional economic organization,
The provision of cities in perishable agricultural
commodities was limited to a radius of about 50
kilometers, at most. (Catchment area/Sphere of
Influence)
I. Transportation in the pre-industrial era (pre-1800s) - Implications
 The size of cities also remained constant in time.
Since people can walk about 5 km per hour and they are
not willing to spend more than one hour per day walking,
The daily space of interaction would be constrained
by a 2.5 km radius, or about 20 square kilometers*.
 Most rural areas centered around a village and
 Cities rarely exceeded a 5 km diameter.
The largest cities prior to the industrial revolution, such as
Rome, Beijing, Constantinople, or Venice
Never surpassed an area of 20 square kilometers.
II. The industrial revolution and transportation
It was during the industrial revolution that massive modifications

of transport systems occurred in two major phases;
 The development of
1. Canal systems and
2. Railways.
 This period marked the development of the steam engine that

converted thermal energy into mechanical energy**,
 Providing an important territorial expansion for maritime

and railway transport systems.
II. The industrial revolution and transportation
Major development include:
1. The first efficient steam engine built in 1765 is attributed to
the British engineer Watt*
2. In 1769, the French engineer Cugnot built the first self-
propelled steam vehicle.
 He was responsible for the first automobile accident ever
recorded
3. The first mechanically propelled maritime vehicle was

tested in 1790 by the American inventor Fitch as a mode
of fluvial (River) transportation on the Delaware River.
There were three main types of transportation that increased during the Industrial
Revolution
1. Waterways,
2. Roads, and
3. Railroads.
During this time period,
 Robert Fulton made the first steam-powered engine to power a steamboat and his
steamboat was able to carry raw materials across the Atlantic Ocean by the mid 1800's.
 The roads also improved.
 John Loudon McAdam made "macadam" road surfaces which consisted of crushed
rock in thin layers.
 Thomas Telford made new foundations in roads with large flat stones.
 In 1801, Richard Trevithick made the first steam locomotive (rail transport) 30
II. The industrial revolution and transportation_ Implications
 From the perspective of land transportation, the early
industrial revolution faced problems over bottlenecks:
 Inland distribution was unable to carry the growing quantities

of raw materials and finished goods.
 Roads were commonly unpaved and
 Could not be used to effectively carry heavy loads.
 The main consequence of the industrial revolution was

A specialization of transportation services and
The establishment of large distribution networks of raw
materials and energy
III. Emergence of modern transportation systems (1870–1920)
Major developments
 The end of the nineteenth century saw a new growth phase,
especially with
Improvements in engine propulsion technology and
A gradual shift from coal to oil in the 1870s.
 Another significant technological change of this era involved

urban transportation, which until then solely relied on walking
and different types of carriages (mainly horse drawn).
Thus the significant growth of the urban population favored
the construction of the first public urban transport systems
III. Emergence of modern transportation systems (1870–1920)…
Major developments..
 Electric energy became widely used in the 1880‟s and
 Considerably changed urban transport systems with the
introduction of tramways (streetcars), notably in Western
Europe and in the United States.
 In large agglomerations, underground metro systems began
to be constructed, London being the first in 1863.
 The bicycle, first shown at the Paris Exhibition of 1867, was
also an important innovation which changed commuting in the
late nineteenth century.
 This era also marked the first significant developments in
telecommunications.
A tram (in North America streetcar or trolley) is a rail
vehicle
 Which runs on tramway tracks along public urban
streets; (Mainly mixed traffic)
 Some include segments of segregated right-of-
way (AA – LRT)
34
Metros/Subways
Paris Moscow
London
Modern Metro - Japan 35
III. Emergence of modern transportation systems –
Implications..
The significant growth of the urban population favored the construction of
the first public urban transport systems.
 Tramways (streetcars) enabled
 The first forms of urban sprawl and
 The specialization of economic functions, notably by a wider
separation between the places of work and residence.
 In large agglomerations,
 Underground metro systems began to be constructed, London being
the first in 1863.
 Telecommunication
 Improved the scheduling of passenger and freight transport at
national levels
IV. Transportation in the Fordist era (1920–70)
The Fordist era was characterized
 By the adoption of the assembly line as the
dominant form of industrial
production/mass production, an
innovation that benefited transportation
substantially.
 The internal combustion engine, or four- Daimler
stroke engine by Daimler (1889), which
was a modified version of the Diesel engine
(1885), and
 The pneumatic (air filled) tire (1885) by
Dunlop made road vehicle operations faster
and more comfortable.
Dunlop
IV. Transportation in the Fordist era (1920–70)….
 The internal combustion engine permitted an extended
flexibility of movements with
 Fast, inexpensive and ubiquitous (door to door) transport

modes such as automobiles, buses and trucks as steel
and rubber.
 Economies of scale also improved transportation in terms of

capacity,
 Which enabled to move low-cost bulk commodities
such as minerals and grain over long distances
IV. Transportation in the Fordist era (1920–70)….
 The first propelled flight made in 1903
by the Wright brothers
Inaugurated the era of air

transportation .
 Basic telecommunication
infrastructures, such as the telephone
and the radio, were mass marketed
during the Fordist era
Transportation in the Fordist era – implications..
 The major change was the large diffusion of the automobile,
especially from the 1950s as it became a truly mass
consumption product.
 No other mode of transportation has so drastically changed
lifestyles and the structure of cities, notably for developed
countries.
It created suburbanization and expanded cities to areas
larger than 100 km in diameter in some instances.
In dense and productive regions, such as the Northeast of
the United States, the urban system became structured
and interconnected by transport networks to the point
that it could be considered as one vast urban region*:
The Megalopolis.
Example of Megalopolis- Northeastern Sea board Of USA
Located primarily on the Atlantic Coast in
the Northeastern United States with its
lower terminus in the upper Southeast,
 The Northeast megalopolis runs
primarily northeast to southwest
from the northern suburbs of Boston
to the Northern Virginia suburbs of
Washington, D.C.
 It includes many of the nation's most
populated cities, including New York
City, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C.,
Boston, Baltimore, and others,
 Along with their metropolitan areas
and suburbs. It is also sometimes
defined to include smaller urban
agglomerations beyond this,
 Such as the Richmond and Hampton
Roads regions to the south,
Portland, Maine, to the north, and
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, to the
west.
 The Northeast megalopolis has a
population of over 52 million (2019)
V. A new context for transportation: the post-Fordist era (1970–)
Among the major changes in international transportation since

the 1970s are
 The massive development of telecommunications,
 The globalization of trade,
 More efficient distribution systems, and
 The considerable development of air transportation .

A new context for transportation: the post-Fordist era (1970–)
 Telecommunications enabled growing information

exchanges, especially for the financial and service sectors.
After 1970, telecommunications successfully merged with

information technologies.
 In a post-Fordist system,
The fragmentation of production,
Organizing an international division of work,
As well as the principle of “just-in-time”
Increased the quantity of freight moving at the local,
regional and international levels.
A new context for transportation: the post-Fordist era (1970–)
 Air and rail transportation experienced remarkable

improvements in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
 The first commercial flight of a Boeing 747 between New

York and London in 1969 marked an important landmark for
international transportation
 Major industrial corporations making transportation equipment,

such as car manufacturers, have become dominant players in
the global economy – Toyota, Ford, VW, BMW, Peugeot,… .
Section II - Transport and Urban Form - Impacts
Urbanization has been one of the dominant trends of economic

and social change of the twentieth century, especially in the
developing world.
 Urban mobility problems have increased proportionally with

urbanization,
A trend reflected in the growing size of cities and
In the increasing proportion of the urbanized population.

 Since 1950, the world‟s urban population has more than

doubled, to reach nearly 3 billion in 2000, about 47 percent of
the global population.
 This is in part due to demographic growth and rural to

urban migration,
 But more importantly to a fundamental change in the

socioeconomic environment of human activities (growth
in the non agricultural activities).
Urbanization….
 The world’s urban population will grow from 2.86 billion in 2000
to 4.98 billion by 2030
 Of which high-income countries will account for only 28
million out of the expected increase of 2.12 billion.
 The world urban population is projected to reach 6.2 billion

people by 2050
 Generally, future urban growth will thereby almost exclusively
take place
 In developing countries particularly in Sub Saharan Africa
(Why?)
 Current trends indicate a growth of about

 50 million urbanites each year, roughly a million a week.
 More than 90 percent of that growth occurs in developing
countries.
 By 2050,
 6.2 billion people, about two-thirds of humanity, are likely
to be urban residents.
 It is estimated that up to 70% of the global population will
be living in cities.
5. 1.Terends in Megacities: 2015 & 2030
Transport and Urban Form – Impacts….
At the urban level, demographic and mobility growth have been
shaped by
 The capacity and requirements of urban transport
infrastructures, be they
 Roads,
 Transit systems or
 Simply walkways.
Consequently,
 There is a wide variety of
1. Urban forms/Spatial structures and
2. Associated urban transportation systems.
Urban form refers to the
1. Spatial imprint of an urban
transport system as well as
2. The adjacent physical
infrastructures.
Broadly, it refers to the
 Spatial pattern or “arrangement” of
individual elements – Such as
 Buildings, streets, parks, and other
land uses (collectively called the
built environment),
 As well as
 Social groups/Communities,
 Economic activities, and
 Public institutions, within an
urban area.
Urban (spatial) structure.
 Refers to the set of relationships arising out of
 The urban form and
 Its underlying interactions of people, freight and information
(Mobility).
 Urban spatial structure combines
 The urban form through the urban interaction with a set of
organizational rules - Regulations/Institutions into a city
system
 It implies the collective set of interrelationships, linkages, and
flows that occurs
 To integrate and bind the pattern and behavior of individual land
uses, groups, and activities into the functioning entities.
 One of the most important integrating subsystems is the
highway or street network.
Elements of the urban transport
system - modes, infrastructures and
users - have a spatial imprint which
shapes the urban form.
 Considering that each city has
different socioeconomic and
geographical characteristics, the  The major components of
spatial imprint of transportation the spatial imprint of urban
varies accordingly. transportation are:
 For instance,  Pedestrian walkways,
 While North American cities
 Road and parking
tend to have an urban form that
has been shaped by the areas,
automobile,  Cycling areas,
Cities in other parts of the world,  Terminals and
because of different modal  Transit system.
Transportation And Urban Form- Evolution of the Spatial
Structure of a City
The urban spatial structure basically considers
1. The location of different activities/land uses as well as
2. Their relationships.
1. Core activities are those of the highest order in the urban
spatial structure, namely
 Tertiary and quaternary activities involved in
 Management (finance and insurance) and
 Consumption (retailing).
2. Central activities are those involving
 Production and distribution with activities such as
 Warehousing, manufacturing, wholesaling and
transportation.
Transportation and Urban Form- Evolution of the Spatial
Structure of a City…
3. Peripheral activities are dominantly
 Residential or
 Servicing local needs.
 A central area refers to an agglomeration of core and/or
central activities within a specific location.
The emergence of a CBD (Central Business District; the
central area of a city) is the result of
An historical process, often occurring over several
centuries (depending on the age of a city),
That has changed the urban form and the location of
economic activities.
Evolution of the Spatial Structure of a City
(C) Contemporary era.

(A) Pre industrial (B) Industrial revolution.
era.
A B C
Core activities Peripheral activities Major transport axis
Central activities Central area
Transportation and Urban Structure
Rapid and expanded urbanization occurring around the world
involves an increased numbers of trips in urban areas.
 Cities have traditionally responded to growth in mobility
 By expanding the transportation supply,
 By building new highways and/or transit lines.
 In the developed world, that has mainly meant
 Building more roads to accommodate an ever-growing
number of vehicles,
 Therefore creating new urban structures – Urban sprawl.
 So called Supply Oriented Transport Development
Four major urban structures
 Several urban spatial structures have accordingly emerged,

with
 The reliance on the automobile being the most

important discriminatory factor.
 Four major types can be identified at the metropolitan scale
.
Four major urban structures
1. Type I - Completely Motorized Network
2. Type II - Weak Center
3. Type III - Strong Center
4. Type IV - Traffic Limitation

Type I - Completely Motorized Network
Represents an automobile-dependent city with a limited centrality.
 It is characterized by
1. Low to average land use densities, and
2. Most activities are designed to be accessed with an automobile.
 This type of urban structure requires a massive network of high
capacity highways to the point that
 Urban efficiency is based on individual transportation.
 Secondary road converges at highways, along which small centers
are located, notably nearby interchanges
3. Public transit has a residual function
4. But a significant share of the city is occupied by structures servicing
the automobile,
 Notably highways and large parking lots.
Example: North American Cities
Type I - Completely Motorized Network
Main Road Highway Activity center

Four major urban structures…..
Type II - Weak Center:
Represents again the spatial structure of many American cities where
many activities are located in the periphery/suburbs.
 These cities are characterized by
 Average land use densities and
 A concentric pattern of land use.
 The central business district is
 Relatively accessible by the automobile and
 Is the point of convergence of the transit system,
Which tend to be under-used and requiring subsidies.
 As the urban area cannot be cost effectively serviced with the transit
system,
 So services are often oriented along major corridors.
 In many cases, ring roads favored the emergence of a set of small
centers at the periphery, notably at the convergence of radial lines,
 Some of them effectively competing with the central business district
for the location of economic activities
Type II - Weak Center
Main Road Highway Transit line Activity center

Four major urban structures……
Type III - Strong Center:
Characterizes cities having
 A high land use density and
 High levels of accessibility to urban transit.
 There are thus limited needs for highways and parking
space in the central area
 Where a set of high capacity public transit lines are
servicing most of the mobility needs.
 The productivity of this urban area is thus mainly related
to the efficiency of the public transport system.
 The convergence of radial roads and ring roads favors the
location of secondary centers,
 Where activities that could no longer able to afford a
central location converge.
Type III - Strong Center

Type IV - Traffic Limitation.
Represents urban areas that
Have efficiently implemented
1. Traffic control and
2. Modal preference in their spatial structure.
Have a high land use density and
Were planned to limit the usage of the automobile in
central areas for a variety of reasons, such as
To preserve its historical character or
To avoid congestion.
Type IV - Traffic Limitation…
 Public transit is used in central areas,
 While individual transportation takes a greater importance
in the periphery
 Several cities are implementing this strategy, namely through
congestion pricing, as
It keeps cars away from the central areas
While supporting the bulk of the mobility in the suburbs.
Example: Singapore /Singapore Area Licensing Scheme/
Hong Kong, Vienna and Stockholm
Type IV - Traffic Limitation

Transport and Urban Form – Impacts: Suburban development/Urban
sprawl….
There are different scales on which transportation systems influence
 The structure of communities, districts and the whole
metropolitan area.
 For instance, one of the most significant impacts of transportation
on the urban structure has been
The clustering of activities near areas of high accessibility.

Transport and Urban Form – Impacts: Suburban development/Urban
sprawl….
 Also, the impact of transport on the spatial structure is particularly
evident in the emergence of suburbia.
 Although many other factors are important in the development of
suburbia, including
1. Low land costs,
2. Available land (large lots),
3. The environment (clean and quiet),
4. Safety, and
5. Car-oriented services (shopping malls),
 The spatial imprint of the automobile is dominant.
 Initially an American invention, suburban developments have
occurred in many cities worldwide,
Although no other places have achieved such a low density and
high automobile dependency as in the United States .
Transport and Urban Form – Impact: Ring roads.
Ring roads have been built around several major cities
1. In response to the expansion of urban areas,
2. Increasing congestion problems and
3. The increasing importance of inter-urban
movements,
Transport and Urban Form – Impact: Ring roads.
 Ring road became an important attribute of the spatial
structures of cities.
 Ring roads impact on spatial structure by
 Favoring a radial pattern (doughnut effect) and
 The development of commercial, residential and
Industrial activities near highway interchanges.
 The decreasing dynamism of central areas is often linked
with the emergence of centers in the periphery.
 Ring roads also improved accessibility within a metropolitan
area, especially at the periphery.
The Rationale of a Ring Road
Spatial Structure Accessibility

Avoiding the congested Before
central area 5
5 10 10 5
A 10 B
10
5
City A to B = 30
Center
Secondary After
5 10
Center 10
5 10 10 5
A 10 B
Structuring 10
Suburban
10 10
development 5
A to B = 20
Addis Ababa „s Ring Road
Transport and urban form_ urban accessibility pathways’
Each city has developed
 Its own unique spatial structure and
 Transport system to provide access to people, goods
and information.
A defining characteristic of these pathways is the
degree to which accessibility is based
1. On the physical proximity between origins and
destinations
2. Or on transport solutions which can overcome spatial
separation, and
3. The degree to which these solutions involve private or
public motorized transport.
Car Saturated City – Los
ANGELES
Motorbike City - Hanoi
Bicycle City - Copenhagen
BRT City- TransMilenio -Bogota
Public Transport City - Hongkong
Public Transport and Walking City
- Tokyo
Bahir Dar
Hawassa
Mekelle
Diredawa
Bajaj Saturated – Ethiopian Regional Towns
Possible Urban Movement Patterns and impacts on Urban System
Possible
Urban 1.Cities with a
Movement higher level of
reliance on public
Patterns
Organized
transit tend to be
Cities can  Monocentric
structurally and
classified as  Have a higher
level of
polycentric organized
(more Primary flow Secondary flow flows
common) or 2. While cities
monocentric depending
more on the
and major
Disorganized
automobile
flows as tend to be
organized or  Polycentric
disorganized and
 Have a more
(more disorganized
common). structure of
flows.
Monocentric Polycentric
Reading Assignment One – Students‟ Presentation
1. Transportation and Urban Form _Stages in

the Evolution of American Metropolis
2.2. Urban Transport and Land Use Interaction
Conceptual Overview
The relationships between transportation and land use
have been investigated for a long time and subject to
numerous approaches.
1. Von Thunen regional land use model (1826).
2. Burgess concentric land use model (1925).
3. Sector and nuclei land use patterns (1939/1945/1955).
4. Land rent theory.
Urban Transport and Land Use Interaction- Two Elements
Basics
1. Everything that happens to land use has transportation
implications and
2. Every transportation action affects land use.
Two elements of urban land use
Urban land use comprises two elements;
1. The nature of land use which relates to
 Which activities are taking place where, and
2. The level of spatial accumulation,
 Which indicates their intensity and concentration.
Is there any variation of these elements across the city?
 Central areas have
 A high level of spatial accumulation and
 Corresponding land uses,
 Such as retail,
 While peripheral areas have
 Lower levels of accumulation ,
 Such as single family residential housing.
Functions of activities?
Most economic, social or cultural activities imply a multitude of functions,
such as
 Production;
 Consumption; and
 Distribution.
Locations of activities?
These functions take place at specific locations and are part
of an activity system (Land use).
 And as such have spatial imprint of activities, therefore.
1. Some are routine activities,
 Because they occur regularly and are thus
predictable,
 Such as commuting and shopping.
2. Others are institutional activities that tend to be irregular,
and are shaped by
 Lifestyle (e.g. sports and leisure),
 Special needs (e.g. healthcare).
Spatial Imprint of activities?...
3. Still others are production activities that are related to
manufacturing and distribution,
 Whose linkages may be local, regional or global.
Impacts?
The behavioral patterns of individuals, institutions and
firms have an imprint on land use.
 The representation of this imprint requires a typology of
land use, which can be
1. Formal or
2. Functional
Formal and Functional land use representation
1. Formal land use representations are concerned with
 Qualitative attributes of space such as its
 Form,
 Pattern and
 Aspect and
 Are descriptive in nature.
 It is also known as the general landscape of a city and
is more of a definition in nature
Formal and Functional land use representation…
2. Functional land use representations are concerned with
 The economic nature of activities such as
 Production,
 Consumption,
 Residence, and
 Transport, and
 Are mainly a socioeconomic description of space.
 It refers to the functions transposed in space of a
city.
Formal and Functional Land Use
Formal Land Use Functional Land Use
Road Road
Parking Parking
Building Residential
Other Commercial
Institutional
Industrial
Other
The above maps represent the land uses of the same neighborhood, classified formally (left) and
functionally (right). Under such circumstances, land use that has been formally classified as
building (built up) can be functionally described as residential, commercial, institutional or
industrial.
Formal and Functional Land Use
Formal Land Use Functional Land Use

Shopping center Commercial
Factories Industrial
Park Leisure
Apartments High density residential
Bungalows Low density residential
Relationship between land uses?
Land use, both in formal and functional representations,
 Implies a set of relationships with other land uses.
Example: Commercial land use
 Commercial land use involves relationships with its supplier
and customers.
 While relationships with suppliers will dominantly be related
 With movements of freight,
 Relationships with customers would include
 Include movements of people.
Each type of urban activity has its
own mobility requirements that are
serviced by the urban transport
system.
This figure illustrates locational
preferences according to urban
transport infrastructures.
1. Population based activities (e.g.
residential) are dominant where
 Rail (metro and passenger)
and bus infrastructures are
converging,
2. While freight based activities (e.g.
manufacturing and warehousing)
agglomerate
 Nearby high capacity road
infrastructures.
What is necessary for this interaction to happen?
 Thus, a level of accessibility to both systems of circulation
must be present.
 Since each type of land use has its own specific mobility
requirements,
 Transportation is a factor of activity location, and
o Is therefore associated intimately with land use.
 Within the urban system each activity occupies a suitable, but
not necessarily optimal location,
 From which it derives rent.
Transport and land use interaction? How?...
Transportation and land use interactions mostly consider the
retroactive relationships between
 Activities, which are land use related, and
 Accessibility, which is transportation related.
Chicken – and –egg relationship between transport and land use?
These relationships often have been described as a "chicken-
and-egg" problem
 Since it is difficult to identify the triggering cause of change;
 Do transportation changes precede land use changes
 or vice-versa?
Transport and land use interaction? How?....
Urban transportation aims at
 Supporting transport demands generated by the diversity of urban
activities in a diversity of urban contexts.
Transport and land use systems?
 A key for understanding urban entities thus lies in the analysis of
patterns and processes of the transport / land use system.
 This system is highly complex and involves several relationships
between the
 Transport system:
 Spatial interactions ;and
 Land use:
Urban Transport and Land Use Interaction -Transport /
Land Use System
Infrastructures (supply) Friction of Space Spatial Accumulation

(demand)
Transport System Spatial Interactions Land Use
• Traffic assignment • Spatial interaction • Economic base

models models theory
• Transport capacity • Distance decay • Location theory
parameters • Traffic generation
• Modal split and attraction models
Transport and land use systems?...
Transport system considers
1. The set of transport
infrastructures and modes;
2. That are supporting urban
movements of passengers
and freight; and
3. Generally expresses the level
of accessibility.
Spatial interactions
Consider the
1. Nature;
2. Extent;
3. Origins; and
4. Destinations of the Urban
movements of passengers
and freight.
 They take into consideration
 The attributes of the transport
system as well as
 The land use factors that are
generating and attracting
movements.
Land use considers
 The level of spatial
accumulation of activities and
 Their associated levels of
mobility requirements.
 Land use is commonly linked
with
 Demographic; and
 Economic attributes.
Transportation And Urban Dynamics
What?
 Both land use and transportation are part of a dynamic
system that is subject to external influences.
 Each component of the system is constantly evolving due
to changes in technology, policy, economics,
demographics and even culture/values, among others.
 As a result, the interactions between land use and
transportation are played out as the outcome of the many
decisions made by
 Residents, businesses and governments.
Dynamics of Urban Change
The most significant components of urban dynamics are:
1. Land use (Most stable)
2. Transportation Network ( Rather Stable)
3. Movements (Most Dynamics)
4. Employment and work places (Commuting – Trip attractors)
5. Population and Housing (Main Trip generators)
Network Very Slow
Freight Transport Commuting
Very Fast
Pace of Change
Employment Population
Fast
Workplaces Housing Slow
Land Use Very Slow

Transportation And Urban Dynamics : Pace of
Change
1. Very Slow changes: Networks and Land Use.
 Urban transport, communications, and utility
networks are the most permanent elements of
the physical structure of cities.
 Large infrastructure projects require a decade or
more, and once in place are rarely abandoned.
 The land use distribution is equally stable; it
changes only incrementally .
Transportation And Urban Dynamics : Pace of Change
2. Slow changes: Workplaces, housing.
 Buildings have a life-span of up to one hundred years
and take several years from planning to completion.
 Workplaces (non-residential buildings) such as
factories, warehouses, shopping centres or
offices, theatres or universities
 Exist much longer than the firms or
institutions that occupy them,
 Just as housing exists longer than the
households that live in it.
Transportation And Urban Dynamics : Pace of Change…
3.Fast change: employment, population.
 Firms are established or closed down, expanded or
relocated;
 This creates new jobs or
 Makes workers redundant and so affects
employment.
 Households are created, grow or decline and eventually
are dissolved, and
 In each stage in their lifecycle adjust their housing
consumption and location and motorization to
their changing needs;
 This determines the distribution of population and
car ownership.
Transportation And Urban Dynamics : Pace of Change…..
4. Immediate change: goods transport, travel.
 The location of human activities in space gives rise
 To a demand for spatial interaction in the form of
goods transport or travel.
 These interactions are the most flexible phenomena
of spatial urban development;
 They can adjust in minutes or hours to changes
 In congestion or fluctuations in demand,
 Though in reality adjustment may be retarded
by habits, obligations or subscriptions
Transport and land use interaction: Summary
The set of relationships between transport and
land use can be summarized as follows
1. The distribution of land uses, such as residential,
industrial or commercial, over the urban area
determines
 The locations of human activities such as living,
working, shopping, education or leisure.
2. The distribution of human activities in space requires
 Spatial interactions or trips in the transport
system to overcome the distance between the
locations of activities (Friction of Space/Derived
Demand).
3. The distribution of infrastructure in the transport
system creates opportunities
 For spatial interactions and can be measured as
accessibility.
4. The distribution of accessibility in space co-determines
 Location decisions and
 So results in changes of the land-use system.
Transport and land use interaction: Summary..
The major theoretical approaches to explain this two-way interaction of
land use and transport in metropolitan areas include
1. Technical theories
 Urban mobility systems,
2. Economic theories
 Cities as markets and
3. Social theories
 Society and urban space.
Urban Land Use Transport Models
Twenty Contemporary urban land use transport models were
selected for a comparative review;
 These models represent the current state of the art of urban
modeling,
 Though it cannot be excluded that promising new
approaches in this rapidly moving field were overlooked.
 These models are:
1. BOYCE-the combined models of location and travel choice
developed by Boyce (Boyce et al., 1983;Boyce and Mattsson,
1991);
Urban Land Use Transport Models….
2. CUFM - the California urban futures model, developed at the
University of California at Berkeley (Landis, 1994;Landis and
Zhang, 1998a,b);
3. DELTA - the land use/economic modeling package developed
by Davids Simmonds Consultancy, Cambridge (Simmonds,
2001);
4. ILUTE - the integrated land use, transportation, environment
modeling system, under development at several Canadian
universities (Miller and Salvini,2001);
5. IMREL - the integrated model of residential and employment
location, developed at the Royal Institute of Technology,
Stockholm, by Anderstig and Mattsson (1998);
6. IRPUD-the model of the Dortmund region developed at the
University of Dortmund (Wegener, 1982a,b,1986b;Wegener et
al., 1991);
7. ITLUP-the integrated transportation and land use package,
developed by Putman (1991, 1998) and consisting of the
residential location model DRAM and the employment model
EMPAL;
8. KIM-the non-linear urban equilibrium model developed at the
University of Illinois at Urbana by Kim (1989) and Rho and Kim
(1989);
9. LILT - the Leeds integrated land use/transport model,
developed at the University of Leeds by Mackett (1991a,b);
10. MEPLAN-the integrated modeling package developed by
Echenique and others (Echenique et al., 1990; Hunt and
Simmonds, 1993);
11. MetroSim - the microeconomic land use and transport model
developed for the New York Metropolitan Area by Anas
(1994,1998);
12. MUSSA- the five-stage land use transport model, developed for
Santiago de Chile by Martinez (Martinez, 1992; Martinez and
Donoso, 1995);
13. PECAS -- the production, exchange and consumption
allocation system, developed at the University of Calgary (Hunt
and Abraham, 2003);
14. POLIS-the projective optimization land use information system
developed by Prastacos for the Association of Bay Area
Governments (Prastacos, 1986);
15. RURBAN - the random-utility urban model, developed by
Miyamoto (Miyamoto and Udomsri, 1996);
16. STASA- the master-equation-based transport and
urban/regional model developed for the metropolitan region of
Stuttgart by Haag (1990);
17. TLUMIP - the land use transport model of the US state of
Oregon developed in the Oregon transport and land use model
integration program (Oregon Department of Transportation,
2002);
18. TRANUS - the transport and land use model developed by de
la Barra (1989, 19!28);
19. TRESIS -- the transportation and environment strategy impact
simulator, developed at the University of Sydney by Hensher
and Ton (2001);
20. UrbanSini - the microeconomic model of location choice of
households and firms developed by Waddell (2002).
Urban Land Use Models
Purpose
Analyze the relationships between transportation and land use.
 Several descriptive and analytical models of urban land use
have been developed over time,
 With increased levels of complexity.
Basic premise?
 All involve some consideration of
 Transport in the explanations of urban land use
structures.
Urban Land Use Models…
They include;
1. Von Thunen’s regional land use model
2. Burgess concentric model
3. Sector and multiple nuclei land use models
4. Hybrid models
5. Land rent theory

Urban Land Use Models -
I. Von Thunen’s regional land use model
1. It is the oldest.
2. It was initially developed in the early 19th century (1826)
 For the analysis of agricultural land use patterns in
Germany.
3. It used the concept of economic rent to explain a spatial
organization
 Where different agricultural activities are competing
for the usage of land.
Von Thunen’s regional land use model…
4. The underlying principles of this model have been the

foundation of many others where
 Economic considerations, namely land rent and distance-

decay (from city center), are incorporated.
5. The core assumption of the model is
 That agricultural land use is patterned in the form of

concentric circles around a market.
Von Thunen’s regional land use model…
II. The Burgess concentric model
1. The model was based on human ecology theory done by Burgess and
applied on Chicago.
2. It was the first to give the explanation of distribution of social groups
within urban areas.
 Indeed, it was among the first attempts to investigate spatial
patterns at the urban level (1925).
3. Although the purpose of the model was to analyze social classes,
 It recognized that transportation and mobility were important factors behind
the spatial organization of urban areas in form of concentric ring.
 This model depicts urban land usage in concentric rings:
 The Central Business District (or CBD) was in the middle of the model, and
 The city is expanded in rings with different land uses.
II. The Burgess concentric model…
4. It is effectively an urban version of Von Thünen's regional
land use model developed a century earlier.
5. The formal land use representation of this model is derived from
commuting distance from the CBD,
 Creating concentric circles.
 Each circle represents a specific socioeconomic urban
landscape.
6. This model is conceptually a direct adaptation of the Von
Thunen's model to urban land use
 Since it deals with a concentric representation.
The Burgess concentric model
The Burgess concentric model…
 The concentric zone model was among the early
descriptions of urban form.
 The model was based on Burgess‟s observations of
Chicago
 During the early years of the 20th century.
 The concentric zone model depicts the use of urban land
 As a set of concentric rings
 With each ring devoted to a different land use .

Assumptions:
 Major routes of transportation emanated from the city‟s core,
 Making the CBD the most accessible location in the city.
Burgess identified five rings of land use that would form around
the CBD. These rings were originally defined as the
1. Central business district,
2. Zone of transition,
3. Zone of independent workers’ homes,
4. Zone of better residences and
5. Zone of commuters.
 An important feature of this model is the positive
correlation of
 Socio-economic status of households with distance
from the CBD
 More affluent households were observed to live at
greater distances from the central city.

Burgess described the changing spatial patterns of
residential areas as a process of "invasion" and
"succession".
 As the city grew and developed over time,
 The CBD would exert pressure on the zone

immediately surrounding it (the zone of transition).
 Outward expansion of the CBD would invade
 Nearby residential neighborhoods causing them

to expand outward.
The process was thought to continue with each successive
neighborhood moving further from the CBD.
 He suggested that inner-city housing was largely
occupied
 By immigrants and households with low socio-

economic status.
 As the city grew and the CBD expanded outward,

 Lower status residents moved to adjacent
neighborhoods, and
 More affluent residents moved further from the CBD.
III. Sector and multiple nuclei land use models
1. They were developed to take into account numerous factors
overlooked by concentric models, namely
 The influence of transport axis (Hoyt, 1939) and
 Multiple nuclei (Harris and Ullman, 1945) on land use
and growth.
2. Both representations consider the emerging impacts of
 Motorization on the urban spatial structure.
Sector and multiple nuclei land use models
Hoyt Model – Sector Model
In 1939, Hoyt modified the concentric
zone model to account for major
transportation routes.
 Most major cities evolved around
the nexus/link of several
important transport facilities
 Such as railroads, sea ports, and
trolley lines that emanated from
the city's center.
 These routes (and later
metropolitan expressways and
interstate highways) represented
lines of greater access,
 Hoyt theorized that cities would tend to
grow in wedge-shaped patterns, or
sectors,
 Emanating from the CBD and
centered on major transportation
routes.
 Higher levels of access translate to
higher land values. Thus
 Many commercial functions would
 Remain in the CBD,
 But manufacturing activity would
 Develop in a wedge
surrounding transport routes.
 Residential land use patterns also would
grow in wedge-shaped patterns
 With a sector of lower-income
households bordering
 The manufacturing/ warehousing sector
 Where traffic, noise and pollution making
these less desirable locations to live.
 Sectors of middle- and higher-income
households located away from industrial
sites.
 In many respects,
 Hoyt's sector model is simply a
concentric zone model modified
 To account for the impact of
transportation systems on
accessibility.
Multiple nuclei land use models
Harris and Ullman argued that
 Cities do not grow a single nucleus
but several separate nuclei.
 Each nucleus acts like a growth point.
 The theory was formed based on the
idea
That people have greater
movement due to increased car
ownership.
This increase of movement
allows for the specialization of
regional centers (e.g. heavy
industry, business parks, retail
areas).
 The model is suitable for large,
expanding cities.
Multiple nuclei land use models
The number of nuclei around which the city
expands depends upon situational as well as
historical factors.
Multiple nuclei develop because:
 Certain industrial activities require transportation
facilities
 e.g. ports, railway stations, etc. to lower transportation costs.
 Various combinations of activities tend to be kept apart
 e.g. residential areas and airports, factories and parks,
 Other activities are found together to their mutual
advantage
 e.g. universities, bookstores and coffee shops, etc.
 Some facilities need to be set in specific areas in a city
 The CBD requires convenient traffic systems, and
 Many factories need an abundant source of
resources
IV. Hybrid models
1. Tried to include the concentric, sector and nuclei behavior
of different processes in
 Explaining urban land use.
2. They are an attempt to integrate the strengths of each
approach
 Since none of these appear to provide a completely
satisfactory explanation.
IV. Hybrid models
3. Thus, hybrid models, such as that developed by Isard (1955),
consider
 The concentric effect of nodes (CBDs and sub-centers) and
 The radial effect of transport axis, all overlain to form a land
use pattern.
3. Hybrid representations are suitable to explain the evolution of
the urban spatial structure
 As they combine different spatial impacts of
transportation on urban land use, let them be
 Concentric or
 Radial, and
 This at different points in time.
Urban Land Use Models
149
V. Land rent theory
1. It was also developed to explain
 Land use as a market
 Where different urban activities are competing for land
usage at a location.
2. It is strongly based in the market principle of spatial
competition.
 The more desirable the location, the higher its rent value.
3. Transportation, through accessibility and distance-decay,
 Is a strong explanatory factor on the land rent and its
impacts on land use.
4. However, conventional representations of land rent are being
challenged
 By structural modifications of contemporary cities.
Land rent theory
Theory of Land Rent
1 Rent
Industry/ Apartments Single houses

Retail commercial
Distance from downtown
Rent 2 3
a Retailing
b Industry/commercial
a c Apartments
b d Single houses a
b
c
City limits d
d
c
Modification to Land rent theory
Transportation and Urban Form
Urban form
 The urban form of a city greatly influences and is influenced by travel
patterns, origins and destinations.
 The dense urban cores of many European, Japanese and Chinese cities
 Enable residents to make 30 to 60 percent of all trips by walking
and cycling.
 The dispersed urban form of Australian and American cities
encourages
 Reliance on the car.
 Impact of the private car
 An increasing number of cities worldwide seem to be developing at a
scale that increases reliance on the privately owned automobile.
 Dispersion is taking place in many different types of cities
Thus, there is a wide variety of urban forms and urban transportation
systems.
Transport and urban form
155
Reading Assignment Three– Students‟ Presentation
1. Wegner, M., & Furst, F. (1999). Land-Use Transport

Interaction: State of the Art. Department of Spatial
Planning, University of Dortmund. PP 1-55.

Transport

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MUP 6131: Urban and Regional

Transportation Planning and

1. Current Trends in Transportation

2. All movement incurs a cost of some sort, which is usually

measured in time or money.

 Some kinds of travel, such as that made by automobile,

bus, or train, incur both time and monetary costs;

 Other trips, such as those made on foot, involve an outlay

almost exclusively of time.

 Aggregate (area approach -

 Dynamics in modal share

Similar to the flow-density relationship,

 Speed will be maximum, referred

Corresponding to the zero

 When the density is maximum,

 Efficiently distributing freight and moving people has always been an

The spatial evolution of economic systems.

It is possible to summarize this economic evolution, from the pre-industrial

Before the major technical transformations brought forward by

Animal labor for

Land transport and

The transported quantities were very limited and

The average overland speed by horse was between 8

and 15 kilometers per hour and

Maritime speeds were barely above these figures.

 As the efficiency of the land transport system of this era was

It was during the industrial revolution that massive modifications

1. Canal systems and

 This period marked the development of the steam engine that

 Providing an important territorial expansion for maritime

3. The first mechanically propelled maritime vehicle was

 Inland distribution was unable to carry the growing quantities

 Roads were commonly unpaved and

 Could not be used to effectively carry heavy loads.

 The main consequence of the industrial revolution was

A gradual shift from coal to oil in the 1870s.

 Another significant technological change of this era involved

 Fast, inexpensive and ubiquitous (door to door) transport

 Economies of scale also improved transportation in terms of

Inaugurated the era of air

Among the major changes in international transportation since

 The massive development of telecommunications,

 The globalization of trade,

 More efficient distribution systems, and

 The considerable development of air transportation .

 Telecommunications enabled growing information

After 1970, telecommunications successfully merged with

 Air and rail transportation experienced remarkable

 The first commercial flight of a Boeing 747 between New

 Major industrial corporations making transportation equipment,

Urbanization has been one of the dominant trends of economic

 Urban mobility problems have increased proportionally with

A trend reflected in the growing size of cities and

In the increasing proportion of the urbanized population.

 Since 1950, the world‟s urban population has more than

 This is in part due to demographic growth and rural to

 But more importantly to a fundamental change in the

 The world urban population is projected to reach 6.2 billion

 Current trends indicate a growth of about

(C) Contemporary era.

 Several urban spatial structures have accordingly emerged,

 The reliance on the automobile being the most