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REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL HISTORY

PAPER 2 4044/2

SLAVERY AND THE SLAVE TRADE

Definition of Terms
Slave
- a slave is a person who is owned, controlled and used by someone for no pay.

Slavery
- is the practice of treating other human beings as part of one's property.

Slave trade
- is/was the system of buying and selling human beings.

Countries that participated in the Slave Trade

Portugal Spain Britain France India Egypt Arabia Yemen

United States of America Germany Holland/Netherlands Denmark

Factors that led to the rise of Slave Trade

# Mineral discovery in the New World

- huge deposits of gold and other minerals were discovered in Spanish Puerto Rico and other
parts of the New World as early as before 1530.
- such minerals were in high demand in the European growing industries.
- as more mines were opened up, the demand for labour increased.
- demand for labour increased because the indigenous people proved unequal to the tasks
required of them.
- more so, local population was declining sharply.
- the solution lay in African labour and blacks were acquired as slaves to work in the mines in
the New World.
# Plantation agriculture in the New World
- plantation of various crops such as tobacco, coffee, sugarcane, cotton, bananas and cocoa
were set up in the areas of the New World such as Brazil.
- the most outstanding plantations were those of sugarcane and Brazil was the largest
producer.
- again an acute problem of labour supply arose and the solution was for the planters to buy
slaves from Africa.
# European Industrialisation
- the rapid development of industries in Europe called for constant supply of raw materials.
- therefore, labour to work for the supply of the raw materials was needed.
- so Europeans flocked to Africa to get slaves.
# Personal Glory
- Anthem Goncaloes, a young Portuguese, is believed to have started the Atlantic Slave Trade in 1441.

- his aim was to acquire personal glory for himself.

- he captured about twelve male and female slaves from Africa and sailed to Lisbon where he
handed them to Prince Henry.
- the captives were later sold as domestic slaves in Portugal.
- this encouraged more Portuguese and other Europeans to get slaves in Africa.
# Domestic Use
- the Portuguese started slave trade to solve the problem of domestic labour.
- before 1521, slaves were sent from Lisbon to the Americas.
- after 1521 other European countries joined Portugal in the slave trade from West Africa to the
Americas.
# Need to get rid of outcasts
- subject people in various African kingdoms who were convicted of various crimes by their
kings were sold into slavery.
- outcasts included witches, thieves, and others.
- selling them into slavery was a way of punishing them.
# Failure to pay debts
- some Africans were sold into slavery for failing to pay their debts.
- some surrendered themselves to be made slaves as compensation for failing to pay debts.
# Need to get rid of war captives
- during inter-group wars in Africa, some were captured.
- those defeated and captured were sold into slavery.

# Religious factors
- Muslims enslaved non-Muslims as a way of creating a Muslim world.
- Christians also enslaved non-Christians as a way of spreading Christianity.

# Greed
- those who took part in slave trade saw it as a way of getting rich.
- slave trade became the most profitable activity during that period.
- it was out of sheer greed that slave dealers took to slave trade.
# Hatred
- hatred also pushed some Africans to capture and sell fellow Africans.
- some Africans crafted criminal offenses against their fellow people to have them punished by
the rulers through selling them into slavery.

Why were Africans enslaved?

- initially, native Indians were used in the plantations in the Americas.
- but the Red Indians died of unfamiliar diseases such as small pox brought by their contact with
Europeans.
- therefore, Africans became a better option because they appeared to be very strong.
- Africans were resistant to tropical diseases so could work anywhere in the world.
- Africans had the ability to endure difficulties and could adapt to any environment.
- Africans were used to harsh conditions of living so could work and live in any situation.
- more so, Africans were enslaved because they were less rebellious.
- apart from that, Africans were usually conciliatory and tolerant.

Methods Used to Obtain Slaves

# Kidnapping
- this method was commonly used in West Africa.
- groups of African slave dealers were employed by both European and African leaders.
- these groups moved around kidnapping isolated African individuals they came across.
# Raiding
- raiding was one of the earliest methods used, especially by Portuguese.
- both African men and women were raided and sold into slavery.
# Alliance with African Kings
- Europeans signed treaties with African kings to assist them when in war.
- the African kings would pay for European assistance by offering captives of war as slaves.
# Wars
- slave dealers used intergroup and interstate wars that gave prisoners of war.
- the captives of war were sold into slavery.
- some of these wars were deliberate, driven by the motive to capture slaves.
- at times European traders joined in the wars themselves or supplied guns and ammunition to
their African partners.
# Judicial Enslavement
- people found guilty of various crimes by their kings could be sentenced for deportation into
slavery.
- at times crimes were crafted just to condemn others into slavery.
# Domestic Enslavement
- domestic servants or slaves could be resold into slavery by their masters.
# Self Enslavement
- in times of drought and famine, one could enslave himself or herself.
- selling oneself into slavery was a way of saving oneself from poverty.
# Cheating
- cheating was usually used by European slave dealers.
- after obtaining ivory, gold and other items in the African interior, European traders would hire
some strong men to carry their goods to the coast.
- but upon reaching the coast, the European traders would not only sell their goods but the
African porters were also sold as slaves.

Areas where slaves were obtained in West Africa

Upper Guinea Benin

Upper Volta Niger
Sene-Gambia Cameroon
Central Nigeria Ghana
Angola Ivory Coast

The Process of Buying Slaves inland

- when Europeans arrived at the coasts, they paid African middle men a fare to be accompanied
into the interior.
- permission was sought from the local rulers of the area.
- the rulers also received a fee for giving European dealers licence to buy slaves.
- some African rulers formed associations to ensure that all Europeans paid their dues before
trading.
- after payment, the next stage was negotiation.
- all slaves were paraded naked, men and women together.
- those considered good and marketable were put on their side and rejects left.
- those considered rejects included those above 35 years of age.
- rejects also included those with some physical defects or sick, pale or grey haired.
- the selected slaves were then chained together, using goree shackled around the
neck.

- they were made into a single file, one behind the other, and driven toward the coast.
- during the long march to the coast, a lot of abuse was committed on the slaves.
- some were whipped and those who fell ill during the march were left in the forest to die.
- on the coast they were taken to warehouses known baracoons, where the sick were treated before
shipment.
- on the coast the slaves were branded with a hot iron on their chests to distinguish those going
to England or France or any other destination.
- after branding, slaves were kept in the baracoons where they could stay in the warehouses for months
waiting for the ships.
- some slaves died during the waiting period due to sickness, thirst or overcrowding.

From Coasts to the New World

The Middle Passage

- the journey from the coasts to the New World was referred to as the Middle Passage.
- slaves were loaded in ships, both male and female, only wrapped with a piece of cloth in the
waist.
- a lot of deaths were incurred on the seas as the slaves were packed like sacks of grain.
- the slaves were tied tightly in leg irons that they could hardly move.
- during morning inspection of the slaves all the dead were thrown into the sea as food for
sharks and crocodiles.
- those very sick were also thrown over into the sea to feed the ocean creatures.
- some slaves committed suicide on the way as they totally refused to eat.
- death was considered a better option by some slaves as the future was again unknown.
- sometimes whole loads of slaves could be sunk into the oceans if the slave masters
suspected shortage of food and water.
- slaves could also be sacrificed into the seas to reduce ships' load when storms blew.
- slaves could be thrown into the sea if the slave masters saw anti-slave and slavery patrol ships.

- upon reaching their destinations, the slaves were sold to the planters, miners and to those who needed
slave labour anywhere.

Diseases that affected slaves in ships across the Atlantic

- tuberculosis
- scurvy
- dysentery
- yellow fever
- small pox
- diarrhoea

- depression

- cholera

Problems faced by slaves across the Atlantic

- hunger and starvation
- diseases
- suicide
- lack of water / thirst
- abuse from slave masters
- poor ventilation

- no proper health care

- unhealthy conditions
- cold

- excessive heat

The Atlantic Slave Trade/The Triangular Slave Trade

- the Atlantic Slave Trade was a trading system that was developed by the European merchants
for their own benefit.
- the trading system had three main centres namely Europe, West Africa and the Americas.
- for this reason it was referred to as the Triangular Slave Trade.
- the first part of the triangle trade was Europe.
- the European merchants sold sugar, cotton and other raw materials in Europe.
- with some of the money they got from selling these raw materials, the merchants bought
manufactured goods such as guns, gun powder, mirrors, cloths, jewellery and other items to
take to West Africa which was the second part of the Triangular Slave Trade.
- the Europeans called this part of trade the Middle Passage.
- in West Africa the merchants exchanged the goods for slaves.
- from West Africa the same ships then carried slaves to the Americas, which was the third part
of the Triangular Slave Trade.
- once in the Americas, the slaves were sold to the plantation owners for cash.
- the slaves worked in sugarcane, coffee, cocoa, wheat, rice, cotton and tobacco plantations.
- with some of the money they got from selling slaves, the merchants bought raw materials like
sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco and others which they carried from the Americas to Europe and

the triangle started again.

Goods carried by merchants to West Africa

- guns
- mirrors
- ammunition
- bangles
- sandals
- combs
- cutlery
- necklaces
- jugs
- clothing
- umbrellas
- metal pots
- wine
- metal pans
- alcohol
- beads

THE EAST AFRICA SLAVE TRADE

Areas where slaves were obtained in East Africa

- Mozambique Tanganyika Zimbabwe Uganda

- Kilwa Malawi Kenya Zanzibar

Areas where slaves were taken to from East Africa

- Mauritius India Persia Arabia Spain

- Zanzibar Pemba Malindi Cyprus Portugal

- Caribbean islands Brazil USA Madagascar

How slave trade operated in East Africa

- in east Africa slave trade was well established before the Europeans arrived in the region.

- east Africa slave trade was driven by Arabs and Swahili merchants.

- Arabs raided African societies in east Africa for domestic labour, to use in ships, in the military and
plantations.

- the Arab slave dealers organised themselves in groups of 50 to 500 to get slaves from the interior.

- in the eastern interior Arabs established centres to keep captured Africans.

- the Arab groups moved into the interior raiding and capturing slaves.

- although men were also captured, Arabs mainly wanted women to work in plantations and as domestic
servants.

- women were also used as sex slaves.

- later, Portuguese joined in the east Africa slave trade obtaining slaves from Mozambique, Zimbabwe
and other eastern territories.
- after capturing the slaves they were chained together and shipped to various areas for sale.

- from 1750 onwards, slave trade expanded and became more organised.

- slaves were wanted to carry ivory in trade while others were used in clove plantations set up by Arab
Sultans in Zanzibar, Malindi and Pemba.

- slaves were also used by French sugar and coffee plantation owners in Mauritius.

- slave dealers from Brazil also came to east Africa to get slaves for the trans-Atlantic slave trade.

How far did Britain work to end the East Africa slave trade?

Britain's role

- in 1822 Britain put in place laws to abolish slave trade in Asia and Middle East.

- those caught engaging in slave trade were arrested and imprisoned.

- Britain sent out anti-slavery organisations in the Middle East and Far East to campaign against slave
trade.

- Britain sent out her ships to suppress transportation of slaves through the Mediterranean Sea, Persian
Gulf and the Red Sea.

- British ships patrolled the seas searching ships for slaves.

- in 1833 Britain passed a law abolishing slave trade and slavery in her empire.

However, there were other factors

- abolitionists like Granville Sharp campaigned against slave trade in East Africa.

- other European countries like France also joined to end slavery and slave trade in East Africa.

- christian groups travelled across east Africa to call for abolition of slave trade.

- christian groups criticised slave trade as inhuman.

- more so, it was becoming expensive to keep slaves so slave owners freed slaves.

Effects of Slavery and Slave Trade in Africa

Social Negative Effects

# Destruction of African communities
- African communities were destroyed by slave trade as some people were taken away to unknown
countries.

# Depopulation
- slave trade resulted in serious reduction of African populations.
- African populations did not grow between 1650 and 1860 whereas European population more

than doubled during the same period.

- it is estimated that between eleven to twelve million blacks were sold into slavery.
# Death of people
- slavery and slave trade led to death of many Africans

- many Africans died during wars and during transportation across the Atlantic Ocean.
- some died during movement from inland to the coasts, while other victims died from diseases.
# Growth of racial discrimination
- slavery and slave trade promoted racial discrimination where Europeans saw themselves as
superior to Africans.
- Africans were looked down upon as commodities of labour.
- Africans were dehumanised and some men were even castrated to discourage sex and
reproduction in the plantations.
- Africans were seen as incapable of making history, thereby paving way for colonisation.
# Strengthening of class system
- African societies became classified as a result of slave trade.
- African middle men and rulers became very rich and powerful at the expense of ordinary
Africans who became poor.
# General insecurity
- the raids and wars instilled fear in Africans and created atmosphere of general insecurity.
- people became uncertain of the future and lived in continuous fear.
# Abuse of Africans
- there was abuse of both men and women.
- some women were raped and both men and women were whipped.
- a lot of Africans were left with permanent scars.
# Hunger and Starvation
- there was general famine as a result of low agricultural activities due to raids and wars.

# Cultural Death

- cultural heritages of African societies were destroyed.

- once slaves arrived in their destinations, they were forced to abandon their languages and
culture.
- languages were mixed resulting in new ones such as Swahili.
Economic Negative Effects
# Decline in trade
- trading in commodities such as gold, ivory and craft works virtually stopped in African areas
affected by slave trade.
- long distance trade across the Sahara desert stopped.
- African dealers obtained useless goods which did not improve African economy.
# Underdevelopment of African societies
- slavery and slave trade led to underdevelopment of African economies.
- important economic production stopped in areas affected by slave trade.
# Destruction of African agriculture
- both crop cultivation and animal production were affected by raids and wars.
- this left Africans poor.
# Growth of African dependence on European goods
- slave trade forced Africans to depend on goods brought from Europe and less on African
products.

- this dependence on foreign goods did not encourage growth in areas affected by slave trade.
# Loss of productive labour
- Africa lost women and men who were economically productive.
- because European dealers got Africans between 17- 34 years only, Africa failed to develop
economically as it lost the most active age group.
# Indigenous mining and craft works declined
- only able-bodied people were carried to the New World to work in mines and as craft workers.
- as slave trade took them, the mining and craft work collapsed.

Political negative effects

# Destruction of African political systems
- slave trade destroyed African traditional political systems.
- this was witnessed in West, East, Central and Southern Africa.
- this left African societies prone to further European manipulation through colonisation.
# Promotion of inter-tribal warfare.
- slave trade promoted intertribal warfare which destroyed African societies.
# Disunity among Africans
- slave trade led to disunity among Africans as each state fought to survive by raiding others to
get war captives to sell into slavery.
# Colonisation of Africa
- slave trade contributed to eventual colonisation of Africa as Europeans became aware of
African wealth during slave trade.
- in the late nineteenth century, the Europeans would come back to colonise Africa for that

wealth.
# Corruption of African judicial systems
- the judicial system was deliberately manipulated in favour of sending people into slavery.
- some offences were minor while others were crafted just to sell victims as slaves.

# Loss of political power

- defeated kings lost their power to more powerful ones.

Positive Social Effects

# Cultural exchange
- slave trade brought new aspects of dress, language and religion between foreigners and
Africans.
# Coming of Christian missionaries
- slave trade encouraged the coming of Christian missionaries to Africa.
- Christian missionaries flocked to Africa from 1850 to 1900 to fight slavery and slave trade.
- they also came to enlighten Africans by converting them to Christianity as a way of promoting
racial equality.
# Improvement of African diet
- new crops brought by foreigners helped improve African diet.
- improved diet boosted health of Africans and raised their life expectancy.

Economic Positive Effects

# Africa got luxury goods
- Africa got several luxury imports through the export of slaves.

- these included alcohol, tobacco, sugar, textiles, umbrellas and decorative items.
- some of the goods such as umbrellas became symbols of power and prestige for some
African rulers.
# Coastal kingdoms became wealthy
- kingdoms along the coasts became rich and powerful.
- they received money, guns and other things in exchange of slaves.
# Creation of wealth
- African slave dealers amassed a lot of goods which fuelled growth.
# Opening of trade centres
- Europeans opened trade centres in Africa which exist to this day.

Political Positive Effects

# Introduction of guns
- slave trade led to introduction of guns in some African societies.
- guns helped Africans to defend themselves from enemies.
- guns also enabled growth of powerful kingdoms.
# Emergence of powerful kingdoms
- as weak states disappeared due to raids and wars, new powerful kingdoms emerged.
- such powerful states appeared in West Africa notably Asante, Dahomey and Oyo.

Benefits of Atlantic Slave Trade to European merchants and Europe

# Job creation

- thousands of people were employed as deck workers, ship builders, carpenters, rope makers
and sailors.
# Population growth
- Europe benefitted population boom especially in most port towns.
- records show that most port towns' populations increased by 5000 people.
- this promoted a wider labour base.
# Establishment of banks
- banks and insurance firms grew in most towns, especially in port towns.
- the money houses cushioned the needs of the merchants to finance their risky trips.
# Government revenue
- European governments enjoyed revenue by taxing businesses associated with slave trade.
# Promotion of European development
- European development was enhanced through the slave trade and slavery.
- Europe underwent agricultural and industrial development due to slave labour and raw
materials from Africa.
# Financial profits
- European slave dealers enjoyed huge profits and became wealthy.
- investments were generated in port towns from profits of slave trade for example the port of
Liverpool went from being a struggling fishing town to be the richest in England.
# Infrastructure
- slave trade centres were developed as rich merchants spent their money on big houses,
estates and public buildings.

Abolition of Slavery and Slave Trade

Groups that advocated for the abolition of slavery and slave trade
- Society for the Abolition of Slavery and Slave Trade
- Anti-Slavery Society
- The Sons of Africa
- Society of Friends/The Quakers
- Women and Women Groups
- Roman Catholic Church
- Methodist Church
- The Clapham Sect

Abolitionists/Philanthropists
- William Wilberforce

- Thomas Clarkson
- Granville Sharp
- Lord Mansfield
- Anthony Benezet
- Phyllis Wheatley
- John Wesley
- James Wesley
- James Ramsay
- John Newton
- Josiah Wedgewood
- Hannah More

End of Slavery and Slave Trade

- right from the onset of slave trade and slavery, a lot of Europeans and Americans opposed it
as inhuman and evil.
- several campaigns against slavery and slave trade were undertaken.
- France was the first country to free slaves in 1794 as a result of her revolution.
- in Britain slavery and slave trade declined and in 1807 slave trade was abolished.
- Denmark followed the example set by Britain and also abolished slave trade.

- by 1808 the United States of America had abolished slave trade, followed by Holland,

France and other countries.

- in 1833 Britain abolished slavery and anyone caught with slaves on board ships could be put to
death.
- Britain then persuaded other European states to end slavery and slave trade.
- by 1850 slavery and slave trade had been abolished.

Reasons for Abolishment of Slavery and Slave Trade

# Overpopulation of America and Europe
- there was considerable growth in population in America and Europe especially between 1650
and 1850.
- as a result some slaves were taken back to Africa where new states like Liberia were created
for them.
# Looking after the slaves was becoming costly
- the slave owners realised that the cost of keeping, feeding and clothing slaves was becoming
unbearable.
- so slave owners freed slaves opting for paid workers who would use their wages to look after
themselves.

- as a result slave owners would save a lot of money and resources.

# Invasion of European coasts for slaves
- North African slave dealers were capturing white slaves from European coasts and selling
them to Muslim Arab traders.
- this greatly angered Europeans who decided to stop dealing in African slaves so as to save
fellow whites from slavery.
# Activities of Abolitionists
- vigorous campaigns by people opposed to slavery and slave trade were undertaken.
- the abolitionists argued that slave trade and slavery were inhuman.
# Resistance by slaves themselves
- slaves themselves fought for their own freedom as they learned lessons of equality and
justice.
- there were several slave revolts across Americas and Europe.
- this convinced American and European governments to end slavery and slave trade.
# Economic changes
- the growth of agriculture and industries led to development of machines as tools of labour.
- slave labour was no longer fashionable, so it was dropped.

Challenges Faced in Trying to End Slavery and Slave Trade

- efforts to abolish slavery and slave trade were met with resistance across Europe and America
due to a number of challenges.

# Slave trade was very lucrative

- European slave traders refused to end slavery and slave trade because it earned them huge
profits.
# European and American governments tolerated slavery and slave trade
- the governments of Europe and America did nothing to abolish slave trade and slavery.
- they were more concerned with the protection of property rights than worrying about the
suffering African slaves.
- slavery and slave trade also provided revenue to European and American governments.
# Resistance from slave owners
- the slave owners did not want to free slaves arguing that the slaves were their property since
they had bought them.
- slave owners also made huge profits from using slave labour because it was free.
# Racist mentality
- several white races argued that selling Africans was not evil because Africans were inferior to
whites.
- therefore, Africans had to be used for the benefit of white people.
# Fear of influence of French Revolution
- many European governments believed that abolitionists were driven by French revolutionary
ideas of human freedom and equality.
- so to stop campaigns against slave trade, powerful propaganda was used to stop the
abolitionists.
- governments passed laws to suppress groups that called for abolition of slavery and slave
trade.
# Suppression of slave revolts

- efforts to end slavery and slave trade were undermined by suppression of slave revolts.
- European governments suppressed slave revolts fearing that the revolts would spread to other
areas.
- for example Britain suppressed slave revolts in Haiti between 1793 and 1801.
# Naval concerns
- most European states promoted slave trade in order to control sea routes.
- this would boost their naval strength so as to protect their trade and military interests.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR , 1914 - 1918

The World Big Powers Before 1914

Britain France Japan Russia

Italy Turkey Germany Austria-Hungary

United States of America

European Powers Before 1914

- Britain France Germany
- Italy Russia Turkey Austria-Hungary

# Britain
- Britain was the richest and most powerful country in the world, especially before 1900.
- she had the best international trade system backed up by strong naval policy.
- she was the world sea power and dominated the Oceans.
- she followed a policy known as "splendid isolation" meaning that she operated alone with no
allies or friends.
- this made Britain free from wars which affected continental Europe.
- she was the first country to industrialise.
- the factory system was introduced in Britain in which machines were used for production.
- as a result there was mass production of consumer goods for example cloths, clothes,
cooking oil, stoves, electronic irons, electric machines and many others.
- the transport system improved to move raw materials and finished goods.
- roads were widened and tarred, canals were dug to improve ship transport.
- the railway networks also developed and strengthened transportation of people, goods and
services.
- factory owners got loans from banks for example Barclay's and Standard Chartered.
- industrialisation made Britain wealthy which led to the growth of towns to encourage rural to
urban migration in such towns like Birmingham, Coventry, Liverpool, Manchester, London and

Bristol.
- Britain's wealth was also promoted from a big empire which included countries like India,
Canada, Australia, South Africa, Nigeria among others.

Benefits From Colonies

- raw materials for example gold, diamonds, rubber, cotton, palm oil, ivory, tobacco, sisal, cocoa
and many more.
- markets for finished products such as jewellery, knives, cooking oil, clothes, mirrors, cloths
among others.
- cheap labour
- colonies were used to resettle unemployed people.
- colonies solved problems of overpopulation in Britain.
- establishment of naval bases for example Islands in the Atlantic Ocean, North Sea,
Mediterranean and Pacific Ocean.
- Britain became the world marine champion earning her the nickname "Queen of the Oceans".
- Britain improved her military strength.

British Interests
- Britain wanted to dominate the seas using naval power.
- she also wanted to dominate the seas to promote her international trade.
- she did not want any competition with other countries.
- she also wanted to control the North Sea and Baltic Sea for her trade in the Far East.
- when she left her splendid isolation, she would work to end competition from Germany.

- it wanted to keep her empire intact.

# Germany
- the state of Germany was established in 1871 after Prussia unified all the German states but
left out Austria.

- Germany competed with Britain in industrialisation ending up overtaking Britain in iron, steel,
chemicals and engineering.
- German goods competed with British goods for markets and there was also competition for
raw materials.
- Germany also challenged British naval power which resulted in tension between the two
powers.
- German military revival led to competition for colonies with other powers resulting in increased
tension.

German interests
- after German unification in 1871, Germany became interested in maintaining her power and
dominance of Europe.
- Germany focused on the isolation of France to prevent her from waging a war of revenge to
reclaim Alsace and Lorraine.
- Germany focused on building a huge army so as to dominate Europe and to keep France under
check.
- Germany also undertook naval revival so as to challenge British sea supremacy.
- before 1890 Germany was not interested in getting colonies outside Europe but after 1890
Germany became interested in overseas colonies.
- this led to conflicts with other countries such as France.

Austria-Hungary
- before 1914 Austria-Hungary was a very big empire made up several races like the Poles,
Serbs, Czechs, Croats, Hungarians, Germans, Ruthenians, among others.
- Austria-Hungary was also known as Hapsburg empire and ruled oppressively over its subjects
especially the Slav people in the Balkan region.
- the harsh rule of the Hapsburgs in the Balkan region led to Balkan nationalism.
- when many European states were getting overseas territories, Austria-Hungary did not seek
overseas colonies.

Hapsburg Interests

- before 1914 Austria-Hungary was interested in keeping her empire intact.

- she was determined to suppress nationalism of the many subject peoples to prevent the break
up of the empire.
- Austria-Hungary sought expansion into the Balkans but she faced resistance from Serbia and
Russia.
- Austria-Hungary was therefore anxious to ensure that Serbia should not become too strong as
to resist Hapsburg's expansion into the Balkans.
- therefore, Austria-Hungary hoped to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina to avoid creation of the
state of Yugoslavia by Serbia.

FRANCE
- after 1871 France no longer enjoyed great power status after her defeat by Prussia in the
Franco-Prussian war between 1870-1.
- the defeat of France by Prussia not only weakened her but humiliated her.
- France lost pride because she was forced to pay huge compensation to the new state of Germany.

- France was also forced to surrender two provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to
Germany after the 1871 defeat.

France's interests
- France's maim aim was to undertake a war of revenge on Germany and reclaim her lost provinces of
Alsace and Lorraine.
- France wanted to build a strong empire to compensate for the loss of Alsace and Lorraine.
- she also hoped to acquire a lot of territories in Africa so as to regain her pride and greatness.
- France also hoped to increase her influence in the Mediterranean region to boost her naval and
trade interests.

RUSSIA
- it was a very big country in terms of territory.
- it had huge manpower and natural resources but its government was incompetent and bad.
- the army was very big but poorly trained and poorly equipped.
- the industry was still backward and the government led by the Tsar/Czar was very corrupt and
oppressive.

Russia's interests
- Russia had many interests in the Balkan region and therefore supported the Slavs.
- the Tsar was the head of the Orthodox Christian Church which dominated the Slav states.
- Russia hoped to support Slav states to gain independence from both Austria-Hungary and
Turkey.
- this would give Russia control of the Balkan states.
- Russia also wanted to dominate the Balkan region in order to have access to the warm waters
of the South, through the Straits of Dardanelles and Bosphorus down to the Mediterranean.
- Russia wanted to promote her trade all year round to deal with the problem of freezing ports in
the North during winter.

SERBIA
- Serbia was one of the leading Balkan states.
- although small and powerless, Serbia wanted all Slav states to gain independence from Turkey
and Austria-Hungary.
- Serbia hoped to promote Pan-Slavism or unity of the Slavs so as to defend their territorial
integrity against especially Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
- Serbia also hoped to join Bosnia, Herzegovina and other Southern parts of the Balkans to form
a larger Slavic state called Yugoslavia.
- but Serbian interests led to tension and conflicts with Austria-Hungary and Turkey thereby
producing crises in the Balkans.

TURKEY
- from mid 19th Century up to the eve of World War One, Turkey was falling apart.
- Turkey was once a powerful empire also known as the Ottoman Empire.
- between 1800-1914, Turkey lost a lot of territories as subject peoples declared their
independence.
- because Turkey was failing to hold its empire together, it was nicknamed the "Sick man of
Europe".

- Turkey was trying to avoid continual disintegration of her empire by refusing to give
independence to those Slavs still under Ottoman Empire.
- this resulted in Slav nationalism and outbreak of World War One.

WORLD WAR 1 (1914 - 1918)

Causes of World War One

- the causes of World War One (WW1) can be divided into two groups namely long term causes
or underlying causes and short term causes.
Long Term Causes
- The System of Alliances
- Colonial Rivalry
- Arms Race
- Naval Race
- Balkan Nationalism
- Schlieffen Plan
- Continual Disintegration of the Turkish Empire
- Franco-German hostility
- The First Moroccan Crisis

- Bosnian Crisis

Short Term Causes

- The Second Moroccan Crisis, 1911

- Balkan Wars, 1912 and 1913

- Sarajevo Incident, 1914

The Long Term Causes

The System of Alliances
- the Alliance system was started as early as 1872 by Otto von Bismarck with the formation of
the Dreikaiserbund also known as the Three Emperors League.
- Bismarck was the Chancellor in Germany after the German Unification in 1871.
- after the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71, Bismarck's main aim was to
isolate France and prevent her from waging a war of revenge and reclaim the lost provinces of
Alsace and Lorraine.

# The Dreikaiserbund, 1872

- the League of Three Emperors was signed by three countries namely Germany, Russia and
Austria-Hungary.
- the three Emperors were Kaiser William 1 of Germany, Tsar Alexander 11 of Russia and
Francis Joseph of Austria-Hungary.
Terms of the Dreikaiserbund
The three Emperors agreed
- to stand together against republicanism and communism
- to consult each other about military matters
- to consult each other about the Balkans

# The Dual Alliance, 1879

- the Dual Alliance was established in 1879 by Germany and Austria-Hungary.
- it was a defensive military alliance directed against Russia

Terms of the Dual Alliance

- Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to support each other if either of them was attacked by
Russia.
- the two agreed to be neutral when either of them was attacked by another country which was
not Russia.

Effects of the Dual Alliance

- the Dual Alliance made Austria-Hungary believe that Germany will always support her whatever
happened.
- it made Germany obliged to help Austria-Hungary whenever she needed help.
- but Bismarck still hoped to keep Austria-Hungary and Russia on good terms so this led to
renewal of the Dreikaiserbund.

# The Renewed Dreikaiserbund, 1881

- Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary renewed the Three Emperors League in 1881.

- the three Emperors agreed to remain neutral if either of them was attacked by a fourth power.

# The Triple Alliance, 1882

- the Triple Alliance was signed in 1882 by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
- it was an extension of the Dual Alliance when Italy joined Germany and Austria-Hungary.
- Italy joined the Dual Alliance because she was not happy with French expansion in North
Africa.
- this put French interest over Tunisia at conflict with Italy who was also interested in Tunisia.
- France eventually got Tunisia but this angered Italy who turned to the enemies of France for
help.
- so Italy reached a defensive alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany in 1882.

Terms of the Triple Alliance

- Italy agreed to help Germany and Austria-Hungary if either of them was attacked by France.
- Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to assist Italy if Italy was attacked by France.
- Italy would remain neutral in a war involving Britain.
- Italy and Austria-Hungary agreed to assist Germany if Germany was attacked by Russia and
another power.

Effects of the Triple Alliance

- the Triple Alliance promoted aggression because members were confident of strength in
numbers.
- it forced other states to form an opposing group which divided Europe into two hostile camps.
- this promoted enmity and grudges in Europe.
- Turkey and Bulgaria joined the Triple Alliance in 1914 and 1915 respectively.
- however, Italy did not take the alliance seriously because she hated Austria-Hungary far more
than she hated France.

- instead, Italy later joined WW1 in 1915 on the side of the Triple Entente.

# The Reinsurance Treaty, 1887

- it was signed between Germany and Russia in 1887.
- the treaty aimed at keeping Russia within the sight of Germany so that Russia would not turn
to France.

Terms of the Reinsurance

- Russia promised that she had no aim of controlling Bulgaria.
- Russia and Germany agreed to remain neutral if either of them was involved in war with
another country which was not France or Austria-Hungary.
- Russia and Germany agreed to renew the treaty after every three years.
- but in 1890 the Reinsurance Treaty was not renewed because the new Kaiser William 11 fired

Bismarck in 1890.
- this allowed France to look for allies because William 11 was not worried about isolating
France

# The Franco-Russian Alliance, 1894

- when Germany ignored the renewal of the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1890, it forced
Russia to look for alternative friends.

- more so, Russia no longer trusted Germany because Germany continued to support
Austria-Hungary against Russia in the Balkans.
- meanwhile, France felt pressurised to look for an ally due to her colonial conflicts with Italy and
Britain.
- friendly relations between Russia and France started in 1888 when France gave Russia loans
after Germany had refused to assist Russia with the loans.
- in 1891 Russia and France signed an agreement for general cooperation.
- in 1893 they reached an agreement for military cooperation which was turned into a military
alliance in 1894.
- the alliance was directed primarily against Italy and Germany.

Terms of the Franco-Russian Alliance

- Russia agreed to support France if France was attacked by either Germany or Italy.
- France agreed to support Russia if Russia was attacked by Germany or Austria-Hungary.
- if the Triple Alliance began preparing for war, both France and Russia would also mobilise for
war.

Effects of the Franco-Russian Alliance

- it increased Russian determination to resist Austria-Hungary's expansion in the Balkans.
- this created more tension between Russia and Austria-Hungary.
- the Franco-Russian Alliance made Germany insecure so she increased her arms of war to

defend herself against the two friends.

- the Franco-Russian Alliance promoted arms race with the Triple Alliance thereby leading to
aggression.
- Germany vowed to crush the Franco-Russian Alliance.
- the Franco-Russian Alliance prompted Germany to devise and adopt the Schlieffen Plan as a
war plan for the defeat of Russia and France.
- the war plan made Germany more aggressive towards Russia and France.
# The Anglo-Japanese Agreement, 1902
- it was signed between Britain and Japan in 1902.
- Britain wanted Japan to help her check Russia's expansion in the Far East.

Terms of the Anglo-Japanese Agreement

- Japan and Britain agreed to be neutral if either of them was in a war to maintain the current
situation in the Far East.
- if either of them was involved in war with one power, the other would remain neutral.
- if either of them was involved in war with two powers, the other would join.
- Britain recognised Japan's interests in Korea.

Effects of the Anglo-Japanese Agreement

- it ended British policy of splendid isolation

- it warned both Germany and Russia against further exapansion in the Far East

# The Entente Cordiale, 1904

- the Entente Cordiale was signed between Britain and France in 1904.
- relations between Britain and France had been bad ever since Britain occupied Egypt where
France had interests.
- the tension over Egypt had been increased in the Fashoda Incident where war almost broke out
between them.
- but when France looked for support against Britain from other European powers, no country
assisted France.
- France finally realised that rivalry with Britain did not pay.
- Britain also hated France for France's alliance with Russia who was an enemy of Britain.
- but Britain and France began to find common ground.

- both countries felt threatened by Germany's ambitions.

- both saw Germany as their main rival.

- therefore, setting aside their differences, the British and French Foreign Ministers opened
discussions for friendly understanding.
- the negotiations for the alliance started in January 1902 and after settling all outstanding
disputes, Britain and France signed the Entente Cordiale in April 1904.
Terms of the Entente Cordiale
- Britain recognised French claims over Senegal and Madagascar.
- Britain recognised French claims in Morocco.
- France recognised British claims over Thailand and Newfoundland.
- France recognised British claims in Egypt.

Effects of the Entente Cordiale

- though not a military alliance, it brought France and Britain closer.
- this would force them to fight for each other if war came.

- it made Germany aggressive and challenged French interests in Morocco thereby leading to the
Tangier crisis in 1905.
- it lay the foundation for the Triple Entente which eventually divided Europe into two hostile
camps.

# The Anglo-Russian Entente, 1907

- Russia and Britain were more hostile to each other than Britain and France were.
- Britain regarded Russia's expansionist ambitions in the Far East as threat to the British empire.
- Russia was expanding into Afghanistan, Manchuria and Korea, threatening British interests in
India and in China.
- Russia blamed Britain for blocking Russian expansion to a warm water port which her ships could use in
winter since Russia's northern ports froze during winter.
- Russia and British interests clashed in East Mediterranean, North Indian Ocean, Persia, China
and Afghanistan.

- but when Britain's ally Japan defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-5, the danger
of conflict with Britain declined.
- both Britain and Russia began to see the possibility of cooperation.

- both Russia and Britain saw Germany as their rival.

- Russia wanted Britain's support in the Balkans and to be assisted modernising its industries.
- also the Algeciras Conference of 1906 helped bring the Russia and Britain together as both
sided with France against Germany.
- more so, France encouraged Russia and Britain to iron out their differences.
- after making several compromises, Britain and Russia signed the Anglo- Russo Entente in
1907.

Terms of the Anglo-Russian Convention

- Britain was to control foreign affairs of Afghanistan.
- Britain and Russia agreed to have equal trading rights in Afghanistan.
- the two agreed to have a recognised Indian Ocean frontier.
- Persia was divided into three zones with Russia controlling the north zone while Britain
controlled the south zone and the Gulf.
- they agreed that neither of them would interfere in Tibet's internal affairs.

Effects of the Anglo-Russian Convention

- it ultimately led to Triple Entente which divided Europe into two hostile camps.
- it forced Germany to be more aggressive towards Russia.

# The Triple Entente, 1907

- at the encouragement of France Russia joined the Entente Cordiale of Britain and France.
- this led to the formation of the Triple Entente in 1907.

Terms of the Triple Entente

- the three countries agreed to work together.

- the three agreed not to interfere in Tibet's internal affairs.

- they agreed to recognise China's independence.

Effects of Triple Entente

- although the Triple Entente was not a military alliance, by 1912 the three powers were ready to
fight for each other if war came.
- the Triple Entente completed the division of Europe into two camps.
- it forced Germany to improve her military organisation as she realised that she was now
encircled by her enemies.

Effects of the Alliance System

- it divided Europe into two armed camps which resulted in a general war in 1914.
- this was so because an armed attack on a group member meant an armed attack on the whole
group.
- the alliance system made it impossible to localise war if two countries from opposing camps
got involved in war.
- the alliance system also promoted hostility and suspicions on each other.
- alliance system encouraged arms race as each side sought to outcompete the other.
- this led to aggression and disrespect among the powers.
- it was this aggression which prompted Austria-Hungary to treat Serbia harshly which led to
WW1 in 1914.

How did Britain abandon the policy of Splendid Isolation?

- Britain signed agreements with Japan, France and Russia.
- in 1902 Japan and Britain agreed to assist each other if either of them was attacked by two or
more countries.
- Britain again signed an agreement with France in 1904.
- it was a friendship agreement and not a military agreement.
- France and Britain wanted to cooperate in colonial matters so as to protect their interests.
- Britain further abandoned the policy of splendid isolation by making an entente with Russia in
1907 to deal with their conflicts in the Far East and Mediterranean.
- Britain finally abandoned splendid isolation by becoming a member of the Triple Entente with

Russia and France in 1907 in which the three agreed to work together.

Why did Britain abandon the policy of splendid isolation?

- splendid isolation was no longer splendid but dangerous to Britain.
- all major powers were now aligned to different alliances.
- also, events in the world showed the need for allies and not individual survival.
- Britain left splendid isolation to end colonial competition with France over Egypt.
- Britain also abandoned splendid isolation because she feared Russian expansion in the Far
East.
- to add to that, Britain wanted allies to deal with Germany who was challenging British naval
control of the world.
- also, Germany was challenging British dominance of world trade.
- Britain wanted to fight German industrial competition and competition for markets where
Britain would need allies to succeed.

2. Colonial Rivalry
- competition for colonies between European powers caused World War One in the long run.
- this competition was partly as a result of their need to control trade markets.
- from 1880 onwards competition was heavy in Africa, Asia and the Pacific.
- colonies were associated with wealth, growth, power and survival of the imperial country.
- but the colonial race led to a lot of conflicts among European powers.
- conflicts were seen in the Moroccan crises in which near conditions of war were created as
Britain, Spain, Russia, Italy and Portugal all sided with France against Germany in the crises.
- there were conflicts in Egypt between France and Britain.
- there were conflicts over control of the Balkans among Austria-Hungary, Russia, Turkey and
Serbia.
- Britain competed with Holland, Portugal, and Germany for colonies in Southern Africa.
- there were also colonial problems in the Far East involving Britain, Russia, Japan and China.

Effects of Colonial Rivalry

- it led to tension among competing powers.
- it led to grudges that eventually were solved through war in 1914.
- colonial rivalry promoted militarism as countries sought military power to outcompete other
powers.
- militarism thus brought aggression and provocation among the competing powers.
- colonial competition encouraged alliances and division of Europe which promoted hostilities
among the competing powers.

3. Arms Race
- after the division of Europe into two camps a stiff arms competition followed.
- Germany believed that France, Russia and Britain were encircling her.
- so Germany began to build arms of war to defend not only herself but her allies especially
Austria-Hungary.
- furthermore, the Franco-German hostility which had started after the
defeat of France by Prussia was further worsened by the Russo-French Alliance of 1894.
- France and her allies also undertook strong militarisation because they believed that German
military power was tilting the balance of power in her favour.
- European states trained a lot of soldiers and military reserves.
- France and Russia introduced compulsory military service.
- German army was increased to five million men.
- following the alarming stock piles of arms in Europe, conferences were held at the Hague in
1899 and 1907.
- the meetings were aimed at reducing the heaps of arms but very little was achieved.
- as a result arms race continued unabated.

Effects of Arms Race

- arms competition increased insecurity among nations.
- there was uncertainty among nations due to fear of invasions.
- arms competition strengthened the alliance system as allies produced weapons to defend
their camp and threaten their enemies.
- arms race also promoted aggression and disrespect of other states.
- it also led to recklessness of European states especially Austria-Hungary and Germany.
- the recklessness of these powers eventually led to WW1.

4. Naval Competition
- as arms race increased in Europe so did ships of war.
- European countries were involved in a naval race by increasing the ships of war they had.
- Britain declared that her navy should be stronger than any two navies put together.
- this angered Germany who passed navy laws to treble her ships of war yearly.
- after 1890 Germany began constructing the Kiel canal to connect the Baltic Sea and the North
Sea.

- thereafter, a strong competition to build warships between Germany and Britain followed and it
increased after 1897.
- in 1898 to 1902 Britain tried to make naval agreements with Germany but nothing was
concluded.
- when Britain introduced the Dreadnought in 1906, Germany followed suit in 1907.
- Britain felt threatened by the German competition in a field where she always had been
supreme.
- therefore, Britain decided for example to build three Dreadnoughts for every two German
Dreadnoughts.
- by 1914 Britain had twenty-six Dreadnoughts while Germany had twenty.

Effects of Naval Competition

- naval competition drew Britain and Germany further apart.

- the naval competition resulted in arrangements between France and Britain in 1912 and 1913
that Britain would defend the North Sea while France would defend the Mediterranean Sea if war
came.
- the Entente Cordiale thus became a military alliance.
- naval race also worsened relations between Britain and Germany and by extension the Triple
Entente and Triple Alliance.
- Britain expected to end German competition through war.

5. Balkan Nationalism
- nationalism in the Balkans centred around two empires namely Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
- the Balkans were fighting for independence from Turkey and Austria-Hungary.
- in 1875 the Slavs, led by Macedonia and the Bulgars organised an uprising against Turkey.
- supported by Russia, the Balkan Slavs defeated Turkey and forced her to sign the treaty of San
Stefano in 1877.
- they redrew boundaries and created a very big Bulgaria.
- but the big powers called for another congress to revise the San Stefano.
- at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 the big Bulgaria was destroyed much to the annoyance of the
Slavs and Russia.
- this increased their nationalism against Turkey and Austria-Hungary.
- but none of the Balkan states was strong enough to attack either Turkey or Austria-Hungary
and win without assistance.
- Serbia encouraged Pan-slavism hoping to unite all Slavs in the southern states and form one
country called Yugoslavia.
- after 1900 several events marked the worsening of relations between Russia and Serbia
versus Austria-Hungary and Germany.
- in 1912 the Slavs formed the Balkan League to challenge Turkey and Austria-Hungary.

Effects of Balkan Nationalism

- the 1878 Congress of Berlin sowed seeds of future Slav rebellion against Austria-Hungary and
Turkey.
- the Berlin Congress returned Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina to Turkey, but Herzegovina
and Bosnia were to be administered by Austria-Hungary.
- this led to the Bosnian crisis in 1908 which created more tension between Austria-Hungary and
Serbia which ultimately led to WW1.
- Balkan nationalism brought Serbia and Russia together thereby making Serbia confident
enough to challenge Austria-Hungary.
- Balkan nationalism divided the big powers with Germany supporting Austria-Hungary while
Russia supported Serbia.
- Balkan nationalism led to Balkan wars in 1912 and 1913.

6. The Schlieffen Plan

- after Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894 was discovered by Germany, she viewed it as an aggressive
alliance aimed at the invasion of Germany from two fronts East and West.
- this would force Germany to divide her armies into two groups, one half to the East to fight
Russia and the other half to the West to fight France.
- to deal with this threat the German military Chief of Staff General von Schlieffen drew up a
detailed plan in 1905 for the event of war with France and Russia.
- the plan was revised yearly and finally adopted in 1910 as the German war plan.
- the plan avoided war against France and Russia at the same time.
- the plan indicated that Germany would fight France first, then Russia next.
- the plan indicated that one million and five hundred thousand German soldiers were needed for
the French invasion and defeat France within six weeks.
- this was the main thrust referred to as the 'right flank' or 'Hammer Head'.
- the 1500 000 German soldiers would attack through Belgium and defeat her inside nineteen
days.
- movement of German soldiers would be rapid enhanced by railway transportation.
- the right flank would then swing like a hammer head from the north of France and capture

Paris in the south.

- a smaller German army would attack into France from the left flank and would move up and
help encircle Paris from the south.
- as invasion of France would be underway, 450 000 German soldiers would be sent to hold
Russia in the East.
- after defeating France, soldiers would be moved from the West to fight Russia in the East.
- the plan indicated that Germany had to occupy the channel ports before England could help
France and Belgium.
- the Schlieffen plan assumed that Britain would stay out of the war.
- it also assumed that Russia would take time to mobilise for war thereby giving Germany time
to defeat France.

Effects of the Schlieffen Plan

- the Schlieffen plan increased German aggression and provocativeness.
- so Germany became eager to fulfil the Schlieffen plan at all costs, confident of winning in the
war she believed was coming.
- the plan encouraged German militarisation which forced her to support Austria-Hungary
against Serbia thereby leading to war.
- again, when the Schlieffen plan was applied, it dragged other powers into a wider conflict.

7. Continual Disintegration of the Turkish Empire

- the Turkish or Ottoman Empire had been a mighty empire before 1800.
- but in the 19th century several parts of the Ottoman empire began breaking away.
- the disintegration made Turkey a laughing stock and was nicknamed 'The Sickman of Europe'.
- Turkey became a liability to the other big powers who started competing to take over parts that
were breaking away from the Ottoman empire.
- but the big powers like France, Britain, Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia disputed each
other over the Turkish territories.
- there were disputes in North Africa between Turkey, France and Italy.
- more disputes were recorded in the Balkan region where Turkey conflicted with Russia, Serbia
and Austria-Hungary.
- Turkey was now faced with the problem of trying to keep what remained of her empire and to
bring about unity.

Effects of Continual Disintegration of Ottoman Empire

- it encouraged Austria-Hungary's desire to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina.
- but Hapsburg's determination led to the Bosnian crisis which produced WW1.
- Austria-Hungary became anxious to crash Serbia in order to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina.
- this led to Sarajevo murders and WW1.
- disintegration of Turkish empire strengthened alliances which eventually led to WW1.

8. Franco-German Hostility
- hostility between France and Germany started after the defeat of France by Prussia in 1871.
- France lost Alsace and Lorraine to the newly united Germany.
- France hoped to reclaim the two provinces in a war of revenge but Germany ensured that
France was kept isolated and weakened.
- Franco-German hostility was seen after France's alliance with Russia in 1894.
- thereafter, Germany began taking measures to deal with the Franco-Russian alliance.
- enmity between France and Germany was witnessed again in Africa where Germany
pressurised France to surrender part of her African colonies to Germany.
- this led to the First and Second Moroccan crises in 1905 and 1911 respectively.

Effects of the Franco-German Hostility.

- Franco-German hostility led to division of Europe into two military camps, Triple Entente and
Triple Alliance.
- the two camps' hatred finally produced WW1.
- it made France vengeful as it put in place Plan XV11 for invasion of Germany to reclaim
Alsace-Lorraine.
- Franco-German enmity also encouraged competition between Germany and Britain which

finally led to WW1.

- Franco-German hostility encouraged Germany to devise the Schlieffen plan to defeat France
and Russia.
- the plan led to WW1 in 1914.

9. The First Moroccan Crisis/The Tangier Crisis, 1905

- France had shown clear interest in Morocco and aimed at making it part of French empire.
- France had even signed a secret agreement with Italy in 1900 and Spain in 1904 to get support
of these countries over Morocco.
- but when in 1904 France made an agreement with Britain over Morocco, kaiser William
determined to challenge it.
- in 1905 kaiser William 11 paid a personal visit to Tangier in Morocco and challenged French
interests in his speeches.
- Kaiser William 11 proclaimed that the Sultan of Morocco was free and independent.
- he further stated that all European powers had equal rights in Morocco but under the Sultan.
- the kaiser also stated that Germany had great and growing interests in Morocco.
- the kaiser declared that Germany was determined to safeguard the Moroccans and maintain
the independence of the Sultan.
- the kaiser went on and demanded for an international conference over Morocco.
- the kaiser's speech stunned the European powers but France knew she had support of many
European countries.
- the kaiser's speech bred the First Moroccan crisis which forced the big powers to call for an
international conference in Spain at Algeciras in 1906.

The Algeciras Conference

- it was held in Spain in 1906 to solve the Tangier Crisis.
- at the conference France was supported by Britain, Russia, Spain, Italy and other smaller
powers against Germany.

- together with Spain France was given control and to keep peace in Morocco.
- Britain, France, Spain and Germany were given joint control of the Bank of Morocco.

Effects of the Tangier Crisis

- it was a diplomatic victory for France who took further steps for the colonisation of Morocco.
- it worsened relations among the great powers.
- there was danger of war between France and Germany which would drag other powers.
- Germany vowed to avenge her humiliation at Algeciras.
- the aggressive German diplomacy in the First Moroccan Crisis forced Britain, France and
Russia to come together more closely and they formed the Triple Entente in 1907.
- this led to division of Europe into two hostile camps which eventually led to WW1 in 1914.

10. The Bosnian Crisis, 1908

- the 1908 crisis in Bosnia had roots in the Congress of Berlin of 1878.
- through the 1878 Congress of Berlin Bosnia and Herzegovina remained under Ottoman empire
but administered by Austria-Hungary.
- in 1908 there was a revolution in Turkey called the Young Turk Revolution.
- the Young Turks aimed at overthrowing the Sultan and bring about liberal changes.
- the Young Turks wanted to make Turkish empire strong by reclaiming all her former territories.

- if that happened, Austria-Hungary would lose Bosnia and Herzegovina, which she decided to avoid.
- Austria-Hungary and Russia took advantage of this revolution to make a deal against Turkey.
- Russia would get the straits of Bosphorus and Dardanelles while Austria-Hungary would gain
complete control of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
- but before the deal was finalised Austria-Hungary quickly annexed Bosnia and
Herzegovina much to the disappointment of Russia.
- Serbia mobilised her troops against Austria-Hungary while Russia threatened to support
Serbia.

- Germany moved in and threatened to attack Russia if she supported Serbia.

- there was danger that France and Britain could join to support Russia but due to German
pressure Russia backed down.

- Russia was still weak after her defeat by Japan in the 1904-05 Russo-Japanese war.
- Austria-Hungary kept Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Effects of the Bosnian Crisis

- Russia suffered a diplomatic defeat so increased her military power.
- Russia determined to gain influence in the Balkans by supporting Serbia more than before.
- it proved German total support of Austria-Hungary so Austria-Hungary began to pursue a far
more reckless Balkan policy.
- relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary became strained as Serbia lost Bosnia and
Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary.
- as a result Serbia encouraged terrorism against Austria-Hungary in Bosnia.
- this led to assassination of Hapsburg's Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914 thereby
starting WW1.
- since Serbia's ambitions to get Bosnia and Herzegovina had been crushed she turned
southwards to Macedonia.
- this increased enmity between Serbia and Bulgaria which eventually produced the Second
Balkan war in 1913.

Short Term Causes

1. The Second Moroccan Crisis/The Agadir Crisis/The Panther Crisis, 1911
- in 1911 there was an uprising in Fez against the new Sultan in Morocco.
- France sent an army into the Moroccan capital Fez to protect European residents.
- France explained the situation to the other European powers.
- Britain accepted the explanation but Germany saw France's move as a step towards French
colonisation of Morocco.
- therefore kaiser William 11 sent a gunboat, the "Panther" to Agadir thereby starting the Panther
or Agadir Crisis.
- Britain saw the "Panther" at Agadir as a ploy by Germany to establish a naval base in the
Mediterranean Sea.
- to Britain, this would be a challenge to British naval base at Gibraltar.
- so Britain sent her battle ships to protect her Mediterranean interests.
- David L George of Britain warned Germany that Britain would not stand aside over Morocco.
- Germany realised that she had lost Morocco but wanted some territorial compensation from
France elsewhere in Africa.

- the Kaiser William II demanded a conference with France to settle the crisis.
- so in November 1911 Germany and France signed an agreement by which France acquired
Morocco.
- Germany was given some territory in French Equitorial Africa and the territory became part of
German Cameroon.

Effects of the Agadir Crisis

- Germany's aggressive foreign policy frightened other European powers especially the Triple
Entente.
- Triple Entente became convinced that Germany wanted to dominate the world so had to be
checked.
- the Panther Crisis increased tension between Germany and France.
- Britain reacted to the Second Moroccan Crisis by strengthening her naval disposition in the North Sea
and Mediterranean.
- France and Russia introduced compulsory military service in readiness for war.
- the Agadir Crisis brought France and Britain closer by making a military agreement in 1912
where Britain would defend the North Sea while France would defend the Mediterranean if war
came.

2. The Balkan Wars

# The First Balkan War, 1912
- the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 had encouraged increased persecution of Christians in
Macedonia by Turkey.
- the Young Turk government was harsh and tried to introduce one national language, a
common law and forced military service.
- this cruelty aroused further Balkan nationalism thereby encouraging Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia
and Montenegro to form the Balkan League in 1912 against Turkey.

- the Balkan League was supported by Russia and in 1912 declared war on Turkey.
- the Balkan League defeated Turkey who was forced to sue for peace.
- a peace conference was held in London to end the war.
- the Conference of London established the new state of Albania.
- Albania was created to stop Serbia from getting access to sea.
- Greece got a big part of Macedonia while Serbia got more territories.
Effects of the First Balkan War
- Austria-Hungary managed to block Serbia's access to sea.
- this increased tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary.
- the quick victorious war against Turkey encouraged Serbia to feel able to challenge
Austria-Hungary.
- it led to Second Balkan war in 1913 as Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece over Macedonia.

# The Second Balkan War, 1913

- soon after the conference of London, the Balkan League broke up.
- Bulgaria was so angry as she gained very little territory in Macedonia.
- Bulgaria believed that she had done most of the fighting against Turkey yet got nothing.

- she targeted Serbia who had gained much territories especially in Macedonia where Bulgaria had
expected to gain territory.
- so Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece in June 1913.
- Turkey and Romania joined the war against Bulgaria.
- Turkey wanted to regain the losses of the First Balkan War.
- the war ended with the defeat of Bulgaria, leading to the treaty of Bucharest.

Treaty of Bucharest
- Turkey lost most of her lands but kept Eastern Thrace.
- Romania got Pobruja

- Bulgaria acquired a small strip of Macedonia and was given access to sea.
- Macedonia was shared between Serbia and Greece.

To what extent did the Balkan Wars contribute o the outbreak of World War One in 1914?

- they increased tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary.

- Serbia increased its territorial gains so became confident and aggressive.
- Austria-Hungary still determined to keep Serbia landlocked and waited for a chance to crush
Serbia and Slav nationalism.
- Serbia promoted propaganda and terrorist secret organisations against Austria-Hungary in the
Balkans.
- this later led to the Sarajevo Assassination which provoked WW1.
- relations between Russia and Austria-Hungary became worse as Russia supported Serbia and
Slav nationalism.
However other causes led to WW1
- the alliance system divided Europe into two hostile camps which led to WW1 in 1914.
- arms race encouraged aggression.
- naval race created tension between Germany and Britain which led to WW1.
- continual disintegration of Ottoman empire led to clashes among big powers which led to war
in 1914.
- Schlieffen Plan also encouraged German desire for war and provoked war in 1914.
3. The Sarajevo Assassination, June 1914
- Archduke Franz Ferdinand heir to the Hapsburg throne undertook a tour of Bosnia in June
1914.
- but on 28 June 1914 he and his wife were assassinated by a Bosnian student Gavrillo Princip
at Sarajevo, the Bosnian capital.
- Princip belonged to a secret Bosnian nationalist organisation known as the Black Hand.

- even the pistol used to shoot the Archduke was supplied by the Black Hand.
- Austria-Hungary got an excuse for war by accusing Serbia of hatching the plan to kill Franz
Ferdinand.
- but for three weeks Austria-Hungary delayed taking action against Serbia waiting for guarantee
of Germany's support.
- when Germany finally promised support for Austria-Hungary, Austria-Hungary then sent an
ultimatum to Serbia on 23 July 1914 demanding a satisfactory answer within forty-eight hours.
- Austria-Hungary's ultimatum demanded that:
1. Serbia must stop propaganda against Austria-Hungary.
2. Serbia must dismiss all officials named by Austria-Hungary.
3. Serbia must allow Austria-Hungarian police and officials into Serbia to investigate the crime
of Sarajevo.
- Serbia accepted the first two demands but turned down the third demand.
- Serbia suggested that the matter be referred to an international conference of the big powers
or to the International Court of Justice.
- when Serbia's response was made known to Austria-Hungary, Austria-Hungary declared war on
Serbia on 28 July 1914 with full support from Germany.

How far did the Sarajevo Murder contribute to the outbreak of the First World War in 1914?

It contributed
- the Sarajevo Murder increased tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary.
- it also heightened feelings of Slav nationalism.
- it became the match stick that lit the fire of war.
- the Sarajevo Murder showed the extent of Germany's support for Austria-Hungary.
- it also showed the extent of Russia's support of Serbia.
- the Sarajevo Incident increased tension between Triple Entente and Triple Alliance.
- Austria-Hungary finally found the excuse to attack Serbia.

However there were other factors

- Balkan wars
- arms race
- naval competition
- colonial rivalry
- disintegration of Ottoman empire
- Moroccan crises

Order of Events of the Sarajevo Incident and outbreak of WW1

- on 28 June Franz Ferdinand was murdered in Sarajevo.
- on 23 July 1914 Austria-Hungary sent an ultimatum to Serbia which was turned down.
- on 28 July 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and attacked Belgrade.
- on 29 July 1914 Russia mobilised her forces to support Serbia.
- Germany ordered Russia to demobilise but Russia refused.
- on 1 August 1914 Germany declared war on Russia and began to move her forces towards
France and Belgium to effect the Schlieffen Plan.
- France began to mobilise her forces on 2 August 1914 to support Russia and to defend
herself.
- Germany ordered France to demobilise but France refused.
- on 3 August 1914 Germany declared war on France and invaded Belgium to fulfil the Schlieffen
plan.
- Britain ordered Germany to withdraw from Belgium but Germany refused.
- so on 4 August 1914 Britain declared war on Germany.

Course of World War One/Events of World War One

- from August 1914 when war started Germany and her allies were referred to as the Central Powers.

Central Powers

Germany Austria-Hungary Turkey Bulgaria

- the Triple Entente became known as the Allied Powers.

- the countries that joined war on the side of the Allied Powers were referred to as the
Associated Powers.
The Allied Powers
Britain France Russia
Examples of Associated Powers
United Sates of America Italy India Canada Brazil

Japan Australia South Africa Greece Serbia New Zealand

Belgium Portugal

Fronts of World War 1

- Western Front
- Eastern Front
- Italian-Austrian Front
- Turkish Front
- Balkan Front

War in the Western Front

- when war broke out in August 1914 Germany moved quickly to implement the Schlieffen Plan.
- it was the German "Hammer Plan" meant to swing in full force through Belgium and capture
Paris within six weeks.
- as such German armies swiftly invaded into Belgium and captured Liege after a brief siege, which
however, delayed German advance.

- the Belgian forces were forced to retreat to Antwerp.

- with 250 000 French soldiers General Joffre faced the German advance on the Belgian border.

- the French army was defeated and it retreated.

- but in Belgium German forces' rapid progress was retarded by the Belgians who resisted
heroically.
- Belgian resistance bought time for Britain and France to mobilise.
- Britain sent the British Expeditionary Force (B. E. F) which landed in Belgium on 21 August and went to
meet the advancing Germans who were about to overrun the Belgians.

- but at the Battle of Mons on 23 August, the British army was forced to retreat.
- the arrival of the British forces further delayed German advance and also denied the Germans chance
of occupying the Channel ports.
- at the Battle of Antwerp the BEF forestalled German advance.
- German armies were tiring and beginning to run out of steady supply of food.
- German progress was also affected by the fact that General Moltke had reduced the number of
German forces invading through Belgium.
- worse still, Moltke received bad news that Russia had quickly mobilised and attacked Eastern
Prussia.

- this made Moltke to panic and send more troops to the Eastern Front to fight Russian forces.
- this further weakened German power in the Western Front.
- so General von Cluck decided to take a shorter cut, east directly towards Paris.
- despite the setbacks, still von Cluck's German army advanced to within twenty miles of Paris.
- but in doing so von Kluck's First Army became separated from Bulow's Second Army which
gave back-up support.

The Battle of Marne

- since von Cluck's army had separated from the Second Army, General Joffre of France decided
to position a French army in between the two German armies thereby leading to the Battle of
Marne from 6 - 11 September 1914.
- with assistance from the BEF, General Joffre's army then made a counterattack on the German
armies.
- the Franco-British forces defeated the Germans and drove them from Marne to the Aisne River
on a line running from Verdun to Paris.
- sixty kilometres away from Marne, the Germans dug up trenches and from then until March
1918 trench warfare developed.

Effects of the Battle of Marne

- the Battle of Marne wrecked the Schlieffen Plan thereby ruining Germany's chances of winning
the war.

- German armies failed to encircle French armies as planned.

- the Battle of Marne forced Germany to fight war on two fronts, East and West, at the same
time.
- the Germans became outnumbered and as war dragged on Germany lost chances of winning
it.
- although Germany was in control of Belgium and Northern France, a knock out victory over
France was gone.
- after Battle of Marne Moltke fell sick and depressed and told the kaiser that Germany had lost
the war.
- far from accepting defeat, the kaiser relieved Moltke of his duties and replaced him with
Falkenhayn who became the new German Chief of Staff.

- the Battle of Marne led to a long deadlock caused by trench warfare in the Western front which ended
in October 1918.

Why did the Schlieffen Plan fail?

- when WW1 started the original Schlieffen Plan was changed as Germany invaded France
through Belgium.
- to begin with, Germany failed to defeat France inside six weeks because Germans were held,

first by the heroic Belgians for three weeks.

- the six weeks time frame was also wrecked when the Germans were defeated at Marne.
- the Schlieffen plan indicated that Russia would take time to mobilise, but that changed.
- when war broke out Russia quickly mobilised and attacked Germany from East Prussia.
- this forced Germany to fight war on two fronts which the plan sought to avoid.
- quick Russian mobilisation also forced Moltke to weaken the "Hammer Head" further by
sending more forces to fight Russia in the East.
- the original Schlieffen Plan assumed that Britain would not support Belgium but when
Germany attacked Belgium, Britain declared war on Germany.
- the plan also indicated that Germany would occupy the Channel ports but when Britain joined it
occupied the ports before Germany could.
- this gave the Allied forces constant supply of war material from Britain thereby thwarting the
Schlieffen Plan.
- the plan also failed because Moltke changed the original plan when he strengthened the left
flank at the expense of the right flank way before the start of the war.
- this weakened German power for the invasion of Belgium and France.

How successful was the Schlieffen Plan in achieving its aims?

It was successful
- it motivated Germany to declare war on Russia and France.

- Germany was able to enter Belgium.

- Germany nearly captured Paris.
- the French government was forced to flee from Paris.

However, the Schlieffen Plan was not successful

- it failed to achieve its aims due to mismanagement
- it was not successful because Britain captured the Channel ports and assisted Belgium and
France.
- Germany was forced to alter the plan because of Belgian resistance.
- it failed also because it did not stop Franco-Russian war against Germany at the same time.
- Germany failed to capture as well as failing to knock out France within six weeks.
- the plan failed because war dragged on four four years instead of ending by 25 December
1914 as planned.

The Trench Warfare, 1914 - 1918

- after the defeat of the German armies at Marne, they retreated beyond the river Aisne.
- instead of surrendering they dug up trenches and since then up to 1918 the heart and soul of
the war became trench warfare.
- in trench warfare one side occupied an area and dug hundreds of metres of trenches about
three metres deep.
- so as Germans dug up trenches, the British and French also dug up their trenches opposite
those of Germans.
- each side filled their trenches full of troops.
- front line trenches had support trenches behind them and finally reserve trenches in the rear.
- in between the two sets of trenches was a territory called "no man's land" because no side
owned it.
- they protected the trenches by rolling barbed wire along the side facing the enemy.
- the trenches were zigzagged to make it harder for enemy firepower from firing down the length
of the trench if one section was captured.

- two or three watch men were positioned out of view to listen for slight enemy movement.
- the the soldiers waited for the right moment to attack by going over the the top of the trench
and barbed wire and charge the enemy's trenches.
- as the attack happened, the result was death of soldiers in huge numbers on both sides.

Effects of trench warfare

- it demoralised soldiers as they spent a lot of time stuck in the pits.
- this psychologically affected a lot of soldiers and others went insane.
- it became a war of attrition as a lot of soldiers died in alarming numbers during attacks.
- a lot more soldiers died from diseases in the trenches.
- trench warfare led to a deadlock in the Western front.
- this dragged the war unnecessarily up to November 1918.

To what extent was trench warfare responsible for the long stalemate in the Western Front?

It led to a long stalemate

- trench warfare forced armies to defend themselves instead of attacking.

- it slowed down attacks which resulted in long stalemate.

- trench warfare led to deaths of large numbers of soldiers which forced leaders to become cautious
thereby minimising attacks on enemies.

- armies were forced to spend long periods of time without action.

- similar tactics and weapons were used so no side had advantage over the other.

- it was very difficult to break through the enemy defences.

- trench warfare was war of position not movement, which led to long stalemate.

However, other factors led to the long stalemate

- absence of effective use of airplanes prolonged the war.

- the war was fought on many fronts which divided power of armies.
- Allied forces failed to fight as a unit thereby reducing their power to match the German power

- failure of the Schlieffen plan forced the Germans to adopt new war plans thereby prolonging the war

Weapons used in trench warfare

- rifles machine guns

- artillery poisonous gas

- bayonets aeroplanes

- bombs grenades

Problems faced by soldiers in trench warfare

- human waste
- diseases
- shortage of food
- lack of drinking water
- homo sexuality
- trauma
- depression
- boredom
- homesickness
- loss of morale
- excessive heat in trenches
- excessive cold

- rain

Examples of diseases that affected soldiers in trenches

- flu tuberculosis
- diarrhoea dysentery
- malaria cholera
- rotting legs typhoid

New technology of warfare in WW1

- flame throwers
- radio
- tanks
- gas masks
- fighter planes
- poison gas

Weapons used in WW1

- machine guns
- bombs
- poison gas
- fighter planes
- bomber planes
- tanks
- grenades
- battle ships
- submarines

- cruisers

The Battle of Ypres

- it was one of the fearsome battles fought between Germany and Britain.
- it was fought in Belgium between October and November 1914.
- the Germans were driven five miles from their positions at Neuve Chapelle.
- the Germans made a counter attack and used poison gas for the first time.
- as Allies tried to make a counter attack a lot of their soldiers were killed.

- the British forces resorted to firing volleys of bullets from their trenches.
- as a result the British replaced Sir John French with General Haig.
- by the end of 1914 there was a deadlock in the Western front.

Battle of Verdun, 1916

- the year 1916 saw two huge battles at Verdun and on the Somme.
- the Verdun battle was between France and Germany.
- the German commander Falkenhayn decided to launch an offensive against the French
fortress town of Verdun.
- Verdun was the centre of the whole French defensive system.
- Falkenhayn knew that the attack on Verdun would force the French to rush and defend the
town to the last.
- Falkenhayn decided that as the French rushed to defend Verdun, the Germans would bleed
them white.
- on 21 February 1916 the Germans began a powerful artillery bombardment of Verdun.
- under the command of Marshal Petain the French poured in every reinforcement they could
get.
- Petain and the French defended Verdun and vowed that the Germans shall not pass.
- the German attack on Verdun went on for six months until the Germans were exhausted.
- the Germans failed to break Verdun.

Effects of the Battle of Verdun

- Germany lost heavily in terms of both manpower and material resources.
- the French won a huge defensive victory at Verdun.
- French resistance allowed Allied powers to pour in every reinforcement.
- the Verdun led to huge Allied offensive against Germans at Somme.
- Russian forces led by General Brusilov attacked Austria-Hungary in Galicia.

The Battle of Somme, July 1916

- while the Battle of Verdun was raging, the Allies launched a huge offensive against the
Germans at Somme.
- the aim of attacking the Somme was to relieve pressure on Verdun and stop German advance

towards Paris.
- from 1 July 1916, the British bombarded German lines for a week non-stop then opened the
attack along the Somme until November 1916.
- many soldiers died from both sides.
- the British introduced the tank for the first time but they were not effective as they got stuck in
the November mud.
- due to heavy British losses at Somme the British commander Haig was replaced.
- even the British Prime Minister Asquith was replaced by David L George in December 1916.
- by the time the Somme Battle ended neither side had won a decisive victory.

Army Commanders in the Western Front

- General Falkenhayn (Germany)
- General von Cluck (Germany)
- von Moltke (Germany)
- Bulow (Germany)
- Marshal Petain (France)
- General Joffre (France)
- General Neville (France)
- Sir John French (Britain)
- General Haig (Britain)

War in the Eastern Front

- fighting took place across a vast area of land in the Eastern Front.
- there were some trenches but not as pronounced as in the Western Front.
- after her quick mobilisation Russia attacked East Prussia in August 1914.
- Germany was forced to divert more troops to the East.
- Russian early victories were reversed as the Russians were defeated at the Battles of

Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes.

- the Russians were poorly led, underfed and ill-equipped against the well organised German
forces.
- the Russians were forced to retreat into Poland and by the end of August, Warsaw had fallen to
the Germans.
- by the end of September 1914 Russia had lost all Poland, Lithuania and Western Latvia.
- Russians were more successful against Austria-Hungarian forces.
- in 1915 the Russians led by General Brusilov invaded Galicia, an Austrian province.
- Brusilov captured more than five hundred thousand Hapsburg forces and some Czechs who
were under the Hapsburg armies defected to Russian forces.
- but the Germans diverted more soldiers from the Western front to help Hapsburg forces
against Russia.
- in September 1915 the Russian armies were driven to Bukovina and Carpathian Mountains and
were driven from Hapsburg territories.
- this defeat put a terrible strain on Russia who lost two million men in 1915 alone.
- Serbian forces also drove back the Hapsburg forces but with German aid, Austria-Hungarian
forces invaded and defeated little Serbia.

Russia's withdrawal from World War One

- the entry of Turkey into war in November 1914 was bad news for Russia because Turkey
closed the straits of Dardanelles against Russia.
- Russia became isolated as she was cut from supplies and assistance from her allies Britain
and France.
- without British and French help Russia suffered severe shortages.
- but between the winter of 1915 and 1916 the Russians embarked on a new offensive against
Germany.
- taking advantage of Germany's and Austria-Hungary's attention which had shifted to Italy,

Turkey and the Balkans, Brusilov attacked the Hapsburg forces with much success.
- but German forces were sent and defeated the Russians once again.
- there was severe shortages of war material, food and organisation.
- by August 1916 several thousands of Russian forces were dead, wounded or captured.
- Russian forces became demoralised, so refused to fight and streamed homewards from the
war fronts.
- such heavy losses also intensified Russia's domestic problems.
- by the end of 1916 strikes, food riots and demonstrations were everywhere in Russia.
- in March 1917 Russia witnessed a revolution which overthrew Tsar Nicholas 11 and a civilian
provisional government was put in place.
- the new civilian government continued with the war but found out that Russia did not have the
resources nor the will.
- in November 1917 Lenin led a Bolshevik Socialist revolution and removed the provisional
civilian government.
- Lenin's Socialist government pulled Russia out of World War One by accepting the harsh
Brest-Litosvk Treaty imposed by Germany in March 1918.

War on the Turkish Front

The Battle of Gallipoli

- the Allies decided to crush Turkey and force her out of war so as to weaken Germany in the east.

- Allied powers also hoped to force their way through the Dardanelles and reopen supply lines through
the straits to Russia.

- the Allies wanted to attract Bulgaria to their side having crushed Turkey.

- but the eastern operation was mismanaged and ill-prepared as leaders disagreed on strategy.

- but engineered by the British Winston Churchill, the Gallipoli expedition went ahead.
- in March 1915 Britain and France sent a powerful naval expedition to the straits of
Dardanelles.
- unfortunately, the advance party of the Allied warships struck Turkish mines in the straits.
- this served as a warning to the Turks that a major attack was planned.
- the Turks made preparations under the direction of German advisors.
- on 25 April 1915 the Allied troops landed at Gallipoli.
- however, the campaign was seriously mismanaged and after landing, the terrain gave the
Allied forces little cover.
- men wading ashore from small boats were mown down by machine guns from the heights.

- some Allied soldiers were trapped in the barbed wire that covered the beaches.
- as more Allied troops landed disputes concerning Gallipoli campaign went on.
- although the Allied forces largely made of Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACS)
fought bravely, no progress was made.
- between 1915 and January 1916 the Allied troops evacuated from Gallipoli.
- the straits remained closed to Russia who continued to suffer from war shortages.

War leaders in the Eastern Front

- Liman von Sanders (Germany)

- Ludendorff (Germany)
- Hindenburg (Germany)

- Diaz (Italy)

- Brusilov (Russia)

- Ian Hamilton (Britain)

War in the Italian-Austrian Front

The Battle of Caporetto
- Caporetto witnessed more than twelve battles between Italians and Hapsburg forces.
- each time Austria-Hungary retreated Germany came to her aid.
- in October 1917 combined German and Habsburg troops withstood Italian advance against
Austria-Hungary at Caporetto
- the Italians were sent into headlong retreat losing several thousands of men in the process.
- this left the Germans some twenty miles away from Venice but the Italians remained in the
war.
- in September 1918 the Italians were able to mount another campaign against the Hapsburgs.
- by that time the Habsburg empire was falling apart.
- on 24 October 1918 General Diaz defeated the Habsburg troops at Vittorio Veneto.
- on 3 November 1918 Austria-Hungary surrendered.

Battles fought in WW1

- Battle of Marne
- Battle of Ypres
- Battle of Antwerp
- Battle of Mons

- Battle of Cambrai
- Battle of Verdun
- Battle of Somme
- Battle of Heligoland
- Jutland Battle
- Battle of Masurian Lakes
- Battle of Tannenberg
- Battle of Arras
- Battle of Caporetto

War at Sea
- although the sea campaigns in WW1 were important, they were unusual in that relatively little
fighting took place between the warships.
- this was because the German navy would not dare to leave its territorial waters to go out into
the high seas.
- the key objective of each side's navy was to control the seas so as to stop supplies getting to
the enemy.
- Admiral Jelicoe, the British naval commander even warned that Britain could lose the war in an
afternoon if she rashly allowed his fleet to be put into action.
- each side wanted to gain control of the seas to block off the other.
- so warships from both sides spent the first two years of the war avoiding a major battle.

The Jutland Battle

- the Jutland Battle of 31 May 1916 was the real naval battle fought between Germany and
Britain.
- Germany wanted to break Allied blockade and reopen German sea routes.
- so Admiral Scheer of Germany tried to destroy the British fleet at Scapa Flow and Rosyth.
- a small German fleet under Admiral Hipper was sent out to sea to try and

lure the British fleet into a trap.

- unknown to Admiral Hipper, the British had also sent a small fleet under Admiral Beatty to also
try and lure the Germans into a trap.
- so the smaller fleets accidentally met and neither side knew that the other's main fleet was
nearby.
- the two smaller ships came face to face off the coast of Jutland in the North Sea and
immediately each side's main fleet rushed to the scene.
- within thirty minutes two British battle ships were blown to pieces.
- British losses were heavier than German losses as the British lost 14 ships and over six
thousand sailors were killed.
- Germany lost only eleven smaller ships and two thousand five hundred men.
- but Admiral Scheer ordered his ships to leave the battle field instead of consolidating their
advantage.
- German ships were kept safely away in the Kiel Canal.
- this left Britain still in control of the seas.

The Blockade System

The Blockade System
- the most important task of the Allied navies was to blockade the Central Powers from the
outside world.
- the blockade was meant to cause shortages in Austria-Hungary and Germany so as to force
them to surrender.
- even ships from neutral countries were prevented from entering German ports.
- ships from neutral countries called at Allied ports first and were examined to either continue
their journey or not depending on what they carried.
- the Germans tried to overcome the shortages by producing substitute goods but this
worsened the shortages which led to civil unrest among Germans.

German counter-blockade Strategy/The U-boat Campaign

- in reply to Allied blockade and naval supremacy, Germany embarked on a submarine warfare

against the Allies.

- these German submarines, known as U-boats, were used to wreck British trade.
- this would result in the collapse of the British economy thereby forcing her to surrender to
Germany.
- the U-boats concentrated their attacks on Allied war ships in the early stages of the war.
- when the Allies learnt to protect their war ships, the U-boats began attacking merchant ships
instead.
- in February 1915 the U-boats became unrestricted as they attacked ships from neutral
countries as well.
- this resulted in the sinking of the 'Lusitania' in May 1915.
- the 'Lusitania' was a British liner with 1200 people on board of whom 118 were Americans.
- the USA fumed over the incident and threatened action against Germany.

- again in March 1916 the German U-boats sank a British vessel, the "Sussex" which was carrying
American passengers.
- as a result of the tension between USA and Germany, Germany temporarily called off the
U-boat campaign in April 1916.

- but success of its U-boats, especially in the Mediterranean, encouraged Germany to resume its
unrestricted U-boats warfare in February 1917.

- the entry of the United States of America into war on Allied side weakened U-boat campaign.

- also Britain adopted several effective methods which by April 1918 were beginning to destroy U-boats.

- by mid 1918, German U-boat campaign had crumbled as Britain strengthened her blockade of
Germany.

British response to the U-boat Campaign

- Britain introduced the radar system to warn off her ships once the U-boats were spotted.
- Britain also introduced mine sweepers to remove mines planted in the sea waters.
- Britain introduced the convoy system in which merchant ships to and from trade were escorted
by fleets of warships.
- Britain introduced warships disguised as merchant ships known as 'Q-ships'.
- Q-ships fired at U-boats on the sea surface.
- the fight against U-boats was strengthened by the dedication and heroism of the sailors of the
merchant navy.
- Britain also undertook massive output of ships.
- as a result by 1917 Britain and the USA were building so many ships that the U-boats could not
sink them all.
- Britain also introduced food rations in order to economise on food and ensure fair distribution.

- these measures gradually pulled Britain away from the brink of disaster caused by German U-boats.

Effects of the Blockade Strategy

- the effectiveness of the blockade contributed very much to the defeat of Germany.
- around 800 000 died as a result of the British blockade of the Central Powers.
- the widespread hunger and civil rioting toward the end of 1918 forced the German High
Command to surrender.
- for Britain defeat came close through starvation due to Germany's counter blockade tactics.
- in April 1917 the Germans came close to victory when Britain had only six weeks supply of
corn left.
- but the most important result of the U-boat campaign was bringing the USA into the war in
April 1917.
- the entry of USA eventually led to the defeat of Germany.

The War in the Air

- WW1 developed war in the air.
- Britain developed airships for hunting U-boats.
- Germany also developed airships known as zeppelins used to protect warships at sea.
- later the Germans used zeppelins as bomber planes to attack British towns in 1915.
- but the British were eventually able to destroy the zeppelins easily.
- by 1918 speedy, powerful fighter planes and accurate anti-air fire power took heavy damage on
zeppelins.

The last Years of War, 1917-18

- by 1917 there was no end of the deadlock in the Western Front but little activity in the East
after the withdrawal of Russia in 1917.
- under the leadership of Marshal Petain the French fought with new determination.
- the British fought the Germans on the third Battle of Ypres but the Germans resisted.
- in April 1917 the USA joined the war on the side of the Allies.
- Britain reintroduced the tanks which much reduced German power.
- Germany brought more troops from the Eastern Front and under General Ludendorff carried
out 'Operation Michael'.
- Ludendorff placed German troops in between British and French troops and made a counter
attack which was almost successful.
- the French were forced to retreat towards Paris and by May 1918 the Germans were once
again forty miles of Paris.
- the British were driven to the Channel ports.
- but the Germans could not follow up on their victories.

Why did the United States of America (USA) join the war on the side of the Allied powers in 1917?

# Unrestricted German submarine warfare

- Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare convinced the USA to join WW1 in April 1917.

- in 1915 German U-boats sunk the "Lusitania" killing 118 Americans on the ship.

- again in 1916, German U-boats sank the British ship the Sussex which led to the death of Americans on
board the ship.

- the USA decided to enter the war to protect its citizens.

- more so, the U-boat campaign was disrupting USA trade.

- to serve her trade, the USA entered the war against Germany.

# The Zimmermann Telegram

- in March 1917 the British intercepted a telegram sent to Mexico by the German Foreign Minister Alfred
Zimmermann.

- Zimmermann sent the telegram to Mexico asking for an alliance with Mexico against the USA if the
USA joined the war.

- Zimmermann offered Texas, Arizona and other territories to Mexico as reward for helping Germany
against the USA.

- after intercepting the telegram, the British sent it to the USA government which published it in their
newspapers.

- the discovery of the Zimmermann telegram aroused the Americans to get into war against Germany.

# German sabotage

- inside the USA some German agents were said to be sabotaging industries that produced war
equipment.
- the German agents were also disrupting USA communication system.

# British appeal

- Britain convinced the USA to join war on the side of the Allies

# The USA was sympathetic to the Allied powers

- majority of Americans supported and felt closer to Allies than Germans.

- this was because many Americans had British, French and Italian origins.

# Allies owed money to the USA

- France, Italy and Britain had borrowed money from the USA between 1915 and 1917.

- USA financers feared that the debts might not be repaid if Germany won the war.

- so to ensure recovery of their money, the USA joined war against Germany.

# USA had a duty to defend democracy

- the USA joined the war to defend democracy against the evil rule of kings represented by Germany and
Austria-Hungary.

- the USA felt Germany was evil and had to be stopped.

Collapse of the Central Powers

- from June 1918 American troops poured into France, 250 000 soldiers every month.
- more tanks were used and the Allies were in control of the seas and air.
- from mid-July Franco-American attacks increased defeating the Germans at the second Battle
of Marne.
- on 8 August 1918 Britain and her Commonwealth forces defeated the Germans at Amiens and
thousands of German troops were captured.
- by the end of September 1918 the Germans had lost all their 1918 gains.
- tired and now demoralised, the Germans were driven back across the heavily defended
Hindenburg Line.
- at the same time Germany's allies were collapsing as well.
- Bulgaria surrendered on 30 September 1918, Turkey in October 1918 and the Habsburgs
empire simply fell apart.
- Ludendorff disguised himself and escaped to Sweden as riots increased in German towns.
- as the Allied forces entered Germany they shouted that the kaiser had to be hanged.
- Hindenburg advised kaiser William 11 to abdicate his throne and the kaiser fled to Holland.
- finally on 11 November 1918 Germany signed an armistice accepting defeat and WW1 came to
a stop.

Reasons for the defeat of Germany in WW1

# Entry of the United States of America

- the entry of the United States of America (USA) tipped the scale against Germany and her
allies.
- the USA brought more energy and replenished Allied war effort against Germany.
- the USA had a very strong navy which worked with the Allied navy to defeat the German U-boat
campaign.
- the USA navy constantly transported food and other war materials to the Allied war fronts.
- the USA also brought fresh soldiers who added more determination and war spirit to the Allied
forces.
- this encouraged the Allied forces to fight harder thereby defeating Germany.
- the USA also supplied financial loans to the Allied powers which assisted very much in the final
defeat of Germany.

# British naval power

- British navy blocked German trade and caused severe shortages in Germany.
- the severe shortages led to civil unrest which forced Germans to surrender.

- British anti-submarine devices frustrated the German U-boats thereby allowing Americans more time
to get ready for war.

# Failure of the Schlieffen Plan

- the Schlieffen Plan failed to work effectively and Germany ended up fighting war in two fronts.
- this resulted in her encirclement by the Allies leading to her defeat.

# Germany's allies were a liability

- the allies of Germany were good at opening new war fronts which they failed to accomplish.
- this forced Germany to divide her troops and send them to assist his weak allies.

- this depleted German war resources leading to her defeat.

# Germany was outnumbered by the Allies

- fighting alone against the Allied powers and their Associated allies, Germany was totally
outnumbered.
- Allied manpower and material resources overwhelmed Germany thereby leading to German
defeat.

# German military leaders were disorganised

- the German commanders failed to coordinate operations in the Western front.
- orders were not given clearly and in time.
- this forced the army generals to make poor decisions which led to German defeat.

Results of World War One

Political Results

# The spread of democracy

- democracy spread from USA, Britain and France throughout most European countries.
- parliamentary constitutions were introduced in Germany, Austria and other former monarchies.

# Death of some kingdoms and empires

- some kingdoms and empires were destroyed by the war.
- the German empire, Ottoman empire, Hapsburg and Russian empires disappeared.

# Establishment of the League of Nations

- the League of Nations was established to preserve peace in the world.

# The rise of dictators

- as democracy failed dictators arose in the new republics like Germany and Italy.

# Destruction of balance of power

- the old balance of power was destroyed because the new states created after WW1 were
weak.

# Creation of new states

- after WW1 several new states were created across the world.
- this was done to promote nationalism and independence of former subject nationalities.
Examples of new states created after WW1
- Poland Iraq Austria Czechoslovakia
- Latvia Estonia Hungary Yugoslavia
- Lithuania

Social Results
# Casualties and deaths

- several people were injured and a lot died.

- the total killed in the war was about 12 million.

# Destruction of infrastructure
- buildings, roads, railways and bridges were destroyed and the costs of repairing them were
very high.

# Human displacement
- a lot of people were displaced from their countries and some became refugees.
- families were separated and many women became widows and children became orphans.

# Social roles of women changed

- immediately after the war women were retrenched from their work places in industries that
produced materials.
- the women were replaced by jobless men and so few women remained working.
- some European societies still believed that women were fit for domestic work.
- in some countries women were not allowed to vote.
- however, there were some positive changes for women.
- women no longer felt inferior to men.
- war raised status of women.
- women demanded equal employment opportunities with men.
- birth control pills were legally made available to women.
- in Britain, Italy and France women were given right to vote.

# Breakdown of social classes

- social barriers and classes before WW1 were destroyed as people demanded equal rights
# Outbreak of diseases
- most countries were affected by epidemic diseases like cholera and typhoid.

Economic Results
- the USA emerged as the world's economic giant.
- European countries were burdened by war debts.
- costs of international trade became high as countries charged high tariffs.
- there was weakness of national currencies which killed international trade.
- Europe lost much of her overseas investments.
- across the world shortage of basic commodities was rampant thereby fuelling inflation.

Who was to blame for the outbreak World War One?

# Germany
- Bismarck's alliance system which was an attempt to isolate France led to division of Europe
into two hostile camps.
- this made it difficult to localise war once two enemies started a fight.
- the German Schlieffen showed that Germany was expecting a war.
- Germany also took part in arms race which eventually led to WW1.
- Germany's naval race with Britain brought tension which led to war.
- more so kaiser William 11 provoked Britain by congratulating Boer President Paul Kruger after
the failure of the Jameson raid in South Africa.
- German aggression provoked the Moroccan crises which created grudges and tension that led
to war.
- total German support for Austria-Hungary encouraged Austria-Hungary to declare war on
Serbia.
- this total German support was like giving Austria-Hungary a 'blank cheque' to declare war on
Serbia.

- Germany violated Belgium's neutrality thereby dragging Britain into war.

- Germany also declared war on Russia and France.

# Austria-Hungary
- Austria-Hungary failed to respect the sovereignty of the Balkan states by annexing Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
- this led to enmity with Serbia and Russia.
- Austria-Hungary wanted to destroy Serbia to ensure the death of the proposed state of
Yugoslavia.
- Austria-Hungary is blamed for declaring war on Serbia which led to WW1.
- Austria-Hungary also involved herself in the system of alliances which divided Europe into two
military camps which ultimately provoked WW1.

# France

- she refused to remain neutral when Germany declared war on Russia.

- this forced Germany to declare war on France also.
- France also took part in militarism.
- France took part in alliances which led to war.
- France also had a war plan of revenge to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine from Germany.

# Russia
- Russia gave unrestricted support to Serbia thereby making Serbia more reckless.
- Russia refused to remain neutral when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
- this forced Germany to declare war on Russia.
- Russia also took part in militarism which promoted aggression.
- she opposed Hapsburgs' and Germany's influence in the Balkans which led to enmity.
- Russia also took part in alliances which divided Europe and eventually led to WW1.

- Russia supported Pan-Slavism which led to wars in the Balkans.

# Britain
- she is blamed for arms race and naval race with Germany.
- Britain supported France against Germany in the Moroccan crises which brought tension.
- Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914.

# Serbia
- she engineered the Sarajevo assassination which led to WW1.
- she sponsored terrorism against Austria-Hungary.

THE PARIS PEACE SETTLEMENT

- after the First World War the Victorious Powers met in Paris, France to discuss what to do with
the defeated nations.
- they were concerned with punishing especially Germany and Austria-Hungary.

Representatives of the Victorious Powers at the Paris Peace Settlement

- David L. George : Britain
- Woodrow Wilson : USA
- Georges Clemenceau : France
- Vittorio Orlando : Italy
- Venizoles : Greece
- Jan Smuts : South Africa

- Earl Grey : Britain

- M. J. Keynes : USA

The Leading People at the Paris Peace Settlement (PPS)

- the Paris Peace Conference (PPC) opened in Paris on 18 January 1919 with Woodrow Wilson,
Georges Clemenceau and David L George taking leading roles as the "Big Three".
- the other fourth leading member was Orlando of Italy but was not given enough recognition.
- these four men had glaring differences and different aims about how the defeated Powers
especially Germany, had to be treated.

The aims and ideas of the "Big Three"

- the aims of the "Big Three" helped determine the outcome of the Paris Peace Settlement.
- their aims included the following:
* to bring political order to European politics.
* to promote everlasting peace and stability in the world.
* to prevent occurrence of another war such as WW1.
* to punish the guilty.
* to draft treaties with the Central Powers ending the war.
* to redraw the map of Central and Eastern Europe in accordance with the new political realities.

Individual aims and ideas of the "Big Three"

David L George
- George wanted fair punishment for Germany.
- George did not want a harsh punishment which would sow seeds of future German revenge.
- he also did not want harsh punishment as that could force Germany to turn to communism.

- George wanted Germany back on her feet quickly in order to restore trade with Britain.
- David George of Britain wanted an end of German threat to the British empire and navy.
- he wanted to weaken Germany by taking away her former colonies and add them to British
empire.
- he wanted Germany to pay war reparations and to hang the Kaiser.
Georges Clemenceau
- he was very bitter towards Germany for making France suffer.
- his main aim was to ensure French security against German aggression.
- he turned out to be the architect of the ultimate harsh settlement against Germany.
- he therefore wanted to have revenge on Germany for France's suffering.
- Clemenceau wanted Germany to pay damages to France and the Allies as punishment.
- he wanted Germany to be stripped of her wealth so as to cripple her completely.
- he wanted Germany to lose the Saar, Upper Silesia, Danzig and East Prussia.
- he wanted creation of a new state to separate France and Germany.
- Clemenceau even wanted Germany to be broken into smaller states.
- he wanted the German army kept away from the Franco-German border.
- he wanted to ensure that Germany was weakened so that it would never attack France again
in future.
- he wanted severe restrictions on German military power.
- he wanted immediate return of Alsace and Lorraine from Germany.
- he wanted to ensure the union of Austria and Germany was prevented.

Woodrow Wilson
- his main aim was to build a better and a more peaceful world after WW1.
- he wanted to see co-operation among nations to achieve world peace.
- he wanted a settlement where the victors would not necessarily dominate the defeated states.

- he thus wanted to establish a lasting peace through a fair settlement.

- Wilson also wanted reduction of arms of war as basis for attaining world peace.
- although he wanted Germany to be punished, he did not want harsh punishment as that would
force Germany to revenge in future thereby causing another world war.
- he wanted new independent nation states to be created in Central and Eastern Europe.
- Wilson wanted to spread democracy.
- he wanted a settlement based on his fourteen points.

Wilson's Fourteen Points

1. An end to secret diplomacy
2. Freedom of the seas for all nations
3. Removal of economic barriers between states
4. Reduction of arms of war for all nations
5. Settlement of colonial claims in the interests of the inhabitants

6. German evacuation of Russian territory

7. Restoration of Belgian independence

8. Return of Alsace and Lorraine to France
9. Readjustment of Italian frontiers along clear lines of nationality
10. Independence of subject peoples of Austria-Hungary
11. Restoration of Rumania, Montenegro and Serbia, with sea access for Serbia
12. Independence for the subject peoples of the Ottoman empire and permanent opening of the
Dardanelles
13. Creation of an independent state of Poland with access to sea.
14. Formation of a general association of nations to preserve peace.

To what extent were Woodrow Wilson's aims followed at the Paris Peace Settlement?

Aims fulfilled
- subject peoples of Austria-Hungary were given independence.
- Turkey lost subject nationalities.
- Alsace and Lorraine were given back to France.
- an international organisation known as the League of Nations was formed to protect peace.
- self determination was given to minorities.
- Poland was created and given independence.
- new independent states were created in Central and Eastern Europe.

However, some aims were not fulfilled

- reparations to defeated countries were too high.
- the defeated Powers were excluded from the conference.
- disarmament was applied only to the defeated countries.
- self determination was denied to Germans as some were forced into other countries.
- the terms of the treaties were too harsh.

To what extent were the aims of Georges Clemenceau fulfilled by the Paris Peace

Settlement/Versailles Treaty?

Aims fulfilled
- Germany was weakened which Clemenceau wanted.
- Germany was made to pay heavy reparations.
- Germany was stripped of her wealth.
- German military strength was greatly reduced.

- the Rhineland was demilitarised.

- Austria was separated from Germany.
- Germany lost Upper Silesia and the Saar.
- Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France.
- Germany was forced to sign the war-guilt clause.

However, some aims were not fulfilled

- Germany was not divided into smaller states.
- no new country was created to separate France from Germany.
- Germany sought revenge in future due to harsh terms of the Versailles Treaty.
- Germany did not pay all the reparations.
To what extent were the aims of David L George fulfilled at the Paris Peace Settlement?

Aims fulfilled
- German navy was reduced which George wanted.
- Germany was made to pay reparations.
- Germany lost colonies which George wanted.
- German army was reduced to make her non-aggressive.

However, some of his aims were not fulfilled

- Germany was harshly treated much against George's aim.
- Germany sought revenge which George had tried to avoid.

Treaties of the Paris Peace Settlement

a) Treaty of Versailles
b) The Treaty of Saint Germain
c) The Treaty of Neuilly

d) The Treaty of Trianon

e) Treaty of Sevres
f) Treaty of Laussane

The Treaty of Versailles, 1919

- the Versailles Treaty was signed between Germany and the Victorious Powers on 28
June 1919.
- the German representatives were never consulted but were only invited to sign the treaty.
- the treaty of Versailles can be divided into two parts namely territorial clauses and
non-territorial clauses.

# The non-territorial clauses

- the non-territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty can be divided into three parts namely the
war-guilt clause, reparations and armaments.
a) War-Guilt Clause
- popularly known as Article 231, the war-guilt clause forced Germany to accept responsibility of
causing WW1.
- Germany was also forced to accept responsibility of causing all the loss and damages
suffered by the Allied Powers and the Associated Powers.
- Article 231 accused Germany of being a war criminal and was forced to accept all the suffering
of the people.
- therefore Germany was forced to sign the war-guilt clause and take full responsibility of the
war.

b) Reparations
- Germany was forced to pay compensation for the damages she caused to the Allied Powers.
- the compensation was also to cover the suffering incurred by individual family members.
- Germany was to pay 6,6 billion pounds to the Allied Powers over a period of thirty years.
- France was to get 52% of the total amount, Britain 22%, Italy 10%, Belgium 8% and the rest of
the Allies had to share the remainder.
- the reparations could be paid in kind for example Germany had to build war ships for Britain for
the next five years.
- France was to be paid in minerals like coal from Germany.
- Belgium would receive cattle from Germany.
- Germany would surrender part of her fishing fleet to the Allies.
- Germany's railway engines and wagons had to be handed over to the Allied Powers.

- the League of Nations covenant was enforced on Germany

c) Armaments
- German army was reduced to 100 000 men.
- conscription was forbidden.
- Germany's soldiers were to serve for a period of less than twelve years.
- the German general staff of 1914 to 1918 was dissolved and was not to be reformed.
- Germany was not allowed to have warships or submarines.
- only six battle ships, six cruisers, twelve destroyers and twelve torpedo boats were allowed for
Germany.
- Germany was not allowed to have tanks.

- Germany was not allowed to have an airforce.

- Germany's naval personnel was reduced to 15 000 men.
- German naval base at Heligoland in the North Sea was to be demolished.
- Germany was banned from manufacturing heavy artillery and heavy guns.

- Germany was not allowed to have armoured cars.

- Germany was banned from building military fortifications in the Rhine.
- no German soldiers were allowed in the Rhine border with France.

Were non-territorial terms fair to Germany?

Non-territorial terms were not fair to Germany
- the reparations drained Germany's gold reserves which resulted in inflation.
- inflation inturn affected the ordinary people who had not played any part in causing WW1.
- the reparations amount was also abnormally high.
- this would deny Germany the possiblity of economic revival as money would be channelled
towards reparations.
- Germany lost her industries and all production was used to develop Allied countries like France
and Belgium, while Germans were suffering.
- Germany was belittled through the war-guilt clause.
- it appeared as if Germany solely caused WW1 yet other countries had also contributed.
- through military reductions, Germany was left open to attack and manipulation by France and
Belgium.

However, non-territorial terms were fair to Germany

- Germany was largely responsible for causing World War One.
- reduction of German military power was aimed at preventing her from starting another war.
- France and Belgium genuinely deserved compensation for the destruction caused by Germany.
- payment of reparations was a common European practice and not something new to Germany
alone.

# Territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty

a) European territories lost by Germany

- Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France.

- the Saar was to be administered by the League of Nations for fifteen years.
- in the fifteen years, France would exploit the coal resources of the Saar.
- a referendum would be done to decide the future of the Saar after the fifteen years.
- Eupen, Malmedy and Moresnet went to Belgium.
- North Schleswigg was given to Denmark.
- Upper Silesia and Posen became part of the new state of Poland.
- a Polish corridor was created to give Poland access to sea at Danzig.
- Danzig was declared a free city under the League of Nations.
- the Kiel Canal was opened to international shipping.
- Union with Austria was forbidden.
- the Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were granted independence from Germany.
- the port of Memel was placed under international control.
- the Sudetenland was given to the new state of Czechoslovakia.
- the Rhineland had to be demilitarised.

b) Overseas territories lost by Germany

- Germany lost all her overseas colonies which became League of Nations mandated territories.
- Britain received Tanganyika
- South Africa received Namibia
- Samoa went to New Zealand
- the Caroline Islands went to Japan
- Rwanda and Burundi were given to Britain
- Cameroon and Togo were given to France

Were territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty fair to Germany?

Territorial terms were not fair to Germany

- the terms were imposed on Germany.

- Germany lost a large population which reduced an important labour base thereby affecting
production and growth.
- Germany lost her colonies yet other countries were allowed to have colonies.
- more so, Germany lost sources of raw materials for economic growth.
- Germany was denied Union with Austria which killed spirit of nationalism.
- spirit of nationalism was killed also as some Germans were forced to join newly created states
such as Poland and Czechoslovakia.
- Germany lost trade through loss of colonies and port of Danzig.
- German growth was retarded as resourceful areas like the Saar and Sudetenland were taken
away.

However, the Territorial terms were fair to Germany

- Germany had also harshly treated Russia at Brest Litovsk in 1918.
- German colonial empire had been the main source of her military power which had promoted
her aggression.
- demilitarising the Rhineland was a way of promoting French security against Germany.
- territorial punishment was a common European practice not practised on Germany alone.

The Treaty of Saint Germain, 1919

- the treaty of Saint Germain was signed between the Allied powers and Austria in September 1919.

- Austria's losses were both territorial and non-territorial.

Territorial terms

- Austria was separated from Hungary

- union (anschluss) of Austria and Germany was forbidden

- Bosnia, Herzegovina, Slovenia and Montenegro went to Serbia, and these states combined to form the
new state of Yugoslavia

- Bukovina went to Rumania

- Galicia was returned to Poland

- German speaking lands of Bohemia and Moravia were incorporated into the new state of
Czechoslovakia

- South Tyrol, Trientino, Istria, Trieste and part of Dalmatia islands went to Italy

Non-territorial Terms

- Austria was forced to pay reparations

- Austria's army was reduced to 30 000 men

- air force was reduced

- conscription was banned

- much of her industry went to Czechoslovakia and Poland

- only a few river boats were allowed for Austria

- only one factory of war arms was allowed

- Austria lost about 20 million people to other states

- the covenant of the League of Nations was enforced on Austria.

Were terms of the treaty of Saint Germain fair to Austria?

Terms were not fair

- spirit of nationalism was killed as the treaty forbade union between Austria and Germany.

- Austria's territories with strong German population were also taken away.

- Austria was made a landlocked country which killed her trade.

- most of her industries were now in Czechoslovakia which greatly reduced economic growth.

- Austria's best agricultural land was now in Hungary which reduced agricultural output.

- her population was reduced from 30 million to 6.5 million which affected supply of labour.

- reparations gave Austria little chance of a quick economic recovery.

- reduction of her military strength left Austria weak and vulnerable.

However, the treaty of Saint Germain was fair

- Austria was paying the price of her ambitions in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

- Austria's ultimatum to Serbia was calculated to cause war.

- payment of reparations was a common practice in Europe.

- Austria was on the losing side so had to be punished.

- Austria's close ties with Germany largely led to WW1.

The treaty of Neuilly, 1919

- the treaty of Neuilly was signed by the Allied powers and Bulgaria in November 1919.

Terms of the treaty of Neuilly

- Bulgaria lost Western Thrace to Greece

- Dobrudja went to Rumania

- Bulgaria's province of Macedonia was shared between Serbia and Greece

- some territories were lost to the new state of Yugoslavia

- Bulgaria lost access to the Aegean sea and Mediterranean sea

- Bulgaria's army was reduced to 20 000 soldiers

- navy and air force were reduced

- Bulgaria was forced to pay reparations to the Allied powers

- the League of Nations covenant was added to the treaty

How fair were the terms of the treaty of Neuilly to Bulgaria?

Unfairness of the treaty of Neuilly

- millions of Bulgars were forced into foreign rule which killed the spirit of nationality

- the loss of sea access destroyed Bulgaria's trade which denied her growth

- her population was decreased which weakened supply of labour

- Bulgaria lost her resources to other states

- reduction of her army left Bulgaria insecure

- reparations denied Bulgaria quick economic recovery

However, the treaty of Neuilly was fair

- payment of reparations was a common European practice

- Bulgaria was on the losing side so had to be punished

The Treaty of Trianon, 1920

- the treaty of Trianon was signed between the Allied powers and Hungary in June 1920.

Terms of the treaty

Territorial terms

- Hungary was forced to separate with Austria.

- Slovakia and Ruthenia went to Czechoslovakia.

- Croatia, Slovenia and part of the Banat were given to the new state of Yugoslavia.

- Transylvania went to Rumania

Non-territorial terms

- Hungary was allowed 35 000 soldiers.

- Hungary had to pay reparations to the Allied powers.

- conscription was banned in Hungary.

- air force and navy were greatly reduced.

- Hungary's population was reduced from 20 million to 8 million.

- the covenant of the League of Nations was enforced on Hungary.

To what extent was the treaty of Trianon fair to Hungary?

Unfairness of the treaty of Trianon

- a number of Magyars and Germans were left in Hungary which killed the spirit of nationality.

- reduction of the army, navy and air force left Hungary insecure.

- Hungary lost resources to new states.

- reduction of her population denied her a strong labour base for growth

- reparations denied Hungary chance of quick economic recovery.

- loss of territories retarded Hungary's economic growth thereby disadvantaging the ordinary people.

However, the terms were fair

- Hungary was made an independent state.

- payment of reparations was a common European practice.

- she was on the losing side so had to be punished.

Treaty of Sevres, 1920

- the treaty of Sevres was signed between the Allied powers and Turkey in August 1920.

Terms of the treaty of Sevres

- Turkey lost Eastern Thrace and part of Aegean islands to Greece

- Adalia and Rhodes islands went to Italy

- Syria and Lebanon went to France as mandated territories

- Transjordan, Palestine and Iraq went to Britain as mandates

- Britain got Cyprus

- Saudi Arabia became independent

- Armenia became independent

- Greece was to administer Smyrna for five years after which a plebiscite would be held to determine
Smyrna's future

- straits of Dardanelles were to come under international control through the League of Nations

- Turkey's army, navy and air force were reduced

- Turkey was forced to pay reparations

- the covenant of the League of Nations was added to the Sevres

- foreign troops were stationed in Turkey to enforce the Sevres treaty

How fair were the terms of the treaty of Sevres?

Unfairness of the Sevres treaty

- Turkey lost too many territories

- occupation by foreign troops was a humiliation to Turkey

- the Sevres was imposed on her without any negotiations

- reduction of her military strength left Turkey insecure

- loss of control of the straits of Dardanelles denied Turkey source of revenue

- reparations denied Turkey chance of quick economic recovery

However, the Sevres treaty was fair

- payment of reparations was a common European practice

- the opening of the straits of Dardanelles promoted international trade

- non-Turkish territories were made independent thereby promoting spirit of nationality

- Turkey was on the losing side so had to be punished

Response of Turks to the Sevres treaty

- the Turks were outraged by the terms of the treaty of Sevres.

- led by Mustapha Kemal, they rejected the treaty and undertook a national uprising and chased the
Greeks from Smyrna.

- this forced the Allied powers to revise the Sevres treaty and gave in to some of the demands from
Turkey.

- the Allied powers replaced the Sevres with a new treaty called the treaty of Lausanne which was signed
in 1923.

The treaty of Lausanne, 1923

- it was signed in 1923 between the Allied powers and Turkey as a revision of the treaty of Sevres.

Terms of the Lausanne Treaty

- Smyrna was returned to Turkey from Greece

- the League of Nations gave up control of the straits of Dardanelles which went back to Turkey

- Eastern Thrace went back to Turkey

- Italy kept Rhodes and Adalia islands

- Britain kept Cyprus

- Britain retained Palestine, Iraq and Transjordan as mandates

- France kept Syria and Lebanon as mandates

- the covenant of the League of Nations was added to the Lausanne

Was the treaty of Lausanne fair to Turkey?

It was fair

- it was a negotiated treaty

- Lausanne was more acceptable than any other treaties signed by defeated powers

- it recognised Turkey's control of the straits to boost her trade and revenue

- granting of independence to non-Turkish nationalities promoted the spirit of nationalism

- burden of reparations was removed

- Turkey's prestige, though defeated in WW1, was revived

However, the Lausanne was not fair

- Turkey was given the platform for negotiation when all the other defeated states were denied this
privilege

- the Greeks in Smyrna continued to be ruled by Turkey which deprived them of nationality

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Introduction

- Woodrow Wilson's 14th point set up the League of Nations.

- the 14th point called for the formation of a general association of nations.

- Wilson had realised that before 1914 there was no international organisation through which countries
could refer their conflicts for mediation.

- thus, in 1920 this general association of nations was formed and was named the League of Nations.

- but not all credit for the formation of the League belongs to Wilson as there were others involved in
the formation as well.

Examples of leaders involved in the formation of the League of Nations

- Woodrow Wilson : USA

- David L. George : Britain

- Lord Robert Cecil : Britain

- John M. Keynes: Britain

- Edward Grey : Britain

- Georges Clemenceau : France

- Hyman : France

- Vittorio Orlando : Italy

- Venizoles : Greece

- Jan Smuts : South Africa

Some Members of the League of Nations up to 1932

- Britain Japan Greece Canada Serbia Ethiopia

- Italy Spain Brazil France Germany (joined League in 1926)

- South Africa Australia Holland Belgium China

Establishment of the League of Nations

-the League of Nations was formed in 1920 with its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.

- Switzerland did not take part in the WW1, so was chosen as a neutral country to be the centre of the
League's activities.

- but from the onset the League of Nations was never a universal organisation.

- the United States of America did not join the League of Nations.

- none of the defeated powers was allowed to join until 1926 when Germany was admitted into the
League.

- Russia was not allowed to join because of her communist government.

Aims of the League of Nations

- to maintain world peace and security

- to encourage international co-operation in solving social and economic problems

- to guarantee frontiers

- to protect members from aggression

- to supervise mandated territories

- to safeguard the rights of minorities

- to resettle prisoners of war and refugees

- to organise general disarmament of the members

- to improve living and working conditions of people of the world

- to improve the position of women

- to promote good health standards

- to control drug trafficking

- to abolish all forms of slavery

- to prevent secret diplomacy and secret treaties

The Constitution/Covenant of the League of Nations

- the League of Nations had a constitution to enhance its operations.

- the covenant was also the means by which countries agreed to follow the aims and to obey the League
of Nations.

- it also provided machinery of the government of the League.

- the League covenant stated that collective security would be adopted to deal with conflicts.

- this means that member states would act together to punish any offender of peace.

- the League had two ways of dealing with the aggressor, namely economic and military sanctions.

- economic sanctions would be imposed on an aggressor nation where member countries refused to
trade with the aggressor.

- military sanctions would be applied as a last resort after the failure of economic sanctions.

- the covenant also stated the duties and roles of the members.

- all disputes were to be submitted for arbitration.

The Organisation of the League of Nations

- the League was made up of five major organs namely

a) The Assembly

b) The Council

c) The Secretariat

d) The Permanent Court of International Justice

e) The International Labour Organisation

The Assembly

- the Assembly was made up of all members of the League of Nations.

- it was the main body of the League of Nations and in 1920 it had 42 members and in 1924 it had 55
members.

- the Assembly was the League of Nations' debating chamber and was referred to as the "League
Parliament".

- it met once a year to discuss matters related to world peace.

- each country sent one to three representatives but when decisions were made each country was given
one vote despite its size.

- all decisions in the Assembly had to be unanimous in order to be adopted.

- each member had the power of veto, meaning that any member could refuse that a decision be
implemented.

- Assembly prepared the League budget.

- it decided the policy of the League of Nations.

- it elected non permanent members of the Council.

- it admitted new members and expelled members.

- it was the League Parliament and was responsible for electing the Secretary General of the League of
Nations.

- the Assembly also proposed revision of peace treaties.

- it handled all matters pertaining to world peace and the general well-being of members.

How successful was the Assembly of the League of Nations in carrying out its duties?

Successes

- it was successful in preparing the League budget

- the Assembly was successful in administering loans to needy countries

- it admitted new members into the League, for example Germany in 1926 and Russia in 1934

- it succeeded in appointing the Secretary General and also debated issues concerning world peace
However, the Assembly was not successful

- since it met once a year, the Assembly failed to debate matters fully

- this forced the Assembly to refer issues to the Council

- the Assembly failed to stop the withdrawal of members from the League, for example Germany, Italy
and Japan.

- it also failed to stop Germany from withdrawing from the Disarmament Conference organised by the
League.

The Council

- the Council was the executive arm of the League of Nations where major decisions were made and
enforced.

- at the formation of the League the Council was supposed to be made up of five permanent members
the USA, Britain, France, Italy and Japan.

- but because the USA refused to join the League, it left only four permanent members namely Britain,
Italy, France and Japan.

- the Council also had non-permanent members and in 1920 these were Belgium, Spain, Greece and
Brazil.

- the Council met three times a year or whenever an emergency arose.

- each permanent member had the power of veto meaning that one permanent member could stop the
Council acting even if the other members agreed.

- the Council heard disputes and made recommendations to the Assembly for action to be taken.

- it organised sanctions against unrepentant aggressors.

- but before taking a decision, all members were to agree unanimously.

How successful was the Council in maintaining peace up to 1939?

Successes

- the Council solved the problem of the Aaland Islands between Sweden and Finland

- it solved the dispute between Bulgaria and Greece in 1925

- it settled the dispute between Peru and Columbia

- it settled the dispute between Turkey and Iraq

- it settled the dispute between Germany and Poland

- it settled the dispute between Serbia and Albania

Failures

- the Council failed to deal with the Vilna dispute

- it failed to solve the Corfu Incident

- it failed to stop Japanese invasion of Manchuria

- it failed to stop Italian invasion of Abyssinia

- it failed to stop Hitler's acts of aggression between 1936 and 1939

- Council failed to achieve general disarmament of members

- it failed to prevent outbreak of World War 2

The Secretariat

- the Secretariat was the civil service of the League of Nations and was headed by a Secretary General.

- it did all the administrative work on a day to day basis throughout the year.

- it had its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.

- the Secretariat arranged the League's meetings.

- it also kept written records of the League's proceedings.

- it prepared the League agendas and collected information for the League.

- it also translated languages.

The Permanent Court of International Justice

- it was established in 1921 with its headquarters at the Hague in Netherlands.

- it comprised of 15 Judges picked from different countries who were to decide on disputes brought to
them.
- the International Court interpreted treaties.

- it settled International disputes.

- it advised the Council and Assembly on any matters that were brought before it.

- before any case could be submitted to court, conflicting nations had to agree to accept the verdict
from the court in advance.

The International Labour Organisation (ILO)

- the ILO was based in Geneva, Switzerland.

- the ILO was responsible for regulating conditions of work and for improving the general lives of
workers throughout the world.

- each nation sent four representatives at the meeting, two from government, one worker and one
employer.

- the ILO condemned unfair labour practices.

- it discussed wages and hours of work.

- it also discussed conditions of service.

- it discussed forced labour in colonies and made recommendations.

- the ILO also discussed issues of child labour.

- it explained the functions of trade unions in order to bring co-operation between employers and
employees.

How successful was the ILO in its work?

It was successful

- it was successful in stating limits of ages of children allowed to work

- it campaigned for employers to improve general working conditions

- it put in place a 48 hour working week and 8 hour a day.

- it was successful in encouraging co-operation between workers and employers across the world.

- conditions of women at work places improved, especially maternity leave.

- it was successful in adoption of equal pay and benefits for work of equal value.

- it helped in crafting safety laws at the work places

- it assisted in the adoption of minimum wage.

However, it also failed

- although the ILO made labour recommendations, it had no power to force a member country to adopt
its recommendations.

- wages continued to be low for most workers.

- some employees were still not allowed to form trade unions.

- use of child labour continued in some countries.

Special Commissions and Committees of the League of Nations

- the League appointed several committees and commissions to deal with specific tasks.

Examples of Commissions

- Mandates Commission

- Refugees Commission

- Minorities Commission

- Disarmament Commission

- Women Rights Commission

- Underdeveloped Nations Commission

- Labour Commission

Examples of Committees

- Reparations Committee

- Health Committee/Organisation

- Military Affairs Committee

- Drugs Committee

- Communication and Transit Committee

Commissions

Mandates Commission

- it looked after the colonies of the defeated powers, that is Germany and Turkey.

- it made sure the mandated territories were properly governed in preparing them for their
independence.

- the Mandates Commission sent reports on mandated territories to the League every year.

- although it made criticisms, the Mandates Commission could not enforce its recommendations.

Disarmament Commission

- it was set up in 1925 and its main role was to organise a general reduction of arms by members of the
League.

- reduction of arms was important if peace was to be achieved.

- it drew up proposals to be discussed by members at a future conference.

- although Russia and Germany were non-members of the League of Nations, they were invited to take
part in the disarmament discussions.

- several disarmament meetings were held between 1926 and 1934 but nothing was achieved.

Women Rights Commission

- it was tasked with the promotion of rights of women across the world.

- it fought for women rights at work, in politics and in the home.

Underdeveloped Nations Commission

- this commission was responsible for taking measures to improve the economies of poor countries.

- it recommended grants and loans from the League to the poor countries.

Labour Commission

- it worked to improve the working conditions of workers across the world.

- it worked closely with the ILO.

Minorities Commission
- it looked after small ethnic groups across the world.

- Minorities Commission encouraged members to give small ethnic groups their rights, especially in
religion and language.

- countries with minority groups sent annual reports on progress with their minorities.

Refugees Commission

- it looked into the repatriation of refugees to their original homes after World War 1.

- it also had to deal with prisoners of war who were now homeless and without passports.

Committees

Drugs Committee

- it was tasked with stopping smuggling and misusing of dangerous drugs.

- it persuaded states to educate their people about the dangers of drugs.

- it investigated trading in drugs and published findings.

Military Affairs Committee

- the Military Affairs Committee liased with the Disarmament Commission to reduce arms of war among
member states.

- it persuade members to reduce arms of war and to stop conscription and production of war weapons.

Reparations Committee

- its aim was to ensure that defeated powers paid compensation to the Allied powers.

Health Committee

- Health Committee dealt with dangerous diseases.

- it educated people about health and sanitation.

- it dealt with outbreak of cholera and typhoid that had devasted the world after World War 1.

- it undertook global campaign to exterminate mosquitoes.

- this campaign reduced cases of malaria and yellow fever in the two decades after WW1.
Communication and Transit Committee

- it dealt with international coordinatiin of transport and communication systems.

Successes and Failures of the League of Nations

Successes

Social success

- the League of Nations organised medical help for European countries that faced epidemics like cholera
and typhoid.

- in 1920 the League distributed medicines to the affected countries.

- it promoted world awareness for the eradication of mosquitoes.

- it worked with those members that agreed to give rights to their minorities.

- League arranged for the return home of 400 000 prisoners of war.

- the League also resettled over a million Greek refugees from Asia Minor and Eastern Thrace.

- many Russians who had been displaced during the Bolshevik revolution were returned to Russia.

- passport and visa regulations were simplified and many stateless people got passports.

- the League also abolished slavery and slave trade.

- women rights were gradually observed by member states

Was the League successful indealing with social issues?

Successes

- it successfully carried out world campaigns to eradicate mosquitoes.

- epidemic diseases after WW1 were treated and stopped.

- refugees were taken back to their homelands.

- prisoners of war were taken back to their homelands.

- health and sanitation improved across the world.

- several countries took measures to eradicate mosquitoes in their countries.

- movement of homeless people was eased through passport and visa system.

- slavery and slave trade disappeared in most parts of the world.

However, it was not successful

- women were still discriminated in some countries.

- some countries refused to recognise rights of their minority groups.

- in some parts slavery continued.

Economic Successes

- the League gave loans to defeated and poor countries for example Austria and Greece.

- it provided world standards in advancing the welfare of workers.

- it ensured formation of trade unions in member states.

- child labour was banned.

- working hours were set at 8 hours per day.

- important work was done to coordinate different transport systems.

- League ensured members paid annual leave days and holidays for workers.

How far was the League successful in economic issues?

Successes

- relations between workers and employers improved through trade unions.

- poor countries and defeated improved their economies as a result of loans from the League.

- child labour was banned

- workers' welfare improved world wide

- hours of work were reduced to reasonable time.

However, League was not successful

- several countries remained poor despite the loan facilities

- recommendations on labour issues were not binding on members

- child labour continued in some countries

- wages of workers remained low across the world

- trade unions remained banned in some countries

Political Successes

Territorial Disputes

# Aaland Islands dispute, 1920

- in 1920 a dispute arose between Sweden and Finland over ownership of the Aalnd Islands in the Baltic
Sea.

- the people of the Aalnd Islands had requested to be united with Sweden.

- Finland refused this request and the matter was referred to the League

- the League ruled in favour of Finland and both parties accepted the League settlement.

# Upper Silesia, 1921

- a border dispute arose between Germany and the new state of Poland over control of Upper Silesia.

- Upper Silesia was inhabited by both Germans and Poles.

- the matter was referred to the League and the League ordered a plebiscite to be held to decide the
future of the region.

- the industrial area voted for Germany while those in rural areas voted to join Poland.

- the League of Nations divided Upper Silesia between German and Poland the matter was solved.

# The Greek invasion of Bulgaria, 1925

- in 1925 Greece and Bulgaria had a border dispute in which some Greek soldiers were killed.

- in October 1925 Greece invaded Bulgaria to force Bulgaria to accept Greece's terms.

- Bulgaria appealed to the League which condemned Greece as an aggressor.

- the League ordered the Greeks to withdraw from Bulgaria and to pay compensation to Bulgaria
- Greece accepted, and withdrew her forces from Bulgaria and paid compensation as well.

# Mosul dispute, 1926

- in 1926 a dispute arose between Turkey and the new state of Iraq over the border area of Mosul.

- Mosul was very rich in oil so both Turkey and Iraq wanted control of the area.

- Britain wanted Mosul to be part of her mandated territory Iraq.

- the League of Nations arbitrated and gave Mosul to Iraq, which Turkey accepted.

Non-territorial political Successes

- in 1924 the League Assembly drew up the Geneva Protocol to improve collective security through
disarmament.

- all member states signed the the Geneva Protocol, but was never implemented.

- in 1925 the League appointed a Commission for Disarmament.

- its aim was to organise a world conference on disarmament.

- even non-members Russia and Germany were invited to attend.

- in 1928 the League ratified the Kellog-Briand Pact in which 65 countries signed renouncing war as a
way of solving International disputes.

Political Failures

Vilna dispute, 1920 - 23

- the city of Vilna was given to the small state of Lithuania by the Paris Peace Settlement.

- but Poland also claimed the city because Vilna's population was largely Polish.

- so in 1920 Poland sent an army and took over control of Vilna.

- Lithuania appealed to the League for help and the League ordered Poland to withdraw from Vilna.

- when Poland refused, the League referred the case to the Conference of Ambassadors who rewarded
Poland with Vilna in 1923.

The Corfu Incident, 1923

- four or five Italians were killed in Greek territory while drawing the border between Greece and
Albania for the Conference of Ambassadors.
- Italy blamed Greece for the deaths, so Italy's Prime Minister Mussolini demanded compensation from
Greece amounting to 50 million lira.

- when Greece turned down the Italian demand for compensation, Italy attacked and captured the
Greek island of Corfu.

- Greece appealed to the League but Italy refused to let the League handle the matter.

- the League turned the matter to the Conference of Ambassadors who persuaded Greece to pay the
compensation.

- Greece paid the compensation and Italy withdrew from Corfu.

Memel, 1923

- the Paris Peace Settlement had placed Memel under international control but in 1923 Lithuania
annexed Memel.

- the League had no choice but to accept the occupation regarding it as compensation for Lithuania's
loss of Vilna to Poland.

Japanese invasion of Manchuria, 1931 to 1939

- in 1931 Japan invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria to protect Japenese economic interests.

- by March 1932 Japan had set up a puppet government led by the last Manchu emperor Pu-yi, and
Manchuria was renamed Manchukuo.

- China appealed to the League which sent a commission of enquiry led by Lord Lytton.

- following the Lytton report, the League condemned Japan as an aggressor and asked it to withdraw
from Manchuria.

- Japan responded by withdrawing from the League of Nations in February 1933.

- the League was powerless and did not take any action against Japan.

- Japan continued with its conquest of China.

- in 1937 Japan attacked the rest of China and again the League took no action.

Why the League failed to act against Japan

- Europeans had serious economic problems caused by the Great Depression

- the countries were not prepared to apply sanctions to a strong naval power like Japan

- the USA was not going to support the sanctions because Japan was its main trading partner.
- Russia and Germany did not support the idea of sanctions on Japan

- League members did not act against Japan fearing that Japan would retaliate and war would escalate.

- absence of powerful states like Russia and the USA denied the League power to act against Japan

To what extent did Japanese invasion of Manchuria encourage other states to be aggressive?

It encouraged

- because the League failed to deal with Japan, it encouraged aggression by other countries.

- Japanese invasion of Manchuria encouraged Italy's invasion of Abyssinia in 1935.

- it also encouraged Italy and Germany to assist General Franco in the Spanish civil war in 1936 - 9
against the directive of the League.

- it encouraged German aggreesion by enforcing union with Austria in 1938

- it encouraged German invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1939

However, other factors encouraged acts of aggression

- Italy became aggressive to fulfil Italian hopes for empire

- Germany's aggression was driven by Hitler's desire to reverse the Versailles treaty

- Germany's aggression was a result of Hitler's desire to establish a Greater Germany

Italy's invasion of Abyssinia, 1935

- in December 1934, there was a border dispute between Italian Somaliland and Abyssinia over a water
hole.

- Italian soldiers who guarded the oasis were attacked by Ethiopians which resulted in the death of 30
Italian soldiers.

- although the Ethiopians were pushed back, Mussolini demanded heavy compensation from Abyssinia.

- when Abyssinia refused to pay the compensation, in October 1935 Italy invaded Abyssinia using tanks,
poison gas and airplanes.

- emperor Haille Selasie of Abyssinia appealed to the League for help.

- the League declared Italy an aggressor and ordered Italy to withdraw from Abyssinia.

- when Italy refused, the League applied economic sanctions on Italy.

- but the economic sanctions were partial as importy minerals like oil, coal and iron were not in the
sanction list.

- so the Italian invasion went on and by May 1936 the Italian conquest of Abyssinia was complete.

- in July 1936 the League removed the sanctions on Italy, but Mussolini went ahead and withdrew Italy
from the League of Nations in 1937.

The Spanish civil war, 1936 - 39

- in July 1936 a civil war broke out in Spain and the League ordered European countries not to help
either side in the civil war.

- but Hitler and Mussolini ignored the declaration and helped their friend General Franco who
succeeded in overthrowing the Spanish government.

- the League of Nations did nothing to punish Germany and Italy.

German aggression

- Germany did many acts of aggression which the League failed to deal with.

- in 1936 Germany took over the Rhineland and remilitarised it.

- much against the Versailles treaty, Germany forced her union with Austria in 1938.

- the League failed to defend the Versailles treaty against Germany.

- n March 1939 Germany invaded and took over Czechoslovakia and annexed it into the Greater
Germany.

- Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 and again the League took no action against Germany.

- it had to take the courage of Britain and France and not the League, to declare war on Germany on 3
August 1939 thereby starting WW2.

Other acts of aggression

- Japan resumed invasion of China in 1937 - 39, but League did nothing.

- Italy also invaded Albania in 1939 and again League did nothing.

- by 1939 the Laegue of Nations was virtually dead.

Disarmament

- by 1927 disarmament was not making any progress.

- countries disagreed on how the process of disarmament had to be done.

- but in 1930 the Disarmament Commission drafted proposals for arms reduction.

- as a result, in 1932 the Disarmament Confernce met in which 60 nations took part.

- Germany demanded equality of arms with Britain and France but France totally refused.

- when Hitler came to power, he also demanded equality of arms with France but France resisted.

- this forced Hitler to withdraw from the Disarmament Conference in 1933, and later withdrew Germany
from the League of Nations as well.

How successful was the League in disarmament?

Not successful to a larger extent

- it failed to convince members to disarm.

- no member wanted to disarm first.

- members failed to agree on procedure of disarmament.

- the League failed to convince France to have equal military power with Germany.

- the Disarmament Conference was a failure.

- Germany abandoned the disarmament platform and started to rearm.

Successes

- meetings on disarmament were held

- Britain and the USA supported disarmament

- non-members like Russia were invited to take part in disarmament discussions

Weaknesses of the League of Nations

- the League was a voluntary organisation so did not force countries to join.

- this denied the League membership of powerful states which made it weak.

-:principle of collective security was not enforced which weakened the League.

- it lacked a standing army to control aggressors.

- the Conference of Ambassadors undermined the authority of the League.

- unanimous decision making weakened the League.

- favouratism was one weakness whereby the League favoured European powers like Britain and France.

- the other weakness was caused by the League's association with the hated Paris Peace Settlement.

- both defeated and victorious powers hated the Versailles settlement for different reasons, yet the
League defended the Versailles settlement.

Problems faced by the League in maintaining world peace

- the League had limited financial resources to conduct its operations effectively.

- it lacked standing army to enforce its decisions.

- the big powers did not give the League full support.

- members signed treaties outside the League, for example the Locarno Pact of 1925.

- the Great Depression of 1929 - 1932 hindered the League's work.

- the Assembly did not have enough time to meet and solve conflicts

- members were interested in promoting their interests.

- acts of aggression paralysed operations of the League.

- refusal by members to disarm.

Reasons for the failure of the League of Nations

# Absence of the USA in the League

- after WW1 the USA pursued an isolationist policy so refused to take part in Europe's affairs.

- as such, although the USA had played a pivotal role in the formation of the League, the USA did not
become a member.

- this crippled the League from the start because the League missed the leadership, resources and
authority of the world's greatest power.

# Defeated powers were not allowed to join

- from the onset until 1926, defeated nations were not allowed to join the League of Nations.
- this caused resentment among the defeated states and will never cooperate with the League even
when they were finally admitted.

- Russia was only allowed to join in 1934, yet both Russia and Germany were still powerful countries.

- their absence undernined the League's power.

# The League was too Eurocentric

- the League also failed because it relied too much on European big powers for decision making.

- non-European states like Japan felt left out so never cooperated with the League.

# Weakness of the League constitution

- the constitution crippled the League from the onset.

- although there was provision for military sanctions, the League never raised an army to defend peace.

- more so, the League did not have a standing army or police to enforce the League's decisions.

- the unanimous voting system also crippled decision-making in the League.

- important majority decisions were not adopted once a single member voted against it

- the constitution denied the Assembly more time to meet which left many problems unsolved.

- the League also failed to enforce disarmament which promoted acts of aggression.

- being a voluntary organisation, the League had no power to control members.

# The rise of dictators in the world

- rise of dictators in the world encouraged several a ts of aggression which the League failed to stop.

- the acts of aggression destroyed the League and from 1935, it had become like a "toothless bulldog".

- worse still, the dictators withdrew their countries from the League thus leaving it powerless.

# The big powers did not fully support the League

- big powers like Britain, France and Japan were interested in in making deals which by-passed the
League.

- this undermined the authority of the League as a peace keeper.

# Association with the Versailles Settlement

- the League was formed as a result of the Paris Peace Settlement.

- the covenant of the League was added to all treaties imposed on the defeated powers.

- so the defeated powers regarded the League as an instrument to oppress them, so they did not respect
and obey the League.

# Failure of disarmament

- when the League failed to enforce disarmament, from 1934 countries started to rearm.

- this encouraged acts of aggression which destroyed the League.