Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 57–71

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Tectonophysics
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Structure of the upper mantle of Northern Eurasia from 2D density

modeling on seismic profiles with peaceful nuclear explosions
Tamara Yegorova a,⁎, Galina Pavlenkova b
a
Institute of Geophysics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine
b
Institute of Physics of the Earth, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Seismic data, obtained on the territory of Russia along the super-long seismic profiles, acquired with the Peaceful
Received 10 May 2013 Nuclear Explosions (PNE), provide new possibilities for setting up joint geophysical models for the continental
Received in revised form 3 February 2014 upper mantle structure. The PNE profiles show that the upper mantle is heterogeneous and its structure corre-
Accepted 7 April 2014
lates with tectonics and the heat flow data. Since the upper mantle composition affects the density to a greater
Available online 15 April 2014
extent than seismic velocities, we initiated a 2D gravity modeling along the PNE profiles Quartz, Craton and
Keywords:
Kimberlite in order to get new constraints on the composition of the Northern Eurasia upper mantle. The profiles
Gravity anomalies cross the East European Platform, the Urals, the West-Siberian Plate and the Siberian Craton. The initial density
Controlled source seismology models were constructed from the seismic data using the density/velocity relation of the Earth reference models.
Upper mantle structure The initial gravity data are taken from the satellite GOCE global models. The modeling shows that the upper man-
Northern Eurasia tle of Archean-Early Proterozoic Siberian Craton, distinguished by higher velocities in the upper 150–200 km
layer, should have the decreased densities responsible for a strong gravity low (−100 mGal). It could be indica-
tive of variation in the composition due to depletion of the cratonic upper mantle. The composition of the upper
mantle of the East European Platform, regarding its high velocities and high densities, resembles the composition
of the primitive mantle fertile matter. The Paleozoic suture zone of the Urals is characterized by anomalous
structure of the crust and of the uppermost mantle with the high-density and velocity bodies indicative of the
eclogite presence.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The upper mantle structure is usually studied by seismological
methods using the records from earthquakes. However, the seismolog-
ical data are limited for the aseismic regions of Russia with a poorly
developed network of seismic stations. The super-long seismic profiles
made in these regions with large chemical and Peaceful Nuclear Explo-
sions (PNE) provide unique data for setting up the velocity models of
the Northern Eurasia upper mantle. The PNE profiling gives a possibility
to constrain in more detail and more reliable velocity models than that
from the seismology data, because the PNE records contain clear
secondary arrivals with the reflections from the seismic boundaries
and with the refractions from all mantle layers down to the depth of
700 km. Such profiles are a good basis for developing a combine
interpretation of other geophysical data, for instance, for construction
density models of the upper mantle and of the transition zone to
the lower mantle. The combine interpretation of seismic and gravity
data seems to be rather effective since the composition of the upper
⁎ Corresponding author: Tel.: +380 44 424 21 00; fax: +380 44 450 25 20.
E-mail address: egorova@igph.kiev.ua (T. Yegorova).
mantle material affects differently on the seismic velocities and on the
densities. In general, changes in the upper mantle composition from
the fertile substance of the primitive mantle to the strongly depleted
matter exhibit velocities about 1% lower for P-waves and about 1.5%
lower for S-waves (Carlson et al., 2005; James et al., 2004; Jones et al.,
2009; Lee, 2003). These changes lead to a higher (up to 2.5%) density de-
crease (Boyd and McCallister, 1976; Carlson et al., 2005; Hawkesworth
et al, 1990; James et al., 2004; Lee, 2003; Poudjorm Djomani et al.,
2001; Schutt and Lesher, 2006). Therefore density modeling of the
upper mantle could be an effective method to derive new information
on the upper mantle composition.
The velocity/density modeling is a widely developed method for
studying the crust. The combined interpretations of seismic and gravity
data were made in Russia for a large system of seismic profiles crossing
different tectonic domains (Gordienko, 1999; Krasovsky, 1981;
Romanyuk, 1995). These studies show that the main gravity effect of
the crust is caused by its inner heterogeneities, which generate intense
local anomalies. The sedimentary basins have less influence in the
platform regions because their gravity effect is usually compensated
by the Moho uplift beneath the basins and by the density increase in
the underlain crystalline crust. The density modeling of the crust has
shown a stable relation between the average velocity and the density

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2014.04.012
0040-1951/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
58 T. Yegorova, G. Pavlenkova / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 57–71
of the consolidated crust in the large area of the Northern Eurasia
(Romanyuk, 1995).
The use of the velocity/density modeling for deeper layers of the
Earth meets certain limitations. These limitations are connected with a
lack of our knowledge on density/velocity relation for the mantle mate-
rial. We also have little information on the influence of the transition
zone between upper and lower mantle on the gravity field. The first
gravity studies of the upper mantle structure were made in Russia
with the method of the isostatic gravity anomalies (Artemjev et al.,
1994). The averaged topography, the basement and Moho depths, sed-
imentary density and gravity data have been used to determine the iso-
static anomalies of the Northern Eurasia. It was shown that the long
wavelength components of these anomalies of probable mantle origin
do not vary strongly in the area of the PNE profiles. The gravity modeling
for the uppermost mantle along the Craton profile was made by
Grachev and Kaban (2006). They revealed a negative density anomaly
beneath the Siberian Craton, which is explained by the effect of a mantle
plume below the craton.
The main objective of our study is to reconstruct density distribution
in the upper mantle of the Northern Eurasia using the P-wave velocity
models along the PNE seismic profiles. We have performed a 2D density
modeling along the three most representative PNE profiles Quartz,
Craton and Kimberlite (Fig. 1). The initial density models for the upper
mantle were constructed from P-wave velocities which were converted
into densities using the velocity/density relation of the Earth reference
models. In addition, the density modeling incorporates gravity data
from the global models of the satellite GOCE mission. The presented
below results of the density modeling along the PNE seismic profiles
are the first experience of setting up the density models for the upper
mantle and transition zone to the lower mantle for the region of the
Northern Eurasia. Our gravity modeling of the upper mantle structure
along the PNE profiles was based on the techniques of the joint interpre-
tation of gravity and seismic data, described in Strakhov and Romanyuk
(1984), Starostenko and Legostaeva (1998), Martyshko (2010) and
others, and in many similar gravity studies carried out worldwide
(Kaban et al., 2003, 2010; Romanyuk, 1995; Yegorova and Starostenko,
2002; Yegorova et al., 2007, 2011, 2013).
Fig. 1. Location of the seismic profiles with the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions (PNE) in the Northern Eurasia. The PNE seismic profiles are shown by solid black lines, thick lines (1) indicate
Quartz, Craton and Kimberlite profiles subjected for the present gravity modeling. Dashed line contour (2) outlines the main tectonic units in the region. Black circles (3) with labels in-
dicate the location of the PNE and the areas with gray filling (4) show the regions of low heat flow on the surface.
2. Crustal structure and tectonics
The PNE long-range seismic profiles cross the major tectonic prov-
inces of the Northern Eurasia: Precambrian East European Platform
(mainly its north-eastern part) and Siberian Craton, the Palaeozoic
units of suture zone of the Urals, the West-Siberian and Timan-
Pechora Plates (Fig. 1). They differ in age, tectonic evolution and
accretional history, in crustal structure and patterns of geophysical
fields (Artemieva and Mooney, 2001; Khain, 1985; Pavlenkova,
1996a). The East European Platform is composed of the
Paleoproterozoic and Archean blocks. Their crustal thickness ranges
from 40 to 50 km and the average velocity in the crystalline crust is
about 6.5 km/s. The potential fields (gravity and magnetic) show rather
complicated mosaic patterns related to a complex structure of the base-
ment and crystalline crust. The heat flow density ranges from 40 to
50 mW/m2.
The Timan-Pechora Plate of the Palaeozoic age is overlain by rather
thick, in particular within the Fore-Urals region, sediments. The
crust has approximately the same thickness (40 km) as in the NE East
European Platform. The surface heat flow values are elevated up to
60 mW/m2. The Palaeozoic suture of the Urals is distinguished by a
thick (up to 55 km) crust. Its notable feature is a presence of high den-
sity rocks in the upper crust responsible for the significant magnetic and
gravity anomalies along the orogenic belt. The heat flow values are
lowered to 40 mW/m2.
The West-Siberian Plate of Palaeozoic age is covered by the Mesozoic
sediments as thick as 3–15 km (Cherepanova et al., 2013). The thickest
sediments (more than 15 km) occur in the northern part of the plate.
The magnetic and gravity fields show anomalies of lower magnitudes
than those on the East European Platform. In contrast to the latter, the
heat flow over the West-Siberian Plate exhibits higher values attaining
60–70 mW/m2. The Siberian Craton is of the mainly Archean age (Prote-
rozoic rocks are less abundant). Two large basins are developed within
the cratonic area: the Tunguss Basin in the western part of the craton
with 8–10 km thickness of the meta-sediments and volcanics (plateau-
basalts) of high densities and the deep Vilyui Basin, in the eastern part,
filled with younger sediments. The crustal thickness of the Siberian
 T. Yegorova, G. Pavlenkova / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 57–71
Craton is 40–45 km and average velocities in the crystalline crust are 6.5–
6.6 km/s (Cherepanova et al., 2013). The magnetic and gravity fields are
complicated by anomalies from the plateau-basalts. The heat-flow
reaching 30 mW/m2 is much lower than in the West-Siberian Plate.
3. Seismic data
The PNE seismic profiles (Fig. 1) were made in Russia in 1970–1980s
by the GEON Center of the USSR Ministry of Geology within the frame-
work of the national program aimed to develop a set of long-range
seismic profiles for comprehensive study of the upper mantle and of
the mantle transition zone in Northern Eurasia (Benz et al., 1992;
Egorkin, 1999; Egorkin and Chernyshov, 1983). The total length of
profiles exceeds 25000 km, the length of each profile varies from 1500
to 3200 km. The shot point (SP) intervals between the chemical explo-
sions were 100–150 km, the distance between the PNEs is in average
800–1000 km. The chemical explosions provided recordings from the
crust and from the uppermost mantle up to 300–600 km offsets, the
PNEs — from the upper mantle and from the mantle transition zone
on the offsets up to 3200 km. Both types of explosions provided high
quality P-wave records.
The processing of the long-range profiles data were carried out
by Russian scientists (Egorkin, 1997, 1999; Egorkin et al., 1987;
Pavlenkova, 1996a, 1996b) and by several international groups: on the
Quartz profile (Mechie et al., 1993; Morozov et al., 1999; Ryberg et al.,
1996), on the Rift profile (Cipar et al., 1993; Pavlenkova et al., 2002;
Priestly et al., 1994) and on the Craton profile (Egorkin, 1997; Nielsen
et al., 2002). The main results of the international group studies are
presented in (Fuchs, 1997).
The comparison of the author models shows some differences in ve-
locity structure of the upper mantle that could be caused by a number of
reasons. Those are ambiguous solutions of inverse seismic problems, the
different volumes and types of information and different methodologies
used for data analysis and interpretation. Some researchers determined
the mantle structure only from the PNE data, not involving the records
from chemical explosions. As a result, the velocity models on all profiles
demonstrate the velocity pattern of different detail. Some authors show
many boundaries and inversion zones (Egorkin and Chernyshov, 1983;
Egorkin et al., 1987; Morozov et al., 1999), others present rather simple
models (Nielsen et al., 2002).
In order to avoid these disadvantages a comprehensive analysis of
the experimental data from all long-range profiles and a unified
approach to process these data were proposed in Pavlenkova (1996b,
2011) and Pavlenkova and Pavlenkova (2006, 2008). As a result, the au-
thors set up 2D velocity models for all profiles constructed thorough
modeling with both PNE and chemical explosions data. A comparison
of the obtained models at the profile crosspoints shows their good
agreement and the high reliability of the velocity determination for
the whole upper mantle. The common form of the velocity models
along all profiles gives a possibility to compile a 3D velocity model for
the upper mantle (Pavlenkova and Pavlenkova, 2006).
Comparison of the models obtained by different authors shows no
serious difference between them in regional plan. The models differ
mainly by numbers and depths of thin low-velocity or high-velocity
layers, but the main regularities of the velocity increasing with
depth are similar. All models show significant difference in velocities
between the cratons and young platforms. The models differ, however,
in some details. It is due to different volumes of information used for the
model determination. Some researchers obtained only 1D velocity
models or used only the first waves for seismic tomographic inversion.
Most researchers have determined the mantle structure from nuclear-
explosion data, without using seismic records from explosions.
Pavlenkova (1996b, 2011) and Pavlenkova and Pavlenkova (2006,
2008) used all experimental data: the nuclear and chemical explosions,
the first and secondary arrivals and have interpreted all profile data.
59
Comprehensive analysis of available velocity models of different au-
thors on the Craton and Kimberlite profiles has been made by Kuskov
et al. (2011) by calculating the temperatures for the mantle lithosphere
of the Siberian Craton. It was shown that the temperature profiles
from the velocity models of Pavlenkova and Pavlenkova (2006) exhibit
the best correspondence (among the other models) with the low-
temperature upper mantle inferred from the surface heat flow data
(Duchkov and Sokolova, 1997) and with the lithosphere thickness
derived from the terrestrial heat flow (Artemieva and Mooney, 2001)
and the seismic tomography studies (Bushenkova et al., 2002;
Koulakov and Bushenkova, 2010).
The models of Pavlenkova and Pavlenkova (2006) show four regular
seismic boundaries in the upper mantle: N1, N2, L and H boundaries. The
N1 boundary (the boundary velocity 8.3 km/s) is observed at the depth of
70–120 km. The N2 boundary with velocity ~8.4 km/s is traced at the
depth of 100–150 km. The L boundary, known from seismology as the Leh-
mann discontinuity (Lehman, 1959), is determined at the depth of 200–250
km. The H boundary with 8.6 km/s velocity is observed at the depth of 300–
350 km. The top of the transition zone between the upper and the lower
mantle (T boundary) is traced at the depth range of 410–420 km.
Three PNE profiles that were chosen for the gravity modeling are
the most informative profiles with 3–4 PNEs, which cross all the most
important tectonic domains. The Quartz profile crosses the NE part of
the East European Platform, the Timan-Pechora Plate, the Northern
Urals and the West-Siberian Plate (Fig. 1). Strong lateral heterogeneities
were revealed in the crust in the transitions between these
geostructures (Fig. 2). The velocities in the basement slightly vary
from 6.2 km/s beneath the Russian Platform to 5.9–6.0 km/s beneath
the Timan-Pechora Plate. The Moho depths range along the profile
from 40–45 km beneath the NE East European Platform to 55 km
below the Urals. Timan-Pechora Plate has a relatively thin crust. The
crustal structure of the Urals seems to be asymmetric. Beneath its west-
ern slope the Moho abruptly deepens in the form of a down-rapping
bench, while below the eastern slope it rises smoothly toward the
West-Siberian Plate. The upper mantle structure here is also heteroge-
neous: a high-velocity domain with velocities N 8.4 km/s has been re-
vealed below the Moho in the Urals. Another notable feature of the
upper mantle structure in Fig. 2 is the presence of a low-velocity zone
at depths of 70–100 km beneath the West-Siberian Plate (Pavlenkova
and Pavlenkova, 2008). High velocity domains (N 8.2 km/s) occur in
the upper mantle of the NE East European Platform, Urals and Altai,
while lower velocities (8.0–8.1 km/s) were obtained beneath the
Timan-Pechora Plate and the West-Siberian Plate (Fig. 2).
The Craton and the Kimberlite profiles cross the West-Siberian Plate
and the Siberian Craton with the Vilyui Basin in their eastern parts. A
250 km-long section of the profile (2100–2350 km) crosses the
Daldyn-Alakit kimberlite field in the Siberian Craton with the known
kimberlite pipes Udachnaya and Yubileinaya. The velocity models
along the profiles are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The crystalline crust is
covered by sediments (Vp = 4.5–5.0 km/s) as thick as 0–3 km. The
sediments thicken to 10 km within the Vilyui Basin, where they
have 3.5–5.0 km/s velocities. The crustal structure varies significant-
ly in the region of Vilyui Basin: against the background of the Moho
depth in the range 40–45 km, it decreases to 36 km below the basin.
The P-wave velocities gradually increase beneath the West-Siberian
Plate from 8.1 km/s below the Moho to 8.3 km/s at 110 km depth,
where, just above the N1 boundary, a thin low-velocity (8.1 km/s)
zone was determined (Figs. 3 and 4). The seismic boundaries N2 and L
elevate from 240 km (N2 boundary) and 260 km (L boundary) below
the West-Siberian Plate to 170 and 220 km below the Siberian Craton
correspondingly. This uplift of both boundaries seems to be compensat-
ed by the eastward deepening of H boundary from 300 km depth
beneath the West-Siberian Plate to 340 km below the Siberian Craton
(Figs. 3 and 4). No low-velocity zone was revealed at the depth of
250–300 km where the asthenosphere is inferred from the heat flow
data (Cermak, 1985, 1993).
60 T. Yegorova, G. Pavlenkova / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 57–71

Fig. 2. Velocity model of the crust and upper mantle and their gravity effects for the Quartz profile. The velocity model is taken from Pavlenkova and Pavlenkova (2008). WS, Q1, Q2 и Q3
are the PNE shot points; M is the base of the crust, N1, N2, L, H are seismic boundaries in the upper mantle, T is the top of the transition zone to the lower mantle. Solid lines with numbers
(1) indicate the seismic boundaries with the P-wave velocities, km/s, thick black lines (2) show seismic reflectors, low-velocity zone and high-velocity zones are shown by areas with dots
(3) and cross-hatching (4), and the areas of strong seismic heterogeneity and layering are indicated by ovals (5). Gravity effect from different part of the model (upper panel) is calculated
for the initial density model (numbers in brackets, g/cm3 and in the table).

The most complicated structure of the upper mantle is determined
in the area of Daldyn-Alakit kimberlite field. Here one can see consider-
able uplift of seismic boundaries (N1, N2, L) and a presence of the low-
velocity zones and the zone of seismic heterogeneity (Fig. 4).
Thus, the velocity models along the PNE profiles determine the main
regularity in the upper mantle structure for the study area. The main re-
gional differences in the velocities are observed between the Siberian
and East European cratons and the young West-Siberian Plate. Seismic
velocities are higher in the upper mantle of the old platforms. These re-
sults correspond to the seismological data, which indicate a domain of
increased velocities in the upper mantle beneath the Siberian Craton
as compared to the neighboring areas (Bushenkova et al., 2002;
Koulakov and Bushenkova, 2010).
4. Gravity field
The gravity modeling along the PNE seismic profiles was made with
the gravity anomalies calculated from the global models of the satellite
gravity mission GOCE (Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation
Explorer, Drinkwater et al., 2003). It was launched in March 2009 and
after ~2-months period of working provided the new data on the grav-
ity field with 3 mGal resolution corresponding to expansion in spherical
harmonics up to degree and order of 200 with 100-km field resolution
on the surface (Mayer-Gürr et al., 2010; Pail et al., 2011). We used for
our study the database for 15-months time period (November 1, 2009
to April 30, 2011) to calculate the gravity anomalies up to spherical
harmonics of degree and order of 200 (Fig. 5).
The pattern of the Bouguer anomalies (BA) in Fig. 5 shows the im-
prints of main tectonic units in the region: the East European Platform,
separated by the Urals from the West-Siberian Plate, the Siberian Craton
and orogenic belts of Altai and Mongolia. The BA of the East European
Platform is represented by a mosaic of slight positive and negative
anomalies and lineaments of different orientation. In the northern part
of the East European Platform, a wide area of positive BA (N 40 mGal am-
plitude) is seen above the Baltic Shield and the White Sea. In the central
part of the platform positive BA constitute a domain of polygonal form,
 T. Yegorova, G. Pavlenkova / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 57–71
Fig. 3. Velocity model of the crust and upper mantle and their gravity effects for the Craton profile. The velocity model is taken from Pavlenkova and Pavlenkova (2006). C1, C2, C3 and C4
are the PNE shot points. For other explanations see Fig. 2.
which is confined by the gravity lows. Among them the Peri-Caspian
Basin low can be seen at the southern margin of the region and the
Fore-Ural Trough low along the western flank of the Urals (Fig. 5). The
N-S chain of the Urals gravity highs separates the East European
Platform from the West-Siberian Plate. The gravity field of the West-
Siberian Plate, crossed by the eastern part of the Quartz profile and by
the western parts of the Craton and of the Kimberlite profiles, is repre-
sented mainly by negative BA ranging from zero to −30 ÷ −40 mGal
(Fig. 5). They form gravity lineaments of approximately N-S orientation,
parallel to the Urals.
The uplifted domain of the Siberian Craton with surface heights of
500–1000 m is distinguished by a regional gravity low with the BA
reaching − 100 mGal (Fig. 5). Extreme values are observed in the
north-western and the south-eastern parts of the craton. The craton is
framed in the south by the Altai and Mongolia orogenic belts and by
the Baikal Fold Belt with the heights reaching more than 3000 m. They
form the regional gravity low of the BA up to −200 mGal (Fig. 5).
5. Parameterization of the density models and methodology of
gravity modeling
The density parameterization of the initial models for the Quartz, the
Craton and the Kimberlite profiles was made using the convention
61
velocity/density relations in the crust and in the upper mantle. We
used the known velocity/density relations of Nafe and Drake (Ludwig
et al., 1970) for the crystalline crust. They imply that the densities (ρ)
of the crystalline crust and of the dense meta-sediments (Vp velocity
≤ 6.5 km/s) are estimated by the function ρ = 0.174*Vp + 1.663,
while the relation ρ = 0.3185*Vp + 0.762 was applied for the lower
crust and for the uppermost mantle (Vp N 6.5 km/s). The relation
ρ = 0.25875Vp + 1.1625 was used for the sediments.
The obtained densities, shown as initial parameters in Table 1 and in
Figs. 2–4, are very close to those inferred from the nonlinear relations of
Christensen and Mooney (1995) and from the linear empirical relations,
deduced from laboratory measurements and gravity modeling of the
crust by Krasovsky (1981) (ρ = 0.32*Vp + 0.73) and by Gordienko
(1999) who determined the relation ρ = 2.69 + 0.27(Vp-6.0) for the
rocks with Vp b 7.5 km/s and ρ = 3.02 + 0.28(Vp-7.0) for Vp
N 7.0 km/s.
The density parameterization of the upper mantle was made using
the velocity/density relation of the reference Earth models PREM
(Dziewonski and Andersen, 1981) and its later modification (ACY400
model) for the upper mantle (Montagner and Anderson, 1989). The
upper mantle of the PREM model consists of the lithosphere (LID)
with velocities increased with depth and of the low-velocity zone
(LVZ) of the asthenosphere, separated at the depth of 220 km by a
62 T. Yegorova, G. Pavlenkova / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 57–71
Fig. 4. Velocity model of the crust and upper mantle and their gravity effects for the Kimberlite profile. The velocity model is taken from Pavlenkova and Pavlenkova (2006). K1, K2 and C3
are the PNE shot points. For other explanations see Fig. 2.
boundary with jumps of both velocity and density. For our study
we prefer the ACY400 model (Montagner and Anderson, 1989) since
it shows the absence of velocity and density jumps in the upper mantle
and a lack of clearly defined low-velocity zone at the depth of ~200 km
(Fig. 6), which is characteristic of the velocity models based on the PNE
seismic profiles (Figs. 2–4). The relation for the ACY400 reference model
is shown in Fig. 6 by the linear regression (ρ = 0.316*Vp +0.769),
which is very similar to the PREM model at 200–400 km depth, and
by polynomial (ρ = 5.820–0.935*Vp + 0.077*Vp2) function. They
both were used for setting up the starting density models for the Quartz,
the Craton and the Kimberlite profiles (Table 1, Figs. 2–4).
In addition, the density estimates were controlled by independent
density evaluations from 2D modeling of deep temperatures for the
composition of garnet peridotites at 100–180 km depth and of primitive
mantle at the depth N 180 km (Kuskov et al., 2011, 2014). According
to this model, the densities of primitive mantle at the lithosphere base
(ρ = 3.49 g/cm3 at P = 102.5 Kb and T = 1450 ºC) are in good corre-
spondence with the densities of Ak135 and PREM models (ρ = 3.486–
3.4895 g/cm3 at 310 km depth).
The 2D gravity modeling was performed using the software by
Tchernychev and Makris (1996). This software is based on the Talwani
et al. (1959) algorithm with approximation of the model by prisms of
the constant density. In our models the prism dimensions are of 10 ×
1.0 km2 (X, Z) size. The gravity calculations operate with the relative
densities, obtained by normalizing the absolute density values by the
reference density — a constant density parameter representing the av-
erage density column of the model from the surface (ρ = 2.35 g/cm3)
to the base of the mantle transition zone (ρ = 3.75 g/cm3 at 670 km
depth). The calculation of the initial density model indicates that this
average density parameter be equal to 3.486 g/cm3 for all three profiles.
To take into account the extension of the structures relative to the pro-
file lengths, the gravity effect was calculated for the upper mantle struc-
tures extended laterally on 1500 km. It corresponds to the extension of
the main tectonic units, crossed by the seismic profiles Quartz, Craton
and Kimberlite in their central parts (Fig. 1).
Calculated gravity effects of the initial density models, constructed
from the seismic models using the discussed above velocity/density
relations, are shown in Figs. 2–4. It is evident that it is hard to fit the
observed and calculated gravity anomalies using the adopted velocity/
density relations. The very large deviations (≥100 mGal) are found in
the region of the Siberian Craton. The gravity effects of the separate
layers (Figs. 2–4) indicate the upper mantle interval down to ~150 km
 T. Yegorova, G. Pavlenkova / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 57–71 63

Fig. 5. The Bouguer gravity anomalies of the Northern Eurasia. The gravity anomalies are calculated from the GOCE global models up to spherical harmonics of degree and order of 200. The
PCB and FUT indicate the gravity lows of the Peri-Caspian Basin and of the Fore-Urals Trough within the East European Platform, while the BSh and the WS show the gravity highs of the
Baltic Shield and the White Sea.

depth (between the Moho and N2 seismic boundary) as the main source
of the gravity anomalies with the wavelength of 1500–2000 km. The
Earth's crust originates the gravity anomalies of up to 50–60 km
wavelength.
For a better fit of the observed and calculated gravity it is necessary
to make some modifications in the density models, such as to decrease
the upper mantle densities below the Siberian Craton and to add local
heterogeneities in the crust. Such modifications, assuming the geometry
of the seismic boundaries is kept fixed, concern changes in the density
values. They have been evaluated iteratively by solving the inverse grav-
ity problem incorporated in the used software (Tchernychev and
Makris, 1996).
6. Results of the gravity modeling
6.1. Density model on the Quartz profile
Large regional variations of the BA (from 30 to −70 mGal) along the
Quartz profile correlate well with the main tectonic units in the region
(Fig. 1). The BA are positive for the NE part of the East European Plat-
form, they decrease to − 20 ÷ − 25 mGal within the West-Siberian
Plate and reach minimal values (− 70 ÷ − 80 mGal) above the Altai
orogen. This regional division correlates well with the velocity structure
of the upper mantle: seismic velocities are higher in the uppermost
mantle of the NE East European Platform than below the West-
Siberian Plate. The initial density model along the Quartz profile, obtain-
ed using the described above velocity/density conversion functions, is
shown in Fig. 2 and in the Table 1. The first gravity calculations from
this model have shown that the effect from the lower part of the
upper mantle and from the transition zone at the depth of ~ 300–670
km is small and can contribute only to the regional background level.
That is caused by rather deep location of the seismic boundaries and,
in particular, by their flat topography.
The final density model along the Quartz profile, which incorporates
the necessary corrections in the densities (see Table 1), is shown in
Fig. 7. The average discrepancy between the calculated and the
observed BA is 10 mGal that is 10% less than the maximal amplitude
of the BA (110 mGal) along the profile. The thick (up to 50 km) crust
of the northeastern part of the East European Platform and Baltic Shield
is underlain by the uppermost mantle of a rather simple structure with
3.34 g/cm3 density (Vp = 8.25 km/s) down to the depth of 75 km (N1
boundary). Deeper, there is a layer with 3.40 g/cm3 density extended
down to seismic boundary N2 at 130 km depth. A 35-km thick crust of
the West-Siberian Plate, covered by 3–4 km thick sediments, is under-
lain by the uppermost mantle with the increased to 3.35–3.37 g/cm3
densities (Vp = 8.0–8.1 km/s) down to 130 km depth. A number of
the local anomalies with 50–60 mGal amplitudes are observed in the re-
gion of the Timan-Pechora Plate and the Urals (Fig. 7). The modeling has
64 T. Yegorova, G. Pavlenkova / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 57–71

shown a relation of these local anomalies with heterogeneities in

3.39 (3.35)
3.32 (3.27)
3.34 (3.30)
3.35 (3.30)

3.42 (3.38)
2.35–2.10

2.80–2.82

3.45–3.46
the crust, characterized by block structure. In general, the lithosphere

model
Final

3.49
2.70

2.95

3.74
of the Pechora Plate has the decreased densities and velocities
down to 80 km depth. The Urals, on the contrary, has a rather dense
(2.9 g/cm3) crust that generates the Urals gravity high. Beneath the

3.30–3.33

3.36–3.37

3.45–3.47
Densities

crust of this orogen there is a block of high velocity (8.4 km/s) and
ρ, g/cm3

model
Initial
density (3.39 g/cm3), which extends eastwards on 400 km in the upper-

3.39
3.35

3.42
2.35
2.70
2.80
2.95

3.49
3.74
most mantle of the West-Siberian Plate.
Seismic velocities

6.2. Density models along the Craton and the Kimberlite profiles
Vp, km/s

8.5–8.6
3.6–5.6
6.0–6.3

6.8–7.0

The gravity field along the Craton profile is highly anomalous. Against

8.35
the background of slight negative BA (approximately −10 mGal) of the
8.1

8.4
6.5

8.2
8.3

8.6
9.4
Kimberlite profile

West-Siberian Plate, the Siberian Craton is distinguished by a strong

gravity low reaching −100 mGal (Figs. 8 and 9). The Vilyuj Basin, located
boundaries

at the eastern part of the craton, is outlined by an anomalous domain

Seismic

consisting of two gravity lows of −65 mGal separated by a local high.

N2
N1
М

There is an unusual relation between the BA of the Siberian Craton and

Т
L

its upper mantle velocity structure that differs from the NE East
European Platform relation. The Siberian Craton upper mantle is charac-
3.37 (3.34–3.29)

terized by the same velocities as the northeastern part of the East

3.39 (3.35)
3.35 (3.31)

3.42 (3.38)
2.70–2.75
2.80–2.90

3.48–3.50

European Platform, but it corresponds to the deep regional low in the

model

(3.27)

gravity field. The difference between the gravity background levels of

Final

Numbers in brackets indicate the densities of the mantle lithosphere of the Siberian Craton (final model) in comparison with that of the West-Siberian Plate.
2.95

3.46

3.74
2.35

these two old platforms is ~70–80 mGal (Fig. 5).

The first gravity calculations for the density model along the Craton
profile have shown a strong discrepancy (up to 140 mGal) between
3.48–3.50
Densities
ρ, g/cm3

calculated and observed BA in the area of the Siberian Craton (Figs. 3

model
Initial

3.39
2.70
2.80
2.95

3.33
3.35

3.42
3.37

3.45

3.74
2.35

and 4). An intense gravity high was determined in the site of the craton
regional low. The gravity calculations for the separate layers (Fig. 4)
have shown that this gravity high is caused by the upper mantle struc-
Seismic velocities

ture below the craton. In order to fit the calculated and the observed
Velocities and densities of initial and final models of the crust and upper mantle on the Quartz, Craton and Kimberlite profiles.

gravity fields, it was necessary to decrease the upper mantle densities

Vp, km/s

8.35–8.4

8.6–8.63

beneath the Siberian Craton. The final density model along the Craton
8.1–8.2

8.4–8.5
8.5–8.6
3.6–5.6
6.0–6.4
6.5–6.7
6.8–7.2

profile (Fig. 8) shows the average discrepancy between the calculated

8.1

8.3

9.4

and the observed gravity fields within the 8.8 mGal. The densities of the
upper mantle were decreased by 0.03–0,05 g/cm 3 down to the L
Craton profile

boundaries

boundary (210–250 km depth). This boundary was chosen as the

Seismic

lower bound of the density decrease because it could be related

N1
N2

with variations in composition from the depleted to the fertile man-

М

Т
L

tle (Kuskov and Kronrod, 2007; Kuskov et al., 2006, 2014). In general,
the upper mantle densities below the West-Siberian Plate are higher
2.65–2.72

2.85–2.90

3.36–3.37

than those beneath the Siberian Craton; these distinctions range

model
Final

2.35

3.30
3.35

3.34
3.40
3.42
3.45
3.49
3.74

from Δρ = 0.07 g/cm 3 in the uppermost mantle to 0.04 g/cm3 at

the depth of 200–250 km.
The Vilyui Basin, located at the eastern end of the profile, is charac-
3.39–3.40
Densities

terized by the most complicated structure of the uppermost mantle.

ρ, g/cm3

model
Initial

The sub-Moho interval (down to 80 km depth) of the minimal for the

2.35
2.75

2.90

3.36
3.39

3.42
3.44
3.45
3.46
3.75
3.36

whole profile densities (3.27–3.29 g/cm3) underlies the crust with a

high-density body (2.96 g/cm3). Another similar crustal block of high
density is revealed in the crust of Daldyn-Alakit kimberlite field
velocities
Vp, km/s
Seismic

3.0–5.0
6.0–6.2

6.5–7.0

8.0–8.1

(Fig. 8), which is crossed by the Craton profile in its 2100–2350 km

8.25

8.45
8.2

8.4

8.5
8.6
9.4
8.0

interval.
The upper mantle structure below the West-Siberian platform along
Quartz profile

the Craton profile is similar to that along the Quartz profile (Fig. 7) with
boundaries

small exceptions: a number of local gravity anomalies that could be

Seismic

caused by heterogeneities in the crystalline crust are revealed by the

N1
N2
M

T
L

Craton profile.
The velocity model and the gravity field along the Kimberlite profile
Sediments

Transition

(Fig. 4) is very similar to the Craton Profile (Fig. 3), and similar results
Middle
Layers

model

Lower
Upper

Upper

have been obtained by the gravity modeling. Its final density model
of the

zone

(Fig. 9) shows a low-density upper mantle of the Siberian Craton, extend-

ed down to ~200 km depth, with minimal densities (3.27–3.30 g/cm3) in
the uppermost mantle (to 100 km depth). On the Kimberlite profile there
Mantle
Table 1

Crust

were also detected some specific features of the crust (a high-density

body) and of sub-crustal layer (occurrence of a low-density zone).
 T. Yegorova, G. Pavlenkova / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 57–71 65

Fig. 6. P-wave velocity and density columns of the ACY400 model (Montagner and Anderson, 1989) (a) and the density/velocity relation of the ACY400 model (b). Solid line in (b) shows
the direct density/velocity relation, black dotted line — its linear approximation (ρ = 0.316*Vp + 0.769) and gray dashed line — polinomial function (ρ = 5.820–0.935*Vp + 0.077*Vp2).

Fig. 7. Density model for the crust and upper mantle on the Quartz profile. Gravity effect (upper panel) has been calculated down to the base of transition zone to the lower mantle
(670 km). Densities, g/cm3, of the final model are shown by numbers. For other explanations see Fig. 2.
66 T. Yegorova, G. Pavlenkova / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 57–71
7. Discussion and interpretation of the results
The gravity modeling, performed along the PNE seismic profiles
Quartz, Craton and Kimberlite, revealed significant distinctions in the
upper mantle structure of the main tectonic regions of the Northern
Eurasia — the West-Siberian Plate of epi-Herzinian consolidation and
the NE part of the East European Platform and Siberian Craton of Early
Proterozoic-Archean age. The West-Siberian Plate with higher heat
flow (to 60 mW/m2) is underlain by the upper mantle with decreased
velocities (in comparison with the Siberian Craton and the NE part of
the East European Platform), and with the increased densities. Gravity
modeling has also shown significant differences in the upper mantle
densities of the East European Platform and of the Siberian Craton,
which are described by the similar low heat flows and the higher seis-
mic velocities. In order to explain the gravity low of ~100 mGal above
the Siberian Craton, the upper mantle densities should be decreased in
general by 0.04 g/cm3. This implies differences in the composition of
the upper mantle of these two old units.
The upper mantle composition of the Siberian Craton is well studied
now with xenoliths data. Most of xenoliths are common peridotites
such as harzburgite and lherzolite, and only a few samples have rather
unusual compositions (Boyd et al., 1997; Glebovitsky et al., 2001;
Griffin et al., 1996, 1999; Ionov et al., 2010; Solov'eva et al., 1994). As fol-
lows from the chemical composition of xenoliths from kimberlites in
the Siberian and other cratons, the lithospheric mantle beneath cratons
is significantly depleted (relative to the primitive mantle) in CaO, Al2O3
and FeO (Griffin et al., 2009; Ionov et al., 2010; Kuskov et al., 2006). The
Fig. 8. Density model for the crust and upper mantle on the Craton profile. For other explanations see Figs. 7 and 2.
depletion of ultramafic rocks decreases with depth and it is assumed
that beneath 150–180 km depths an increase in the fertility of mantle
xenoliths is observed, i.e., the mantle material becomes gradually
homogeneous.
As it was mentioned above, the changes in the upper mantle compo-
sition from the fertile substance of the primitive mantle to the strongly
depleted matter have a slighter impact on the seismic velocities, than on
densities. The observed differences in the upper mantle densities along
the PNE profile give possibility to estimate the changes in the litho-
sphere composition of the main tectonic domains of the studied region.
Certain conclusions can be made from Fig. 10 showing the compari-
son of the average density columns, compiled from the density models
along the PNE profiles (Figs. 7–9), with the upper mantle densities de-
termined from the xenolith data (Kuskov et al., 2011, 2014). Maximal
densities of the upper mantle of the NE part of the East European Plat-
form (Quartz profile) correspond to the area of densities for the fertile
matter of the primitive mantle (Fig. 10). Low-density upper mantle col-
umn for the Siberian Craton (Craton and Kimberlite profiles) is similar
to that for depleted mantle represented mainly by the garnet perido-
tites. The density column of the West-Siberian Plate is located in
Fig. 10 between two neighboring columns of the East European Platform
and of the Siberian Craton.
The low-density upper mantle of the Siberian Craton, revealed by
the profiles Craton and Kimberlite down to the depth of 200 km, could
be caused by the most depleted part of the upper mantle. Most proba-
bly, this part of the mantle is confined by the seismic boundary L
(Figs. 8 and 9). As we mentioned before, the nature of this boundary is
 T. Yegorova, G. Pavlenkova / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 57–71 67

Fig. 9. Density model for the crust and upper mantle on the Kimberlite profile. For other explanations see Figs. 2 and 7.

not known well. One of possible explanations assumes it as a transition mantle. The densities, derived in the upper mantle of the Siberian
from the depleted to the fertile upper mantle (Griffin et al., 1996; Craton along the Craton and Kimberlite profiles, correspond to the
Kuskov et al., 2011). densities of the lithospheric mantle of Archean cratons estimated my
It is known that the depletion is a unique process in the mantle pe-
culiar for Archean stage of continental crust formation. Uniqueness
and irreversibility of the depletion in the mantle are explained by very
hot upper mantle in the Archean (Berry et al., 2008) that caused high
heat flow on the surface exceeding the contemporary one more than
twice (Michaut et al., 2007; Rozen et al., 2009). It caused intense melting
and extraction of komatiits and basaltic components from the upper
mantle material. The latter led to depletion of the upper mantle on Fe,
AL, Ca (due to extraction of СaO, Al2O3, FeO) and to the density decrease
down to the depth of 200–300 km (Griffin et al., 2009; Jordan, 1978).
Namely depletion is assumed to be the origin of the craton lithosphere
roots (keels) — a high-velocity and low-temperature thick blocks of
the lithospheric mantle. The density decrease in these blocks provides
a higher stability of the Archean craton lithosphere and their buoyancy
during the further evolution of the lithosphere (Afonso et al., 2008;
Hawkesworth et al., 1990; Jordan, 1978; Kaban et al., 2003; Poudjorm
Djomani et al., 2001). The results of our velocity/density modeling
for the upper mantle of the Siberian Craton (Craton and Kimberlite Fig. 10. Density profiles of the upper mantle of the northeastern part of the East European
profiles) correspond to the seismic tomography study (Koulakov and Platform (black solid line), of the West-Siberian Plate (cross-hatching area) and of the Si-
berian Craton (gray filling area) derived from the gravity modeling on the PNE seismic
Bushenkova, 2010) showing the increased velocities in the craton
profiles and the density columns for the primitive mantle (PM, line with filled circles)
upper mantle, and to the gravity study by Kaban et al. (2003) demon- and depleted garnet peridotites (GP, line with open circles) calculated from xenoliths at
strated the density decrease in the range 1.7–2.3% in this region of the PT conditions (Kuskov et al., 2011, 2014).
68 T. Yegorova, G. Pavlenkova / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 57–71

methods of mineral physics at PT conditions (Fig. 8 in Afonso et al.
(2010)) and with the upper mantle densities calculated for the Craton
and Kimberlite profiles from 2D models of temperature distribution
for the garnet peridotite composition (Kuskov et al., 2014).
The performed modeling has shown that the described processes in
the mantle are not peculiar for all Precambrian platforms. The East
European Platform of Early Proterozoic-Archean age shows the highest
densities and velocities reaching 3.40 g/cm3 and 8.45 km/s at 130 km
depth (Fig. 7). Their comparison with the parameters of the upper man-
tle rocks estimated from the xenolith data (Kuskov et al., 2011) points
out at the similarity of the platform upper mantle model with that for
the fertile matter of the primitive mantle (Fig. 10). The high-density
and high-velocity upper mantle beneath the northeastern part of the
East European Platform, obtained on the Quartz profile, is in good agree-
ment with the gravity and seismic tomography studies carried out for
the Europe and summarized in Artemieva et al. (2006), Kaban et al.
(2010), and Yegorova and Starostenko (2002). They show a relation of
the high-velocity upper mantle below the platform with a vast mantle
gravity anomaly reaching 150–200 mGal in the central part of the plat-
form, which is indicative of the density increase in the mantle
lithosphere.
The average density column of the upper mantle of the West-
Siberian Plate of Paleozoic age is located between the columns of the
Precambrian regions of the East European Platform and Siberian Craton

Fig. 11. Comparison of fragments of velocity and density models on the Craton (left panels) and Kimberlite profiles (right panels) in the region of Daldyn-Alakit kimberlite field. Numbers
indicate densities, g/cm3, in the upper panels and velocities, km/s, in the lower panels. For other explanations see Figs. 2 and 7.
 T. Yegorova, G. Pavlenkova / Tectonophysics 627 (2014) 57–71
(Fig. 10). We assume that it could be caused by specific composition of
the upper mantle, formed during the Herzinian stage of the orogeny and
of the continental crust consolidation. The composition of the upper
mantle of that age, revealed from studies of the ultramafic massifs in
Western Europe (Bodinier et al., 1991; Downes et al., 1991; Hartmann
and Wedepohl, 1990; Shervais and Mukasa, 1991; Voshage et al.,
1987) and from the xenolith studies (Downes, 1997, 2001), could be
represented by spinel peridotites in the upper part of the mantle litho-
sphere, substituted by garnet peridotites in its lower part (Menzies and
Bodiner, 1993).
The performed modeling reveals also some new features of the up-
permost mantle that could be related with the kimberlite magmatism
and diamond-bearing of the cratons. The Craton and Kimberlite profiles
cross the Daldyn-Alakit kimberlite field in Yakutiya (the kimberlite
pipes Udachnaya and Ubileinaya) at the eastern part of the Siberian Cra-
ton. This region is distinguished by extremely low values of surface heat
flow (Duchkov and Sokolova, 1997) and by very low temperatures of
the mantle lithosphere, obtained from petrophysical analysis (Kuskov
et al., 2011). The density and velocity models along the Craton and the
Kimberlite profiles clearly show the relation of the Daldyn-Alakit kim-
berlite field to the area of maximal layering of the upper mantle
(Fig. 11). High-density bodies (2.9 g/cm3), occurring in the crust of the
kimberlite field and responsible for the local gravity highs, relate, most
probably, with the plateau-basalts and intrusions of the upper mantle
material into the crust. These regions are underlain by the uppermost
mantle of the lower densities (3.27 g/cm3) that shallows up to the
Moho depths (Fig. 11).
The density models along the three PNE seismic profiles provide
additional constraints on the structure of the crust and subcrustal
layer of the other units in the region. The Paleozoic suture zone of the
Urals between the East European Platform and the West-Siberian
Plate is distinguished by anomalous structure of the crust and upper-
most mantle. Its notable feature is a high-density (3.39 g/cm3) and
velocity (8.4 km/s) body below the Moho, which could be indicative
of the occurrence of the eclogites (eclogite body) in the subcrustal
layer of the orogen. The eclogites of ages ranging from the Palaeozoic
to Precambrian were found in the Marunkeu block of the Polar Urals
(Glodny et al., 2003; Pistin et al., 2009; Udovkina, 1971). Occurrence
of eclogites below the Moho could be an additional evidence in favor
of a suture zone of the Urals originated in Paleozoic by the West-
Siberian Plate accretion to the Precambrian East European Platform. In
this regard it is worth to mention the occurrence of inclined seismic re-
flectors deeping eastwards below the East European Platform, which
could be related with tectonic movements and with formation of thrusts
on the eastern margin of the platform (Pavlenkova and Pavlenkova,
2008).
8. Conclusions
Our modeling for the PNE seismic profiles demonstrates a rather
high efficiency of the joint interpretation of seismic and gravity data to
study the structure and the composition of the upper mantle. This appli-
cation is assumed to be very appropriate for the upper mantle since var-
iations in composition lead to considerable changes in density (up to
2.5–3%), but result in smaller variations of seismic velocities (up to
1.5%).
The performed gravity modeling on the PNE seismic profiles Quartz,
Craton and Kimberlite have shown considerable differences in the
structure and composition of the upper mantle in the Northern Eurasia.
The Siberian Craton with very low heat flow (30 mW/m2) is underlain
by the high-velocity and low-density upper mantle in the area of strong
gravity low. The upper mantle of decreased density is caused by the
depletion of the Archean mantle. The most depleted part of the upper
mantle extends down to the depth of 180–200 km.
The lithospheric mantle of the northeastern part of the East
European Platform, of the same low heat flow and the high seismic
69
velocities as in the Siberian Craton, has higher densities, which are
very close to the density of the fertile matter of the primitive mantle.
The West-Siberian Plate with high heat flow (up to 60 mW/m2) is un-
derlain by the upper mantle of decreased velocities (in comparison
with the Precambrian regions) and increased densities that could be
caused by variations in composition of the Paleozoic upper mantle.
The most anomalous structure has been revealed for the uppermost
mantle in the area of kimberlite magmatism (Daldyn-Alakit field in
Yakutia) in the eastern part of the Siberian Craton. It is characterized
by the lowest densities in the subcrustal layer, by strong stratification
of the uppermost mantle and by the uplift of seismic boundaries. It
sets a question of a possible relation of kimberlite magmatism processes
with the areas of the most depleted and stratified uppermost mantle.
This problem requires further investigation including the study of
other PNE seismic profiles, the implementation of the 3D gravity model-
ing and the use of the data on the xenolith studies.
Acknowledgements
These works were carried out by financial support from Russian Fond
for Fundamental Investigations (grants no. 12-05-00407a and no. 11-05-
90435) and Ukrainian State Fond for Fundamental Researches (grants
no. F40/33-2011 and no. F40/96-2012). Gravity data for our study were
taken from global models of satellite GOCE mission.
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