Blood Vessels and Circulations Tunica intima:

Blood vessels outside the heart are divided into two innermost layer
classes:
simple squamous
The pulmonary vessels, which transport blood from
the right ventricle of the heart through the lungs and Tunica media:
back to the left atrium
middle layer
The systemic vessels, which transport blood from
smooth muscle with elastic and collagen
the left ventricle of the heart through all parts of the
body and back to the right atrium Tunica adventitia:
Blood Vessels Function outermost layer
1. Carry blood connective tissue
2. Exchange nutrients, waste products, gases within
tissues

3. Transport substances
Types of Arteries
4. Regulate blood pressure
Elastic arteries:
5. Direct blood flow to tissues
largest in diameter
Blood Vessels Structure
thickest walls
Arteries:
Example - aorta and pulmonary trunk
• carry blood away from heart
Muscular arteries:
• thick with a lot of elastic
medium to small size
Veins:
thick in diameter
• carry blood toward heart
contain smooth muscle cells
• think with less elastic
can control blood flow to body regions
Capillaries:
Capillaries
• exchange occurs between blood and tissue fluids
Blood flows from arterioles into capillaries
Blood Flow
Capillaries branch to form networks
Blood flows from arteries into arterioles
Blood flow is regulated by smooth muscle cells,
Arterioles into capillaries precapillary sphincters
Capillaries into venules Type of Veins
Venules to small veins Blood flows from capillaries into venules
Veins return to heart Blood flows from venules into small veins
Blood Vessels Walls All 3 tunics are present in small veins
Medium sized veins: part of descending aorta that extends through
thorax to diaphragm
collect blood from small veins and deliver to large
veins Abdominal:

Large veins: descending aorta that extends from diaphragm

where it divides at the common iliac arteries
contain valves
Arteries of the Head and Neck
Pulmonary Circulation Vessels
Branches of aortic arch:
Pulmonary circulation:
brachiocephalic artery
blood vessels that carry blood from right ventricle to
lungs and back from left atrium of heart left common carotid artery

Pulmonary trunk: left subclavian

blood pump from right ventricle towards lung Brachiocephalic artery:

Pulmonary veins: first branch off aortic arch

exit lungs and carry O2 rich blood to left atrium supplies blood to right side of head and neck

Systematic Circulation Vessels Left common carotid artery:

The systemic circulation carries blood from the left 2nd branch off aortic arch
ventricle to the tissues of the body and back to the
right atrium. supplies blood to the left side of head and neck

Oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins passes Left subclavian artery:
from the left atrium into the left ventricle and from
the left ventricle into the aorta. 3rd branch off aortic arch

Arteries distribute blood from the aorta to all supplies blood to left upper limbs
portions of the body
Right common carotid artery:

branches off brachiocephalic artery

supplies blood to right side of head and neck

Parts of Aorta
Right subclavian artery:
Ascending:
branches off brachiocephalic artery
passes superiorly from left ventricle
supplies blood to right upper limbs
Aortic arch:
Arteries of the Upper Limbs
3 major arteries which carry blood to head and
Axillary arteries:
upper limbs
continuation of subclavian
Descending:
supply blood deep in clavicle
extends through thorax and abdomen to pelvis
Brachial arteries:
Thoracic:
continuation of axillary supply blood to lumbar vertebra and back muscles

where blood pressure measurements are taken Arteries of Pelvis

Ulnar arteries: Common iliac arteries:

branch of brachial artery branches from abdominal aorta

near elbow divides into internal iliac arteries

External iliac arteries:

Radial arteries: division of common iliac artery

branch of brachial artery supply blood to lower limbs

supply blood to forearm and hand Internal iliac arteries:

pulse taken here division of common iliac

Abdominal Aorta Branches supply blood to pelvic area

Celiac trunk arteries: Arteries of the Lower Limbs

supply blood to stomach, pancreas, spleen, liver, Femoral arteries:

upper duodenum
supply to thigh
Superior mesenteric arteries:
Popliteal arteries:
supply blood to small intestines and upper portion of
colon supply blood to knee

Inferior mesenteric arteries: Anterior and posterior arteries:

supply blood to colon supply blood to leg and foot

Renal arteries: Fibular arteries:

supply blood to kidneys supply blood to lateral leg and foot

Hepatic arteries:

supply blood to liver Veins

Testicular arteries: Veins return blood to the heart.

supply blood to testes In the systemic circulation, the blood returning to

the heart is deoxygenated.
Ovarian arteries:
In the pulmonary circulation, the blood returning to
supply blood to ovaries the heart in the pulmonary veins is oxygenated

Inferior phrenic arteries: Superior vena cava:

supply blood to diaphragm returns blood from head, neck, thorax, and right
upper limbs
Lumbar arteries:
empties into right atrium of heart empty into brachiocephalic veins

Inferior vena cava: Posterior intercostal veins:

returns blood from abdomen, pelvis, lower limbs drain blood from posterior thoracic wall

empties into right atrium of heart drains into azygos vein on right side

Veins of the Head and Neck Hemiazygos vein:

External jugular vein: receives blood from azygos vein of left side

drain blood from head and neck Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis

empties into subclavian veins Common iliac vein:

Internal jugular vein: formed from external and internal iliac

drain blood from brain, face, neck empty into inferior vena cava

empty into subclavian veins External iliac vein:

Subclavian veins: drains blood from lower limbs

forms brachiocephalic veins empty into common iliac vein

Brachiocephalic veins: Internal iliac vein:

join to form superior vena cava drains blood from pelvic region

Veins of the Upper Limbs empties into common iliac vein

Brachial veins: Renal vein:

empty into axillary vein drains blood from kidneys

Cephalic veins: Hepatic Portal System

empty into axillary vein and basilic vein Liver is a major processing center for substances
absorbed by intestinal tract.
Median cubital veins:
Portal system:
connects to cephalic vein
vascular system that begins with capillaries in viscera
near elbow and ends with capillaries in liver

Veins of the Thorax uses splenic vein and superior mesenteric vein

Right and left brachiocephalic veins: Veins of the Lower Limbs

drain blood from thorax into superior vena cava Femoral veins:

Azygos veins: drain blood from thigh and empty into external iliac
vein
drain blood from thorax into superior vena cava
Great saphenous veins:
Internal thoracic veins:
drain from foot and empty into femoral vein
Popliteal veins:
drain blood from knee and empty into femoral vein
Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is the measure of force blood exerts
against blood vessel walls.
Systolic pressure: contraction of heart
Diastolic pressure: relaxation of heart
Average Blood Pressure: 120/80
Pulse Pressure
Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic and
diastolic blood pressures.
Example - 120 for systolic / 80 for diastolic; pulse
pressure is 40 mm Hg
pulse pressure points can be felt near large arteries
Capillary Exchange
Most exchange across capillary wall’s occurs by
diffusion
Blood pressure, capillary permeability and osmosis
affect movement of fluids across capillary walls.
Net movement of fluid from blood into tissues
Fluid gained in tissues is removed by lymphatic
system
Local Control of Blood Flow
Local control achieved by relaxation and contraction
of precapillary sphincters
Sphincters relax blood flow increases
Precapillary sphincters controlled by metabolic
needs of tissues
Concentration of nutrients also control blood flow
Blood flow increases when oxygen levels decrease
Nervous Control of Blood Flow
Vasomotor center:
sympathetic division
controls blood vessel diameter
Vasomotor tone:
state of partial constriction of blood vessels
increase causes blood vessels to constrict and blood
pressure to go up
Hormonal Control of Blood Flow
The sympathetic division also regulates hormonal
control of blood flow through the release of
epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal
medulla.
In most blood vessels, these hormones cause
constriction, which reduces blood flow.
In some tissues, such as skeletal muscle and cardiac
muscle, these hormones cause the blood vessels to
dilate, increasing blood flow
Mean Arterial Pressure
An adequate blood pressure is required to maintain
blood flow through the blood vessels of the body.
Several regulatory mechanisms ensure that blood
pressure remains adequate for this task.
Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is a calculated value
that reflects an average arterial pressure in various
vessels of the body.
The MAP changes in response to changes in HR, SV,
or PR.
The mean arterial pressure changes over our
lifetime.
MAP is about 70 mm Hg at birth.
It is maintained at about 95 mm Hg from
adolescence to middle age, and may reach 110 mm
Hg in a healthy older person.
Baroreceptor Reflexes
Baroreceptor reflexes activate responses to blood
pressure in normal range
Baroreceptors respond to stretch in arteries due to
increased pressure
Located in carotid sinuses and aortic arch
Change peripheral resistance, heart rate, stroke
volume in response to blood pressure
Chemoreceptor Reflex
Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in blood
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH
Chemoreceptors are located in carotid bodies and
aortic bodies which lie near carotid sinuses and
aortic arch
They send action potentials along sensory nerve to
medulla oblongata
Adrenal Medullary Mechanism
1. Stimuli increase sympathetic stimulation to
adrenal medulla
2. Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and
norepinephrine into blood
3. This causes increased heart rate and stroke
volume and vasoconstriction
4. Vasodilation of blood vessels in skeletal and
cardiac muscle
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Mechanism 1
1. Reduce blood flow causes kidneys to release renin
2. Renin acts on angiotensinogen to produce
angiotensin I
3. Angiotensin-converting enzyme converts
angiotensin I to angiotensin II
4. Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction
5. Angiotensin II acts on adrenal cortex to release
aldosterone
6. Aldosterone acts on kidneys causes them to
conserve sodium and water
7. Result less water lost in urine and blood pressure
maintained
Antidiuretic Hormone Mechanism
Nerve cells in hypothalamus release antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) when concentration of solutes in
plasma increases or blood pressure decrease
ADH acts of kidneys and they absorb more water
(decrease urine volume)
Result is maintained blood volume and blood
pressure
Aging and Blood Vessels
Arteriosclerosis:
makes arteries less elastic
Atherosclerosis:
type of arteriosclerosis
from deposit of materials in artery walls (plaque)
Factors that contribute to atherosclerosis:
lack of exercise, smoking, obesity, diet high in
cholesterol and trans fats, some genetics
Respiratory System
Respiration
Respiration includes the following processes:
1. Ventilation, or breathing, which is the movement
of air into and out of the lungs
2. The exchange of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide
(CO2) between the air in the lungs and the blood
3. The transport of O2 and CO2 in the blood
4. The exchange of O2 and CO2 between the blood
and the tissues
Functions
1. Respiration
2. Regulation of blood pH
3. Voice Production Airway for respiration

4. Olfaction Involved in speech

5. Innate Immunity Olfactory receptors

Upper Respiratory Tract Warms air

External nose Sneezing dislodges materials from nose

Nasal cavity Pharynx

Pharynx Pharynx: a common passageway for the respiratory

and digestive systems

Nasopharynx:
Nose
takes in air
External nose:
Oropharynx:
composed of mainly of hyaline cartilage
extends from uvula to epiglottis

takes in food, drink, and air

Nasal cavity:
Laryngopharynx:
extends from nares (nostrils) to choanae
extends from epiglottis to esophagus
choana: openings to pharynx
food and drink pass through
hard palate is its roof
Uvula:
Paranasal sinuses:
“Little grape”
air filled spaces within bone
extension of soft palate
open into nasal cavity
Pharyngeal tonsil:
lined with mucous
aids in defending against infections
Conchae:
Lower Respiratory Tract
on each side of nasal cavity
Larynx – lower portions of
increase surface area of nasal cavity
Trachea
help in cleaning, humidifying, warming of air
Bronchi
Nasolacrimal ducts:
Lungs
carry tears from eyes

open into nasal cavity

Larynx
Functions of the Nose
Located in the anterior throat and extends from the
Filters base of the tongue to the trachea
Consists of cartilages Primary organ of respiration

Thyroid cartilage: Cone shaped

largest piece of cartilage The base rests on the diaphragm

called Adam’s apple The apex extends above the clavicle

Epiglottis: Right lung has 3 lobes

piece of cartilage Left lung has 2 lobes

flap that prevents swallowed materials from Contains many air passageways (divisions)
entering larynx

Vocal folds/cords:

source of voice production

air moves past them, they vibrate, and sound is

produced Lung Airway Passages

force of air determine loudness 1. Primary bronchi

tension determines pitch 2. Lobar (secondary) bronchi

Laryngitis: 3. Segmental (tertiary) bronchi

inflammation of vocal folds 4. Bronchioles

caused by overuse, dry air, infection 5. Terminal bronchioles

Trachea 6. Respiratory bronchioles

Windpipe 7. Alveolar ducts

Consists of 16 to 20 C-shaped pieces of cartilage 8. Alveoli

Contains cilia pseudostratified columnar epi. Structures become smaller and more

Smoking kills cilia numerous from primary bronchi to alveoli

Coughing dislodges materials from trachea Alveoli:

Divides into right and left primary bronchi (lungs) small air sacs

Bronchi where gas exchange occurs

Divide from trachea surrounded by capillaries

Connect to lungs 300 million in lungs

Lined with cilia Asthma attack:

Contain C-shaped pieces of cartilage contraction of terminal bronchioles leads to reduced

air flow
Lungs
Respiratory Membrane
In lungs where gas exchange between air and blood Inspiration:
occurs
breathe in
Formed by walls of alveoli and capillaries
uses the diaphragm and the external intercostal
Alveolar ducts and respiratory bronchioles also muscles
contribute
Expiration:
Very thin for diffusion of gases
breathe out
Layers of Respiratory Membrane
uses the diaphragm
Thin layer of fluid from alveolus
Forceful expiration:
Alveolar epithelium (simple squamous)
uses internal intercostal muscles
Basement membrane of alveolar epithelium
Pressure Changes and Air Flow
Thin interstitial space
When thoracic cavity volume increases pressure
Basement membrane of capillary endothelium decreases

Capillary endothelium (simple squamous)
Pleural Membranes and Cavities
Pleura:
double-layered membrane around lungs
Parietal pleura:
membrane that lines thoracic cavity
Visceral pleura:
When thoracic cavity volume decreases pressure
increases
Air flows from areas of high to low pressure
Inspiration
Diaphragm descends and rib cage expands
Thoracic cavity volume increases, pressure decreases
Atmospheric pressure is greater than (high) alveolar
pressure (low)

membrane that covers lung’s surface Air moves into alveoli (lungs)

Pleural cavity: Expiration

space around each lung Diaphragm relaxes and rib cage recoils

Thoracic cavity volume decreases, pressure increases

Alveolar pressure is greater than (high) atmospheric

pressure (low)
Ventilation
Air moves out of lungs
Ventilation (breathing):
Lung Recoil
a process of moving air in and out of the lungs
is the tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in
uses the diaphragm, which is a skeletal muscle that size
separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities
occurs during quiet expiration
Phases of Ventilation
is due to elastic fibers and thin film of fluid lining Expiratory reserve volume (ERV):
alveoli
volume of air that can be expired forcefully after a
Surfactant normal expiration

a mixture of lipoproteins Residual volume (RV):

is produced by secretory cells of the alveoli volume of air remaining in lungs after a maximal
expiration (can’t be measured with spirometer)
is a single fluid layer on the surface of thin fluid lining
alveoli Vital capacity (VC):

reduces surface tension max. amount of air a person can expire after a max.
inspiration
keeps lungs from collapsing
VC = IRV + ERV + TV
Pleural Pressure
Total lung capacity (TLC):
pressure in the pleural cavity
TLC = VC + RV
less than alveolar pressure
Factors that Influence Pulmonary Volumes
keep the alveoli from collapsing
Gender
Factors that Influence Pulmonary Ventilation
Age
Lung elasticity:
Height
lungs need to recoil between ventilations
Weight
decreased by emphysema

Lung compliance:

expansion of thoracic cavity

Gas Exchange
affected if rib cage is damaged
Respiratory membrane:
Respiratory passageway resistance:
where gas exchange between blood and air occurs
occurs during an asthma attack, infection, tumor
primarily alveoli
Pulmonary Volumes
some in respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts
Spirometer:
Respiratory membrane:
device that measures pulmonary volumes
does NOT occur in bronchioles, bronchi, trachea
Tidal volume (TV):
influenced by thickness of membrane, total area of
volume of air inspired and expired during quiet membrane, partial pressure of gases
breathing
Respiratory Membrane Thickness
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV):
Increased thickness decreases rate of diffusion
volume of air that can be inspired forcefully after a
normal inspiration Pulmonary edema decreases diffusion
Rate of gas exchange is decreased
O2 exchange is affected before CO2 because CO2
diffuse more easily than O2
Respiratory Membrane Surface Area
Total surface area is 70 square meters (basketball
court)
Decreased due to removal of lung tissue, destruction
from cancer, emphysema
Partial Pressure
the pressure exerted by a specific gas in a CO2 levels increase blood pH decreases
mixture of gases
the total atmospheric pressure of all gases at sea
level is 760 mm Hg
the atmosphere is 21% O2
the partial pressure for O2 is 160 mm Hg
the upper-case letter P represents partial pressure of
a certain gas (Po2)
Diffusion of Gases in Lungs
Cells in body use O2 and produce CO2.
Blood returning from tissues and entering lungs has
a decreased Po2 and increased Pco2
O2 diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary capillaries
(blood)
CO2 diffuses from capillaries into alveoli
Diffusion of Gases in Tissues
Blood flow from lungs through left side of heart to
tissue capillaries
Oxygen diffuses from capillaries into interstitial fluid
because Po2 in interstitial fluid is lower than
capillary
Oxygen diffuses from interstitial fluid into cells (Po2)
is less
Carbon Dioxide Transport and
Blood pH
CO2 diffuses from cells into capillaries
CO2 enters blood and is transported in plasma,
combined with blood proteins, bicarbonate ions
CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
bicarbonate ions dissociate into a hydrogen ion and
a bicarbonate ion
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
Carbonic anhydrase (RBC) increases rate of CO2
reacting with water
Rhythmic Ventilation
Normal respiratory rate is 12 to 20 respirations per
minute (adults).
In children, the rates are higher and may vary from
20 to 40 per minute.
The rhythm is controlled by neurons in the medulla
oblongata.
Rate is determined by the number of times
respiratory muscles are stimulated.
Nervous Control of Breathing
Higher brain centers allow voluntary breathing
Emotions and speech affect breathing
Hering-Breuer Reflex:
inhibits respiratory center when lungs are stretched
during inspiration
Chemical Control of Breathing
Chemoreceptors in medulla oblongata respond to
changes in blood pH
Blood pH are produced by changes in blood CO2
levels
An increase in CO2 causes decreased pH, result is
increased breathing
Low blood levels of O2 stimulate chemoreceptors in
carotid and aortic bodies, increased breathing