The Art of Argument
PERSUASION
attempts to convince a reader to
accept a thesis as a truth
appeals to credibility, character, or
authority of the writer (ethos)
is often grounded in feelings
(pathos) than in facts
is often associated with speeches
and frequently requires
readers/listeners to take some sort
of action to remediate an issue
ARGUMENT
attempts to convince a reader to
accept a claim as a truth
focuses on facts and evidence
(logos)
addresses counterclaims fairly to
present a complete argument
requires critical reading and
thinking; includes evidence from
credible and varied sources
 Claim is a statement Reasons are statements Counterclaims are the
about what is true or that support a claim. They opposite arguments which the
good and what should are backed by evidence. author addresses to provide a
be done. rebuttal.

Elements of Argument
 fact factual and statistics, testimony,
quantifiable observations
information
CLAIM
moral,
value philosophical real-world examples,
and aesthetic illustrations
standpoint

response to a proposed action or

policy
claim of fact solution
 CLAIM GROUNDS WARRANT
(an assertion one (the data, the evidence, (an assumption that
would like to prove, and the facts that links the ground to
the main argument) support a claim) the claim)

REBUTTAL
BACKING QUALIFIER (another valid point
(additional support of (the limits to which of view on the
the warrant) the argument is true) discussed issue )

Stephen Toulmin's Model of Argument

 OPPOSING VIEW
INTRODUCTION (presenting the other’s
(asserting your point) side position without
biases)
STATEMENT OF VALIDITY
(acknowledging how and why, under
what circumstances the opposing view
can be true but still connecting it to your
argument)

STATEMENT OF STATEMENT OF BENEFITS

STATEMENT OF CONTEXT
POSITION (explaining to the opposing side
(describing the scenarios when
(explaining your claim in why they would benefit from
your position is beneficial)
detail) accepting your point of view)

Rogerian Model of Argument

 An argumentative essay is a
genre of writing that requires the
student to investigate a topic;
collect, generate, and evaluate
evidence; and establish a
position on the topic in a concise
manner.
 Argumentative Essay Outline
INTRODUCTION BODY PARAGRAPH BODY PARAGRAPH
(Hook, Background of the 1 2
Topic, and Thesis (Reason 1 and (Reason 2 and
Statement) Supporting evidence) Supporting evidence)

CONCLUSION
(summary of all your points, BODY PARAGRAPH BODY PARAGRAPH
importance of your issue 4 3
and stand in a bigger (Counterclaims and (Reason 3 and
context, and a call for Rebuttals) Supporting evidence)
action)
 must state your clear
position on the matter and
not only an opinion

may use general phrases may use hedging words to

(e.g., for a number of
important reasons, in
THESIS qualify general statement
(e.g., some, some people,
many ways) and modals
(e.g., must, should, ought
STATEMENT may, might, can, seem,
appear)
to, need to)

must be strong – preferably a

policy or a value claim with a
possible counterargument
introduced by although, while,
or despite
(Fact claims are not arguable,
so they are mostly in the body.)

Despite the objections of
many, getting vaccinated is
still the best prevention
against Corona virus.
personal responsibility, it is
Although some people find
it unfair, death penalty
effectively deters crime.
While education has nothing to
THESIS do with success, it is still
certain that government
STATEMENT leaders must be college
graduates.
While your safety is your
still the duty of the
government to assure it.
 An argumentative speech is a
persuasive speech that relies heavily
on facts and sound reasoning.
 Argumentative Speech Outline
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF THE
REASONS AND
(appropriate greetings, TOPIC
SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
self-introduction, (foundation of your argument
(relevant studies and data)
hook) and thesis statement)

CONCLUSION
(summary of all your points, COUNTERCLAIMS AND
importance of your issue and REBUTTALS
stand in a bigger context, and (opposite side)
a call for action)
In argumentative
writing and
speaking, use
expressions that
affirm and/or
negate.
Expressions that affirm
absolutely
undoubtedly
definitely
precisely
certainly
Exactly
Of course …
It is firmly believed that …
It is certain that …
Expressions that negate
barely
hardly
never
scarcely
not necessarily
It is not always the case …
I beg to differ …
There is no way that …
Graham’s Hierarchy of Disagreement
MORE CONVINCING ARGUMENT

REFUTING THE CENTRAL POINT pointing out a flaw in the central point

REFUTATION finding a mistake and supporting it by quoting the author

COUNTERARGUMENT contradicting with reason and/or evidence, aimed only at the original argument

CONTRADICTION stating the opposing case without supporting evidence

RESPONDING TO TONE responding to the writing, not to the writer

AD HOMINEM attacking the writer personally

NAME CALLING directing abusive, profane, and/or inane language

A TRIANGULAR GRAPHIC REPRESENTING A "HIERARCHY OF DISAGREEMENT" FROM CLEAR
REFUTATION TO MERE VITUPERATION, BASED ON THE ESSAY "HOW TO DISAGREE" BY PAUL
GRAHAM
 A debate is a
thoughtful and
reasoned
presentation of
opposing persuasive
arguments.
 Parts of a debate
Constructive presentation of each team’s arguments and evidence
Speech for each aspect of the case

Interpellation opportunity for the opposing debater to ask

questions regarding the speech of the speaker

Rebuttal summary and defense of each team’s arguments and

evidence, to be delivered by the scribe
 BUILDING AN ARGUMENT

politics economy religion education

society environment minority groups

 BUILDING AN ARGUMENT

point evidence analysis

(necessity, beneficiality, and
(claim and warrants) (facts and logic) practicality)
 ISSUES OF THE DEBATE
Necessity discusses the presence or absence of an inherent flaw
in the status quo

Beneficiality discusses the advantages or disadvantages of

adopting or rejecting the resolution

Practicality discusses the feasibility of the proposition and

includes matters of law, clamor, and finance
 Constructive Speech Outline
Affirmative Negative

I. Introduction I. Introduction
II. State of proposition II. State of proposition: negate or
a. Define the terms show clash towards it.
b. Give the status quo:
III. Rebut the speaker’s
i. What is the status quo?
ii. What is wrong with it?
arguments.
c. State your stand IV. Case line
III. Case line a. State all your arguments first
a. State all your arguments first b. Go back, then strengthen each
b. Go back, then strengthen each one one
c. Always give transition. c. Always give transition
IV. Conclusion V. Conclusion
 Members of a debate team
Affirmative Negative

1. Captain (First Speaker) 1. Captain (First Speaker)

2. Second affirmative speaker 2. Second negative speaker
3. Third affirmative speaker 3. Third negative speaker
4. Scribe (Last speaker) 4. Scribe (Last speaker)

The scribe will give the summary and defense of

each team’s arguments and evidence. S/he will also
point out the fallacies committed by the opposing
team.
 Debate flow
1. Constructive Speech 2. Interpellation of Affirmative Group 3. Constructive Speech
(Captain of Affirmative Captain (Captain of Negative Group is (Captain of Negative
Group) the interpellator.) Group)

4. Interpellation of Negative Group 5. Constructive Speech 6. Interpellation of Affirmative Group

Captain (Captain of Affirmative Group (Second Speaker of Second Speaker (Second Speaker of
is the interpellator.) Affirmative Group) Negative Group is the interpellator.)

7. Constructive Speech 8. Interpellation of Negative Group 9. Constructive Speech

(Second Speaker of Second Speaker (Second Speaker of (Third Speaker of
Negative Group) Affirmative Group is the interpellator.) Affirmative Group)

10. Interpellation of Affirmative 11. Constructive 12. Interpellation of Negative Group

Group Third Speaker (Third Speaker Speech (Third Speaker Third Speaker (Third Speaker of
of Negative Group is the interpellator.) of Negative Group) Affirmative Group is the interpellator.)
 Rules for interpellation
o Questions should primarily focus on arguments developed in the speech of your opponent.
However, matters relevant and material to the proposition are admissible.
o Both teams should treat one another with courtesy. Use of profane language is not allowed.
o Both speakers stand and face the audience during the question or interpellation period.
o Once the interpellation begins, consulting a colleague is not allowed. Consultation should be
done before but as quietly as possible .
o Ask brief and understandable question. Answers should equally be brief. Categorical questions
answerable by “yes” or “no” are allowed; however, opponent may qualify his answer by asking
for justifications.
o The interpellator may not cut off a reasonable and qualifying answer, but he may cut off a
nervous response with a statement such as a “thank you,” “that is enough information,” “your
point is quite clear,” or “I’m satisfied.”
o The interpellator should not comment on the response of his/her opponent.
o The opponent may refuse to answer ambiguous, irrelevant, or loaded questions by asking the
interpellator to rephrase or reform his/her question.
 Criteria for debate

delivery evidence interpellation rebuttal