The Structure and Function of Biomolecules

Biomolecule - a giant molecule of living matter formed by the joining of smaller molecules,
usually by condensation synthesis
·Most biomolecules are polymers
Polymer (Gr.polys-“many” and meris-“parts”) - long molecule consisting of many identical or
similar building blocks linked by covalent bonds
Monomers - repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer
Condensation Reaction - reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each
other through the loss of a small molecule (usually water)

Dehydration Reaction - a chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to one
another with the removal of a water molecule
Hydrolysis (Gr. Hydro-“water” and lysis-“break”) - process that is the reverse of dehydration
reaction
Four Groups of Organic Compounds Found in Living Things:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic Acids
Carbohydrates - Fuel and Building Material
Carbohydrates - a sugar or one of its dimers or polymers
Monosaccharides - simplest carbohydrates also known as simple sugars
-the three monosaccharides are: glucose, fructose and galactose
- major nutrients for cells (particularly glucose)
- their carbon skeletons serve as raw material for the synthesis of small
organic molecules such as amino acids and fatty acids
Disaccharides - consist of two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage, a covalent
bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction
Some common disaccharides found in home:
1. Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose (table sugar)
2. Lactose = Glucose + Galactose (milk sugar)
3. Maltose = Glucose + Glucose (cereal)
Polysaccharides- a polymer of up to over a thousand monosaccharides, formed by
condensation synthesis
Polysaccharides for storage:
Starch - a storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose
Glycogen - an extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found
in the liver and muscle of animals: equivalent of starch in animals
Polysaccharides for structure:
Cellulose-a structural polysaccharide consisting the cell wall of plant cells
Chitin - structural polysaccharide of an amino sugar found in many fungi
and the in the exoskeleton of arthropods
Peptidoglycan – plasma membrane component of bacteria
Lipids – Diverse Hydrophobic Molecules

● One class of large biological molecules that does not include polymers

● Have little or no affinity for water

● Consists mostly of hydrocarbons

● Smaller than polymeric macromolecules

● Highly varied group in both form and function

● Includes waxes, certain pigments, fats, phospholipids, steroids

FATS

● Large molecules that assembled from 2 kinds of smaller molecules

(glycerol and fatty acids)
Glycerol - alcohol with three-carbons, each bearing a hydroxyl group
Fatty acid - has long carbon skeleton with head and tail
● Non-polar C-H bonds in the tail of fatty acids are the reason fats are hydrophobic

● Triglyceride – glycerol combined with three (3) molecules of fatty acids through
condensation reaction
Fatty Acids – vary in length and in the number and locations of double bonds

⮚ Saturated Fatty Acids – no double bonds of carbon atoms composing the tail
and instead, as many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to the carbon
skeleton
⮚ Unsaturated Fatty Acids – has one or more double bonds formed by the removal
of hydrogen atoms from the carbon skeleton
Saturated Fats / Fats - if fatty acids are saturated
- solid at room temperature (such as lard and butter)
Unsaturated Fats / Oils – liquid at room temperature such as plant and fish fats (corn oil and
cod liver oil)
Functions of Fats:

● Energy storage. Animals stock food reserves in adipose cells (hydrocarbon

chains are rich in energy)
 ● Cushions of vital organs and insulators of the body. Adipose tissue cushion
organs such as kidneys
PHOSPHOLIPIDS

● Similar to fats but have only two fatty acids

● Third hydroxyl group of glycerol is joined to a phosphate group (negative charge)

● Tails (hydrocarbons) are hydrophobic while phosphate groups and its attachments form a
hydrophilic head
Micelle - an aggregate with phosphate heads outside that shields hydrophobic portion from
water
STEROIDS
Lipids characterized by carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings

Cholesterol – component of animal cell membrane and precursor from which steroids are
synthesized. A crucial molecule in animals but high level of it in the blood
may contribute to atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis – human cardiovascular disease in which deposits called plaques develop
on the internal lining of blood vessels, impeding blood flow and reducing
resilience of the vessels

Proteins - The Molecular Tools of the Cell

Proteins - a three-dimensional biological polymer constructed from a set of 20 different
monomers called amino acids
- Used for structural support, storage, transport of other substances, signaling from
one part of the organism to another, movement and defense against foreign
substances.
- Proteins, as enzymes, regulate metabolism by selectively accelerating chemical
reactions in the cell
Amino Acids
- Organic molecules possessing both carboxyl and amino groups
- Monomers for proteins
- 20 various amino acids are divided into two classifications
a. Essential- must be ingested
b. Non-essential- can be manufactured in the body
IMPORTANT NOTE: Study This Table!
Type of Protein Function Examples
 structural support keratin: hair, nails
collagen: tendons
storage store amino acids ovalbumin: egg white

transport carry substances hemoglobin: carries O2

hormone regulates metabolism/

coordination insulin: regulate blood sugar

receptor cell response acetyl choline receptor: nerve cell

contractile movement actin and myosin

defense protection antibodies, immunoglobulin

enzyme accelerate reactions trypsin: digestive enzyme, lactase, amylase

toxin poisonous to human snake venom

Peptide bond- the covalent bond between two amino acid units formed by condensation
synthesis
Polypeptide-a polymer of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds
*Four Levels of Protein Structures
1. Primary Structure
- Unique sequence of amino acids e.g. lysozyme
-Primary structure is determined by genetic inheritance
- A slight change in primary structure can affect a protein’s conformation and ability to function.
An example is the primary structure for hemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen in red blood
cell. A malfunction can cause sickle-cell anemia, an inherited blood disorder.
2. Secondary Structure
- The localized repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to
hydrogen bond formation between peptide linkages
· alpha (α) helix- a spiral shape constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins,
arising from a specific hydrogen-bonding structure
· beta (β) pleated sheet- one form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the
polypeptide chain folds back and forth, or where two regions of the chain lie parallel to each
other and are held together by hydrogen bonds
3. Tertiary Structure
-irregular contortions of proteins molecule due to interactions of side chains involved in
hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds and disulfide bridges
4. Quaternary Structure
- The particular shape of a complex, aggregate, protein, defined by the characteristic three-
dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide
Protein Denaturation-a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation,
thereby becoming biologically inactive
Causes of Denaturation
· alteration of pH
· changes in solute concentration
· changes in environmental condition
· temperature changes
Nucleic Acids - Informational Polymers
Nucleic Acid- a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers: serves as a blueprint for
protein
Nucleotide- the building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently
bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.
Two Types of Nucleic Acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
1. DNA - the genetic material that organisms inherit from their parents
-composed of four nitrogenous bases represented by letters namely:
Adenine (A),Guanine (G), Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C)
-the four bases are classified into two categories based on their chemical structures
a. Purines- have two rings of carbon (A&G)
b. Pyrimidines - have only one carbon ring (T&C)

Double Helix Model- the form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent
polynucleotide strands wound into a spiral shape
James Watson and Francis Crick- first proposed the double helix as the three-
dimensional structure of DNA in 1953.

Specific Base Pairing - This consistent pairing of bases allows DNA to accurately replicate
itself. It also allows DNA to be transcribed accurately into RNA and then translated
from RNA to amino acids. A--T , G---C ; 1 Purine : 1 Pyrimidine
 2. RNA - type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and
the nitrogenous base adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and uracil (U)
-usually single-stranded
-functions in protein synthesis and as the genome of some viruses
PLEASE STUDY HARD.
HEART HEART.
SIR POGIAN.