GUIDE FOR FINAL EXAMINATIONS

FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY
MARCH 9, 2013

A. PRELIMINARIES.
1. Is there a Filipino Philosophy? Prove or disprove it with evidence.
 If we mean Filipino philosophy as a part of the people’s world view, it was always there.
If a particular language has no grammar; those who speak it know automatically the
grammar although they may not be aware of it. After a grammarian takes the pains of
writing the grammar, then the language becomes more clear for outsiders. The
grammar was moved from the implicit to the explicit. Likewise Filipinos for centuries
were always aware of their world view and they expressed their philosophy even if not a
book on it was written.
 For example the Maranaos of the Southern Philippines have the maratabat which is a
kind of ethnic pride. Insofar as it is unique, perhaps we can speak of a Maranao
philosophy.
 Most Filipino boys and men wrap around their arms on each other’s shoulders. An
tourist concluded that most Filipinos are gay… that is looking at the Filipino from his
perspective as foreigner (etic). .. but the Filipino has a different perspective… that is the
emic, the view from an insider. The emic is what we mean by Filipino philosophy, how
the Filipino interprets reality from his perspective or worldview.
 For example the concept of child will depend upon the culture… if a child is considered
as an asset, then the said culture will encourage more children, even if the material
needs are not given.
 Since every people and culture has a worldview, implied in that worldview is their
philosophy. One such is that of the Filipinos.
2. The different methods of doing Filipino Philosophy.
 These methodologies are metalinguistic analysis, phenomenology of behavior,
comparative oriental philosophy and value ranking.
 Metalinguistic analysis. One source is language because language reflects a worldview.
I inferred elements of Filipino philosophy form linguistic structures and words. The
preference of mode over tenses hints something about the Filipino’s time orientation
which is non-linear. The absence of a linking verb also shows the non-dualistic
worldview. 1) Words are first listed down. 2) List the meanings of the words according
to usage 3) cluster the meanings according to groups which are cognitively related 4)
infer the tentative philosophy from the clusters.
 Phenomenology of behavior. Another source is behavior. If actions speak louder than
words, actions then are a kind of “language”. The method I use for behavior analysis is
phenomenology. After establishing the phenomenon of a given topic, I infer the
philosophy behind the action.
  Comparative oriental philosophy. Another method I employ is comparative oriental
philosophy. It is based on the analogy of family resemblance. Although each member
of a family is unique all the members share common features.
 Value ranking. Thomas Aquinas says that morality is based on human nature.
Consequently certain unique aspects of human nature as shared by Filipinos warrant
their interpretation of morality… judging moral issues depend on the value ranking of
the people.
B. PHILOSOPHY OF MAN.
3. The philosophy of man: body, soul, spirit. Pagkatao
 From the survey of Eastern models emerges one thing in common: that man is the
totality of body, soul and spirit. All eastern models differ from the western dichotomy
of body and soul. Although man has a soul and body, only one of the two will survive
the afterlife. However, the various eastern philosophies are not the same in their finer
points. Both the Chinese and the Indian models show a continuum from matter to
spirit.
 The same can be said of the Filipino. Since harmony is the essence of Filipino
philosophy, the ethical man is one whose body, soul and spirit are in harmony. An evil
man’s spirit is not in tune with his body and soul. The idea of integral harmony is seen in
the concept of pagbabalikloob (conversion), which literally means returning to the
original goodness of one’s kalooban. The philosophy of the spirit is therefore related to
the philosophy of loob.
 It has shown that the Filipino thought on the matter of soul-spirit is quite oriental. This
does not mean that Filipino philosophy is exactly the same as other oriental
philosophies, for there are points of difference as well as of similarity. Secondly, Filipino
philosophy teaches us not to dichotomize matter and spirit, body and soul. This
dichotomy was wrought psychological damage even in western man. It can lead to
angelism, which detests the body and stresses the soul.
 Pagkatao
 Since tao applies to any man, woman or child, the term then is generic, that is, having
no gender preference. Hence, Filipinos are not sexist or is not gender-biased. We also
find this trait in the absence of pronouns, unlike western languages which has a he, she,
it.
 Unlike other patriarchal societies, men and women in the Philippines have
complementary parts since their kinship system is bilateral.
 Tao also connotes being mortal as in the expression sapagkat tayo ay tao lamang.
 But the expression magdadalang tao (literally to carry a person) means that the unborn
child is already a person.
 The expression magpakatao means to act with dignity, to behave or to act with good
manners. Hence to be a tao has a built-in or inherent dignity. To be makatao means to
care for fellow humans.
  The concept of ibang-tao and hindi ibang tao reflects the mechanism used in becoming a
member of the in-group and not being one.
 Filipinos look on themselves as a whole, as creatures with the mixture of their
limitations and innate goodness. To be human has its accompanying dignity. Not to be
human is to be a hayop, a beast, a brute or a monster. As creatures, Filipinos look at
themselves as travelers who must have goals. To live means that life is dynamic, that is,
with changes. To be human is most of all to live in society, to belong to a group which
define oneself. The most important is to be one with one’s in-group. The Filipino is not
individualistic. This identity is connected with family, social status, ancestry.
4. Social philosophy. Explain its essence. What are the applications of sakop philosophy?
 The Filipino is person-oriented. He thinks of himself as belonging to, and identifies
himself with a group (sakop), and considers the success and welfare of the group as his
own fulfillment.
 The word sakop was chosen since it occurs in various Philippine languages and also
seems to best describe the reference group.
 The Filipino is less individualistic because he wants to be in harmony with his fellowmen.
 But the foregoing data suggests that the sakop as a body is more than just a metaphor
but a living reality for the Filipino.
 The Filipino has the mechanism to establish sakops everywhere. He can also enlarge his
vision of sakop so that it may embrace the whole nation.
 When the Filipinos heard the news (the Beatles rejection of Imelda’s invitation to
malacanang), they took the rejection as a slight to the First Lady who is a symbol of the
national sakop. The national sakop felt hurt. Filipinos rose angrily and drove away the
Beatles at the airport. The spontaneous reaction implies that the sakop has won over
regional differences.
 We shall not give here the definition of the Filipino concept of person but rather sketch
the various elements which comprise this multi-faceted reality. first of all, the Filipino
looks at person or men from the viewpoint of harmony. He wants to be in harmony
with his fellowmen just as he wants to be in harmony with himself. In this harmony, he
notices the hierarchy and dichotomy of himself and of others, but the others or the
sakop’s fulfillment is also part of himself. Moreover, since the Filipino has a non-lineal
view of reality, the concept of sakop is also non-lineal.
C. EPISTEMOLOGY
5. Explain Filipino Logic.
 Ellington-Waugh classifies logic as either algebraic or geometric. Western, as algebraic,
logic can be translated into mathematical symbols. Symbolic logic uses the equation
where two components (subject and predicate) are either equated or denied (which
happens when a pr0position is either affirmative or negative). However, geometric logic
is not like algebraic logic because it deals with constructing relationships between
figures which may be similar.
  While the algebraic logic is linear, geometric logic is non-linear. Since the latter has
different levels of meaning, it is more profound.
 Algebraic logic propositions are either-or in nature, but propositions in geometric logic
are both/and. Hence, the latter tends to be ambiguous, non-verbal or symbolic. Thus,
contrary symbols in dream can co-exist in the both/and propositions of geometric logic.
6. The role of poetic reasoning.
 The distinction between algebraic logic and geometric logic is similar to the distinction
between and semantic and poetic meaning.
 In the semantic meaning both object and subject are separated from each other. The
division between subject and object arose especially during the enlightenment period of
western history.
 Poetic meaning therefore is multi-level. Words do not have one meaning but are multi-
faceted like the truth which can never be fully exhausted. Its spirit and truth is
contrary to semantic meaning which tries to narrow down the truth and its meaning.
 The purpose of these poetic encounters is to negotiate and to cultivate a relationship
with an opposing party.
 In short the use of poetic language is primarily for diplomacy. This tactful language is
more effective than plain language in attaining desired goals.
D. METAPHYSICS (I)
7. Aesthetics: explain the Filipino concept of beauty
 Good and beautiful are often synonymous. Thus in Tagalog kabutihang loob is the same
as kagandahang loob.
 The average Filipino has a non-dualistic view on aesthetics.
 Since his poetic symbols are non-dualistic, the Filipino does not think of beauty in terms
of form or harmony of dissimilar parts but in terms of color, sound, motion.
 The Filipino does not stress his individuality. Rather, he wants to be in harmony with his
fellowmen (sakop) and with nature. He does not have the mastery-over-nature
orientation but the harmony-with-nature orientation.
8. The Filipino philosophy of evil
 The solutions proposed to solve the problem of evil may follow certain models or
paradigms.
 One is the dualistic paradigm, that is, good and evil as contrasting forces.
 The second paradigm is evil as perversity of will, which is rooted in original sin.
 Third is the model of evil as privation or as illusion.
 The fourth cluster is the paradigm of evil as integral to evolution. This model sees evil in
earth as factory for making souls. The existence of evil is needed to build up character
so that humans can become God’s likeness. A world without evil would not enable
people to show sympathy, forgiveness, self-sacrifice, and compassion.
 We believe that the Filipino philosophy of evil belongs to the evolutionary paradigm.
 This paradigm is evolutionary and is based on the principle of harmony. Harmony has
always been a common Asian value and norm for societal interaction.
  The evolutionary look at good and evil teaches us several lessons. One is to be wary of
the ambivalence of good and evil. Something good at present can become evil. For
example, the action of Constantine, the first Christian emperor to give political power
and prestige to clergymen, was considered good. But from the view of today, that move
to weaken the gospel. Second we do not have to absolutize what is good and what is
evil. This is because bad thing has some grain of goodness. Even heresy has a forgotten
truth.
9. Being and becoming
 Being is the core of the Western philosophy. We see this centrality, for instance, in the
scholastic philosophy and in existentialism.
 Unlike western languages, Philippine languages do not have the verb ‘to be’.
 What is the counterpart of being? Philosophers have often pointed out the dialectic
between being and becoming. If being is not the concern of Filipinos, is it becoming?
 Becoming is taken here not in its abstract sense but as something concrete. We have
seen above the Filipino’s concrete concerns, be it in language, in his social relations, in
his search for truth, or in his fate.
 Now reality has two sides: being and becoming. Western thought values more highly,
and this has it epistemological consequences as explained above. The preference of
being to becoming is similar to the preference of the transcendent to the immanent,
and of right to duty. On the other hand, the Filipino preference of the immanent to the
transcendent, of duty to right, has also its counterpart in the preference of becoming to
being.
10. Nothingness
 The Filipino philosophy of nothingness is something positive.
 One cluster of usages belongs to wala as privation.
 Another cluster of usages show that wala is not entirely negative.
 Wala can also be clustered as spatial.
 It can be interpreted as positive in the sense of liberation. If considered as emptiness, it
can be psychological, topical, volitional, in short, holistic.
 The first theme is about the dynamic concept of nothingness.
 Nothing then is something concrete and practical.
 Hence nothingness is something positive. As said by a proverb not listed above, sa
kawalan makakakita ka ng pagasa.
 The finiteness of things implies the existence of an infinite being. Likewise the
imperfections of reality challenges humans to hurdle difficulties.
 In short, the phenomenology of behavior shows that nothingness is not purely negative;
it has something positive. Nothingness presupposes a little of something and the
absence of what is desired.
 It has a family resemblance with the Taoist concept of nothingness. However, the
Filipino concept of nothingness falls short of the concept of vacuity or the void, absolute
nothingness which is the fullness of reality.
  From the foregoing considerations, we can conclude that the Filipino concept of nothing
is not entirely negative. It can be related to emotions, to relationships, to quantity, to
space, to deficiency.
 Nothingness is linked to being and becoming because when something changes, it refers
to a quality which was previously absent.
 Nothing precedes transformation. Nothing then is simultaneity of the positive and the
negative.
E. METAPHYSICS (II)
11. Philosophy of time and history; work and leisure
 Philosophy of time and history
 Time for the Filipino is non-linear because of his non-dualistic world view; consequently
history for the Filipino is non-linear.
 Filipino has in his actuations an implicit philosophy of history.
 Filipino is not individualistic but sakop-oriented. He recognizes his place in society and
wants to foster harmony with society. If the Filipino is not individualistic, his concept of
person is unlike the western counterpart. That explains why he is not history conscious
in the western sense.
 By Geschichte is meant non-linear history. The happening is not fixed in time and space.
Hence it includes the future aspects of a particular event... history as Geschichte then
pertains to one’s unique and personal existence.
 Geschichte as described above might clarify the Filipino’s idea of non-linear history. For
example, if a Filipino says that an even happened “during Japanese time” he includes
himself in the picture as participant or contemporary to said event. The same mentality
shows itself when he says a situation happened before or after the proclamation of
Martial Law in the Philippines.
 Work and leisure
 Filipino social philosophy is (1) interpersonal and (2) hierarchic. These two
characteristics are also reflected in work and leisure.
 The Westerner and Filipino look differently at time. The westerner looks at time like a
flat river which flows from the past, in the present, and into the future, and finally into
the ocean of eternity where the river of the time has stopped… since the time for
Filipino is non-linear, the future, the present and the past can somehow mingle.
 Just as time and space are linear or horizontal for the westerner, likewise his view on
work is also horizontal… in other words leisure is separate from work.
 On the other hand, the Filipino blends work and leisure. For instance planting and
harvesting is not purely work, for together with it go singing, drinking and eating.
 Because the Filipino’s philosophy of time is non-linear, the future enjoyment tends to be
anticipated in the present.
 The average Filipino who is personalistic has not yet been victimized by technology. Like
Juan Pusong, the average Filipino seems to enjoy his simple way of living where human
values are stressed.
12. Philosophy of space
 The rural Filipino believes that spirits live in certain places such as trees and particular
places. This belief accounts for the non-homogenousness of space. … for those of
different mentality, “space is homogenous and natural; no break qualitatively
differentiates the various parts of its mass.
 The westerner who is used to exact standards for measurements will find that rural
areas often have different norms.
 The foregoing considerations show that the Filipino has a non-dualistic concept of space.
Just as the Filipino prefers to measure time through his existence, the same can be said
of his norm of space. For instance, one does not measure his hometown in terms of
distance but in terms of meaningfulness. A meaningful place can be the center of one’s
life, and other places are measured by it.

13. Philosophy of numbers

 There are two distinct, mentalities regarding numbers in general. For example, the
number one for a mathematician ordinarily can stand for anything, such as one man,
one day, one tree, or simply one in the abstract sense. But for another mentality, the
number one has a meaning of success or of failure, or something important. The first
mentality is sometimes called the literal (or non-mystical, non-Pythagorean) school,
whereas the latter is called the non-literal (or mystical, Pythagorean) school.
 If the philosophy of numbers has links with the philosophy of space in the sense that
numbers are spatially quantitative, the data above shows that Filipinos also tie up
numbers with the philosophy of causality.
 This is why Jung thinks that numbers play an important role in psychology. He seriously
values numerology, just as some people seriously value astrology.
 The average Filipino wants to have harmony in himself, with his fellow men, with the
universe, and with the other world. The Filipino mentality on numbers as seen in his
behavior also follows this principle of harmony.
 Filipinos follow both the literal and non-literal aspects of numbers. The non-literal
aspect is more common in the barrios and is connected with religion and the world of
the spirits. The literal aspect is connected with business. But sometimes both
mentalities cross each other. Businessmen practice or believe in their lucky and unlucky
days.
14. Philosophy of causality
 As we have explained earlier, thought can influence matter. The examples given above
(bati, sorcery and agricultural practices) can be traced to the model of mind over matter.
That the sorcerer can inflict harm on the victim away is a case of spooky action from a
distance.
 The principle of mind over matter has its application in pranic healing. This type of
healing utilizes prana or ki or life energy to heal the whole physical body and also
involves the manipulation of ki and bioplasmic matter of the patient’s body. The healer
 can also use distance healing by projecting his/her thoughts to the patient who may be
far away.
 We have presented the phenomena of Filipino causality and it can be understood in the
light of modern physics which supports mental causality.
 Causality for the Filipino therefore rests on the “synchronistic principle” because of the
Filipino harmony-with-nature orientation.
 The Filipino’s non-dualistic thinking on causality is perhaps illustrated by a devotee in
Manila’s Quiapo church who wipes his handkerchief on the statue of the Black
Nazarene.

F. SYNTHESIS
15. Cock-fighting (sabong) and jeepney as Filipino microcosms
Sabong
 Sabong, the country’s national sport, is the form of recreation which aficionados look
forward to on the week-ends. Because of its central position in Philippine culture, man
sabong words appear in everyday language.
 While sabong may be a form of relaxation or of gambling, it also can be a microcosm of
that society.
 Sabong reflects the Filipino social philosophy. It shows his sense of belong and group
orientation (sakop). Interpersonalism and hierarchy in a context of harmony are the
two elements of sakop and find their application in the sabongan.
 The sabongan is a place conducive to being with others: it breathes the air of equality.
 While there is an air of equality, hierarchy still has its place in the sabongan. The
ringside benches are the reserved places for the rich, famous gamblers, other important
persons, owners of the cocks, concessionaire and the referee.
 A person goes to the cockpit not just to bet, but also in order to be in harmony with
others.
 Betting therefore reflects the hierarchic nature of society.
 Balato shows that property is communal.
 Sabong also reflects other Filipino concepts of Space and Time, Becoming, and practices
in legal philosophy and ethics.
 Jeepney as microcosm
 Just as the clothes or home decoration of a person reflects the personality of its owner,
the same applies to the jeepney into which the owner infuses his cultural and individual
personality.
 The jeepney often becomes an extension of the driver’s home. He may feel the need to
make his passengers feel welcome in his vehicle on the principle that he does not really
consider them as strangers.
 As in sabong, sakop philosophy is also reflected in the jeepney. The sakops may be the
driver and his extended family, the passengers and jeepney driver, or the association of
 jeepney drivers… thus interpersonalism and hierarchy, the two traits of sakop is refleted
in the jeepney.
 The seating arrangement of the jeepney, that is the seats facing each other in two rows,
facilitates a face-to-face relationship and interaction.
 As most Filipinos are not used to confronting the truth, the driver has indirect was of
sending messages in order not to shame the passengers, for loss of face through shame
is a great insult.
 Indirect humor is interpersonal.
 If the driver knows the passenger, he refuses the fare.
 The suki system or customer driver relationship can also develop.
 In general jeepney art has links with the folk art in the calesa and the pushcart of the
local ice cream vendor.
 Colors like red and yellow are loud and primary “express vitality and life” abundance,
emotions, and can be likened to fragrant and rich aromas.
 The trend to cover every empty space with decoration betrays abhorrence for empty
spaces.
 The designs of the jeepney is similar to the okir art. Okir emphasizes flowery designs.
 One word that catches jeepney art is borloloy, extravagance, like several antennas,
several statues of roosters bowing to each other as the jeepney moves.
 The front of the driver usually has a little altar, perhaps with dangling rosary.
 Both space and time has also connotation in jeepney as microcosm; so also is legal
philosophy and ethics.
16. The new paradigm and Filipino philosophy
 The first trait to look at reality as a whole. Filipino philosophy looks at humans as a whole,
as soul, spirit, body. It goes against the individualism of the western thought.
 The second trait is the shift from the structure to process because reality is a process.
Hence the shift from mechanistic to holistic. Filipino philosophy emphasizes becoming.
 The third trait is that truth is not something of the human observer but is intersubjective.
The process of truth is not merely intellectual but also as intuitive, affective. For left brain
people, truth is linear that is something like logic. For right brain people, truth is arrived at
intuition through the use of symbols. Ordinary Filipinos tend to be right brain.
 The fourth trait is the shift from building to network as metaphor of knowledge. This
network does not advocate the hierarchy. That means other systems must not judge
Filipino thought from the viewpoint of a grand narrative.
 The fifth trait is the shift from truth to approximate descriptions.

17. Filipino philosophy and postmodernism

 Postmodernism
 Postmodernism challenges the humanistic view that the world is one, a view of European
culture. “In philosophy, in the arts, in science, in political theory and in sociology,
 postmodernism challenges the entire culture of realism, representation, humanism, and
empiricism and goes to the very foundation of personal, social and institutional definitions.
 The main general trait of postmodernism is globalization in the sense of pluralism.
 Postmodernism fosters pluralism of ideas where philosophies like neopragmatism, feminism,
poststructuralism stand side by side.
 One reason for discarding philosophical uniformity has been the throwing out of the so called
grand narratives – certain ideas that guided a culture of having one religious point of view, one
God, one scripture, one form of government. In lieu of the grand narratives, postmodernism
encourages the little narratives or small stories.
 A tool of postmodernism is deconstruction whose main philosopher is Jacques Derrida. His main
concern is language. If language is to be understood as a closed formal system of differences,
the language is principally governed by its autonomous structural determinations.
 Another purpose of deconstruction is to erase the boundaries between oppositions (for example
masculine and feminine, good and evil, light and darkness etc)
 So if there are not grand narratives, then relativism follows. There is not absolute truth because
truth has many aspects and is dynamic.
 Filipino Philosophy
 If there are not more grand narratives and little narratives are encouraged, then Filipino
philosophy and its interpretation of reality has its place in the sun.
 The first trait is to look at reality as a whole. Filipino philosophy looks at humans as a total
whole, as soul, spirit and body.
 The second trait is the shift from structure to process because reality is a process. Filipino
philosophy emphasizes becoming.
 The third trait is that truth is not something independent of the human observer but is
intersubjective. As language encodes reality, it tends to influence the perception and behavior
of its speakers.
 The fourth trait is the shift from building to network as metaphor of knowledge. This network
does not advocate hierarchy. That means other systems must not judge Filipino thought from
the viewpoint of a grand narrative.
 The fifth trait is the shift from truth to approximate descriptions. So Filipino thought is the same
and also evolving.
 We may therefore conclude that Filipino philosophy is a type of postmodern philosophy.