Russian Function Words Meanings and Use Conjunctions, Interjections

RUSSIAN FUNCTION WORDS:
MEANINGS AND USE
Russian Function Words: Meanings and Use is a collection of 463 prepositions, conjunctions,
particles, interjections, and parenthetical words.
This book provides a semantic, syntactic, and stylistic analysis of each word, accompany-
ing the explanation with examples of the word’s usage in discourse in contemporary,
everyday Russian and analogous translations into English. Consequently, it allows users to
develop an understanding of contemporary grammatical, lexical, and stylistic norms, with
the aim of mastering these critical words. This book also includes a multitude of idioms
and sayings that users will learn to use in the appropriate context.
Intermediate and advanced students, instructors, and translators will find this a useful
supplement to their existing resources. It also serves as a helpful reference for independent
learners at all levels.
Marina Rojavin is teaching at Bryn Mawr College. She specializes in Russian language
and culture, Soviet film and, in particular, character archetypes in Soviet cinema of the
1960s–1980s; Russian media studies; Russian intellectuals in Imperial Russia; and the
Russian intelligentsia. Marina has published articles on the semantic category of gender in
Russian and Ukrainian and on the grammatical category of gender in Russian. She and
Allan Reid published A Guide to Russian Words and Expressions that Cause Difficulties in
2004. Her most recent publications are the textbook Russian for Advanced Students (2013),
completed with her colleagues, and the volume Women in Soviet Film: The Thaw and
Post-Thaw Periods (2017), edited together with Timothy Harte (Bryn Mawr College).
Alexander Rojavin is currently in law school. A native speaker of English and Russian,
he has focused his undergraduate and graduate studies on Soviet and post-Soviet media
space, producing a master’s thesis on media ownership in Ukraine and on the legal frame-
work within which the Ukrainian media operate. Alexander helped translate a series of
theater treatises for Nikolai Demidov: Becoming an Actor-Creator (2016). He has also trans-
lated a series of contemporary Russian plays (forthcoming) and a work of creative nonfic-
tion by Yevsey Tseytlin, Long Conversations in Anticipation of a Joyous Death, which
grapples with the history and fate of Lithuania’s Jewry (2018).
This page intentionally left blank
RUSSIAN FUNCTION
WORDS: MEANINGS
AND USE
Conjunctions, Interjections,
Parenthetical Words, Particles,
and Prepositions
Marina Rojavin and Alexander Rojavin

First published 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2019 Marina Rojavin and Alexander Rojavin
The right of Marina Rojavin and Alexander Rojavin to be identified as
authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Rojavin, Marina, author. | Rojavin, Alexander, author.
Title: Russian function words : meanings and use : conjunctions,
interjections, parenthetical words, particles, and prepositions /
Marina Rojavin and Alexander Rojavin.
Description: New York : Routledge, 2019. | Includes bibliographical
references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018049872| ISBN 9780367086909 (hardback :
alk. paper) | ISBN 9780367086916 (pbk. : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9780429023781 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Russian language--Function words. | Russian
language--Function words--Semantics. | Russian language--Function
words--Glossaries, vocabularies, etc.
Classification: LCC PG2321 .R65 2019 | DDC 491.75/7--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018049872
ISBN: 978-0-367-08690-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-08691-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-02378-1 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd.
CONTENTS
Introduction vi
Abbreviations viii
Terminology ix
English–Russian glossary 1
Russian–English glossary 12
Entries 23
Bibliography 270
INTRODUCTION
This book concerns itself with the semantic analysis of Russian prepositions, con-
junctions, particles, interjections, and parenthetical words, and it provides explan-
ations of their meanings with full context. The book also focuses on the roles that
function words have in sentences and on the specifics of their use in discourse. Rus-
sian Function Words: Meanings and Use not only provides the meanings of words, but
also briefly explains the use of words in speech based on grammar and on examples
with translations into English that are not literal, but rather equivalent and appropri-
ate to the given circumstance.
This book’s features make it a helpful resource for anyone who is interested in
Russian. It has been designed for learners of all levels. It can serve as a supplement
to Russian textbooks for undergraduate students, yet it can equally be used as a stan-
dalone resource, or as a reference book and a guide for independent study. The
latter use fits the needs of graduate students who are studying, for example, linguis-
tics or pedagogy. It can also serve as a valuable tool for instructors, who can utilize
it for methodological materials. Additionally, Russian Function Words: Meanings and
Use provides information that can be helpful for translators.
The primary goal of this book is to illuminate the use of prepositions, con-
junctions, particles, interjections, and parenthetical words by focusing on seman-
tics based on a comparative analysis of their meanings in Russian and English.
Parallel exploration of semantic information demonstrates different usage in both
languages. With this book, learners can develop skills in the command and use
of Russian prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections, and parenthetical
words through discourse, i.e. through specific verbal situations, based not only
on the underlying semantic meanings, but rather on the content of extra-linguis-
tic situations and settings.
An important feature of this book is that it is grounded in contemporary Russian.
The combination of content and the manner in which it synthesizes explanations of
Introduction vii
semantics and grammar will deliver a sophisticated level of theoretical knowledge,

as well as ensuring the real-life relevance of the material. This book is also designed
to develop learners’ understanding of grammatical and lexical norms and peculiar-
ities of the functional styles of the modern Russian language. Users of this book will
acquire skills that allow them to use function words in typical life situations.
The reader has to take into account that elements of Russian grammar are
evoked by posing questions; these address the main language categories and lead
to explanations of the semantic meanings of these categories. When Russians
talk about the language and its grammar, they use a series of simple questions,
like, for example, кто? who?, что? what? about nouns, что де́ лать? что
сде́ лать? what to do? about verbs, or в связи́ с чем? in connection with what?
about subordinate causal clauses. The reader should be aware that questions that
are used when discussing grammar are not always used in real life. Statements
such as, for instance, “These combinations respond to the question отку́ да?
where from?” cannot be applied to all given examples. We can compose the ques-
tion “Отку́ да вы́ рвана страни́ ца?” Where was the page torn out of? to the answer
“Страни́ ца вы́ рвана из тетра́ ди” The page was torn out of a notebook. However,
it is not relevant to ask a question such as “Отку́ да вы́ шло пла́ тье?” Where did
the dress come out of? to a statement like “Э́ то пла́ тье уже́ давно́ вы́ шло из
мо́ ды” This dress long ago went out of fashion, even though the phrase из мо́ ды
out of fashion answers the question отку́ да? from where?
Overview of the content

This book consists of the main part (the entries), in addition to introductory
parts and a bibliography. The introductory parts include this introduction with
comments on methodology and target audience, relevant abbreviations, an index
of terminology, and Russian–English and English–Russian glossaries.
Structure of the main part

This part contains the function words in alphabetical order with detailed seman-
tic analyses and descriptions on a grammatical basis. Every entry includes a list of
meanings, their explanation, and examples of how the function word is used in
specific contexts in combination with other words. Some entries include fixed
phrases, proverbs, or sayings. Many of the words or phrases can function in dif-
ferent capacities, e.g., а can be a conjunction, a particle, or an interjection.
However, some functions of some words or phrases are not presented in the
book because of the low frequency of their use in discourse or their archaism.
The translation of some words in examples may not be identical to the transla-
tion given at the top of the entry and may instead be contextual synonyms.
Examples from literature and media have been taken from http://www.ruscor
pora.ru/.
ABBREVIATIONS
adv. adverb
arch. archaic
book. bookish language
coll. colloquial language
conj. conjunction
connect. connective word
elevat. elevated style
fig. figuratively
form. formal language
folk. folklore
inform. informal language
interj. interjection
lit. literally
liter. literary
parenth. parenthetical
part. particle
prepos. preposition
TERMINOLOGY
Actual present tense

Indicates an action that is happening at the moment of an utterance or represents
an action as if it is happening at the moment of an utterance, like in interviews
or headlines in newspapers or on radio and television.
Adverbial clause
Adverbial clauses most often have the same meanings as adverbial modifiers in
simple sentences; they answer the same questions as adverbial modifiers and are
classified in the same way, i.e., they indicate a time, place, measure and degree,
or purpose and cause. Adverbial clauses answer the questions когда́ ? when?,
где? where?, как? how?, каки́ м о́ бразом? in what way?, ско́ лько? how many?,
почему́ ? why?, заче́ м? for what purpose?, etc.
Adverbial modifier
A secondary part of a sentence. It describes actions or some other feature.
Adverbial modifiers indicate a time, place, measure and degree, or purpose and
cause. They answer the questions когда́ ? when?, где? where?, как? how?,
каки́ м о́ бразом? in what way?, ско́ лько? how many?, почему́ ? why?, заче́ м?
for what purpose?. Adverbial modifiers are usually expressed by adverbs, nouns in
oblique cases with or without prepositions, or verbal adverb constructions.
Adverbial modifiers of purpose can be expressed by verbal infinitives.
x Terminology
Adversative conjunction
Distinguishes opposition, contradiction, or contrast between coordinate parts of
a simple sentence or clauses of a compound sentence.
Appositive
A nominal or a nominal phrase that clarifies and follows another nominal. (See
also nominal.)
Attribute
Describes an object (a noun), indicates its features, and answers the questions
како́ й? what kind of? which?, чей? whose?
Attributive clause
Usually refers to the part of the principal clause that is expressed by a noun or
nominal phrase. Attributive clauses answer the question како́ й? what kind of?
Attributive clauses that refer to a noun are always placed after the noun. Attribu-
tive clauses that refer to a pronoun can be placed before it.
Bookish language
Language used in books. Literary in terms of style. It is opposed to colloquial
language.
Clause of concession
Points to the circumstances in spite of which the action described in the principal
clause is accomplished. Тhe subordinate clauses answer the question несмотря́ на
что? despite what?
Colloquial language
Used in conversations in an informal way. It is opposed to formal language.
Complex sentence
Includes two or more simple sentences, one of which is principal, while the
others are subordinate. These sentences cannot exist separately; they depend
on one another. Complex sentences can contain explanatory, attributive, and
adverbial clauses.
Terminology xi
Compound comparative degree

Expressed by combining the words бо́ лее more or ме́ нее less with adverbs or
adjectives in their basic form. Compound comparative forms reflect gender,
number, and case. This form is formal and is used most often in books.
Compound sentence
Two or more simple sentences joined together. Compound sentences can be
connected with copulative, disjunctive, or adversative conjunctions.
Conditional clause (real and unreal)

Indicates the circumstances of the action reflected in the principal clause. The
subordinate clauses answer the questions при како́ м усло́ вии? on what condi-
tion?, в како́ м слу́ чае? in what case? A real conditional clause indicates that the
actions depicted in the principal clause really take place. An unreal or contrary-
to-fact conditional clause indicates that the actions depicted in the principal
clause could take place; the subordinate clause would then express the conditions
for possible fulfillment.
Connective word
As conjunctions, connective words join subordinate clauses to the principal clause.
Unlike conjunctions, they function as a part of a clause.
Contemporary language
The language norm accepted since the second half of the 20th century.
Coordinate parts
Coordinate subjects, predicates, attributes, objects, and adverbial modifiers have the
same syntactic relationship to other parts of the sentence; they answer the same
questions. Usually, coordinating parts are expressed by the same part of speech.
Elevated style
Used in writing and speech that is considered dignified or sophisticated.
Elliptical sentences
Grammatically well-formed constructions where some parts are omitted, but
understood.
xii Terminology
Explanatory clause
Usually refers to a verb, a participle, a verbal adverb, or a short adjective in a princi-
pal clause. Explanatory clauses function as subjects or objects and fill a missing
gap in a principal clause; they answer the questions of cases. The words in an
explanatory clause are attached to indicate speech, thoughts, feelings, percep-
tions, or wishes.
Formal language
Used in formal situations. Utilizes proper grammar and syntax, not employing
colloquialisms or slang. It is opposed to informal language.
Informal language
Used in informal situations. Utilizes colloquialisms or slang. It is opposed to
formal language.
Language styles
Includes formal, informal, colloquial, neutral, and elevated.
Literary
Used in literary writings.
Main parts of the sentences

Includes the subject and the predicate.
Neutral style
Without stylistic color. It is opposed to colloquial, elevated, and bookish styles.
Nominal
A word or group of words that function as a noun.
Object
Indicates someone or something and answers the questions of oblique cases.
Objects that relate to transitive verbs are direct objects, and they are used in the
accusative case.
Terminology xiii
Parts of a sentence
A subject, predicate, object, attribute, modifier.
Phrase
A group of words that functions as a grammatically acceptable constituent.
Predicate
Conveys what the subject does, did, will do, or would do to or with something,
or what/who the subject is. The predicate is always a word or word group that
acts as a verb.
Principal clause
The main clause in a complex sentence that expresses the main idea.
Pronominal
Functions as a pronoun.
Secondary parts of the sentence

Includes attributes, objects, or adverbial modifiers.
Simple comparative degree

Expressed by the suffixes -ее or -е that are added to the stems. Words with
these suffixes are stylistically neutral and are used in various speech styles – in
literature, journalism, scholarly writing, as well as in conversation. Simple com-
parative forms are almost always predicates.
Subject
The main part of a sentence, connected to a predicate; it is the doer of an action
in a sentence. It answers questions of the nominative case кто? who?, что? what?
Subordinate clause
Depends on the principal clause.
This page intentionally left blank
ENGLISH–RUSSIAN GLOSSARY
about за; насчёт; о (об, óбо); о́ коло; по по́ воду;

про; под
accompanied by в сопровожде́ нии
according to по
across че́ рез
across from напро́ тив
actually в са́ мом де́ ле
additionally кро́ ме того́ ; к тому́ же
affiliated with при
after за; по́ сле; по́ сле того́ (,) как
after all всё же; всё-таки
against от (ото); поми́ мо; про́ тив
ah а
aha ага́
ahead of впереди́ ; пéред
alas увы́
all the best всего́
all the while при э́ том
all things considered впрóчем
almost чуть не
along вдоль; вдоль по; по; поперёк
along with наряду́ с
alright хорошо́
also ещё; та́ кже; то́ же
although впро́ чем; в то врéмя(,) как; хотя́ (хоть)
among среди́
among someone/something в числе́
2 English–Russian glossary
and а; да; и; причём

and . . . and и ... и
and so отчего́ и
and that то-то
and yet ещё
another что ни
anyway всё-таки́ ; и так
approximately так
around вокру́ г; о́ коло
as как; по ме́ ре; по ме́ ре того́ (,) как
as a consequence всле́ дствие
as a consequence of the fact that всле́ дствие того́ (,) что
as a consequence of which всле́ дствие чего́
as a result of в результа́ те; на осно́ ве; по причи́ не; по
причи́ не того́ , что
as a result of the fact that в результа́ те того́ , что
as a result of which ввиду́ ; в результа́ те чего́
as a rule как пра́ вило
as expected как полага́ ется
as for что (же) каса́ ется
as if бу́ дто (бы); как бу́ дто; как бы; как е́ сли бы;
то́ чно; я́ кобы
as if on purpose как наро́ чно
as bad luck would have it как назло́
as it turned out как оказа́ лось
as long as до тех пор(,) пока́
as many ско́ лько
as much ско́ лько
as much as наскóлько . . . настóлько
as one put it дéскать; мол
as opposed to вопреки́
as per на основа́ нии
as soon as как; как то́ лько; лишь; то́ лько
as strange as it is как ни стра́ нно
as though сло́ вно
as usual как обы́ чно
as well ещё
as well as как
ashamed to say гре́ шным де́ лом
aside from кро́ ме того(,) что; поми́ мо
at в (во); за; по; у
at all вообще́
at least в конце́ концо́ в; хоть; хотя́ бы
at the expense of за счёт
at the same time as в то вре́ мя(,) как

attached to при
away в (во)
bah эх
barely eдва́ ; едвá ли
based on исходя́ из; на осно́ ве; по
based on that fact that исходя́ из того́ (,) что; на основа́ нии того́ (,)
что
basically по существу́
because ведь; в связи́ с тем(,) что; оттого(,) что;
поско́ льку; потому́ (,) что
because of ввиду́ ; в связи́ с; за счёт; из-за; из-за
того́ (,) что; от (ото)
before до; за; пе́ ред; пе́ ред тем(,) как; под; пре́ жде
чем
beginning with начина́ я с
behind за; позади́
beneath под (пóдо)
believe me пове́ рь(те)
besides кро́ ме
between ме́ жду
between you and me ме́ жду на́ ми (говоря́ )
big whoop поду́ маешь
bravo бра́ во
but а; да; зато́ ; и; но; то́ лько; хотя́ (хоть)
by во́ зле; к (ко); ми́ мо; о́ коло; по
by any chance случа́ йно; ча́ сом
by means of по; посре́ дством
by the way да; к сло́ ву (сказа́ ть); кста́ ти; ме́ жду
про́ чим
by (way of) путём
can’t say anything (bad, good, etc.) ничего́ не ска́ жешь
certainly безусло́ вно
clearly поня́ тно
close to вблизи́ (от); о́ коло
come on а ну
concerning в отноше́ нии; насчёт; oтноси́ тельно; что
(же) каса́ ется
contrary to вопреки́ тому́ (,) что
conversely наоборо́ т; напро́ тив
definitely без сомнéния
depending on в зависимости́ от
despite невзира́ я на; несмотря́ на
despite the fact that невзира́ я на то, что; несмотря́ на то, что
does it not? не так ли

down вдоль; вдоль по
due to ввидý
during во вре́ мя; в тече́ ние; в то вре́ мя(,) как; за;
на протяже́ нии
during the time of при
easy to say легко́ сказа́ ть
either . . . or и́ ли . . ., и́ ли; ли́ бо . . ., ли́ бо; не то . . ., не
то; то ли . . .‚ то ли
else ещё
encore бис
ergo сле́ довательно
especially тем бо́ лее
even аж; да́ же; и; хоть
even so без
even though хотя́ (хоть)
even without без
ew фу
exactly и́ менно; то́ чно
exactly like как . . ., так и
excluding за исключе́ нием; исключа́ я
exclusively ислючи́ тельно; то́ лько
extra сверх
far away from вдалеке́ от; вдали́ от; далеко́ от
finally в конце́ концо́ в; наконе́ ц
following someone/something вслед за
for для; за; и́ бо; на; под; ра́ ди
for (the sake of) ра́ ди
for example к приме́ ру; наприме́ р; ска́ жем
for someone’s/something’s sake во и́ мя
for sure то́ чно
forgive me поми́ луй(те)
frankly speaking открове́ нно говоря́
from из (изо); из-за; от (ото); с (со)
from behind из-за
from beneath из-под
from the point of view of с то́ чки зре́ ния
from which отку́ да
furthermore бо́ лее (бо́ льше) того́ ; тем бо́ лее
generally speaking вообще́
given в си́ лу
given that так как
given the fact that в си́ лу того́ , что
God damn it чёрт возьми́ /побери́
God forbid не дай бог; чего́ до́ брого

good luck счастли́ во
hardly едвá ли
he/she/it might be уж на что, а
heaven forbid не ро́ вен час
help карау́ л
hello алло́ ; здра́ вствуй(те)
here вот; на; тут
hey а; алло́ ; ау́ ; ба; эй
how как; как же
however зато́ ; но; одна́ ко; так
hurrah ура́
hurray ура́
I have to say на́ до сказа́ ть
I think so ка́ жется
i.e. так
I’m ashamed to say сты́ дно сказа́ ть
if е́ жели; е́ жели бы; е́ сли; е́ сли бы; ка́ бы;
когда́ ; когда́ бы; ли (ль)
if not а то
if only лишь бы; хотя́ бы
imagine предста́ вь(те) (себе́ )
immediately after вслед за тем(,) как
impossible не мо́ жет быть
in в (во); за; на; спустя́ ; че́ рез
in accordance with в соотве́ тствие с; согла́ сно
in all probability по всей вероя́ тности
in case of в слу́ чае
in certain conditions при
in comparison with в сравне́ нии с
in connection with в связи́ с
in connection with the fact that в связи́ с тем(,) что
in essence в су́ щности; по су́ ти (де́ ла)
in general в о́ бщем
in front of пе́ ред
in light of в све́ те
in light of the fact that ввиду́ того́ (,) что
in order to для того́ (,) что́ бы; зате́ м(,) что́ бы; ра́ ди
того́ , что́ бы; с тем(,) что́ бы; что́ бы (чтоб)
in other words други́ ми слова́ ми; ина́ че говоря́ ; ины́ ми
слова́ ми
in place of вме́ сто
in short в о́ бщем; коро́ че говоря́ ; сло́ вом
in spite of вопреки́ тому́ (,) что
in the direction of по направле́ нию к

in the meantime мéжду тем
in the middle of посреди́ ; среди́
in the presence of someone при
in your opinion по-ва́ шему
incidentally ме́ жду про́ чим; слу́ чаем
including в том числе́
indeed ве́ рно; в са́ мом де́ ле; действи́ тельно
indubitably безусло́ вно; несомне́ нно
inside внутри́
instead of вме́ сто; вме́ сто того́ (,) что́ бы; чем
into в
isn’t it ведь
it goes without saying само́ собо́ й
it looks like похо́ же; ста́ ло быть; су́ дя по всему́
it seemed каза́ лось
it seems ви́ димо; ви́ дно; вро́ де; ка́ жется;
по-ви́ димому; ста́ ло быть
it sounds like я́ кобы
it turns out ока́ зывается
it would seem каза́ лось бы
(it’s a) pity жаль (жа́ лко)
it’s not enough that ма́ ло того́ (,) что
it’s not that не то что́ бы/чтоб
it’s strange стра́ нное де́ ло
judging by су́ дя по
just аж; всего́ ; лишь бы; про́ сто; то́ лько
just like как . . ., так и
less ме́ нее
let пусть (пуска́ й)
let’s дава́ й(те)
let’s go айда́
let’s say допу́ стим; поло́ жим
like бу́ дто; вро́ де; наподо́ бие; подо́ бно; ска́ жем
likely вероя́ тно
likewise та́ кже
look at (someone) ишь
looks like бу́ дто (бы)
luckily к сча́ стью
may пусть (пуска́ й)
maybe аво́ сь; мо́ жет/мо́ жет быть
maybe even а то и
meanwhile ме́ жду тем
more бо́ лее
more precisely верне́ е; лу́ чше сказать

moreover бо́ лее (бо́ льше) того́
most importantly гла́ вное
most likely должно́ быть; на́ до ду́ мать/на́ до полага́ ть
my gosh ах
namely и́ менно
naturally есте́ ственно; разуме́ ется
near вблизи́ (от); во́ зле; о́ коло
nearly едва́ не
neither . . . nor ни . . ., ни
nevertheless всё-таки́ ; одна́ ко; тем не ме́ нее
next to во́ зле; ря́ дом с
no нет
no doubt без сомне́ ния; несомне́ нно
no matter how как (бы) ни
no matter how much ско́ лько (бы) ни
no matter what что (бы) ни
no small feat шу́ тка ли
no way не мо́ жет быть
no wonder то-то
not не; ни
not . . . so much as не сто́ лько . . ., ско́ лько
not a problem не за что
not counting не счита́ я
not even close как же
not far from невдалеке́ от; недалеко́ от; неподалёку от
not only не то́ лько
not only . . . but also не то́ лько . . ., но и
not only that ма́ ло того́
not excluding вплоть до
not without не без
nothing much так
nothing to be done about it де́ лать не́ чего
nothing to laugh at шу́ тка ли
obviously очеви́ дно
of о (об, о́ бо)
of course а как же; есте́ ственно; коне́ чно;
разуме́ ется; само́ собо́ й
off с (со)
oh ай; о; ой; ox
oh God бо́ же
oh man ух
oh(,) right ах(,) да
oh really? скажи́ те пожа́ луйста
okay ла́ дно

on на; о; по
on account of за счёт
on account of the fact that за счёт того́ (,) что
on one hand . . . on the other hand с одно́ й . . . с друго́ й стороны́
on the contrary наоборо́ т; напро́ тив
on the eve of накану́ не
only аж; всего́ ; лишь; то́ лько
or и́ ли (иль); ли́ бо; не то
other ещё
other than кро́ ме
other than that кро́ ме того́ (,) что
otherwise а то; в проти́ вном случае; ина́ че; не то
ouch ай; ой
out of за; из (изо)
outside of вне
over над (на́ до); о; пове́ рх
owing to благодаря́
past ми́ мо; по проше́ ствии
perhaps допу́ стим; мо́ жет/мо́ жет быть
phew уф; фу
(please,) tell me more что ты говори́ шь
possibly возмо́ жно
practically едва́ ли не; чуть ли не
prior to до того́ (,) как
probably ве́ рно; вероя́ тно; наве́ рно(е); небо́ сь;
пожа́ луй
rather верне́ е; точне́ е (говоря́ , сказа́ ть)
rather than вме́ сто того́ (,) что́ бы
really в са́ мом де́ ле; да; действи́ тельно; неуже́ ли;
пра́ вда; ра́ зве
regarding вокру́ г; в отноше́ нии; oтноси́ тельно; по
отноше́ нию к
regardless from where отку́ да (бы) ни
regardless of како́ й бы ни; незави́ симо от
resembling наподо́ бие
right да; пра́ вда; так; хорошо́
right? не пра́ вда ли
right after лишь
round вокру́ г
say what you want, but что-что, а; уж что-что, а
say what you will что ни говори́ (те)
seeming(ly) бы́ ло
shoo кыш
similar to how подо́ бно тому́ (,) как

since ведь; исходя́ из тогó(,) что; раз; с (со);
с тех пор(,) как; так как
so вот; зна́ чит; и; ита́ к; поэ́ тому; так; так что
so that для того́ (‚) что́ бы; что́ бы (чтоб)
so to speak так сказа́ ть
solely еди́ нственно
something like вро́ де того́ (,) что
specifically и́ менно; как раз; точне́ е (говоря́ , сказа́ ть)
starting with начина́ я с
still всё же; всё-таки; при э́ том
straight up пря́ мо
strictly speaking со́ бственно (говоря́ )
suppose предполо́ жим
sure а как же
taking into account в све́ те
than чем
thank God сла́ ва бо́ гу/сла́ ва го́ споди
thanks to благодаря́
thanks to the fact that благодаря́ тому́ (,) что
thank you спаси́ бо
that аж; как бы не; кото́ рый; что; что́ бы
(чтоб); э́ то
that’s why оттого́ и; потому́ и; поэ́ тому
that is так, то есть
the . . . the чем . . ., тем
the likes of which како́ й
the moment как то́ лько
then так
there вон
therefore поэ́ тому
they say говоря́ т
though а; пра́ вда
through сквозь; че́ рез
throughout в течéние; на протяжéнии
thus таки́ м о́ бразом
to в (во); вплоть до; до; к (ко); на; по; под
to be precise то есть
to boot и то
to one’s shame к стыду́ своему́
to oppose напереко́ р
to tell the truth по пра́ вде говоря́ /сказа́ ть; сказа́ ть по
пра́ вде/ по со́ вести; че́ стно говоря́
to the degree that посто́ льку, поско́ льку
to the point вплоть до того́ , что

too ещё
towards к (ко); навстре́ чу; по отноше́ нию к
undeniably бесспо́ рно
under под (по́ до); при
understood поня́ тно
undoubtedly без сомне́ ния
unfortunately к несча́ стью; к сожале́ нию
unless ра́ зве то́ лько
unlike в отли́ чие от
unlikely вряд ли; едва́ ли
until впредь до; до; до тех пор(,) пока́ не; до
того́ (,) как; пока́ не
up to до
up until вплоть до
upwards of свы́ ше
used to быва́ ло
well ну
what что
what a какóй
what are you talking about? что ты/вы
what do you mean? как; то есть
what kind of како́ й
when в то вре́ мя(,) как; когда́ ; при
when compared with по сравне́ нию с
when suddenly как вдруг
whenever когда́ (бы) ни
where где; куда́ , отку́ да
whereas в то вре́ мя(,) как; тогда́ как
wherever где (бы) ни; ку́ да (бы) ни
whether ли (ль)
which кото́ рый
which is why почему́ и; отчегó и
which means ста́ ло быть
while а; в то вре́ мя(,) как; и; пока́ ; при; тогда́
как
who кто
whoa ой
whoever кто бы ни
with при; с (со)
with your permission с ва́ шего/твоего́ разреше́ ния
within в (во)
without без
without doubt без сомне́ ния
without question бесспо́ рно

would бы (б)
wow ай; ого́
yeah а
yes да; хорошо́
you can say мо́ жно сказа́ ть
you have to agree согласи́ сь
you know зна́ ешь (ли)
you see ви́ дишь ли; понима́ ешь/понима́ ете
you’re welcome на здоро́ вье; пожа́ луйста
you won’t believe it не пове́ ришь
RUSSIAN–ENGLISH GLOSSARY
а and, but, while, though; hey, yeah; ah conj.; part.;

interj.
аво́ сь maybe part.; parenth.
ага́ aha interj.
аж even, just, only; that part.; conj.
ай oh, ouch, wow interj.
айда́ let’s go part.
а как же of course, sure part.
алло́ hello; hey interj.
а ну come on interj.
а то otherwise, if not conj.
а то и maybe even conj.
ау́ hey interj.
ах my gosh interj.
aх(,) да oh(,) right interj.
ба hey interj.
без without prepos.
без сомне́ ния without doubt, no doubt, undoubtedly, parenth.
definitely
безусло́ вно certainly, indubitably part.; parenth.
бесспо́ рно without question, undeniably part.; parenth.
бис encore interj.
благодаря́ thanks to, owing to prepos.
благодаря́ тому́ (,) что thanks to the fact that conj.
бо́ же oh God interj.
бо́ лее more part.
бо́ лее того́ (бо́ льше furthermore, moreover parenth.
того́ )
бра́ во bravo interj.
бу́ дто (бы) as if, looks like; as if conj.; part.

бы (б) would part.
быва́ ло used to parenth.
бы́ ло seeming(ly) part.
в (во) in, away, at; to; within; into prepos.

вблизи́ , вблизи́ от close to, near prepos.
ввиду́ because of, as a result of, due to prepos.
ввиду́ того́ (‚) что in light of the fact that conj.
вдалеке́ от far away from prepos.
вдали́ от far away from prepos.
вдоль along, down prepos.
вдоль по along, down prepos.
ведь since, because; isn’t it conj.; part.
верне́ е rather, more precisely parenth.
ве́ рно indeed; probably part; parenth.
вероя́ тно likely, probably parenth; part.
в зави́ симости от depending on prepos.
ви́ димо it seems parenth.
ви́ дишь ли you see parenth.
ви́ дно it seems parenth.
в конце́ концо́ в finally; at least parenth.
вме́ сто instead of, in place of prepos.
вме́ сто того(,) что́ бы instead of, rather than conj.
вне outside of prepos.
внутри́ inside prepos.
в о́ бщем in general, in short parenth.
во вре́ мя during prepos.
во́ зле by, near, next to prepos.
возмо́ жно possibly parenth.
во и́ мя for someone’s/something’s sake prepos.
вокру́ г around, round; regarding prepos.
вон there part.
вообще́ generally speaking, at all parenth.
вопреки́ as opposed to prepos.
вопреки́ тому́ (,) что in spite of, contrary to conj.
вот here part.
в отли́ чие от unlike prepos.
в отноше́ нии regarding, concerning prepos.
впереди́ ahead of prepos.
вплоть до up until, to; not excluding prepos.
вплоть до того, что to the point conj.
впредь до until prepos.
в проти́ вном слу́ чае otherwise conj.
впро́ чем although; all things considered conj.; parenth.
в результа́ те as a result of prepos.
в результа́ те того(,) as a result of the fact that conj.
что
в результа́ те чего́ as a result of which conj.
14 Russian–English glossary
вро́ де like; it seems prepos.; part.

вро́ де того́ (,) что something like conj.
вря́ д ли unlikely part.
в са́ мом де́ ле actually; indeed; really parenth.
в све́ те in light of, taking into account prepos.
в связи́ с in connection with; because of prepos.
в связи́ с тем(,) что in connection with the fact that, because conj.
всего́ only, just; all the best part.; interj.
всё [no translation] part.
всё же after all; still part.; conj.
всё-таки after all, nevertheless; still, anyway part.; conj.
в си́ лу given prepos.
в си́ лу того́ , что given the fact that conj.
вслед за following someone/something prepos.
вслед за тем(,) как immediately after conj.
всле́ дствие as a consequence prepos.
всле́ дствие того́ (,) что as a consequence of the fact that conj.
всле́ дствие чего́ as a consequence of which conj.
в слу́ чае in case of prepos.
в соотве́ тствии с in accordance with prepos.
в сопровожде́ нии accompanied by prepos.
в сравне́ нии с in comparison with prepos.
в су́ щности in essence parenth.
в тече́ ние during; throughout prepos.
в то вре́ мя(,) как while, during, at the same time as, when; conj.
although, whereas
в том числе́ including conj.
в числе́ among someone/something prepos.
где where conj.

где (бы) ни wherever conj.
гла́ вное most importantly parenth.
говоря́ т they say parenth.
гре́ шным де́ лом ashamed to say parenth.
да yes, right; really; by the way; yes?; part.; conj.

and; but
дава́ й(те) let’s part.
да́ же even part.; conj.
далеко́ от far away from prepos.
действи́ тельно indeed, really part.; parenth.
де́ лать не́ чего nothing to be done about it parenth.
де́ скать as one put it parenth.
для for prepos.
для того́ (‚) что́ бы in order to, so that conj.
до before, until; to; up to prepos.
должно́ быть most likely parenth.
допу́ стим let’s say; perhaps parenth.; part.
до тех пор(,) пока́ as long as conj.
до тех пор(,) пока́ не until conj.

до того́ (,) как prior to, until conj.
други́ ми слова́ ми in other words parenth.
едва́ barely conj.

едва́ ли unlikely, hardly, barely part.
едва́ ли не practically part.
едва́ не nearly part.
еди́ нственно solely part.
е́ жели if conj.
е́ жели бы if conj.
е́ сли if conj.
е́ сли бы if conj.; part.
есте́ ственно naturally; of course parenth.; part.
ещё else, other; also, too, as well, and yet part.; conj.
жаль (жа́ лко) (it’s a) pity parenth.

же [no translation] part.; conj.
за behind; at; for; about; out of; before; prepos.

during; after
за исключе́ нием excluding prepos.
за счёт on account of, because of, at the expense of prepos.
за счёт того́ (,) что on account of the fact that conj.
зате́ м(,) что́ бы in order to conj.
зато́ however, but conj.
здра́ вствуй(те) hello interj.
зна́ ешь (ли) you know parenth.
зна́ чит so parenth.; conj.
и and; so; but; while; even conj.; part.

и ... и and . . . and conj.
и́ бо for conj.
из (изо) from; out of prepos.
из-за from, from behind; because of prepos.
из-за того́ (,) что because of conj.
из-под (из-по́ до) from beneath prepos.
и́ ли (иль) or conj.
и́ ли . . . и́ ли (иль . . . either . . . or conj.
иль)
и́ менно specifically, exactly; namely part.
ина́ че otherwise conj.
ина́ че говоря́ in other words parenth.
ины́ ми слова́ ми in other words parenth.
исключа́ я excluding prepos.
исключи́ тельно exclusively part.
исходя́ из based on prepos.
исходя́ из того́ (,) что based on that fact that, since conj.
и так anyway part.
ита́ к so conj.
и то to boot conj.
ишь look at [someone] part.
к (ко) towards; to; by prepos.

ка́ бы if conj.
ка́ жется it seems; I think so parenth.; part.
каза́ лось it seemed parenth.
каза́ лось бы it would seem parenth.
как that; as, as well as; as soon as; how, what conj.; part.
do you mean?
как бу́ дто as if conj.; part.
как бы as if part.
как бы не that conj.
как (бы) ни no matter how conj.
как вдруг when suddenly conj.
как е́ сли бы as if conj.
как же how; not even close part.
как назло́ as bad luck would have it parenth.
как наро́ чно as if on purpose parenth.
как ни стра́ нно as strange as it is parenth.
как обы́ чно as usual parenth.
како́ й the likes of which; what kind of, what a conj.
како́ й бы ни regardless of conj.
как оказа́ лось as it turned out parenth.
как полага́ ется as expected parenth.
как пра́ вило as a rule parenth.
как раз specifically part.
как . . ., так и just likе, exactly like conj.
как то́ лько as soon as, the moment conj.
карау́ л help interj.
к несча́ стью unfortunately parenth.
когда́ when; if conj.
когда бы if conj.
когда́ (бы) ни whenever conj.
коне́ чно of course part.; parenth.
коро́ че говоря́ in short parenth.
кото́ рый which, that conj.
к приме́ ру for example parenth.
кро́ ме besides; other than prepos.
кро́ ме того́ additionally parenth.
кро́ ме того(,) что aside from, other than that conj.
к сло́ ву (сказа́ ть) by the way parenth.
к сожале́ нию unfortunately parenth.
кста́ ти by the way parenth.
к стыду́ своему́ to one’s shame parenth.
к сча́ стью luckily parenth.
кто who conj.
кто бы ни whoever conj.
к тому́ же additionally conj.

куда́ where conj.
кудá (бы) ни wherever conj.
кыш shoo interj.
ла́ дно okay part.

легко́ сказа́ ть easy to say parenth.
ли (ль) if, whether part.; conj.
ли́ бо or conj.
ли́ бо . . ., ли́ бо either . . . or conj.
лишь only; as soon as, right after part.; conj.
лишь бы if only; just part.
лишь тóлько (see лишь)
лу́ чше сказать more precisely parenth.
ма́ ло того́ not only that parenth.

ма́ ло того́ (,) что it’s not enough that conj.
мéжду between prepos.
ме́ жду на́ ми (говоря́ ) between you and me parenth.
ме́ жду прочим by the way; incidentally parenth.
мéжду тем while, in the meantime conj.
ме́ нее less part.
ми́ мо by, past prepos.
мо́ жет/мо́ жет быть maybe, perhaps parenth.
мо́ жно сказа́ ть you can say parenth.
мол as one put it part.
на for; in; at; on; to; here prepos.; part.

наве́ рно(е) probably parenth.
навстре́ чу towards prepos.
над (на́ до) over prepos.
на́ до ду́ мать/на́ до most likely parenth.
полага́ ть
на́ до сказа́ ть I have to say parenth.
на здоро́ вье you’re welcome interj.
на и́ мя [no translation] prepos.
накану́ не on the eve of prepos.
наконе́ ц finally parenth.
наоборо́ т conversely, on the contrary parenth.; part.
на основа́ нии as per prepos.
на основа́ нии того́ (,) based on the fact that conj.
что
на осно́ ве based on, as a result prepos.
напереко́ р to oppose prepos.
наподо́ бие resembling, like prepos.
наприме́ р for example parenth.
напро́ тив across from; conversely, on the contrary prepos.
на протяже́ нии during; throughout prepos.
наряду́ с along with prepos.
наскóлько . . . as much as conj.

настóлько
насчёт about, concerning prepos.
начина́ я с starting with, beginning with prepos.
не not part.
не без (see без) not without prepos.
небо́ сь probably parenth.
невдалеке́ от not far from prepos.
невзира́ я на despite prepos.
невзира́ я на то, что despite the fact that conj.
не дай бог God forbid parenth.
недалеко́ от not far from prepos.
незави́ симо от regardless of prepos.
не за что not a problem interj.
не мо́ жет быть no way, impossible interj.
не пове́ ришь you won’t believe it parenth.
неподалёку от not far from prepos.
не пра́ вда ли right? part.
не ро́ вен час heaven forbid parenth.
несмотря́ на despite prepos.
несмотря́ на то, что despite the fact that conj.
несомне́ нно indubitably, no doubt part.; parenth.
не сто́ лько . . ., not . . . so much as conj.
ско́ лько
не счита́ я not counting prepos.
нет no part.
не так ли does it not? part.
не то otherwise, or conj.
не то́ лько not only part.
не то́ лько . . ., но и not only . . . but also conj.
не то . . ., не то either . . . or conj.
не то что́ бы/чтоб it’s not that part.
неуже́ ли really part.
не́ чего де́ лать (see де́ лать не́ чего) parenth.
ни not part.
ни . . ., ни neither . . . nor conj.
ничего́ не ска́ жешь can’t say anything [bad, good, etc.] parеnth.
но but, however conj.
ну well part.; interj.
о (об, о́ бо) about, of; oh; on, over prepos.

ого́ wow! interj.
одна́ ко however, nevertheless conj.; parеnth.
одни́ м сло́ вом (see сло́ вом) parenth.
ой ouch, whoa, oh interj.
ока́ зывается it turns out parenth.
о́ коло by, close to, near; around, about prepos.
от (о́ то) from; because of; against prepos.
открове́ нно говоря́ frankly speaking parenth.
отку́ да where, from which conj.

отку́ да (бы) ни regardless from where conj.
oтноси́ тельно regarding, concerning prepos.
оттого́ и that’s why conj.
оттого́ (,) что because conj.
отчего́ и which is why conj.
оx oh interj.
очеви́ дно obviously parenth.
пе́ ред in front of, before; ahead of prepos.

пе́ ред тем(,) как before conj.
по along, on; to; at, in, by; according to, by prepos.
(means of); based on
по-вашему in your opinion parenth.
пове́ рх over prepos.
пове́ рь(те) believe me parenth.
по-ви́ димому it seems parenth.
по всей вероя́ тности/ in all probability parenth.
по (всей) ви́ димости
под (подо) under, for, to, beneath, before, about prepos.
подо́ бно like prepos.
подо́ бно тому́ (,) как similar to how conj.
поду́ маешь big whoop interj.
пожáлуй probably parenth.; part.
пожа́ луйста you’re welcome part.
позади́ behind prepos.
пока́ while conj.
пока́ не until conj.
поло́ жим let’s say parenth.
по ме́ ре as prepos.
по ме́ ре того́ (,) как as conj.
поми́ луй(те) forgive me parenth.
поми́ мо aside from, against prepos.
по-мо́ ему (see по-ва́ шему) parenth.
по направле́ нию к in the direction of prepos.
понима́ ешь/ you see parenth.
понима́ ете
поня́ тно clearly; understood parenth.
по отноше́ нию к regarding, towards prepos.
поперёк along prepos.
по по́ воду about prepos.
по пра́ вде говоря́ / to tell the truth parenth.
сказа́ ть
по причи́ не as a result of prepos.
по причи́ не того, что as a result of conj.
по проше́ ствии past prepos.
поско́ льку because conj.
по́ сле after prepos.
по́ сле того́ (,) как after conj.
по сравне́ нию с when compared with prepos.

посреди́ in the middle of prepos.
посре́ дством by means of prepos.
посто́ льку, поско́ льку to the degree that conj.
по су́ ти (де́ ла) in essence parenth.
по существу́ basically parenth.
по-тво́ ему (see по-ва́ шему) parenth.
потому́ и that’s why conj.
потому́ (,) что because conj.
похо́ же it looks like parenth.
почему́ и which is why conj.
поэ́ тому therefore, so, that’s why conj.
пра́ вда right, really; though parenth.; part.;
conj.
предполо́ жим suppose parenth.
предста́ вь(те) (себе́ ) imagine parenth.
пре́ жде чем before conj.
при attached to, affiliated with; during the time prepos.
of, under; in the presence of someone, in
certain conditions; with; when, while
причём and conj.
при э́ том all the while, still conj.
про about prepos.
про́ сто just part.
про́ тив against prepos.
пря́ мо straight up part.
пусть (пуска́ й) let; may part.; conj.
путём by (way of) prepos.
ра́ ди for (the sake of) prepos.

ра́ ди того́ , чтобы in order to conj.
раз since conj.
ра́ зве really? part.; conj.
ра́ зве то́ лько unless conj.
разуме́ ется of course, naturally part.; parenth.
ря́ дом с next to prepos.
с (со) from, off; since; with prepos.

само́ собо́ й it goes without saying; of course part.
с ва́ шего/твоего́ with your permission parenth.
разреше́ ния
сверх extra prepos.
свы́ ше upwards of prepos.
ска́ жем like, for example parenth.
скажи́ те пожа́ луйста oh really? interj.
сказа́ ть по пра́ вде/ to tell the truth parenth.
по со́ вести
сквозь through prepos.
ско́ лько as much, as many conj.
ско́ лько (бы) ни no matter how much conj.

слава бо́ гу/сла́ ва thank God parenth.
го́ споди
сле́ довательно ergo conj.; parenth.
сло́ вно as though conj.
сло́ вом in short parenth.
слу́ чаем incidentally parenth.
случа́ йно by any chance parenth.
со́ бственно (говоря́ ) strictly speaking parenth.
согласи́ сь you have to agree parenth.
согла́ сно in accordance to/with prepos.
с одно́ й . . . on one hand . . . on the other hand parenth.
с друго́ й стороны́
спаси́ бо thank you part.
спустя́ in prepos.
среди́ in the middle of; among prepos.
ста́ ло быть it seems, it looks like; which means parenth.; conj.
с тем(,) что́ бы in order to conj.
с тех пор(,) как since conj.
с то́ чки зре́ ния from the point of view of parenth.
стра́ нное де́ ло it’s strange parenth.
сты́ дно сказа́ ть I’m ashamed to say parenth.
су́ дя по judging by prepos.
су́ дя по всему́ it looks like parenth.
счастли́ во good luck interj.
так nothing much; right; approximately; i.e., part.; conj.

that is; then; so; however
та́ кже also, likewise conj.
таки́ м о́ бразом thus parenth.
так как given that, since conj.
так сказа́ ть so to speak parenth.
так что so conj.
тем бо́ лее furthermore; especially part.; conj.;
parenth.
тем не ме́ нее nevertheless conj.
тогда́ как while, whereas conj.
то есть that is, to be precise; what do you mean? part.; conj.
то́ же also conj.; part.
то ли . . .‚ то ли either . . . or conj.
то́ лько as soon as; but; only; just, exclusively conj.; part.
то-то and that; no wonder part.
точне́ е (говоря, specifically, rather parenth.
сказать)
то́ чно as if; exactly; for sure conj.; part.;
parenth.
тут here part.
у at prepos.
увы́ alas interj.
уж [no translation] part.
уж на что, а he/she/it might be part.
уж что-что, а say what you want, but part.
ура́ hurrah, hurray interj.
уф phew interj.
ух oh man interj.
фу ew; phew interj.
хорошо́ yes; right; alright part.; parenth.

хоть even; at least part.
хотя́ (хоть) although; even though, but conj.
хотя́ бы if only; at least part.
ча́ сом by any chance parenth.

чего́ до́ брого God forbid parenth.
чем than; instead of conj.
чем . . ., тем the . . . the conj.
че́ рез across; through; in prepos.
чёрт возьми́ /побери́ God damn it interject.
че́ стно говоря́ to tell the truth parenth.
что that; what conj.
что́ бы (чтоб) that; in order to; so that conj.; part.
что (бы) ни no matter what conj.
что (же) каса́ ется concerning, as for conj.
что ни another conj.
что ни говори́ (те) say what you will parenth.
что ты/вы what are you talking about? interject.
что ты говори́ шь (please), tell me more interject.
что . . . что [no translation] conj.
что-что, а say what you want, but part.
чуть ли не practically part.
чуть не almost part.
чуть тóлько (see тóлько) conj.
шу́ тка ли no small feat, nothing to laugh at parenth.
эй hey interj.
э́ то that part.
эх bah interj.
я́ кобы as if; it sounds like conj.; part.

ENTRIES
А Conjunction. Particle. Interjection

Conjunction
And, but, while
Connects parts of sentences or clauses when listing facts to swing to a different
object of narration or speech.
Обы́ чно на зáвтрак он пьёт кóфе, а Usually, he drinks coffee for breakfast and
на обéд сок. juice for dinner.
Ты посмотри́ фильм, а пáпа покá Watch a movie, while dad prepares the soup.
суп свáрит.
But
Expresses disparity. Has an adversative meaning when there is a lack of corres-
pondence between parts of a sentence. The conjunction но but could be used in
these sentences to convey negative emotion and to show the irregularity of the
facts’ sequence. (See also но.)
Нáшему сосéду ужé за сéмьдесят, Our neighbor is already 70, but he still goes
а он всё ещё рабóтает. to work.
Ужé дéвять часóв, а дед всё ещё It’s already nine, but grandpa is still
смóтрит телеви́ зор. watching TV.
But
When following the particle не not, it is used to oppose actions, objects, fea-
tures, or phenomena, implying that there is something unexpected in one of the
parts or clauses of a sentence. (See also не.)
24 Entries
Онá закóнчит университéт не в э́ том She’ll graduate from her university not this
годý, а в бýдущем. year, but the next.
Не прошлó и чáса, а мнóгие зри́ тели An hour hadn’t passed yet, but a lot of
ужé ушли́ из кинозáла. people had already left the movie theater.
But
Connects parts or clauses that have words denoting time, when one action fol-
lows after another. If a speaker has a negative attitude towards the information,
но but would be used here. (See also но.)
Сначáла мы éхали пóездом, а потóм At first we took a train, but then we had
пришлóсь добирáться на такси́ . to use a taxi.
And
Intensifies the focus on the topic being discussed in combination with words
like крóме тогó besides, ещё in addition, etc. The stylistically neutral conjunc-
tion и and can also be used when a speaker does not express any feelings
towards the information. When the utterance implies a negative overtone, the
conjunction но but can be used. (See also и, но.)
И́ нна рабóтает в кафé‚ а крóме тогó‚ Inna works in a cafe and also in the library.
в библиотéке.
Though
In combination with particles like всё-таки still, this conjunction serves as a link
between speech acts and also conveys a speaker’s attitude towards the foretold, intensi-
fying the particle. It signals a protest towards the previous speech act. The neutral con-
junction и and or the opposing conjunction но but can also be used. (See also и, но.)
А всё-таки лéто бы́ ло замечáтельным, The summer was wonderful, though,
что бы кто ни говори́ л. regardless of what anyone says.
Particle [coll.]
Hey!
Used when repeating an address to get someone’s attention. The comma is not
used after the particle.
Кóля! А Кóля!? Порá домóй. Kolia! Hey Kolia! It’s time to go home.
Entries 25
Yeah, okay
Used as an exclamatory interrogative or interrogative reply or at the end of sen-
tences that require a reply.
Свéта! – А?! – Ты когдá ухóдишь? “Sveta!” “Yeah?” “When are you
Пойдём сегóдня в кинó пóсле обéда‚ а? leaving? Let’s go to the movies today after
dinner, okay?”
Interjection
Ah
Used as an exclamation to express positive or negative emotions when someone
meets someone else or is talking on the phone. Also used as a response to con-
firm one’s understanding of something. Separated by a comma.
А‚ Алексáндр Геóргиевич! Так э́ то Ah, Aleksandr Georgievich! So it was you
Вы звони́ ли. who called.
А-а‚ давнó я не ви́ дела Вас! Ah, I haven’t seen you in a long time!
Ты так пóздно пришёл вчерá. – У “You came so late yesterday!” “I had a lot
меня́ бы́ ло óчень мнóго рабóты. – А-а. of work to do.” “Ah, [alright].”
Аhh
Can also be yelled as an articulation of fear or desperation. In this case, it is pro-
nounced prolongedly, sometimes repeatedly.
А-а-a!!! Поли́ ция! Грáбят! Ahhh! Help! I’m being mugged!
Note!
А and serves as a link between speakers and starts a question or a reply.
– Где Вы рабóтаете? – Я “Where do you work?” “I’m a professor
преподавáтель и рабóтаю в and work at the university. And you?” “I
университéте. А Вы? – А я – в work at the hospital.”
больни́ це.
Авóсь [coll.] Particle. Parenthetical word

Maybe
Used to express that something may happen by a coincidence of circumstances,
i.e., regardless of one’s desire. Can serve as a particle or (less commonly) a
26 Entries
parenthetical word, depending on its function in a sentence, much like its syno-
nym мóжет быть maybe. If it is a parenthetical word, it is separated by
commas. (See also мóжет быть.)
Нéбо в тучах, но всё равнó поéдем – It’s cloudy, but we’ll go anyway; maybe
авóсь дождя́ не бýдет. there won’t be any rain.
Давáйте ещё немнóго подождём. Let’s wait a bit. Maybe he’ll get here soon.
Авóсь, он скóро придёт.
The expression дéлать на авóсь [coll.] means to do something and hope for the
best and indicates a careless attitude.
Ви́ ктор несерьёзно отнóсится к Viktor is not serious about his obligations
свои́ м обя́ занностям и всё дéлает and does everything blindly, hoping for the
на авóсь. best.
Saying
Понадéяться на авóсь. To rely on luck.
Агá [coll.] Interjection

Aha
An exclamation that is pronounced triumphantly, with a raised intonation. Also
used as a confirmation of understanding something.
Агá! Попáлся! Aha! I’ve got you!
Поня́ тно? – Агá. “Understand?” “Uhuh.”
Аж [coll.] Particle. Conjunction

Particle
Even, just, only
Emphasizes the importance or insignificance of what is described in the utter-
ance. Can be a synonym of дáже even, тóлько just, and всегó just. (See also
дáже, тóлько, всегó.)
От неожи́ данности онá аж It was so unexpected that she even screamed.
вскри́ кнула.
На вечери́ нку пришли́ аж пять Only five people came to the party.
человéк.
Entries 27
Conjunction
That
A synonym of the neutral что that. Used in complex sentences to connect the
subordinate clause that implies the consequence of the actions described in the
principal clause. Аж intensifies the result. Can be used with the pronominal
adverb так so. (See also что.)
Так потемнéло, аж стáло не по себé. It got so dark that it became uncomfortable.
Ай [coll.] Interjection
Oh, ouch
Expresses pain, alarm, astonishment, pleasure, or other feelings. When it articu-
lates displeasure, criticism, or reproach, it can be repeated: ай-ай-ай.
The expressed emotions are intensified when the interjection is followed by the
words как how and какóй what, which are used to elaborate the feelings. Used
in the same situations as ой ouch. Separated by commas. (See also ой.)
Ай! Отпусти́ – бóльно! Ouch! Let go, it hurts!
Ай-ай-ай! Как не сты́ дно!? For shame! Such a smart girl and doesn’t
Такáя ýмная дéвочка и не умéет себя́ know how to behave herself.
вести́ .
Ай, какóй день замечáтельный! My, what a beautiful day!
Айдá [coll.] Particle

Let’s go
Used to urge someone to go somewhere quickly. Very informal.
Закóнчили зáвтракать и айдá Let’s finish breakfast and go
на рéку. to the river.
А как же [coll.] Particle

Of course, sure
Used as an intensified affirmative reply. The synonymous конéчно of course, разу-
мéется of course, безуслóвно certainly, несомнéнно indubitably, and others are util-
ized in various styles. (See also безуслóвно, конéчно, несомнéнно, разумéется.)
Ну что, идём в фи́ тнес-клуб? – А как “Do you want go to the gym?” “Sure thing!
же! Идём, конéчно. Let’s go.”
28 Entries
Аллó Interjection
Hello, hey
Used in telephone conversations as a synonym of слýшаю speaking. Conveys
discourtesy when addressing someone to catch their attention. Synonymous with
the very informal эй hey, which can sound rude. (See also эй.)
Аллó, слýшаю. Hello?
Аллó! Останови́ сь, мы приéхали. Hey, stop! We’re here!
А ну [coll.] Interjection
Come on
Used to force someone into doing something. Often accompanied by an
imperative. Separated by a comma.
А ну, перестáнь ревéть, вы́ три слёзы Come on, stop bawling, wipe away the
и умóйся. tears, and wash up.
А то [coll.] Conjunction
Otherwise, if not
An adversative conjunction that is used in compound sentences to indicate that
the accomplishment of the action in the second clause depends on the action in
the first clause. Synonymous with the informal не то otherwise, the neutral
инáче otherwise, and the formal в проти́ вном слýчае otherwise. They are used
less frequently than а то. (See also в проти́ вном слýчае, инáче, не то.)
Нáдо поторáпливаться, а то не успéем. We have to hurry, or we won’t make it.
А то и [coll.] Conjunction
Maybe even
Connects a coordinate part of a sentence that designates something that is more
significant, bigger, better, etc., comparing it with what was said earlier.
Придý пóздно – собрáние бýдет I’ll be late; the meeting will take two, maybe
дли́ ться два, а то и три часá. even three hours.
Аý Interjection
Hey
An exclamation usually used when separated people are trying to
find one another, for example, in the woods. Can be used in sentences
Entries 29
as a subject or an object. Separated by commas or can be a separate

sentence.
«Аý!» – закричáл Бори́ с в надéжде, “Hey!” yelled Boris, hoping that someone
что ктó-нибудь отзовётся. would answer.
Аý, ктó-нибудь живóй здесь есть? “Hey, is there anybody in here?”
Вдруг я услы́ шал «аý». Suddenly, I heard “Hey!”
Ах Interjection
My gosh
Expresses alarm, admiration, astonishment, and other feelings. The expressed
emotions are intensified when the interjection is followed by the words как
how and какóй what, which are used to elaborate the feelings. Separated by
commas. Can be used as a separate sentence.
«Ах!» – испýганно вскри́ кнула онá “My gosh!” she yelled in fright, and ran out
и вы́ бежала из кóмнаты. of the room.
Ах, какóй талáнтливый мáльчик! My gosh, what a talented boy!
Ах(,) да [coll.] Interjection

Oh(,) right
Used when one suddenly recalls something. Usually separated by commas.
However, sometimes, a comma appears after ах, if the speaker makes a pause.
Анатóлий Петрóвич вдруг Anatoly Petrovich suddenly stopped. “Oh
останови́ лся: «Ах да, совсéм забы́ л – right, I completely forgot: Lyudmila is co-
Людми́ ла приезжáет в суббóту». ming on Saturday.”
Ах, да! Я дóлжен напóмнить, что Oh, right! I have to remind you that you’re
Вы дежýрите зáвтра. on call tomorrow.
Ба [coll.] Interjection
Hey
An exclamation that expresses amazement or astonishment, usually when one
meets someone. Separated by commas. Can be used as a separate sentence.
Ба! Когó я ви́ жу?! Давнéнько мы не Hey! Look who it is! We haven’t seen one
ви́ делись. another in so long!
30 Entries
Без Preposition
With the genitive case
Without
Phrases with this preposition answer the questions без когó? without whom?, без
чегó? without what? Used in phrases to indicate minutes when naming the
second half of an hour.
Ю́ рий рабóтал без óтдыха и сна трóе Yuri had been working without sleep or rest
сýток подря́ д. three days in a row.
Когдá начинáется приём? – Без “When does the reception begin?” “A
чéтверти пять. quarter to five.”
(И) без тогó even without can be a synonym of и так, where тогó can be substi-
tuted with a noun or a pronoun, specifying the undesirable object. (See also и так.)
Не поéду я к ним – им и без меня́ I won’t go to them; they have plenty to do
дел хватáет. without having to worry about me.
Не без (э́ того) means not without (some degree of something), не без интерéса not with-
out interest, не без трудá not without hard work, не без егó учáстия not without his
participation, не без проблéм not without problems, не без пóмощи not without help.
Ви́ ктор Петрóвич получи́ л Victor Petrovich received a promotion, which
повышéние, что не без зáвисти his colleagues noted with some degree of
отмéтили его сотрýдники. envy.
Phrases with без

без концá constantly, lit. endlessly
без пáмяти to be crazy (about someone)
без спрóса without permission
бéз толку [coll.] it is useless to do something
без умá [coll.] to be crazy (about something/someone)
без ýстали constantly, lit. tirelessly
Saying
Без трудá не вы́ ловишь и ры́ бку из No pain, no gain.
прудá.
Entries 31
Без сомнéния Parenthetical expression. Particle

Parenthetical expression
Without doubt, undoubtedly, no doubt
Без сомнéния without doubt or без вся́ кого сомнéния without any doubt are
neutral in style. Separated by commas. Can also be used as an affirmative
response or confirmation. It is the same as вне (вся́ кого) сомнéния no doubt,
which can be found in literature, journalism, and formal speech. (See also безус-
лóвно, бесспóрно.)
Без сомнéния, э́ то растéние укрáсит This plant will indubitably brighten up our
нáшу кóмнату. room.
Particle
Without doubt, undoubtedly, no doubt
Used as an affirmative response and confirmation. (See also безуслóвно, бесспóрно.)
Ты успéешь прийти́ зáвтра к десяти́ ? “Will you be able to come tomorrow at
– Без сомнéния. ten?” “Definitely!”
Безуслóвно Particle. Parenthetical word

Particle
Certainly, indubitably
Used as an affirmative response and confirmation. (See also без сомнéния,
бесспóрно.)
Смóжем ли мы рассчи́ тывать на “Can we count on your help?”
твою́ пóмощь? – Безуслóвно. “Certainly.”
Parenthetical word
Certainly, indubitably
Demonstrates confidence in some assertion. Separated by commas. Although it
sounds formal, it is used in various styles. (See also без сомнéния, бесспóрно.)
Он, безуслóвно, ничегó не знал о Indubitably, he knew nothing of our conver-
нáшем разговóре. sation.
32 Entries
Note!
Can function as an adverbial modifier. Not separated by commas. Which one is
appropriate, a parenthetical word or an adverbial modifier, depends on the
author’s or speaker’s perception.
Он безуслóвно ничегó не знал о He definitely knew nothing of our conver-
нáшем разговóре. sation.
Бесспóрно Particle. Parenthetical word

Particle
Without question, undeniably
Used as an independent sentence-reply.
Кáтя никогдá не закóнчит “Katya will never graduate if she continues
университéт, éсли бýдет так studying like this.” “Without question.”
занимáться. – Бесспóрно.
Parenthetical word
Without question, undeniably
Expresses certainty and assurance. Separated by commas. Although it sounds
formal, it can be used in various styles. (See also без сомнéния, безуслóвно.)
Э́ то, бесспóрно, карти́ на This is, without question, the painting of a
талáнтливого худóжника. gifted artist.
Note!
Can function as an adverbial modifier. Separated by commas. Which one is
appropriate, a parenthetical word or an adverbial modifier, depends on the
author’s or speaker’s perception.
Онá бесспóрно успéет всё сдéлать к She will undeniably finish everything by
пяти́ . five.
Бис Interjection
Encore
An exclamation used as a demand for an additional performance.
– Пýшкина ругáет на чём свет стои́ т “He curses Pushkin up and down and keeps
и всё вре́ мя кричи́ т: «Куроле́ сов, shouting, ‘Kurolesov, encore, encore!’” the
бис, бис!» – говори́ л гость, тревóжно guest said, twitching nervously. (Bulgakov,
Entries 33
дёргаясь. (М. Булгáков, «Мáстер и Master and Margarita, translated by

Маргари́ та») Pevear and Volokhonsky)
To play something на бис means to play additional pieces at the end of a

musical performance. Used with the verbs сыгрáть to play, вызывáть to
encore, спеть to sing, деклами́ ровать to declaim, etc.
В тот вéчер Евгéния Ки́ сина Evgeny Kissin played seven or eight encores
вызывáли на бис семь или вóсемь that evening.
раз.
Благодаря́ Preposition
With the dative case
Thanks to, owing to
Indicates someone or something that is a positive and effective contributor in
accomplishing something. The preposition и́ з-за because of is synonymous, but
has a negative implication, while вопреки́ contrary to, despite is an antonym of
благодаря́ . Phrases with this preposition answer the questions благодаря́
комý? owing to whom?, благодаря́ чемý? owing to what? It may also answer the
question почемý? why? (See also и́ з-за, вопреки́ .)
Тóлько благодаря́ диéте емý удалóсь He managed to lose five kilograms thanks
похудéть на пять килогрáммов. exclusively to his diet.
Благодаря́ томý(,) что Conjunction

Thanks to the fact that
Connects adverbial clauses, indicating the cause of the action reflected in the
principal part of a sentence. May either follow or precede the principal clause.
Implies positive consequences, unlike its synonym из-за тогó что due to the fact
that. A comma does not split the conjunction when it starts a sentence, but it is
placed before что when it follows a principal clause. Sentences with this con-
junction are used to answer the question благодаря́ чемý? thanks to what? The
conjunctions потомý что because, оттогó что because, так как given that,
ввидý тогó что in light of the fact that, вслéдствие тогó что as a consequence of
the fact that, в си́ лу тогó что given the fact that, and others are synonymous.
However, they have their own nuances and are used in different styles. (See also
из-за тогó что, потомý что, оттогó что, так как, ввидý тогó что,
вслéдствие тогó что, в си́ лу тогó что.)
Благодаря́ томý что А́ лла Семёновна Owing to the fact that Alla Semyonovna is
сиди́ т с внýчкой, А́ ня мóжет рабóтать. at home with her granddaughter, Anya can
work.
34 Entries
Он смог найти́ нýжную информáцию He could find all the essential information
тóлько благодаря́ тому, что потрáтил only because he spent a lot of time searching
на пóиски мнóго врéмени. for it.
Алексáндр Михáйлович, благодаря́ “Aleksandr Mikhailovich, how did you
чемý Вы дости́ гли таки́ х результáтов в achieve such results in your work?”
рабóте? – Благодаря́ томý что у нас “Because we had extensive financial
былá серьёзная финáнсовая support.”
поддéржка.
Бóже Interjection
Oh God
Expresses astonishment, delight, indignation, etc. Separated by commas or is
written as a separate sentence that ends with an exclamation mark. The interjec-
tions Бóже прáвый! good Lord!, Бóже (ты) мой! oh my God! are utilized in
different styles, from neutral to elevated, in modern Russian. The words Бог,
Бóже are often written with a capital Б.
Бóже! Какóй ужáсный фильм мы Oh God, we saw such a horrible movie
смотрéли вчерá. yesterday.
Kак боли́ т ногá, бóже мой! Oh God, my leg hurts so much!
Бóже прáвый, зачéм же так Oh my God, what’s the point of being so
нéрвничать? nervous?
Не дай бог (бóже) God forbid is a parenthetical expression, which can also
mean the opposite – дай бы бог let something happen – and it is often used with
a shade of sarcasm. When combined with infinitives, it is not separated by
commas. May be used as a negative response.
Не дай Бог, мáма её кудá-нибудь God forbid, her mother threw her away
зашвырнýла. (А. Гелáсимов, somewhere. (Gelasimov, Delicate Age)
«Нéжный вóзраст»)
Не дай емý бог потеря́ ть рабóту. God forbid he loses his job.
А éсли Ки́ ра не закóнчит “What if Kira doesn’t finish grad school?”
университéт? – Не дай бог! “God forbid!”
Ни бóже мой never that is a synonym of ни в кóем слýчае not at all. Indicates
emphasized negation, objection. Separated by commas or dashes.
Э́ то бы́ ло врéмя, когдá семья́ затаи́ ла It was a time when the family had a wicked
мысль. Не прóтив Ми́ ти – ни Бóже idea. Not against Mitya, never that!
мой! (Г. Щербакóва, «Ми́ тина (Scherbakova, Mitya’s Love)
любóвь»)
Entries 35
Бóже сохрани́ (упаси́ , избáвь) God forbid can also mean ни в кóем слýчае
not at all. Separated by commas or is written as a separate sentence that ends
with an exclamation mark.
Речь не идёт о том, бóже сохрани́ , We’re not discussing that, God forbid,
что кто-то когó-то не уважáет. somebody doesn’t respect someone.
Николáй хóчет взять дéньги в креди́ т “Does Nikolai want to take a loan and buy
и купи́ ть кварти́ ру? – Бóже сохрани́ ! an apartment?” “God forbid! He wouldn’t
Емý же нéчем отдавáть. be able to repay it.”
Бóлее Particle
More
Used together with adjectives and adverbs in their basic forms to form a com-
pound comparative degree that is used most often in literature, while the simple
comparative degree is neutral and is used in different styles, e.g., бóлее дорогóй
versus дорóже. Бóлее should not be confused with бóльше, which is derived
from большóй big. The former is used to form the compound comparative
degree, while the latter is the comparative form of the adjective большóй. (See
also мéнее.)
Онá дóлго размышля́ ла над тем, как She thought for a long time how she could
сдéлать лéкции бóлее интерéсными. make her lectures more interesting.
Бóлее (бóльше) тогó Parеnthetical expression

Furthermore, moreover
Indicates the importance of the assertion that follows. Separated by commas.
Both expressions are utilized in different styles. However, бóлее тогó tends to
be neutral, while бóльше тогó is most often informal.
Михаи́ л Семёныч – тóже демокрáт, Mikhail Semionych is also a democrat.
бóлее тогó – ли́ дер Демократи́ ческой Furthermore, he’s the leader of the
пáртии. Democratic Party.
Мне бы́ ло óчень не по себé и, I was very perturbed, and, moreover, I even
бóльше тогó, в какóй-то момéнт became frightened at some point.
дáже стáло стрáшно.
Брáво Interjection
Bravo
Expresses approval, delight, or enjoyment, especially at various performances.
Separated by commas or functions as a separate sentence.
36 Entries
Все бы́ ли в востóрге – отовсю́ ду Everybody was delighted; “bravo” could be

раздавáлись кри́ ки «брáво». heard from everywhere.
Бýдто Conjunction. Particle. Interjection

Conjunction
As if
Бýдто or бýдто бы [coll.] is used in complex sentences to express doubt, sup-
position, or uncertainty. The verbs in the principal clause indicate speech,
thought, or perception. When implying confidence or assurance, the conjunc-
tion что is used. Semantically close to the conjunction я́ кобы as though, which
articulates disbelief and skepticism. The particle бы emphasizes hesitation or
uncertainty. (See also что, я́ кобы.)
Говоря́ т, бýдто (бы) наш дирéктор They say it looks like our director is going to
ухóдит на пéнсию. retire.
Like
Expresses a comparison between objects, features, or signs. Synonymous with
как as, слóвно as if, or тóчно like. Слóвно and тóчно point to a close resem-
blance, while бýдто implies proximity. All three conjunctions are used in differ-
ent styles. At the same time, слóвно tends to be used in poetic and folk
speech, тóчно is more conversational, and бýдто is neutral. (See also слóвно,
тóчно.)
Тишинá – бýдто в лесý. It’s quiet, like in a forest.
As if
Бýдто or бýдто бы [coll.] is the same as как бýдто as if. It connects clauses
that describe the manner of the action that occurs in the principal part, implying
supposition or something unreal. It can almost always be replaced with the con-
junction как éсли бы as if. The conjunctions слóвно as if and тóчно like are
synonyms of бýдто and как бýдто. (See also как бýдто, как éсли бы,
слóвно, тóчно.)
Ми́ ша с растéрянностью смотрéл по Misha looked around in confusion, as if he
сторонáм, бýдто ничегó не узнавáл. didn’t recognize anything.
Ты так о нём говори́ шь, как бýдто You speak about him as if you don’t know
не знáешь, что мóжно от негó what to expect.
ожидáть.
Entries 37
Particle
As if
Бýдто or как бýдто [coll.] is used in an utterance to express doubt, suppos-
ition, uncertainty, or hesitation. It can express assurance in the opposite.
Почемý И́ ра так со мной Why does Ira talk to me like this? As if I
разговáривает? Бýдто я оби́ дел её. offended her.
Ну вот, опоздáли. – Бýдто я виновáт! “Well, look at that, we’re late.” “As if it’s
my fault!”
Бы (б) Particle
Would
Б is the same as бы, but has a conversational shade. Used after words that end
with a vowel.
Expresses a wish, suggestion, doubt, or request. Used to form the conditional
mood with verbs in the past tense. May be used in contexts related to present,
past, or future. Бы, combined with an infinitive, expresses a desire.
Сáша бы поéхал зáвтра к друзья́ м на Sasha would like to go to his friends’ party
вечери́ нку. tomorrow.
Съесть бы чегó-нибудь. It’d be nice to eat something.
Посмотрéла б я фильм какóй-нибудь. I could really go for a movie right now.
Implies warning or threat when combined with the negative particle не not.
Implies a hint of discourtesy when used as an imperative. (See also не.)
Не включáл бы ты так грóмко It’d be better if you didn’t turn the music on
мýзыку. so loudly.
With the conditional mood, can express a request, a piece of advice, or a sug-
gestion. Very informal and can sound rude.
Вы́ ключил бы ты компью́ тер и You should turn off the computer and go to
пошёл спать. bed.
Used with the particle ни in the following expressions: что бы ни no matter

what, кто бы ни whoever, кудá бы ни wherever, где бы ни wherever‚ когдá бы
ни whenever, etc. These are used in complex sentences that indicate that an
action can happen under any circumstance. (See also ни.)
Что бы онá ни дéлала, у неё всё Whatever she did, she always succeeded.
получáлось.
38 Entries
Бывáло [coll.] Particle

Used to
Can be used with the simple future or the present to express sporadic repeated
actions in the past.
Приезжáем, бывáло, на дáчу и идём We used to come to the summer house and
срáзу на рéку. make a beeline for the river.
Бывáло, гуля́ ем с отцóм по лéсу, а он My father and I used to walk in the forest
истóрии рáзные расскáзывает. while he told me various stories.
Бы́ ло Particle
Seeming(ly)
Designates an action that started and was interrupted or not completed. Not sep-
arated by commas. Widely used in literature.
Прекрати́ вшийся бы́ ло ли́ вень, The seemingly finished downpour resumed
пошёл с ещё бóльшей си́ лой. with even greater fury.
Но тут, узнáв о болéзни, реши́ тельно But having found out about the illness, he
стал о нём забóтиться, пригласи́ л started tending to him, sent for a doctor,
дóктора, стал бы́ ло лечи́ ть, но оказá- started treating him, but it turned out that
лось, что вы́ лечить невозмóжно. (Ф. the illness was impossible to cure.
Достоéвский, «Брáтья Карамáзовы») (Dostoevsky, Karamazov Brothers)
В (во) Preposition
Во is the same as в and is used before words that begin with two consonants,
the first of which is either в or ф (во Фрáнции in France), or before one-syl-
lable words (во сне sleeping, во льдах amidst the ice), or in folklore.
With the prepositional case

In, away
Denotes location. Indicates a measure of distance. Phrases with this preposition
answer the nonspecific question где? where? (See also где.)
Её роди́ тели живýт в Нóвгороде. Her parents live in Novgorod.
Наш дом нахóдится в двух шагáх от Our house is a couple of steps away from
их. theirs.
Мы бы́ ли в пяти́ минýтах от них и We were five minutes away from them, but
разминýлись. we missed them.
Entries 39
In, at
Combined with the nouns начáло beginning, середи́ на middle, and конéц end,
denotes a time or place in response to the nonspecific questions когдá? when?
and где? where? or the more specific questions в котóром часý? at what time?,
в какóм мéсте? in what place? (See also когдá, где.)
В концé апрéля ещё бы́ ли зáморозки. There was still frost at the end of April.
В котóром часý мы встречáемся? – В “When are we meeting?” “Just after six.”
начáле седьмóго.
Когдá ты закóнчишь кни́ гу? В какóм “When will you finish the book? Where are
мéсте ты нахóдишься? – Скóро. Я you now?” “Soon. I’m already halfway
ужé в середи́ не. through.”
In
Combines with nouns that denote the time when an action or event takes place.
Combines with the nouns век century, год year, and мéсяц month, with the
names of months or with nouns such as дéтство childhood, ю́ ность youth, or
стáрость old age. The combination of в какóм in which with the words век
century‚ год year‚ or мéсяц month forms more specific interrogative sentences
than sentences with когдá when.
В дéтстве Ви́ тя жил у тётки, так как In his childhood, Vitya lived with his aunt,
егó роди́ тели мнóго врéмени because his parents spent a lot of time
проводи́ ли за грани́ цей. abroad.
В какóм мéсяце у тебя́ óтпуск? – В “When do you have time off?” “In May or
мáе и́ ли ию́ не. June.”
In
Used with nouns that designate the condition in which someone is or does
something.
быть в негодовáнии to be incredibly displeased
находи́ ться в раздýмьи to be deep in thought
лежáть в óбмороке to lie unconscious
быть в нереши́ тельности to be unsure of one’s actions
находи́ ться в истéрике to be hysterical
засты́ ть в изумлéнии to be mesmerized
жить в стрáхе to live in fear
состоя́ ть в перепи́ ске с кем-то to be in correspondence with someone
быть в ýжасе to be horrified
40 Entries
With the accusative case

In, within
Indicates a point in time with the names of the days of the week: в пя́ тницу
on Friday. Can be a synonym of за within, emphasizing – when used in the
accusative – the shortness of time within which something happens: в оди́ н
мéсяц within one month, в три дня in three days. The combination в какóй,
with a word that denotes a unit of time, forms the interrogative sentences в
какóй день? on what day?, в какóй срок? within what term? (See also за.)
В понедéльник у нас конферéнция. We have a conference on Monday.
В какóй срок должны́ быть “By when do the documents have to be
офóрмлены докумéнты? – ready?” “In six days.”
В шесть дней.
В is used to express a numerical comparison with a number in the accusative

case followed by the noun раз time. В also specifies quantitative attributes.
Дорóга занялá в два рáза бóльше It took them twice as long to get there than
врéмени‚ чем предполагáлось. they expected.
Ры́ ба былá вéсом в пять The fish weighed five kilograms.
килогрáммов.
To
Indicates direction. Responds to the nonspecific question кудá? where? or the
more specific question в какýю стóрону? in what direction? Correlates with the
preposition из from; in other words, any word that requires из for the meaning
of from will require в for the meaning of to, and vice versa. (See also из, на.)
Кудá вы направля́ етесь? – В стóрону “Where are you headed?” “To the tennis
тéннисных кóртов. courts.”
Note!
Cannot be used with animate nouns, unlike the preposition к to, which implies
direction to someone’s place. (See also к.)
To, into
Points out an organization or institution that is the target of an action. This responds
to the nonspecific question кудá? where? The same nouns with в, accompanied by
different verbs, can be used in the prepositional case. (See also кудá.)
внести́ в спи́ сок to add to a list
записáться в клуб to become a member of a club
Entries 41
поступи́ ть в коллéдж to get into college

зачи́ слить в компáнию to hire into a company
внести́ изменéния в прогрáмму to change the program
Они́ подадýт апелля́ цию в суд. They will appeal to the court.
Семён Семёнович написáл письмó Semion Semionovich wrote a letter to the
в газéту. newspaper.
Вблизи́ (от) Preposition

Close to, near
Вблизи́ or, more often, вблизи́ от, is used with nouns in the genitive.
Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? or
the more specific question как далекó? how far? Is utilized in formal
language and frequently in literature. The synonyms óколо close to, вóзле
next to, недалекó от not far from, неподалёку от not very far from are more
neutral.
Алёша сиди́ т за стóликом вблизи́ Alyosha is sitting at the table close to the
окнá. window.
Вблизи́ от кострá станови́ лось It was getting hot close to the fire. They
жáрко, они́ отсéли подáльше . . . moved a bit farther away. (Bykov, Wolf
(В. Бы́ ков, «Вóлчья я́ ма» // «Дрýжба Pit, 1999)
нарóдов», 1999)
Ввидý Preposition
Because of, as a result of, due to
Used when something is happening due to a reason. Can be a synonym of
в си́ лу given, в связи́ с in connection with, вслéдствие as a consequence of, or
и́ з-за because of. When something is projected to happen, ввидý is used.
Nouns with ввидý answer the question ввидý чегó? due to what? Construc-
tions with ввидý can be separated by commas when they are placed in
the middle of a sentence, between a subject and a predicate, or when they
clarify what is said in a sentence. Ввидý is frequently used in journalism, as
well as scholarly and bureaucratic language. (See also в связи́ с, в си́ лу,
вслéдствие, и́ з-за.)
42 Entries
Прися́ жные оправдáли Козлóва The jury acquitted Kozlov due to his insanity
ввидý егó невменя́ емости. defense.
Руковóдство завóда, ввидý нехвáтки As a result of a shortage of employees, the
рабóчей си́ лы, при́ няло решéние о factory’s management decided to cut
сокращéнии произвóдства production.
продýкции.
Note!
Do not confuse ввидý with в видý, which is written separately. It is used in
the expression имéть в видý to mean.
Когдá онá говори́ т «чáсто», онá When she says “often,” she means every
имéет в видý кáждый день. single day.
Ввидý тогó(,) что Conjunction

In light of the fact that
Connects adverbial clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the
principal part of a sentence. Clauses with this conjunction answer the questions
почемý? why? по какóй причи́ не? because of what? These clauses may precede
the principal clause and can also open the sentence; in this case, the comma is
placed only before the principal clause. They also may follow the principal
clause, but the comma is placed before что in this case. It is formal. The con-
junctions поскóльку because, вслéдствие тогó что as a consequence of the fact
that, в си́ лу тогó что given the fact that, в связи́ с тем что in connection with
can be utilized as synonyms of ввидý тогó что, and they are frequently used in
scholarly language, journalism, and literature. The synonymous потомý что
because is neutral, while так как given that and оттогó что because sound more
bookish. (See also поскóльку, вслéдствие тогó что, в си́ лу тогó что, в
связи́ с тем что, потомý что.)
Ввидý тогó что показáниями Based on evidence from witnesses, in light of
свидéтелей устанóвлена в э́ том áкте the fact that his last will has been written in
егó ли́ чная вóля, решенó не this letter, it has been decided not to send his
отправля́ ть труп в анатоми́ ческий corpse to the morgue. (Kuprin, The Garnet
теáтр. (А. Купри́ н, «Гранáтовый Bracelet)
браслéт»)
Уйти́ в спаси́ тельное брéхтовское Escaping into the safe haven of Brechtian
остранéние невозмóжно ввидý тогó, defamiliarization is impossible, in light of
что отношéний актёрроль бóльше не the fact that the actor-role relationship no
существýет. («Неждáнные встрéчи» // longer exists. (Unexpected Meetings,
«Театрáльная жизнь», 2004) 2004)
Entries 43
Вдалекé от Preposition
Far away from
Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? and
the more specific question как далекó? how far? This preposition and its syno-
nym вдали́ от far away from are commonly used in elevated styles, while the
synonymous далекó от far from is neutral and is used in various styles. (See the
antonyms невдалекé от, недалекó от.)
Жилá Ангели́ на на окрáине Москвы́ , Angelina lived on the outskirts of Moscow,
вдалекé от магази́ нов. far away from stores.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition вдалекé от, which governs nouns in
the genitive case, with the adverb вдалекé far away, which is used
independently.
Ви́ дишь там вдалекé домá? Do you see those houses far away?
Вдали́ от Preposition
Far away from
Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where?
and the more specific question как далекó? how far? This preposition and
its synonym вдалекé от far away from are commonly used in elevated
styles, while the synonymous далекó от far from is neutral and is used in
various styles. (See the antonyms невдалекé от, недалекó от.)
За то врéмя, что он жил вдали́ от While he was living away from his home,
дóма, в семьé произошлó мнóго his family had a lot of things happen to
рáзных собы́ тий. them.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition вдали́ от, which governs nouns in the
genitive case, with the adverb вдали́ far away, which is used independently.
Там, вдали́ за рекóй, засверкáли Far away, lights started glittering. (From a
огни́ . (Из пéсни) song)
44 Entries
Вдоль Preposition
Along, down
Indicates the direction of movement along a street, a field, a fence, etc. Phrases
with this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where? and the more
specific question вдоль чегó? along what?
Сначáла дорóга шла вдоль реки́ , а At first, the road went alongside the river,
потóм рéзко свернýла в лес. but later, it took a sharp turn into the forest.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition вдоль, which is combined with nouns and governs
them in the genitive case, with the adverb вдоль along, which is used independently.
Sayings
Вдоль и поперёк. Completely.
Изъéздил странý вдоль и поперёк. He has travelled through the entire country.
Вдоль по Preposition
Along, down
Indicates the surface and length along which movement is occurring. Literally,
вдоль по answers the question вдоль по чемý / по какóй повéрхности?
along what/along what surface? Вдоль по is also synonymous with по along. По
focuses on the surface, while вдоль по focuses on the length. (See also по.)
Они́ дóлго броди́ ли вдоль по ýлицам, They walked down the streets for a long time,
а когдá стемнéло вернýлись домóй. but when it got dark, they returned home.
Ведь Conjunction. Particle

Conjunction
Since, because
Connects the subordinate clause in a complex sentence with the principal clause.
The subordinate clause is an explanation, a basis, or a proof for what is said in the
principal clause. Usually, a subordinate clause with ведь follows the principal one.
Entries 45
A comma appears between the two clauses. Ведь has a conversational shade. (See
the synonyms потомý что, потомý как, так как, поскóльку.)
У Пáвла припóднятое настроéние, Pavel is happier than usual, since he’s
ведь он скóро возвращáется домóй. coming home soon.
Particle
Isn’t it
Used to emphasize the main content or to highlight the overtone of an utter-
ance. Can start a sentence that is a comment, a remark, or a clarification of
what was said in the previous sentence. No comma is needed. Synonymous
with же really, indeed. (See also же.)
Ведь сейчáс мóдно носи́ ть кóжаные Right now, it’s stylish to wear leather jac-
кýртки. kets, isn’t it?
Почемý ты не позвони́ ла? Ты ведь Why didn’t you call? You were supposed to
должнá былá позвони́ ть ещё вчерá call me yesterday, weren’t you?
Ведь is used in interrogative sentences that imply that the speaker is anticipating
a positive response. Synonymous with прáвда? right? не так ли? does it not?
(See also прáвда, не так ли.)
Ведь мы éдем зáвтра на пикни́ к? Aren’t we going to have a picnic tomorrow?
Вернéе Parenthetical word

Rather, more precisely
Вернéе or вернéе сказáть is separated by commas. Utilized in different styles
and is frequently found in journalism, literature, and scholarly language. The
synonymous вернéй is colloquial, while точнéе is more formal. Can be accom-
panied by the conjuction а. (See also а, точнéе.)
Э́ та усáдьба, вернéе, бáрский дом, This estate, or rather, manor house, was
былá пострóена в начáле 19-го вéка. built in the beginning of the 19th century.
Вéрно Particle. Parenthetical word

Particle
Indeed
Expresses confident confirmation. Synonymous with да yes and can be com-
bined with it. Used as a separate sentence. (See also да.)
46 Entries
Как я понимáю, на завóде у Вас “As I understand, you’ve experienced severe

серьёзные неприя́ тности. – Вéрно. troubles at your plant.” “Indeed.”
Parenthetical word
Probably
Used less frequently in contemporary Russian as a parenthetical word. Separated
by commas. The synonyms вероя́ тно evidently, возмóжно possibly, ви́ димо it
seems, and others are used more commonly. (See also вероя́ тно, возмóжно,
ви́ димо.)
Бори́ с Михáйлович, вéрно, уéхал Boris Mikhailovich probably left to get
лечи́ ться. treatment.
Note!
Вéрно can be used as an adverbial modifier. In this case, no commas are
needed. (See also вероя́ тно, возмóжно, ви́ димо.)
Как вéрно подмéтили нéкоторые As some critics have accurately noted,
кри́ тики,
Ренуáр в свои́ х рáнних карти́ нах был Renoir’s early works were realistic.
реалисти́ чен.
Вероя́ тно Parenthetical word. Particle

Parenthetical word
Likely
Expresses assurance or supposition. Separated by commas. Tends to be utilized
in formal language. (See the synonyms возмóжно, ви́ димо, должнó быть,
мóжет быть, навéрное.)
Мы, вероя́ тно, зáвтра не смóжем We most likely won’t be able to meet
встрéтиться. tomorrow.
Particle
Probably
Expresses confirmation with a shade of doubt. Used as a separate sentence.
Вы возвращáетесь в суббóту? – “You’re returning on Saturday?”
Вероя́ тно. “Probably.”
Entries 47
Ви́ димо Parenthetical word

It seems
Articulates assurance or supposition. Separated by commas. Utilized in different
styles, although it is commonly used in literature and journalism. (See the syn-
onyms ви́ дно, по-ви́ димому, кáжется.)
Нáши взгля́ ды, ви́ димо, не It seems that our views do not coincide.
совпадáют.
Ви́ дишь ли Parenthetical expression

You see
Ви́ дишь ли, an informal address, or ви́ дите ли, a formal address, are used
to draw someone’s attention to the speaker’s utterance or to emphasize
and highlight the speech. Separated by commas. (See the synonym
понимáешь ли.)
Ви́ дишь ли, Тáня, в том, что You see, Tanya, what happened is your
случи́ лось, виновáта ты самá. own fault.
This parenthetical expression, more commonly ви́ дите ли, can also provide a
negative overtone, sarcasm, or irony regarding the statement. (See the synonym
понимáешь ли.)
Не мог прийти́ . Он, види́ те ли, был (Sarcastically.) He couldn’t come. You see,
óчень зáнят! he was far too busy.
Note!
Ви́ дишь ли or ви́ дите ли do you see/if you see can be used as part of a sen-
tence, usually as a predicate in interrogative sentences. In this case, no commas
are needed.
Ви́ дите ли вы рáдугу из окнá? Do you see the rainbow through the
window?
Ви́ дно [coll.] Parenthetical word

It seems
Less formal than its synonyms. Separated by commas. (See also the synonyms
ви́ димо, по-ви́ димому, кáжется, вероя́ тно, сýдя по всемý.)
Мы, ви́ дно, не дождёмся лýчших It seems we won’t live to see better times.
времён.
48 Entries
Note!
Ви́ дно it looks like can be used as a predicate. In this case, no commas are
needed.
В нáшем кинотеáтре хорошó ви́ дно с In our movie theater, you can see well from
любóго мéста. any spot.
В зави́ симости от Preposition

Depending on
Used only with nouns, just like the phrase зави́ сит от depends on [something],
e.g., зави́ сит от зарплáты it depends on the salary. Constructions with в зави́ -
симости от can be separated by commas when they are placed in the middle of
a sentence, between a subject and a predicate, or when they clarify what is said
in the sentence.
Ценá на издéлия из дéрева The price for wooden crafts varies, depending
колéблется в зави́ симости от их on their quality and design.
кáчества и дизáйна.
Фрýкты, в зави́ симости от их Fruits, depending on their quality, have
качéства, имéют рáзную цéну. different prices.
В концé концóв Parenthetical expression

Indicates displeasure, annoyance, or impatience. In English, this is usually con-
veyed by intonation or by stressing certain words. Usually separated by commas.
Мне э́ то всё надоéло, в концé I’m fed up with all this!
концóв.
At least
Emphasizes the final argument during a discussion or is used to finalize thoughts.
Synonymous with наконéц finally, which is used to put thoughts or ideas in
order when listing something. Наконéц pertains to the same semantic group as
во-пéрвых first of all, слéдовательно consequently, and others. (See also
наконéц, слéдовательно.)
Почемý ты не сообщи́ л, что Why didn’t you inform me that you’re
приезжáешь? Ты не мог позвони́ ть? coming? Couldn’t you call me? You could
В концé концóв, послáть эсэмэ́ ску have at least texted me!
мóжно бы́ ло!
Entries 49
Finally [as a synonym of наконéц]

Indicates that something is accomplished after a while.
Ми́ ша рабóтал над свои́ м проéктом Misha worked on his project for a few
нéсколько мéсяцев и, в концé months and finally finished it yesterday.
концóв, вчерá закóнчил егó.
Note!
В концé концóв finally can be used as part of a sentence as an adverbial expres-
sion, and in that case, it is not separated by commas.
Дóлгое врéмя он уговáривал её He spent a long time convincing her to move
уéхать в другóй гóрод, и в концé to a different city, and she finally conceded.
концóв онá согласи́ лась.
Вмéсто Preposition
Instead of, in place of
Phrases with вмéсто answer the questions вмéсто когó? instead of whom?,
вмéсто чегó? instead of what?
Ктó-нибудь хóчет пойти́ вмéсто Кáти Does anyone want to go to the theater
в теáтр? instead of Katya?
Вмéсто сáхара возьми́ с чáем мёд. Use honey in your tea instead of sugar.
Вмéсто тогó(,) чтóбы Conjunction

Instead of, rather than
Connects subordinate clauses that indicate that the action mentioned in the prin-
cipal clause is more preferable than that which is mentioned in the subordinate
clause. The action in the subordinate clause is expressed by an infinitive. The
subordinate clause can precede or follow the principal clause. There is no
comma before чтóбы when the conjunction with the subordinate clause pre-
cedes the principal clause. This conjunction is used in various styles and genres.
(See the synonym чем.)
Вмéсто тогó чтобы́ сидéть весь день Rather than sit in front of the computer all
пéред компью́ тером, ты бы пошёл day, you should go play soccer.
поигрáл в футбóл.
Семён выхóдит в парк пройти́ сь Semyon goes out for a walk in the park
вмéсто тогó, чтóбы рабóтать. instead of working.
50 Entries
Вне Preposition
Outside of
Means “outside of the boundaries of some concept or thing.”
Phrases with вне

Вне (вся́ кого) сомнéния. Without (any) doubt.
Вне закóна. Outside the law.
Вне конкурéнции / кóнкурса. Without competition.
Вне опáсности. Away from danger.
Вне óчереди. Cutting in line.
Вне прáвил. Outside the rules.
Вне врéмени и прострáнства. Outside of time and space/head in the clouds.
Вне себя́ (от возмущéния). Beside oneself with anger.
Положéние вне игры́ . (In sports) Offside.
Тепéрь мóжно с увéренностью Now, we can safely say that the patient is no
сказáть, что больнóй вне опáсности. longer in danger.
Среди́ своих одноклáссников Таня Among her classmates, Tania is unrivaled in
вне конкурéнции по умéнию игрáть her chess-playing skills.
в шáхматы.
Внутри́ Preposition
Inside
Phrases with this preposition answer the question внутри́ чегó? inside of what?,
внутри́ когó? inside of whom?, or the less specific and less used question где? where?
Внутри́ дóма полицéйские не нашли́ The police didn’t find anything interesting
ничегó интерéсного. inside the house.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition внутри́ , which is combined with nouns and governs
them in the genitive case, with the adverb внутри́ inside, which is used
independently.
Шáрф там, в шкафý – внутри́ . The scarf is in there, inside the closet.
Entries 51
В óбщем [coll.] Parenthetical expression

In general, in short
Separated by commas. More formal than the synonymous корóче говоря́ . (See
also корóче говоря́ .)
Нарóду пришлó бóльше, чем There were more people than we expected,
ожидáли, но, в óбщем, всё but, in general, it turned out fine.
получи́ лось хорошó.
В óбщем, не хóчется мне тудá éхать. In short, I don’t want to go there.
Note!
Do not confuse this expression with вообщé in general, which conveys an
attitude via the style of speech or the manner of narration. (See also
вообщé.)
Note!
В óбщем in general can be used as part of a sentence, in particular as an attribute
or an adverbial modifier. Can be synonymous with вообщé, в цéлом overall.
No commas are needed.
На дáнном этáпе задáчи нáшего In this stage of the project, problems can only
проéкта мóгут быть сформули́ ро- be formulated in general terms.
ваны тóлько в óбщем ви́ де.
В óбщем здесь всё хорошо, и нам Overall, everything is fine here, and we like
здесь нрáвится. it.
Во врéмя Preposition
During
Phrases with во врéмя answer the question во врéмя чегó? during what time?
or the less specific question когдá? when? (See also в течéние.)
Во врéмя репети́ ции Кири́ лл был не During the rehearsal, Kirill was not focused
внимáтелен и постоя́ нно забывáл and constantly forgot his lines.
текст.
52 Entries
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition во врéмя, which is combined with nouns and
governs them in the genitive case, with the adverb вóвремя on time, timely,
which is used independently.
Вóзле Preposition
By, near, next to
Phrases with вóзле answer the questions вóзле чегó? next to what?, вóзле
когó? next to whom?, or the less specific question где? where? (See the synonyms
вблизи́ , невдалекé от, óколо, ря́ дом с.)
Тáнин дом нахóдится вóзле краси́ - Tanya’s house is located near a very
вейшего óзера. beautiful lake.
Возмóжно Parenthetical word. Particle

Parenthetical word
Possibly
Separated by commas. (See also the synonyms вероя́ тно, ви́ димо, мóжет
быть, навéрное.)
Дя́ дя приéдет, возмóжно, веснóй. Uncle will possibly come in the spring.
Particle
Can function as an independent sentence-reply.
Ты смóжешь закóнчить свою́ рабóту “Will you be able to finish your work by
к слéдующей недéле? – Возмóжно. next week?” “Possibly.”
Note!
Can function as a predicate, in which case it is not separated by commas.
Из-за си́ льного дождя́ возмóжно Because of the torrential rain, a flood is
наводнéние. possible.
Entries 53
Во и́ мя [elevat.] Preposition
For someone’s/something’s sake
Used to point out someone or something as the goal of an action. Phrases with
this preposition answer the questions во и́ мя когó? / во и́ мя чегó? for the sake
of whom?/ for the sake of what? Synonymous of рáди for, but is used in elevated
styles. (See рáди.)
Сам, небóсь, спóрит с ним, а други́ м “He himself is probably arguing with him,
предлагáет смири́ ться: смири́ сь во while offering an olive branch to others.
и́ мя идéи, прики́ дывайся, бýдто Stop fighting, for the idea’s sake; pretend as
ничегó не произошлó. (Д. Грáнин, if nothing happened.” (Granin, Into the
«Идý на грозý») Storm)
Saying
Во и́ мя всегó святóго. In the name of all that is holy.
Вокрýг Preposition
Around, round
Phrases with this preposition answer the questions вокрýг чегó? around what?,
вокрýг когó? around whom?, or the less specific and less used question где?
where?
Вокрýг домóв в нáшем райóне Roses, azaleas, hydrangeas, and
растýт рóзы, азáлии, гортéнзии, chrysanthemums grow around the houses in
хризантéмы. our neighborhood.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition вокрýг, which is combined with nouns in the
genitive case, with the adverb вокрýг around, which is used independently.
Around, regarding
Phrases with вокрýг answer the questions вокрýг чегó? concerning what?,
вокрýг когó? concerning whom? The synonymous по пóводу about is more
formal and is used more frequently. (See also по пóводу.)
54 Entries
Вокрýг егó идéй возни́ кло мнóго Many arguments and unnecessary
спóров и ненýжный ажиотáж. commotion rose around his ideas.
Saying
Вокрýг да óколо. Beating around the bush.
Вон [coll.] Particle

There
The demonstrative particle вон is often used with а demonstrative gesture and
makes it more precise. Commonly utilized with the demonstrative and relative
pronouns тот that one, какóй such, скóлько how many, and others, including
the adverbs там there and тудá there. Вон can be used in an elliptical sentence-
reply. (See the antonym вот.)
(Покáзывая рукóй.) Положи́ кни́ ги (Pointing.) Put the books over there on the
вон тудá на вéрхнюю пóлку. top shelf.
Где мои́ очки́ ? – (Покáзывая на “Where are my glasses?” (Pointing at the
стол.) Вон. table.) “Over there.”
Вон is used to express emotions, both positive and negative, towards something.
Свéта уви́ дела, скóлько óбуви у Sveta saw how many shoes Tatyana had
Татья́ ны и подýмала: «Вон у неё как and thought, “Look how many she has –
мнóго, не то что у меня́ ». way more than me.”
Expressions with вон

Вон (отсю́ да)! (very rude) Get out (of here)!
Вон онó что! (a mildly surprised Would you look at that.
reaction)
Вон онó как! (an incredulous reaction) Would you look at that!
Вообщé [coll.] Parenthetical word

Generally speaking, at all
Used as a parenthetical word when it means вообщé говоря́ generally speaking.
Both вообщé and вообщé говоря́ are separated by commas. (See the synonyms
по сýти, сóбственно.)
Вообщé (говоря́ ), порá бы и поéсть. Generally speaking, it’s time to eat.
Entries 55
Note!
When this word means always, completely, in all circumstances, it is not a parenthet-
ical word. Commas are not needed.
В течéние трёх лет мы вообщé никудá Over the course of three years, we didn’t
не éздили. go anywhere at all.
Вопреки́ [book.] Preposition

As opposed to
Phrases with this preposition answer the questions вопреки́ чемý? as opposed to
what?, вопреки́ комý? as opposed to whom? Вопреки́ belongs to formal speech.
(See the synonyms наперекóр, невзирáя на, несмотря́ на, прóтив.)
Вопреки́ совéтам врачéй Ивáн Петрóвич Against the doctors’ advice, Ivan
поéхал на лы́ жный курóрт. Petrovich went to the ski resort.
Вопреки́ томý(,) что Conjunction

In spite of, contrary to
Connects the subordinate clause of concession to the principal one, pointing to
the circumstances in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is
accomplished. The subordinate clause with this conjunction can be placed
before, in the middle of, or after the principal clause. There is no comma before
чтó when the conjunction with the subordinate clause precedes the principal
clause. The subordinate clause answers the question вопреки́ чемý? in spite of
what? (See the synonyms несмотря́ на то что, невзирáя на то что.)
Он ви́ дел всё, что со мной твори́ тся, и, He saw everything that was happening
вопреки́ томý, что испы́ тывал, сам to me, and in spite of what he was
побуждáл меня́ сдéлать вы́ бор. experiencing, he egged me on to make a
(Л. Зóрин, «Отéц» // «Нóвый Мир», 2008) choice. (Zorin, Father, 2008)
Вопреки́ томý что дýмают о корóвах и Contrary to what many people believe
быкáх, э́ ти живóтные не различáют about cows and bulls, they cannot see
крáсный цвет. the color red.
Вот Particle
Here
The demonstrative particle вот is often used with a demonstrative gesture and
makes it more precise. It is commonly utilized with the demonstrative and
determinative pronouns э́ тот that one, такóй such, and others, the adverbs
56 Entries
здесь here, сюдá here, and makes the statement more convincing. Вот can func-
tion as an independent sentence-reply. (See the antonym вон.)
Вот здесь мы посáдим я́ блоню, а вон We’ll plant the apple tree right here, and the
там, за дóмом, клён. maple will go over there behind the house.
Где рубáшка, котóрую ты купи́ л? – “Where’s the shirt that you bought?” “Here
Вот онá. it is.”
Used to emphasize the starting point of а connecting assertion – to draw someone’s

attention to something. Translations of this word may vary depending on the
specific situation.
Вот с вопрóсов мы и начнём. And we’ll start with the questions.
Вот прочитáй э́ ту замéтку, а потóм First, read this note; then we’ll continue this
продóлжим разговóр. conversation.
So
Conveys the trouble that a speaker experiences in trying to articulate a point.
Вот зашлá к вам поговори́ ть – давнó So I stopped by just to, you know, chat; we
не ви́ делись. haven’t seen one another in a long time.
Combines with the relative and interrogative pronouns где where, что what,
как how, скóлько how many, and others to emphasize edification. Translations
of this word may vary depending on the specific situation.
Вот где мой кошелёк. Oh, here’s my wallet!
Вот что ты хотéл сказáть? So this is what you wanted to say?
Вот какóй он взрóслый! Look at how mature he is!
Used to describe a sequence of actions that is happening as if right in front of the
speaker.
Вот пришлá Ли́ ля, вот онá взялá In comes Lilya, picks up a book, enters her
книгý, вот онá пошлá в свою́ кóмнату, room, sits down in the armchair next to the
сéла в крéсло óколо окнá и читáет. window, and reads the book.
Used in short exclamatory sentences.

Вот красотá! It’s so beautiful!
Вот здóрово! It’s so awesome!
Phrases and expressions with вот

Вот бы . . . (implies a desire) If only . . .
Вот что . . . (precedes a conclusive idea) Here’s what (I’ll tell you) . . .
Entries 57
Вот так. (thoughtfully) Just like that.

Вот тебé! (threatening, rudely) Take this!
Вот и́ менно. (with conviction) Exactly.
Вот как?! (incredulous) So that’s how it is!?
Вот те раз! (unpleasantly surprised) Get a load of this!
Вот э́ то да! (pleasantly surprised) Would you look at that!/Wow!
Вот то-то. (with satisfaction) That’s what I thought.
Вот бы брóсить всё и поéхать If only I could drop everything and go

кудá-нибудь. somewhere.
Вот что я тебé скажý – закáнчивай Here’s what I’ll say: finish your internship
свою́ прáктику быстрéе и quickly and come back home.
возвращáйся домóй.
В отли́ чие от Preposition

Unlike
Phrases with this preposition answer the questions в отли́ чие от когó? unlike
whom?, в отличие от чегó? unlike what? Constructions with в отли́ чие от
can be separated by commas when they are placed in the middle of a sentence
and contain the explanation of what is said in the sentence.
В отли́ чие от Бори́ са Ки́ ра всегдá всё Unlike Boris, Kira always manages to do
успевáет дéлать вóвремя. everything on time.
В Ки́ еве, в отли́ чие от Филадéльфии, Kiev, unlike Philadelphia, is experiencing a
зимá в э́ том годý холóдная. cold winter this year.
В отношéнии Preposition
Regarding, concerning
Phrases with this preposition answer the questions в отношéнии когó? regarding
whom?, в отношéнии чегó? regarding what? Frequently used in journalism and
scholarly literature. (See the synonyms относи́ тельно, по пóводу.)
В результáте изменéния As a result of the changes in the federal
госудáрственной поли́ тики в politics concerning cultural artifacts,
отношéнии культýрных цéнностей preconditions are being made for the
создаю́ тся предпосы́ лки для
58 Entries
разви́ тия антиквáрного ры́ нка. development of the antiquary market.

(Л. Шпакóвская, «Стáрые вéщи» // (Shpakovskaya, Old Things, 2004)
«Неприкосновéнный запáс», 2004)
Note!
Do not confuse в отношéнии with по отношéнию, which means to convey an
attitude towards someone or something. (See also по отношéнию.)
Впереди́ Preposition
Ahead of
Frequently, впереди́ is used with collective nouns, e.g., колóнна column,
вóйско troop, отря́ д detachment, грýппа group, комáнда team. Phrases with
this preposition answer the nonspecific question где? where?, and the more
specific questions впереди́ когó? ahead of whom?, впереди́ чегó? ahead of
what?
Какóе э́ то счáстье – стоя́ ть впереди́ What a blessing it is to stand in front of
всех и петь . . . (В. Тóкарева, «Своя́ everyone and sing . . . (Tokareva, Its Own
прáвда») Truth)
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition впереди́ , which is combined with nouns and
governs them in the genitive case, with the adverb впереди́ , which is used
independently.
Далекó впереди́ зеленéл лес. Far ahead, there was a verdant forest.
Вплоть до Preposition
Up until, to
Indicates the line of space or time up to which the action is extended. A con-
struction with вплоть до can be separated by commas when it is placed in the
middle of the sentence and contains the explanation of what is said in the
sentence.
Друзья́ сопровождáли их всю дорóгу, Their friends accompanied them all the way
вплоть до сáмой стáнции. to the station itself.
Entries 59
Вплоть до послéднего врéмени The institute of chemistry remained a closed

инститýт хи́ мии оставáлся закры́ той organization up until very recently.
организáцией.
Not excluding
В отношéнии Петрóва бýдут The most serious measures will be taken
при́ няты сáмые серьёзные мéры, with regard to Petrov, not excluding
вплоть до исключéния из лицéя. expulsion from the lyceum.
Вплоть до тогó, что Conjunction

To the point
Connects a subordinate clause with the principal clause and clarifies the content
of the principal clause by pointing out the extent of the action in the principal
clause. In literature, commas can be placed before вплоть and after тогó, if the
construction вплоть до тогó, что is placed in the middle of a sentence.
Всё бы́ ло чрезвычáйно естéственно, Everything was incredibly natural, to the
вплоть до тогó, что Её Вели́ чество point that Her Majesty almost fell off her
чуть не свали́ лось с носи́ лок, stretcher while greeting the masses.
привéтствуя толпý. (В. Аксёнов, (Aksenov, 24 Hours Non-Stop, 1976)
«Крýглые сýтки нон-стоп» // «Нóвый
мир», 1976)
Впредь до [form.] Preposition

Until
Designates the point in time up to which an action is committed. Phrases
with this preposition answer the question впредь до чегó? until what time/
occasion?
Впредь до осóбого распоряжéния не From this point on, you should not make
слéдует вноси́ ть каки́ е-либо any changes to the text until you get special
попрáвки в текст. orders.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition впредь, which is combined with nouns and
governs them in the genitive case, with the adverb впредь, which is used
independently.
60 Entries
В проти́ вном слýчае [form.] Conjunction

Otherwise
An adversative conjunction that is used in compound sentences to indicate that
the accomplishment of the action in the second clause depends on the action in
the first clause. Synonymous with the neutral инáче otherwise, the colloquial а
то otherwise, and не то otherwise, and is commonly used in journalism, business,
and politics. (See also а то, инáче, не то.)
Вы обя́ заны внести́ плáту за You are obliged to make your payments for
прошéдшие полгóда – в проти́ вном the past six months. Otherwise, they’ll turn
слýчае у вас отклю́ чат во́ ду. off your water.
Впрóчем Conjunction. Parenthetical word

Conjunction
Although
An adversative conjunction that connects clauses of compound sentences and parts,
indicating that the information in the first clause is not categorical or uncompromising,
and clarifies this information. (See also the synonyms однáко, тем не мéнее.)
И́ горь не поступи́ л в коллéдж, в Igor didn’t get into the college he wanted.
котóрый хотéл, впрóчем э́ то к Although, this is for the best; he won’t have
лýчшему – емý не придётся уезжáть to leave home this way.
из дóма.
Parenthetical word
All things considered
Used to point out the shift from one thought to another and designates the
author’s hesitation or doubt. Separated by commas.
Андрéя нéкому встрéтить. Он, Nobody can pick up Andrey. All things
впрóчем, мóжет взять такси́ . considered, he can take a taxi.
В результáте Preposition
As a result of
Phrases with this preposition answer the question в результáте чегó? as a result
of what? В результáте is synonymous with the preposition вслéдствие as a
Entries 61
consequence, although it is more neutral in terms of style and is utilized in various

styles and genres. (See also вслéдствие.)
В результáте провéрки дéятельности As a result of the revision of the bank’s
бáнка заблоки́ рованы нéкоторые activities, some accounts have been frozen.
счетá.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition в результáте, which is combined with nouns
and governs them in the genitive case, with the adverb в результáте, which is
used independently.
В результáте того(,) что [form.] Conjunction

As a result of the fact that
Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. These
clauses may either follow or precede the principal clause. When a clause
with this conjunction opens the sentence, a comma appears between the
clauses; when it follows the principal clause, the comma is placed before
что. В результáте тогó что is frequently used in scholarly language
and journalism. (See also вслéдствие тогó что, ввидý тогó что, из-за
тогó что.)
В результáте тогó что цéны на нефть As a result of the fact that prices for oil
из СССР значи́ тельно сни́ зились по drastically went down when compared with
сравнéнию с прогнóзом, the prognosis, the decrease in foreign
уменьшéние валю́ тных средств от exchange reserves from the export of this
э́ кспорта э́ той продýкции состáвило product constituted about 2.1 billion rubles.
óколо 2,1 млрд. рублей. (Е. Гайдáр, (Gaydar, The Death of an Empire)
«Ги́ бель импéрии»)
В результáте чегó Conjunction

As a result of which
Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. It follows the
principal clause. Semantically close to поэ́ тому that’s why, отчегó (и) and so,
потомý и, почемý (и) which is why. Synonymous with вслéдствие чегó as a
consequence of which, which is more formal than в результáте чегó. (See also
вслéдствие чегó, отчегó (и), потомý и, почемý (и), поэ́ тому.)
Джон не вы́ шел на связь, в John didn’t show up, as a result of which we
результáте чегó мы перенесли́ put the meeting off by a few hours.
встрéчу на нéсколько часóв.
62 Entries
Врóде [coll.] Preposition. Particle

Preposition. With the genitive case
Like
Implies uncertainty or supposition. Phrases with this preposition answer the
question врóде когó? like whom?, врóде чегó? like what? Can be used with the
demonstrative word тот that. Врóде is used in informal speech, unlike the syn-
onymous наподóбие resembling, which is more literary. (See also наподóбие.)
Марýся спеклá пирóг, врóде тогó пирогá, Marusya baked a cake, just like the
котóрый пеклá когдá-то бáбушка. one that Granny used to bake.
Particle
It seems
Врóде or врóде бы, like the preposition, expresses an assumption or a guess,
and is not separated by commas. Врóде бы can be used as a sentence reply. (See
also the synonym кáжется.)
Всё, о чём ты расскáзываешь, я It seems that everything you’re saying I’ve
врóде (бы) ужé слы́ шал где-то. already heard somewhere.
Мáма сказáла, что придёт пóздно? – “Did mom say that she’ll be late?” “Seems
Врóде бы. like it.”
Врóде тогó(,) что [coll.] Conjunction

Something like
Used with a subordinate clause that expresses a supposition about what is said in
the principal clause. A subordinate clause with this conjunction follows the prin-
cipal clause, and the comma can appear before врóде тогó, что.
Николáй сказáл Натáше что-то врóде Nikolai told Natasha something like he
тогó, что он не смóжет с ней couldn’t meet with her until Tuesday, seeing
встрéтиться до втóрника, поскóльку as he had too much going on at work.
у негó мнóго дел на рабóте.
Вряд ли Particle
Unlikely
Articulates doubt and is placed immediately before the object of said doubt.
Often used as a sentence-reply. (See also the synonym едвá ли.)
Мы вряд ли успéем на слéдующий It’s unlikely that we’ll make the next
сеáнс – ужé пóздно. showing – it’s already late.
Entries 63
Зáвтра поéдем на пляж? – Вряд ли. “Will we go to the beach tomorrow?”

“Unlikely.”
В сáмом дéле Parenthetical expression

Actually, indeed
As a parenthetical expression, is separated by commas and verifies what was uttered
previously. Can play an emphatic role, in which case it is pronounced with inten-
sity, and no commas are needed. (See also the synonym действи́ тельно.)
Их отношéния, в сáмом дéле, Their relationship is actually surprising.
удивля́ ют.
Мáша в сáмом дéле былá довóльна Masha actually was happy with the trip.
поéздкой.
Really?
Can be used as an interrogative sentence-reply implying surprise or uncertainty.
Решéтников реши́ л всё брóсить и “Reshetnikov decided to leave everything
уéхать подáльше от Москвы́ . – В and go far away from Moscow.” “Really?”
сáмом дéле?
В свéте [form.] Preposition

In light of, taking into account
Phrases with this preposition answer the question в свéте чегó? in light of what?
Unlike the synonymous с тóчки зрéния from the point of view, which is neutral
in terms of style, в свéте is commonly used in journalism, politics, and bureau-
cratic language. (See с тóчки зрéния.)
В свéте излóженного не вызывáет In light of the expressed, the timeliness of the
сомнéния актуáльность дáнной given topic is not subject to doubt.
тéмы.
В связи́ с [form.] Preposition

With the instrumental case
In connection with, because of
Points at something that is a cause or a reason for further action. Phrases with
this preposition answer the question в связи́ с чем? in connection with what? A
64 Entries
construction with в связи́ с can be separated by commas when the preposition

is placed in the middle of the sentence and contains the explanation of what is
said. Although в связи́ с belongs to formal speech, it is utilized in various styles
and genres. (See the synonyms ввидý, из-за.)
Ивáн Петрóв приéхал в Самáру в Ivan Petrov came to Samara because of the
связи́ с откры́ тием музыкáльного opening of the music festival.
фестивáля.
Заня́ тия в коллéдже, в связи́ с Classes were cancelled because of the
невероя́ тной жарóй, отмени́ ли. unbelievable heat.
В связи́ с тем(,) что [form.] Conjunction

In connection with the fact that, because
Connects adverbial clauses, which indicate the cause of the action reflected in
the principal part of a sentence. Clauses with this conjunction answer the ques-
tions почемý? why?, в связи́ с чем? in connection with what? These clauses may
precede the principal clause and can also open a sentence; in this case, the
comma is placed only before the principal clause. They may also follow the
principal clause, but the comma is placed before что in this case. The conjunc-
tions ввидý тогó что in light of the fact that, вслéдствие тогó что as a conse-
quence of the fact that, в си́ лу тогó что given the fact that, поскóльку because, can
be utilized as synonyms of в связи́ с тем что, and they are frequently used in
scholarly language, journalism, and literature. The synonymous потомý что
because is neutral, while так как given that and оттогó что because sound more
bookish. (See also ввидý тогó что, в связи́ с тем что, вслéдствие тогó
что, в си́ лу тогó что, оттогó что, поскóльку, потомý что, так как.)
Вот, напримéр, егó статья́ тóлько и For example, his article only emerged
вы́ плыла в связи́ с тем, что because Gardner had to find out a little
Гáрднеру потрéбовалось узнáть something about Kurtser’s biography.
кóе-что из биогрáфии Кýрцера. (Dombrovsky, The Monkey Comes for
(Ю. Домбрóвский, «Обезья́ на His Skull)
прихóдит за свои́ м чéрепом»)
Всегó Particle. Interjection

Particle
Only, just
Stresses a small amount of something or offers an inferior estimation of some-
thing or someone. The informal synonyms всегó-нáвсего just, всéго лишь
only, or всегó-то only can also be used.
Entries 65
До отъéзда остáлось всегó пять There are only five days left before the
дней. departure.
На вечери́ нку пришли́ всегó-нáвсего Just four people came to the party.
четы́ ре человéкa.
Гри́ ша рабóтает в дóлжности “Grisha works as an assistant editor.”
млáдшего редáктора. – Всегó-то? А я “Just an assistant? I thought he was already
дýмала, что он ужé стал редáктором. an editor.”
Interjection [coll.]
All the best
Used when parting. To wish someone all the best, one uses one of the follow-
ing synonymous phrases: всегó хорóшего, всегó дóброго, всегó лýчшего.
Всегó sounds informal when used as a standalone expression.
До свидáния, всегó вам хорóшего, до Goodbye, all the best to you, see you.
встрéчи.
Ну, мы пошли́ . Всегó, покá. Well, we’re off. So long, bye.
Всё [coll.] Particle

Used with words that denote а changing feature. Emphasizes a feature’s variabil-
ity or permanence. Frequently used with demonstrative and determinative pro-
nouns, adverbs, comparative adverbs, and verbs that designate an increase or
decrease in something. Can be combined with the particle жe. Translations may
vary. (See also жe.)
А́ нна Михáйловна всё такáя же Anna Mikhailovna is as pretty as ever.
краси́ вая.
Вы живёте всё там же? Are you still living at the same place?
Рáненому станови́ лось всё хýже. The wounded man’s condition was getting
worse and worse.
Морóз всё крепчáл. It was getting colder and colder.
Note!
When всё modifies a noun, it is a pronoun. When it means всегдá
still, до сих пор until this time, исключи́ тельно specifically, it is an adverb.
When it means однáко however, and connects clauses, it is a conjunction.
66 Entries
Всё же Particle. Conjunction

Particle [coll.]
After all
Всё же or всё ж emphasizes conflict in а situation. Can be used in simple
sentences and also in complex sentences with subordinate clauses of conces-
sion that point to circumstances in spite of which the action described in
the principal clause is accomplished. Used with the conjunctions хотя́
although, несмотря́ на то что regardless of the fact that, невзирáя на то
что not considering the fact that, пусть / пускáй though, как ни no matter
how, скóлько ни no matter how much. Synonymous with всё-таки after all.
(See also всё-таки.)
Ты всё же собирáешься уходи́ ть? Are you getting ready to leave after all?
Несмотря́ на то, что был си́ льный морóз, Despite the severe frost, the kids still
ребя́ та всё же пошли́ катáться на конькáх. went skating.
Как ни хóчется быть с вáми, всё же нýжно As much as I want to be with you, I
идти́ . do have to go.
Conjunction
Still
Softens the contrast or points out the disparity between parts of a compound
sentence and is often used with the conjunctions и and, а while, но but. (See the
synonyms всё-таки, однáко, тем не мéнее.)
Нам дóлго объясня́ ли, почемý They spent a long time explaining why the
бассéйн закры́ лся на ремóнт, но мы pool was closed, but we still did not
всё же ничегó не пóняли. understand.
Пётр Алексáндрович вы́ шел рáньше, Pyotr Aleksandrovich left earlier to get to the
чтóбы успéть на собрáние, и всё же meeting on time, but he was still late.
опоздáл.
Всё-таки Particle. Conjunction

Particle
After all, nevertheless
Всё-таки or всё ж таки [coll.] is a synonym of всё же after all and
emphasizes conflict in а situation. Can be used in simple sentences, as well as
in complex sentences with subordinate clauses of concession that point to
Entries 67
circumstances in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is

accomplished. Used with the conjunctions хотя́ although, несмотря́ на то
что regardless of the fact that, невзирáя на то что not considering the fact that,
пусть / пускáй though, как ни no matter how, скóлько ни no matter how
much. (See also всё же.)
Всё-таки Ири́ ну увóлили. Irina was fired after all.
Он всё-таки приезжáет кáждую He comes every week nevertheless, although
недéлю, хотя́ в э́ том нет никакóй there is no need.
необходи́ мости.
Conjunction
Still, anyway
Softens the contrast or points out the disparity between parts of a compound
sentence. Synonymous with the conjunctions всё же after all, однáко however,
and тем не мéнее nevertheless. Often used with the conjunctions и and, а while,
но but. (See also всё же, однáко, тем не мéнее.)
Проси́ ли тебя́ не дéлать э́ того, а ты You were asked not to do this, but you did it
всё-таки сдéлал по-свóему. anyway.
Сóлнце бы́ ло весь день, но бельё It was sunny the entire day, but the clothes
всё-таки не вы́ сохло. still didn’t dry.
В си́ лу [form.] Preposition

Given
Used when something is or was happening due to a reason. Can be used as
synonym of ввидý because of, в связи́ с in connection with, or из-за
because of. Nouns with в си́ лу answer the questions в си́ лу чегó? due
to what?, по какóй причи́ не? because of what? (See also ввидý, в связи́
с, из-за.)
Mнóгие лю́ ди отдаю́ т предпочтéние Many people prefer euros given the
éвро в си́ лу нéкоторого ослаблéния depreciation of the American dollar.
америкáнского дóллара.
В си́ лу своегó положéния Given their position, journalists play an
журнали́ сты игрáют акти́ вную роль active role in the formation of public opinion.
в формировáнии общéственного
мнéния.
68 Entries
Phrase with в си́ лу

В си́ лу (сложи́ вшихся) обстоя́ - Given the (current) circumstances . . .
тельств . . .
В си́ лу сложи́ вшихся обстоя́ тельств Given the current circumstances, we are
мы вы́ нуждены остáться дóма. forced to stay home.
В си́ лу тогó, что [form.] Conjunction

Given the fact that
principal part of a sentence. A clause with в си́ лу тогó, что may either follow
or precede the principal clause. А comma appears before что in both cases. Fre-
quently used in scholarly language and journalism. (See the synonyms ввидý
тогó что, вслéдствие тогó что, из-за тогó что, поскóльку.)
В си́ лу тогó, что дéнег на препарáты Given the fact that there are no funds for
нет, óпыты придётся останови́ ть. new medication, the experiments will have to
be stopped.
Он не собирáется уделя́ ть серьёзное He will not pay close attention to economists
внимáние лéвым экономи́ стам в on the left, given the fact that their views do
си́ лу тогó, что их взгля́ ды не имéют not have a solid theoretical foundation.
соли́ дной теорети́ ческой оснóвы.
Вслед за Preposition
Following someone/something
Nouns with this preposition answer the questions вслед за кем? after whom?,
вслед за чем? after what? Can be a synonym of по чьим-то следáм following
in someone’s footsteps [lit. or fig.].
Стóимость рубля́ бýдет пáдать вслед The value of the ruble will fall following the
за снижéнием цен на нефть. decline in oil prices.
Вслед за сы́ ном мать пошлá на Following her son, the mother went to the
плóщадь, чтобы́ вы́ сказать протéст square to protest the regime.
прóтив режи́ ма.
Вслед за тем(,) как Conjunction

Immediately after
Used when the action depicted in the principal clause occurs after the action
depicted in the subordinate clause. A clause with вслед за тем как may either
Entries 69
follow or precede the principal clause. There is no comma before как when
the conjunction with the subordinate clause precedes the principal clause. Вслед
за тем как is more literary stylistically than its neutral synonyms пóсле тогó
как after, как тóлько as soon as. (See also как тóлько, пóсле тогó как.)
Кри́ зис стал углубля́ ться вслед за The crisis worsened immediately after oil
тем, как цéны на нефть пошли́ вниз. prices went down.
Вслед за тем как в óфисе прошёл Immediately after the office was searched,
óбыск, Мáркова увóлили. Markov was fired.
Вслéдствие Preposition
As a consequence
Points at something that is the result of subsequent occurrences. Phrases with this
preposition answer the question вслéдствие чегó? as a consequence of what? Con-
structions with вслéдствие can be separated by commas when they are placed in
the middle of a sentence, between a subject and a predicate, or when they clarify
what is said in the sentence. Synonymous with в результáте as a result. Fre-
quently used in formal speech. (See also в результáте, из-за.)
Вслéдствие землетрясéния As a consequence of the earthquake, there
пострадáли ты́ сячи жи́ телей. were thousands of casualties.
Мнóгие рабóтники, вслéдствие As a consequence of cuts in subsidies, many
сокращéния финанси́ рования, бы́ ли employees were fired.
увóлены.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition вслéдствие with the phrase в слéдствии
during the investigation.
Вслéдствие тогó(,) что Conjunction

As a consequence of the fact that
Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. These clauses
may either follow or precede the principal clause. When a clause with this con-
junction opens the sentence, a comma appears between the clauses; when it fol-
lows the principal clause, the comma is placed before что. Frequently used in
scholarly language and journalism. (See the synonyms в результáте тогó что,
ввидý тогó что, из-за тогó что.)
70 Entries
Вслéдствие тогó что у Мáрка As a consequence of Mark’s vision getting

ухýдшилось зрéние, емý пришлóсь worse, he had to leave the laboratory.
уйти́ из лаборатóрии.
Виногрáда в э́ том годý бы́ ло мáло The grape harvest was poor this year as a
вслéдствие тогó, что всё лéто шли consequence of the nonstop summer rains.
дожди́ .
Вслéдствие чегó Conjunction

As a consequence of which
Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. Follows the
principal clause. Semantically close to поэ́ тому therefore, отчегó и and so,
потомý и that’s why, почемý и which is why. Synonymous with в
результáте чегó as a result of, which is less formal than вслéдствие чегó.
(See the synonyms в результáте чегó, в слéдствие чегó, отчегó и,
потомý и, почемý и, поэ́ тому.)
Декáн ухóдит на пéнсию, вслéдствие The dean is retiring, as a consequence of
чегó oбъя́ влен кóнкурс на э́ ту which there is now a national search for the
дóлжность. position.
В слýчае Preposition
In case of
Phrases with this preposition answer the question в какóм слýчае? in what case?
В слýчае пожáра звони́ те 01. In case of a fire, dial 01.
Phrase with в слýчае

В слýчае чегó . . . [coll.] If anything happens . . .
Ты остаёшься однá. В слýчае чегó, You’re staying by yourself. If anything
сразý звони́ . happens, call immediately.
В соотвéтствии с [form.] Preposition

In accordance with
Phrases with в соотвéтствии с answer the question в соотвéтствии с чем?
in accordance with what? Constructions with в соотвéтствии с can be separated
Entries 71
by commas when they are placed in the middle of a sentence, between a subject
and a predicate, or when they clarify what is said in the sentence. Frequently
used in journalism, as well as scholarly and bureaucratic language. (See also на
основáнии, соглáсно.)
В соотвéтствии с прикáзом In accordance with the director’s orders,
дирéктора слýжащие вы́ нуждены employees are required to work at the
вы́ йти на рабóту в выходны́ е дни. weekend.
Все преподавáтели, в соотвéтствии с In accordance with the rules, al professors
инстрýкцией, должны́ пройти́ have to pass the training.
трéнинг.
В сопровождéнии Preposition
Accompanied by
Phrases with в сопровождéнии answer the questions в сопровождéнии
когó? accompanied by whom? or в сопровождéнии чегó? accompanied by what?
Перевóзка оборýдования The transported equipment was accompanied
осуществля́ лась в сопровождéнии by the police.
полицéйских.
В сýщности Parenthetical word

In essence
Used to show that the speaker is focusing on the essence of the thought. Separ-
ated by commas. Used in the same way as its synonym по сýти in essence and
more frequently than по существý basically. More formal than сóбственно
(говоря́ ) strictly speaking. (See also по сýти, по существý, сóбственно
(говоря́ ).)
В сýщности, все размóлвки мéжду In essence, all arguments between coworkers
коллéгами происхóдят из-за happen because of their unwillingness to
нежелáния поня́ ть друг дрýга. understand each other.
В сравнéнии с Preposition
In comparison with
Phrases with в сравнéнии с answer the questions в сравнéнии с чем? in com-
parison with what?, в сравнéнии с кем? in comparison with whom? Constructions
72 Entries
with в сравнéнии с can be separated by commas when they are placed in the
middle of a sentence, between a subject and a predicate, or when they clarify
what is said in the sentence. Tends to be utilized in formal speech. (See also по
сравнéнию.)
Нýжно бы́ ло определи́ ть кáчество It was necessary to determine the quality of
нóвой продýкции в сравнéнии со the new production in comparison with the
стáрой. old one.
Молодóму писáтелю былá вы́ делена The young writer was accorded an
кварти́ ра, хотя́ егó жили́ щные apartment, although his living conditions,
услóвия, в сравнéнии с жильём when compared to those of others, were quite
други́ х, бы́ ли довóльно неплохи́ ми. good.
В течéние Preposition
During, throughout
Used with nouns that denote time or an event during which something is hap-
pening. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions в течéние какóго
врéмени? during what time?, в течéние чегó? during what? Used in various
styles. (See also на протяжéнии.)
Жáркая погóда стоя́ ла в течéние The hot weather held throughout the entire
всегó мéсяца. month.
В течéние спектáкля в зáле ничегó Throughout the play, it was impossible to
не было слы́ шно из-за не пре- hear anything in the theater because of the
кращáющегося ли́ вня. incessant downpour.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition в течéние, which indicates duration, with the
phrase в течéнии реки́ , which means in the flow of the river.
В то врéмя(,) как Conjunction

While, during, at the same time as, when
Used either when the actions expressed in the principal and subordinate clauses
occur simultaneously (with imperfective verbs in both parts), or when the action
expressed in the principal clause partially coincides with the action expressed in
the subordinate clause (with perfective and imperfective verbs accordingly). A
comma does not split в то врéмя как and is placed between the principal and
subordinate clauses when the conjunction opens the sentence. The comma is
Entries 73
placed before в то врéмя как when the subordinate clause follows the princi-
pal clause. Тhe comma may appear before как when the subordinate clause fol-
lows the principal clause and the word врéмя is emphasized. (See the synonym
покá.)
В то врéмя как преподавáтели While the teachers were discussing the exam
обсуждáли результáты экзáмена, results, the students played soccer.
студéнты игрáли в футбóл.
Мы встрéтились с ним чéрез мнóго We met with him many years later, when he
лет в то врéмя, как он ужé рабóтал в was already working in another hospital.
другóй больни́ це.
Дéвушки поéхали на фéрму собирáть The girls went to a farm to gather
клубни́ ку, в то врéмя как началáсь strawberries at the same time as a horrible
ужáсная грозá. thunderstorm started.
While, whereas, although

This meaning is used when the content in the principal clause is contradictory
to the content in the subordinate part. (See the synonyms мéжду тем, тогдá
как.)
Мáша весь день ничéм не занятá, в Masha does nothing the whole day, while
то врéмя как Сáша рабóтает без Sasha works without any breaks.
óтдыха.
Олéга перевели́ в другóй отдéл и Oleg was transferred to another department
повы́ сили зарплáту, в то врéмя как and was given a raise, although he did
он ничéм не заслужи́ л э́ то nothing to deserve this promotion.
продвижéние.
В том числé Conjunction

Including
Used to emphasize the part that follows it.
В кинó пошли́ все, в том числé (и) Everybody went to the movie, including
Дáня с Сáшей. Danya and Sasha.
В числé Preposition
Among someone/something
Highlights one or a few members of a group of people, things, or phenomena.
74 Entries
На симпóзиуме в числé прóчих Among others, the problem of homeless

обсуждáлась проблéма бездóмных children was discussed at the symposium.
детéй.
Phrases with в числé

В числé други́ х. Among others.
В числé лýчших. Among the best.
В числé прóчего. Among the rest. (things)
В числé прóчих. Among the rest. (people)
Где Conjunction
Where
Adverbial subordinate clauses of place with где refer to a combination of a
predicate and the demonstrative words там there, тудá there in the principal
clause. The adverbs всю́ ду everywhere, вездé everywhere, спрáва on the right,
слéва on the left, and others may be used in principal clauses.
Ивáн Пáвлович ужé не рабóтает там, Ivan Pavlovich is no longer working at the
где он рабóтал нéсколько лет назáд. place where he worked several years ago.
Маши́ на поéхала напрáво, где былá The car drove to the right, where there was
стоя́ нка. parking lot.
Вездé, где появля́ лась Надéжда Wherever Nadezhda Pavlovna showed up,
Пáвловна, станови́ лось веселéе. things became livelier.
Note!
Excluding the demonstrative words там there, тудá there, оттýда from there from
the principal clause is possible in colloquial speech, but in many cases, it is not the
preferred style.
Они́ пошли́ тудá, где былá большáя They went where there was a large crowd of
толпá людéй. people.
Where
Connects subordinate clauses that function as subjects or objects and fill a miss-
ing gap in a principal clause. These clauses answer the questions of cases. Где
conveys the meaning of time.
Алексéй Дми́ триевич не хотéл Aleksei Dmitrievich didn’t want to talk
расскáзывать, где он провёл about where he had spent his days off.
выходны́ е дни.
Entries 75
Where
Connects attributive subordinate clauses that usually refer to the part of the prin-
cipal clause that is expressed by a noun or nominal phrase when a noun in the
principal clause indicates a place or a space. These clauses answer the question
какóй? which? Где can be replaced by котóрый which.
В гóроде, где / в котóром он роди́ лся The town in which he was born and lived
и вы́ рос, всё измени́ лось до has changed so much that it is
неузнавáемости. unrecognizable.
Где (бы) ни Conjunction

Wherever
Connects subordinate clauses that point to the places in spite of which the action
described in the principal clause is accomplished. Conveys intensity to the action
described. The particle ни is usually placed before either a predicate or an adverbial
modifier (only when the latter is an adverb). The particle never precedes a noun. They
can also be combined with бы to emphasize the meaning. The adverbs всю́ ду every-
where, вездé everywhere, повсю́ ду all around, со всех сторóн from all sides, and others
can be used in principal clauses. (See also кудá (бы) ни, откýда (бы) ни.)
Где Людми́ ла Николáевна ни Wherever Liudmila Nikolaevna works, she
рабóтает, ей вездé нрáвится. always likes it.
Где бы Степáн ни появля́ лся, он Wherever Stepan went, he always became
вездé станови́ лся душóй óбщества. the life and soul of his circle of friends.
Глáвное [coll.] Parenthetical word

Most importantly
Indicates something important and meaningful. Separated by commas. In Eng-
lish, глáвное can often be rendered as “and” in the beginning of an utterance.
Sometimes, only intonation can convey the meaning of глáвное.
Глáвное, пóмни, что экзáмены Most importantly, don’t forget that you have
нýжно сдать в начáле февраля́ . to take the exams in the beginning of
February.
Emphasizes something that the speaker perceives as illogical and unexpected.

Онá, глáвное, самá же сказáла, что And she herself said that we shouldn’t arrive
не нáдо приезжáть зарáнее. early!
Note!
Can be used as a modifier and is not separated by commas.
76 Entries
Глáвное мероприя́ тие бýдет почемý- For some reason, the main event is going to
то проводи́ ться в концé фестивáля. be at the end of the festival.
Говоря́ т Parenthetical word

They say
Points out that the information that is the subject of an utterance is based on
gossip. Separated by commas.
Говоря́ т, лéто в э́ том годý бýдет They say that summer this year is going to
óчень жáрким. be very hot.
Note!
Can function as a predicate. No commas are needed.
Они́ говоря́ т, что слив не бýдет в They say that there won’t be any plums this
э́ том годý. year.
Грéшным дéлом Parenthetical expression

Ashamed to say
Expresses one’s own fault, guilt, or sin. Separated by commas.
Мы, грéшным дéлом, реши́ ли, что We’re ashamed to say that we thought it all
всё э́ то произошлó из-за негó. happened because of him.
Да Particle. Conjunction
Particle
Yes, right
Used to confirm a statement in a reply. This particle, as an equivalent of
правда? true?, is used to confirm a statement at the end of a sentence: да?
right?, i.e., as a tag question. (See also прáвда, хорошó.)
Мы лéтом поéдем на мóре, да? – Да. “We’ll go to the sea this summer, right?”
“Yep.”
Really?
Can express hesitation or doubt when used after an interrogative sentence as a
reply, meaning are you sure? or really? Can express irony.
Мне нýжен нóвый компью́ тер. – Да? “I need a new computer.” “Really? I
Я дýмал, что и э́ тот хорóш. thought this one was good enough.”
Entries 77
Yes?
Can be a synonym of что? what? with an interrogative intonation when someone is
addressed. It is a more polite response than что and expresses readiness to listen.
Пётр Леони́ дович! – Да? Я Вас “Pyotr Leonidovich!” “Yes? What can I do
слýшаю. for you?”
By the way
Used in the beginning of an utterance when recalling something.
Да, я ещё забы́ ла сказáть, что By the way, I forgot to mention that
Антони́ на проси́ ла передáть привéт. Antonina says “Hi.”
Да and [coll.] is always unstressed and always used with the question words и
зачéм? and for what reason?, что? what?, кудá? where to?, где? where?, or in a
combination with words that indicate mistrust or hesitation, such as the
responses да как же э́ то? how can it be?, да мóжет ли э́ то? how is it possible?
Not separated by a comma.
Да и зачéм емý éхать тудá? Сидéл бы And what does he have to go there for? He’d
себé дóма. be better off staying at home.
Да и где мóжно купи́ ть таки́ е And where can you buy tickets that cheaply?
дешёвые билéты?
Да [coll.] expresses negative emotions, annoyance, mistrust, or disagreement, indi-

cating a meaning opposite to that of the previous utterance. It is combined with a
sarcastic конéчно of course, сейчáс right, in a second, как раз yeah, sure, как же of
course, and is pronounced as an exclamation with irony. Always stressed.
Вот Мари́ я приéдет скóро. – Да, как “Maria will be here soon.” “Right, of course
же! she will.”
Expressions with the particle да

Вот э́ то да! [coll.] Wow!
Посмотри́ , какóй дом пострóили – не “Look at that new house! It’s not a house –
дом, а дворéц! – Вот э́ то да! it’s a palace!” “Wow!”
Ну да! [coll.] emphasizes agreement in a reply with the stress on да.

Мы éдем в ресторáн? – Ну да! “Are we going to the restaurant?” “Yep!”
Ну да? Да ну? [coll.] Really? Emphasizes doubt.

Мы éдем в ресторáн. – Ну да? “We’re going to a restaurant.” “Really?”
78 Entries
И да и нет. Yes and no.

Вы соглáсны со мной? – И да и нет. “Do you agree with me?” “Yes and no.”
Ни да ни нет. Neither yes nor no.

Ну что, даю́ т тебé э́ тот проéкт? Что “Well? Did they give you the project? What
шеф сказáл? – Ничегó он не сказáл: did the boss say?” “He didn’t say anything:
ни да ни нет. neither yes, nor no.”
Да здрáвствует / бýдет! Three cheers for, hooray for, etc., is used to intro-
duce slogans or expressions of praise. While this is not too common in con-
temporary English, it is very common in Russian; it might be easier to
compare it to familiar constructions in French: Vive le/la . . ., e.g., Vive la
France!
Да здрáвствует 1-е Мáя! Three cheers for the 1st of May!
Conjunction
And
Can be a synonym of и and. Mostly used in folklore, proverbs and sayings, and
in colloquial Russian. (See also и.)
И остáлись они́ вдвоём: он да егó And the two of them, he and his mother,
мать. were left alone.
But
Can be a synonym of но but. (See also но.)
Хотéли мы поéхать в гóры, да погóда We wanted to go to the mountains, but the
помешáла. weather didn’t allow it.
The combinations да и and, but also, да и к томý же and, but also are used to
confirm information (often negative) contained in the previous thought. To
express a contrast with the previous thought with a tone of pity or sympathy,
the combination да тóлько however is used. Да и то can be considered an
equivalent of мáло тогó not only, так ещё и (к томý же) and not only that,
but, and бóлее тогó moreover.
Никудá мы не поéхали в суббóту, да We didn’t go anywhere on Saturday, and
и (к томý же) врéмени не было. we didn’t have time anyway.
Мы пришли́ на вечери́ нку пóзже We got to the party later than everyone else
всех, да и то бы́ ли недóлго. and even then we didn’t stay very long.
Entries 79
Давáй(те) Particle
Let’s
Used in imperative sentences to express motivation, encouragement, or induce-
ment to do something. Commonly, the verb that follows давáй(те) is in the
first person plural, future tense, either imperfective or perfective. However, this
particle can be combined with verbs and pronouns in the first, second, or third
person in certain situations. It can also be combined with a verb in the infini-
tive, and then it conveys commands that are seen as informal suggestions or can
be considered inclusive. Additionally, it can be used to confirm a statement in a
reply. (See also пускáй, пусть.)
Ди́ на, давáй поéдем на катóк. Dina, let’s go skating.
Давáйте встáнем зáвтра порáньше. Let’s get up early tomorrow.
Лáдно‚ давáй я сдéлаю э́ то. Ok, let me do this.
Андрю́ ша, давáй пойди́ Andryusha, how about you go study.
позанимáйся.
Давáй Николáй схóдит в магази́ н. Have Nikolai go to the store.
Дáже Particle. Conjunction

Particle
Even
Used to emphasize words or phrases. No comma is needed.
О нём дáже никтó не вспóмнил. Nobody even mentioned him.
Дáже can be used with the conjunctions éсли if or когдá when to connect a
subordinate and main clauses. A comma appears in front of дáже. There is no
comma between the particle and conjuctions. (See also и.)
Мы ужé никудá не поéдем, дáже Even if you finish working right now, we’re
éсли ты сейчáс закóнчишь рабóту. not going anywhere anymore.
Дáже когдá он говори́ т прáвду, емý Even when he tells the truth, nobody
никтó не вéрит. believes him.
Conjunction
Even
Дáже connects clauses or words when it is needed to clarify or add something.
There is a comma before constructions like this.
80 Entries
Онá емý ничегó не сказáла, дáже не She didn’t tell him anything, didn’t even
намекнýла, что остáлась без рабóты. hint that she was left without a job.
Далекó от Preposition
Far away from
the more specific question на какóм расстоя́ нии от? what distance from? This
preposition is neutral, unlike its synonyms вдалекé от far away from, вдали́ от
far from, which are commonly used in elevated styles. (See the antonyms невда-
лекé от, недалекó от.)
А́ лла вспóмнила, что остáвила Alla remembered that she left her keys on the
ключи́ на холоди́ льнике тóлько, fridge only when she was already far away
когдá ужé былá далекó от дóма. from her house.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition далекó от, which governs nouns in the geni-
tive case, with the adverb далекó far away, which is used independently.
Дéти уéхали, живýт далекó в The kids left and are living far away in the city.
гóроде.
Действи́ тельно Parenthetical word

Indeed, really
Indicates verification and confirmation expressed in the utterance and is separ-
ated by commas. When used in a question, articulates doubt. Can be used as a
sentence-reply. (See the synonym в сáмом дéле.)
Действи́ тельно, нáша начáльница Our boss really is going to leave for another job.
собирáется уходи́ ть на другýю
рабóту.
А́ нна, э́ то же Вáша кни́ га? – “Anna, isn’t this your book?” Indeed it is.”
Действи́ тельно.
Note!
Do not confuse the parenthetical word with the adverb действи́ тельно truly,
which functions as a part of a sentence and is not separated by commas. Some-
times, it is difficult to understand whether it is a parenthetical word or an
adverb – this depends on the author’s perception.
Entries 81
Он не был на рабóте, так как He was not at work, seeing as he truly was
действи́ тельно был бóлен всю sick the whole week.
недéлю.
Дéлать нéчего Parenthetical expression

Nothing to be done about it
Дéлать нéчего or нéчего дéлать (which is less frequently used) indicates that
the speaker has to do something unwillingly or without enthusiasm. Separated
by commas.
Дéлать нéчего, придётся идти́ на Well, nothing to be done about it – I’ll have
собрáние. to go to the meeting.
Note!
Do not confuse the parenthetical expression дéлать нéчего with a part of a
sentence that is not separated by commas.
Мы закóнчили рабóту, и раз здесь We’re finished work and since there’s
дéлать нéчего идём домóй. nothing left to do, let’s go home.
Дéскать Particle
As one put it
Used in reference to someone’s speech, often with a shade of distrust, explaining
someone’s actions. Separated by commas. (See the synonym мол.)
Артём звони́ л и сказáл, что, дéскать, Artyom called and said that, as he put it,
он сам спрáвится, мы емý не нужны́ . he’ll do it by himself, he doesn’t need us.
Э́ то, дéскать, не егó винá. This, as he put it, isn’t his fault.
Для Preposition
For
Used in phrases that indicate purpose or goals for accomplishing something. Indi-
cates the function of inanimate objects, as well as animate objects for which some-
thing is intended. Used to depict for whom something is done or something that
has value. Combined exclusively with the interrogative words когó whom and
чегó what to form the questions для когó? for whom?, для чегó? for what?
Емý нýжно собрáть мнóго дáнных He needs to collect a lot of data for his
для исслéдований. research.
82 Entries
Э́ то магази́ н для рыболóвов. This store is for fishermen.

Ей подари́ ли фарфóровую вáзу для They gave a gift of a porcelain vase for fruit.
фрýктов.
То, что сказáла А́ ня, бы́ ло пóлной What Anya said was completely unexpected
неожи́ данностью для меня́ . for me.
Phrases with the preposition для

Врéдно / полéзно / вáжно для Harmful/beneficial/important for someone/
когó-то / чегó-то. something.
Имéет значéние для когó-то / Has value for someone/something.
чегó-то.
Для пóльзы дéла. For the sake of the job.
Для улучшéния чегó-то. For the improvement of something.
Для чьегó-то удовóльствия. For someone’s pleasure.
Для смéха. For laughter’s sake.
Для тогó(,) чтóбы Conjunction

In order to, so that
Connects adverbial clauses of purpose to the principal clause. Sentences
with this conjunction are used to answer the questions зачéм? for what
purpose?, с какóй цéлью? with what goal? An adverbial clause with this
conjunction can be placed before, in the middle of, or after the principal
clause. A comma does not split off the conjunction when it starts a sen-
tence. When it follows a principal clause, a comma can be placed before
the first word or before чтóбы. A comma before чтóбы emphasizes
the demonstrative word. Для тогó чтóбы is used less frequently than
чтóбы and more frequently than с тем чтóбы. (See also чтóбы, с тем
чтóбы.)
Зачéм Пётр Алексáндрович сиди́ т “Why does Pyotr Aleksandrovich work on
над кни́ гой весь день? – Для тогó his book all day long?” “In order to finish
чтóбы закóнчить кни́ гу, емý нýжно the book, he needs to work a lot.”
мнóго рабóтать.
Мы должны́ пообéдать порáньше, We need to have dinner earlier in order to
для тогó чтóбы успéть в кинó. get to the movies on time.
Ири́ на вы́ шла из кóмнаты для тогó, Irina left the room so that she wouldn’t get
чтóбы не мешáть роди́ телям in the way of her parents talking.
разговáривать.
Entries 83
До Preposition
Before, until
Denotes either an interval of time before a specified point or an event for which
only the end point is shown. Phrases with до respond to the question когдá?
when? or the less general до какóго врéмени? until what time? Phrases with this
preposition can combine with phrases with the preposition с. (See also с.)
Мы должны́ закóнчить рабóту до We have to finish the job before the evening.
вéчера.
До войны́ здесь былá цéрковь. Before the war, there was a church here.
Магази́ н рабóтает с девяти́ до пяти́ . The store is open from nine to five.
До спектáкля остаётся недéля. There is a week left before the play.
До шести́ лет их сын не говори́ л по- Until he was six, their son didn’t speak
англи́ йски – тóлько по-рýсски. English – only Russian.
To
Indicates approaching or reaching, a limitation or boundary of something. These
phrases respond to the question до какóго мéста? as far as/to what place?
До ближáйшей стáнции нýжно идти́ You have to walk half an hour to the nearest
полчасá. station.
У неё кóсы до пóяса, а ю́ бка до Her braids are to her waist, while her skirt is
колéн. to her knees.
To
Points out the length, height, and depth of something, or the degree of an
action or condition.
Он кричáл до хрипоты́ , но егó никтó He screamed until hoarse, but ultimately, no
так и не услы́ шал. one heard him.
Сапоги́ у Кáрла всегдá вы́ чищены до Karl’s boots are always polished to
блéска. perfection.
Up to
Literally means “approximately.”
Скóлько человéк мóжет помести́ ться “How many people can fit in this hall?”
в э́ том зáле? – До ста человéк. “Up to 100.”
84 Entries
До to is often paired with the preposition от from, indicating space. (See also от.)
От Ки́ ева до Нóвгорода нýжно éхать It takes 16 hours to get from Kiev to
пóездом 16 часóв. Novgorod by train.
До is used with verbs with the prefix до- signifying the end or limit of an
action: довари́ ть до концá to cook until ready, доéхать до мéста to reach a
place, долетéть до Сарáтова to reach Saratov (by plane).
Phrases and expressions with the preposition до

Вплоть до. Down to the very.
Впредь до. Until [a specific point in the future].
До сих пор. Up to this point.
До концá. Until the end.
До изнеможéния. To exhaustion.
До ýжаса. To no end.
До предéла. To the limit.
Довести́ до слёз. Drive to tears.
Дойти́ до рýчки. To reach one’s limit.
Измени́ ться до неузнавáемости. To change so as to be unrecognizable.
Напугáть до смéрти. To scare to death.
Не до тогó. Not in the mood.
Пить до дна. To chug.
Промóкнуть до ни́ тки. To get drenched.
Считáть до скольки́ -то. To count until some number.
Должнó быть Parenthetical expression

Most likely
Articulates uncertainty, doubt, or assumption. Separated by commas. Tends to
be utilized in formal language. (See the synonyms вероя́ тно, возмóжно,
ви́ димо, мóжет быть, навéрное.)
Мáша на секýнду замолчáла, должнó Masha fell silent for a second, most likely
быть, вспóмнив что-то. remembering something.
Стáло темнó – должнó быть, к It got dark, most likely in anticipation of the
дождю́ . rain.
Entries 85
Note!
Do not confuse the parenthetical expression with the predicate, which is а part
of a sentence. In this case, it means should be, and no commas are needed.
Что должнó быть на столé в What should be on the table for New Year’s
новогóднюю ночь? Eve?
Допýстим Parenthetical word. Particle

Parenthetical word
Let’s say
Expresses assumption, supposition, and guess. Separated by commas. Tends to be
utilized in formal language. (See the synonym предполóжим.)
Они́ , допусти́ м, закóнчат свою́ часть Let’s say they finish their part of the project,
проéкта, но мы при э́ том не бýдем but we still won’t be ready.
готóвы.
Particle
Perhaps
Implies uncertain affirmation and readiness to make objections. Can be used as a
sentence-reply.
Вы ведь рáньше придéрживались “Didn’t you earlier hold to the same point of
такóй же тóчки зрéния? – Допýстим. view?” “Perhaps. However, that doesn’t
Однáко из э́ того ничегó не слéдует. mean anything.”
Ты всё-таки придёшь? – Допýстим. “So, will you come?” “Perhaps.”
Note!
Допýстим as a parenthetical expression must be distinguished from the verb in
the first person plural: we allow, we permit. In this case, no commas are needed.
Мы не допýстим э́ тих аспирáнтов к We will not let these graduates defend their
защи́ те кандидáтской. dissertations.
До тех пор(,) покá Conjunction

As long as
Connects adverbial clauses of time to the principal clase when the action
expressed in the subordinate clause indicates a time boundary. Normally, verbs
in the subordinate and main clauses are imperfective. Clauses with this conjunc-
tion answer the question до каки́ х пор? until what time? Not split by a comma
86 Entries
when opening a sentence; the comma is instead placed between the principal
and subordinate clauses. (See also до тех пор покá не, покá не.)
Джон и Джéки бýдут жить в э́ том John and Jackie are going to live in this
дóме до тех пор, покá он рабóтает на house as long as he has his old job.
стáром мéсте.
До тех пор покá бýдет э́ та власть, As long as this regime holds, we shouldn’t
нормáльной жи́ зни ждать не hope for a normal life.
прихóдится.
До тех пор(,) покá не Conjunction

Until
Used like до тех пор покá as long as and покá не until to connect adver-
bial clauses of time to the principal clause when the action expressed in the
subordinate clause indicates a time boundary. Clauses with this conjunction
answer the question до каки́ х пор? until what time? Typically, a verb in the
subordinate clause is perfective. When this conjunction opens a sentence, it
is not split by a comma; the comma is instead placed between the principal
and subordinate clauses. До тех пор покá не is more formal than покá не
and emphasizes the content in the subordinate part. (See also до тех пор
покá, покá не.)
Когдá вы, наконéц, уйдёте? – Мы не “When will you finally leave?” “We can’t
мóжем вы́ йти до тех пор, покá не leave until the rain stops.”
прекрати́ ться дождь.
До тех пор покá не закóнчится Until the road work is complete, you will
ремóнт дорóги, нýжно выезжáть have to leave earlier.
рáньше.
До каки́ х пор бýдет продолжáться “How long will this disaster continue?”
э́ то безобрáзие? – До тех пор покá не “Until the current president retires.”
уйдёт в отстáвку ны́ нешний
президéнт.
Note!
The particle не in this conjunction is not a negation.
До тогó(,) как Conjunction

Prior to, until, before
Connects adverbial clauses of time to the principal clause, if the action described
in the principal clause occurs before the action described in the subordinate
Entries 87
clause. This conjunction can be combined with verbal infinitives. When open-
ing a sentence, it is not split by a comma; the comma is instead placed between
the principal and subordinate clauses. Used with the words задóлго long before,
незадóлго not long before, за before. (See also прéжде чем, пéред тем как.)
До тогó как нáчался дождь, бы́ ло Until the rain began, it was hot and humid.
жáрко и дýшно.
Я должнá закóнчить всю рабóту до I need to finish all my work before I go on
тогó, как поéду в óтпуск. vacation.
Он ушёл незадóлго до тогó, как онá He left not long before she returned.
вернýлась.
Други́ ми словáми Parenthetical expression

In other words
Used to refer to one’s own rhetoric. Separated by commas. Stylistically neutral,
while the synonym ины́ ми словáми in other words is more often utilized in
literature and formal language, and the synonym инáче говоря́ in other words is
less formal. (See also инáче говоря́ , ины́ ми словáми.)
Други́ ми словáми, éсли ты не напóм- In other words, if you don’t remind them
нишь о себé, то тебя́ на слéдующее that you exist, then you won’t be invited to
собесéдование так и не вы́ зовут. the next interview.
Note!
Други́ ми словáми can function as part of a sentence as an adverbial modifier.
In this case, no commas are needed.
Вы должны́ написáть э́ то всё You must rewrite all of this using different
други́ ми словáми. words.
Едвá Conjunction
Barely
Used in complex sentences, when the action depicted in the principal clause
occurs after the action depicted in the subordinate clause. These subordinate
clauses answer the question когдá? when? If the subordinate clause introduced
by the conjunction едвá precedes the principal clause, the principal clause can
start with the word как how. Sounds slightly bookish. (See also лишь, как
тóлько, чуть тóлько.)
Все стáли болéть, едвá начался́ Everybody became sick, though the semester
семéстр. had barely begun.
88 Entries
Едвá Серёже испóлнилось пять лет, Seryozha was barely five years old when his
как егó роди́ тели развели́ сь. parents divorced.
Едвá ли Particle
Unlikely
Articulates doubt or disbelief in the veracity of something. Often used as a sen-
tence-reply. More bookish than its synonym вряд ли doubtful. (See also вряд
ли.)
Ты смóжешь приéхать сегóдня? – “Will you be able to come today?”
Едвá ли. “Unlikely.”
Едвá ли Сергéя останóвит тот факт, Sergey will hardly be stopped by the fact that
что он чуть не ýмер от he almost died from an overdose.
предозирóвки.
Едвá ли не [coll.] Particle

Practically
Conveys uncertain supposition or comparison that includes exaggeration. (See
the synonym чуть ли не.)
Матвéй пришёл к фи́ нишу едвá ли не Matvey was practically last to the finish line.
сáмый послéдний.
Едвá не Particle
Nearly
Indicates an action (often undesired) that was close to completion, but that was
not ultimately completed. Used with verbs in the past tense. Sounds more book-
ish than its synonym чуть не nearly. (See also чуть не.)
Онá едвá не брóсила всё и не уéхала She nearly left everything behind and went
с ним. with him.
Еди́ нственно Particle

Solely
Emphasizes the solitary characteristic of the described fact. Used less frequently
than its synonyms лишь only and тóлько only. No commas are used with
this particle. Sounds bookish. (See also исключи́ тельно, лишь, тóлько.)
Онá вы́ шла за негó еди́ нственно, She married him solely to spite her parents.
чтóбы досади́ ть свои́ м роди́ телям.
Entries 89
Е́ жели [arch., folk.] Conjunction

If
Connects a subordinate clause to the principal clause to express a real condition
or circumstance needed to accomplish an action. Mostly used in folklore and
literature, and can sound sarcastic. Syntactically utilized in the same way as its
synonyms éсли if, кóли if, когдá if. Semantically close to кóли, which is
archaic as well. (See also éсли, кóли, когдá.)
За что же медáль, éжели пóмер, What is the medal for if he is dead, right?
прáвда? (В. Бы́ ков, «Болóто») (Bykov, The Bog)
Е́ жели бы [arch., folk.] Conjunction

If
Connects a subordinate clause to the principal clause to imply unreal or contrary-
to-fact conditions, i.e., if the actions depicted in the principal clause could take
place, the subordinate clause expresses the conditions for possible fulfillment. As
with éжели if, this conjunction is mostly used in folklore and literature and can
sound sarcastic. Syntactically utilized in the same way as its synonym éсли бы if.
Semantically close to кáбы if. (See also éсли бы, кáбы, когдá бы.)
Е́ жели бы такáя дáма подвернýлася If such a lady turned up in front of the dead
покóйнику Кáрпу Лукичý, да он бы Karp Lukich, he would tie her up in a knot!
её узлóм завязáл. (Д. Н. Мáмин- (Mamin-Sibiriak, The Treasure)
Сибиря́ к, «Клад»)
Е́ сли Conjunction
If
or circumstance needed to accomplish an action. A subordinate clause starting
with éсли can be placed at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. Subordin-
ate clauses with éсли answer the questions при какóм услóвии? on what condi-
tion?, в какóм слýчае? in what case? If the subordinate clause with the
conjunction éсли precedes the principal one, the latter is often introduced by
the word то then. A comma is placed between the two parts of the complex
sentence. Frequently, but not always, both parts are used in the future tense.
Е́ сли is neutral and is used in all styles. (See also éжели, когдá, кóли, раз.)
Е́ сли Тимýр сдéлал всю рабóту, то If Timur has finished his work, he can go
он мóжет идти́ домóй. home.
Онá мóжет идти́ в клуб, éсли у неё She can go to the club if she has no other
нет други́ х дел. work to do.
90 Entries
Е́ сли бы Conjunction
If
Connects a subordinate clause to the principal clause to imply unreal or
contrary-to-fact conditions, i.e., if the actions depicted in the principal
clause could take place, the subordinate clause expresses the conditions for
possible fulfillment. Used with verbs in the past tense in both clauses, even
though the utterance may allude to actions in the past or in general, regard-
less of time. Often, if the subordinate clause with the conjunction éсли бы
precedes the principal one, the latter is introduced by the word то then.
Е́ сли бы is neutral and is used in all styles. (See also éжели бы, кáбы,
когдá бы.)
Е́ сли бы Ми́ ша пришёл вóвремя, то If Misha had come on time, then we
нам не пришлóсь бы ждать пóезд wouldn’t have had to wait another hour for
ещё час. the train.
Жéня переéхал бы в другóй гóрод, Zhenya would move to a different city if he
éсли бы нашёл рабóту. found another job.
Естéственно Parenthetical word. Particle

Parenthetical word
Naturally
Can function as a particle or a parenthetical word, depending on the sentence
structure. Can be translated as “logically.” Expresses confidence and is separated
by commas. Stylistically conversational. (See also разумéется, конéчно.)
Илья́ Ивáнович рабóтает здесь Ilya Ivanovich hasn’t worked here for long
недáвно и, естéственно, ещё не во and, naturally, hasn’t fully gotten into the
всём разобрáлся. rhythm of things.
Particle
Of course
Used as an independent sentence-reply in confirmation to an utterance.
Ты бýдешь обéдать? – Да, “Are you going to have dinner?” “Yes, of
естéственно, ужé пять часóв. course; it’s already five o’clock.”
Note!
Естéственно naturally can function as a part of a sentence, i.e., an adverbial
modifier, and is not separated by commas.
Entries 91
Натáша дéлала всё легкó и Natasha did everything easily and naturally.
естéственно.
Ещё Particle. Conjunction

Particle [coll.]
Else, other
Used with the question words какóй what kind, где where, как how,
зачéм for what, кудá where to, and others to make phrases more vivid. Can
express disagreement or displeasure. In certain situations, not translated
directly.
Ты в ресторáн пойдёшь? – В какóй “Will you go to the restaurant?” “What
ещё ресторáн!? Никудá я не пойдý. restaurant!? I’m not going anywhere.”
Else
Can combine with the interrogative words кто who, что what, and где where.
Где ещё мóжно вы́ пить вкýсный “Where else can we get a good coffee?” “On
кóфе? – На Арбáте. the Arbat.”
Где же ещё мóжно вы́ пить вкýсный Where else you can have a good coffee if not
кóфе, éсли не на Арбáте! on the Arbat!
When used with the demonstrative words тогдá then, там there, сюдá here,
такóй such, and others, it emphasizes a reference to a time, place, event, or
person, and is used to convey more details.
Тогдá ещё былá ужáсная погóда, – Тhe weather was awful then; everything was
всё вокрýг занеслó снéгом, и мы два covered with snow, and we stayed cooped up
дня сидéли взаперти́ . inside for two days.
Expressions and phrases with ещё [coll.]

Ещё чегó! Not a chance! expresses a distinctly negative attitude towards some-
thing that has occurred or was suggested. May sound rude.
Мáма, я досмотрю́ кинó. – Ещё чегó! “Mom, let me finish the movie.” “Not a
Спать порá. chance! It’s bedtime.”
Вот ещё! is almost the same as ещё чегó, but is not quite as strong.
Не хочý я с вáми éхать, хочý быть “I don’t want to go with you, I want to stay
дóма. – Вот ещё, не выдýмывай, home.” “That’s enough of your nonsense,
поéхали. let’s go.”
92 Entries
Ещё бы! No kidding! is semantically close to разумéется! of course!, без сомнé-

ния! no doubt about it! It confirms the previous utterance and can serve as a posi-
tive, albeit informal, reply. (See also без сомнéния, разумéется.)
Мне óчень понрáвился спектáкль. – “I really liked the show!” “No kidding! What
Ещё бы! Такóй режиссёр, таки́ е a great director, and the actors were great, too!”
актёры!
Э́ то ещё что такóе? What’s going on here? Combinations like this with pro-
nominal adverbs express bewilderment with a sense of negative emotion.
Э́ то ещё что такóе? Почемý ты не в What’s going on here? Why aren’t you at
шкóле? school?
Ещё какóй / как! And how! indicates a high (affirming) degree of a certain feature.
Во всей Еврóпе былá ужáсная жарá “It was awfully hot all over Europe this
э́ тим лéтом. – Ещё какáя жарá! summer.” “And how!”
(Э́ то) ещё ничегó that’s not so bad implies моглó быть хýже it could be worse
in comparison with something that actually is worse.
Опя́ ть всю ночь не спал – рабóтал? – “You didn’t sleep again. Were you up
Э́ то ещё ничегó. Вот на прóшлой working all night?” “This is nothing. Last
недéле я три дня подря́ д не спал. week, I didn’t sleep for three days straight.”
Conjunction [coll.]
Also, too, as well, and yet
Ещё in combination with а and, и and, да and intensifies the focus on the topic being
discussed. May be a synonym of к томý же in addition to, which has the same mean-
ing, but is more expressive. Can imply lack of correspondence between two desig-
nated actions, objects, or events and may convey a negative overtone. (See also к
томý же.)
Они́ бы́ ли в Москвé, да? – Да, а ещё “Were they in Moscow?” “Yes, and in
в Петербýрге и Пскóве. Petersburg and Pskov as well.”
Пóздно кудá-то идти́ , да ещё и устáла. It’s too late to go anywhere, and I’m tired, too.
Нагруби́ л. А ещё интеллигéнтным He’s rude to me, and yet he considers himself
человéком себя́ считáет. well mannered.
Жаль (жáлко [coll.]) Parenthetical word

(It’s a) pity
Separated by commas. Жаль is more neutral than жáлко, although it is not as
formal as its synonym к сожалéнию unfortunately. (See also к сожалéнию.)
Entries 93
Жаль, порá расставáться. Pity, it’s time to say goodbye.

Жáлко, что совсéм нет врéмени. It’s a shame that there’s no time at all.
Note!
Жаль and жáлко can function as a part of a sentence, and, in this case, they
are not separated by commas.
Их жáль до слёз. They deserve so much pity.
Вы́ глядит онá довóльно жáлко. She looks pretty pitiful.
Же Particle. Conjunction
Emphatic particle
Used right after the word(s) being emphasized. The words какóй what, так so,
такóй such, э́ тот this, etc., specify or indicate the identity of the object being
discussed.
Каки́ е же э́ то краси́ вые цветы́ ! These flowers are so beautiful!
Мы слýшали э́ тот же концéрт на We listened to this very same concert last
прóшлой недéле. week.
Зáвтра бýдет такáя же погóда, как Tomorrow, the weather will be the same as
вчерá. yesterday.
Conjunction
Contrasts objects and is used in sentences that indicate acts or facts that oppose
or contradict one another. Semantically close to the conjunction а while, but.
Placed after the compared or intensified word. (See also а.)
Грýше 17 лет, брáту же её 13. Grusha is 17; her brother is 13.
Ты побýдь здесь немнóго, мне же You stay here a while longer. I have to go.
нáдо идти́ .
За Preposition
Behind
Used with nouns designating the object behind which another object moves.
Phrases with за answer the question кудá where?
Постáвь чемодáн за шкаф. Put the briefcase behind the wardrobe.
Сóлнце спря́ талось за тýчу. The sun hid behind a cloud.
94 Entries
At, to
Used with nouns denoting objects that have a functional role and the verbs
сади́ ться to sit and усáживаться to sit down. The expression за стол can be
used as an imperative, implying идём за стол, functioning as an invitation for
everyone to gather at the dinner table for a meal.
Все за стол – обéд ужé готóв. Let’s go, dinner’s ready!
Когдá он сади́ лся за роя́ ль, в дóме Whenever he sat own at the piano, the
срáзу станови́ лось ти́ хо. house grew quiet.
Used with nouns that designate a field of knowledge or activity in which people
are going to be involved. The verbs принимáться to become involved with,
брáться to take to, which imply learning and working, are used in these situ-
ations. Translations may vary.
Олéг акти́ вно при́ нялся за пóльский Oleg started actively learning Polish and
и бы́ стро егó вы́ учил. quickly mastered it.
Неизвéстно, когдá мы возьмёмся за It’s unclear when we’ll start fixing the
ремóнт дóма. house.
Verbs like брáться to take to, держáться to hold on to, хватáться to grab, and
цепля́ ться to hook on to, which imply holding someone or something [lit. or
fig.], are used in phrases with за. Phrases with за answer the question за что?
for what?, за когó? for whom? Translations may vary.
От стрáха дéвочка схвати́ ла отцá за Out of fear, the girl grabbed her father’s
рýку и не отпускáла её. hand and didn’t let go.
Натáша дéржится за проéкт, Natasha holds on to her project, knowing
понимáя, что други́ х дéнег не бýдет. full well that there won’t be any other source
of money.
Out (of)
Used in phrases with verbs of motion and other verbs that imply movement out
of or away from something. Phrases with за answer the question кудá? where?
За порóг дóма ты не вы́ йдешь, покá You are not to leave this house without
тебé не разрешáт. permission.
Учи́ тельница вы́ ставила за дверь The teacher kicked Petya out of the
Пéтю, котóрый всем мешáл. classroom, because he was distracting the
other students.
В суббóту мы собирáемся за гóрод. On Saturday, we’re planning to go to the
woods.
Entries 95
For
Phrases with за imply that someone is performing an action on behalf of some-
one or something.
Большинствó нарóда голосовáло за The majority of the people voted for the
экономи́ чецкие рефóрмы. economic reforms.
Джэйн должнá былá всю недéлю All week long, Jane had to cover for her
рабóтать за свою́ коллéгу colleague.
Toasts with за
За вас! To you!
За мáмино / чьё-то здорóвье! [To] mom’s/someone’s health!
За нáшу дрýжбу! To our friendship!
For
Phrases with за designate a fact, event, or characteristic as a cause, reason, or
basis of an action.
Люби́ ть за добротý. To love for one’s kindness.
Ругáть за плохýю рабóту. To chastise for poor work.
Цени́ ть за талáнт. To value for one’s talent.
Благодари́ ть за услýгу. To thank for one’s service.
Отомсти́ ть за оби́ ду. To avenge a slight.
Отплати́ ть за грýбость. To pay someone back for a rudeness.
Награди́ ть за достижéния. To reward for achievement.
Не сты́ дно за проéкт. To have no shame for a project.
Компенсáция за исслéдования. Compensation for research.
Суд за крáжу. A hearing for a theft.
Демонстрáция за мир. A demonstration for peace.
For, about
Phrases with за express feelings towards someone or something. These phrases
answer the questions за когó? for whom?, за что? for what?
Волновáться за детéй. To worry about the kids.
Рáдоваться за студéнтов. To be happy for the students.
Боя́ ться за дочь. To be scared for the daughter.
96 Entries
Переживáть за роди́ телей. To worry about the parents.

Оби́ дно за мýжа. To be upset for one’s husband.
Тревóжно за будýщее. To be worried about the future.
For
The preposition за is used with nouns expressing price.
Дéньги за конфéты нýжно отдáть You need to give the money for candy to
Елéне Ивáновне. Elena Ivanovna.
За скóлько ты купи́ ла ю́ бку? – За “How much did you buy the skirt for?
ты́ сячу рублéй. “1000 rubles.”
For
Phrases with за are used when someone or something is perceived to be someone or
something else. These answer the questions за когó? for whom?, за что? for what?
За когó вы меня́ принимáете? Who do you take me for?
Онá взялá за образéц фи́ льмы А́ нга She regards Ang Lee’s films as a model.
Ли.
Фёдор остáлся за стáршего. Fyodor was left in charge.
Sayings and expressions with за [with the accusative case]

Ухвати́ ться за солóминку. To grasp at straws.
Обéими рукáми за. To support wholeheartedly.
О́ ко за óко, зуб за зуб. An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth./
Blood for blood.
Заткнýть за пóяс. To leave in the dust.
Ни за каки́ е дéньги. / Ни за каки́ е Not a chance. [The difference is in styles,
коври́ жки. / Ни за каки́ е шиши́ . from formal to informal.]
Выхóдит за вся́ кие рáмки / грани́ цы / That is utterly unacceptable.
предéлы.
Ни за что. Never.
Не за что. Don’t mention it.
Before
With the preposition до up to, indicates how long one action or event takes
place before another: за пять минýт до начáла five minutes before the beginning,
Entries 97
за год до пéнсии a year before retirement. Phrases with this preposition answer
the question за скóлько врéмени до? how long before?
За недéлю до свáдьбы они́ They quarreled a week before the wedding.
поссóрились.
During, in
Indicates the period or duration within which an action takes place: за две
недéли in two weeks, за лéто during the summer. Phrases with this preposition
answer the question за скóлько врéмени? for how long?/in what period of time?
Строи́ тельство нýжно бы́ ло Construction was supposed to be finished in
закóнчить за нéсколько мéсяцев. a few months.
With the prepositions от from and до to, it indicates the distance from and to
where something takes place or is located. Phrases with this preposition respond
to the questions где? where?, в какóм мéсте? in what place?
За пять человéк до нас билéтов Five people ahead of us, they ran out of
бóльше не остáлось. tickets.
Михаи́ л Аврáмович живёт за Mikhail Avramovich lives a few blocks from
нéсколько квартáлов от метрó. the subway.
With the instumental case

Behind, at
The spatial preposition за indicates the place behind which objects are situated
[lit. or fig.]. Phrases with за answer the question где? where?
За чёрной тýчей прогля́ дывало я́ ркое The bright sun peeked out from behind a
сóлнце. black cloud.
Онá дóлго стоя́ лa за двéрью и She stood behind the door for a long time
прислýшивалaсь к томý, о чём and listened in on what they were talking
говори́ ли в кóмнате. about in the room.
Что скрывáется за послéдними Nobody can truly explain with any accuracy
собы́ тиями, ни́ кто тóлком объясни́ ть what lies behind the latest events.
не мóжет.
At
Combines with nouns denoting objects that have a functional role and with the
used or implied verbs сидéть to sit, стоя́ ть to stand [lit. or fig.].
Все ужé за столóм – обéд давнó Everybody’s already at the table. Dinner
готóв. was ready long ago.
98 Entries
Когдá он сидéл за роя́ лем, в дóме When he sat down at the piano, the house
срáзу станови́ лось ти́ хо. immediately grew quiet.
Дáрья Петрóвна весь день стоя́ ла за Darya Petrovna stood at the counter all day
прилáвком и к вéчеру óчень long and always grew very tired by the
уставáла. evening.
During, while
Phrases with за designate a time during which something is happening. These
phrases answer the question когдá? when?
Они́ чáсто обсуждáют нóвости за They often discuss the news during dinner.
обéдом.
За рабóтой Андрéй не замéтил, как While he was working, Andrey didn’t notice
бы́ стро прошлó врéмя. how quickly the time had passed.
Behind, after
Phrases with за point to the object after or behind which someone or some-
thing moves or is situated. Can be used figuratively. Can be combined with
вслед after. These phrases answer the questions за кем? after whom?, за чем?
after what? When certain verbs, e.g., слéдовать to follow are used, the translation
may vary.
И́ горь замéтил, что человéк в чёрном Igor noticed that a man in a black coat was
плащé идёт за ним. following him.
Е́ сли мы бýдем слéдовать за вáми, то If we follow you, we won’t get lost.
не потеря́ емся.
Идéи э́ того поли́ тика привлекáют, и This politician’s ideas are very inviting, and
мнóгие за ним идýт. many support him.
За кем Вы стои́ те? – Вон за той “Who are you standing behind?” “Behind
дéвушкой в крáсном. that young lady in the red.”
After
Used in phrases that point to event(s) that follow(s) after other event(s) or
when one thing follows after another. Can be combined with вслед. (See also
пóсле.)
За пéрвым свидáнием послéдовало After the first date, there was another, and
другóе, и вскóре они́ стáли soon, they started dating for real.
встречáться.
Дни бегýт за дня́ ми – так незамéтно Days fly by one after another – so does time
прохóдит врéмя. sneak away from us.
Entries 99
For
Indicates an object to be picked up or fetched. The questions за кем? for
whom?, за чем? for what? are used in this case.
Они́ ещё должны́ зайти́ за Кóлей. They still have to stop by for Kolya.
За чем он пошёл в магази́ н? – За “What did he go to the store for?” “For
хлéбом. read.”
Used in formal language with specific phrases in which the preposition is not
directly translated.
Письмó за пóдписью вице- A letter for the vice president’s signature.
президéнта компáнии.
Диплóм за нóмером 100 лежáл у Diploma number 100 lay on the director’s
дирéктора на столé. desk.
Sayings and expressions with за [with the instrumental case]

Держáть язы́ к за зубáми. To keep one’s lips sealed./To hold one’s
tongue.
За душóй ничегó нет. To be dirt poor.
За кем-то‚ как за кáменной стенóй. Someone keeps you safe.
Ходи́ ть за кем-то хвостóм. To tail someone.
Онá за кем-то зáмужем. She’s married. (This expression is used
exclusively for women)
За предéлами / грани́ цами Beyond the realms of possibility.
возмóжностей.
За исключéнием Preposition
Except for
Usually, phrases with this preposition are separated by commas. Neutral and
used in various styles and genres. Phrases with за исключéнием answer the
questions за исключéнием когó? except for whom?, за исключéнием чегó?
except for what? (See the synonyms исключáя, крóме.)
Все пошли́ на дискотéку, за Everyone went to the dance party except for
исключéнием Кристи́ ны. Christina.
Им понрáвилось всё в гости́ нице, за They liked everything in the hotel except for
исключéнием вáнной. the bathroom.
100 Entries
За счёт Preposition
On account of, because of, at the expense of
Frequently used in the formal style. Phrases with it answer the questions за
счёт чегó? on account of what?, за счёт когó? on whose account? Also used in the
expression за чужóй счёт at someone else’s expense, when someone passes
responsibility for something to another. (See also благодаря́ .)
Мнóгие прогрáммы на телеви́ дении Many television programs can survive only
мóгут вы́ жить тóлько за счёт because of government funding.
госудáрственной поддéржки.
За счёт когó депутáты получáют “At whose expense do the representatives
тáкие высóкие пéнсии? – За счёт receive such pensions?” “At the expense of
учителéй, студéнтов, обы́ чных teachers, students, and ordinary retirees.”
пенсионéров.
Ли́ де нáдо помóчь. Одолжи́ ей, “Lida needs help. Let her borrow some
пожáлуйста, дéньги. – Легкó быть money, please.” “It’s easy to appear kind at
дóбрым за чужóй счёт. someone else’s expense.”
За счёт тогó что [form.] Conjunction

On account of the fact that
Used in adverbial clauses, indicating the cause of the action reflected in
the principal part of a sentence. Connects a subordinate clause to the prin-
cipal clause and may either follow or precede the principal clause. A
comma does not split the conjunction when it starts a sentence, but it is
placed before что when it follows a principal clause. Sentences with this
conjunction are used to answer the question за счёт чегó? on account of
what?
Во мнóгом успéх был дости́ гнут за счёт In large part, the endeavor was
тогó, что прéжняя распредели́ тельная successful on account of the fact that the
систéма былá уничтóжена в одночáсье. previous distribution system was
(ruscorpora.ru) destroyed in a single hour.
(ruscorpora.ru)
За счёт тогó что агéнтство явля́ ется On account of the fact that the agency is
крупнéйшим игрокóм на ры́ нке a very big player in the regional
регионáльной реклáмы, у негó advertising market, it has a sufficiently
достáточно устóйчивая пози́ ция. stable position. (ruscorpora.ru)
(ruscorpora.ru)
Entries 101
Затéм(,) чтóбы Conjunction

In order to
Used in adverbial clauses of purpose to indicate the motive of the action reflected
in the principal part of the sentence. Usually, a subordinate clause follows the
principal. Used less frequently than the neutral conjunction чтóбы in order to.
Utilized in formal styles, e.g., in literature and journalism. Clauses with this con-
junction answer the questions зачéм? for what purpose?, с какóй цéлью? with
what goal? (See the synonyms чтóбы, для тогó чтóбы, с тем чтóбы.)
Дéлал он это не тóлько затéм, чтóбы He did it not just to feed himself and his
прокорми́ ть семью́ и себя́ , но и family, but because he loved poetry with his
потомý, что люби́ л, всем существóм whole being. (N. S. Gumilyov, Otsup,
люби́ л поэ́ зию. (Н. С. Гумилёв, 1926)
«Оцýп», 1926)
Затó [coll.] Conjunction

However, but
Conveys the meaning “but on the other hand” or “at the same time” with a
positive implication. Spins the emphasis of a sentence, explicating in the
second part of the sentence or clause the compensation or benefits of what is
described in the first clause or part. (See the synonyms но, однáко, тем не
мéнее.)
Маши́ на óчень дорогáя – затó нóвая The car is very expensive, but it is new and
и хорóшая. good.
В кинó ужé пóздно идти́ , затó мóжно It’s too late to go to the movies, but now I
обéд приготóвить. can make dinner.
Здрáвствуй(те) Interjection
Hello
This etiquette interjection is a formal greeting and is used once a day. If you
meet someone more than once, you can just nod, or smile, or salute with a
greeting gesture, otherwise it will be perceived as something strange. Здрáвст-
вуй is used when addressing someone close, a familiar person, or a child, while
здрáвствуйте is used when addressing a group of people or as a polite greeting
to one person whom you address Вы you [form.]. The synonyms здорóво hey
and привéт hi are informal and cannot replace a polite formal здрáвствуйте.
They imply familiarity and a friendly or close relationship between people.
Валéрия Семёновна, здрáвствуйте! – “Valeriya Semyonovna, hello!” “Hello,
Здрáвствуй, Кóля. Kolya.”
102 Entries
Пéтька, здорóво! Как жизнь? – “Hey, Pet’ka! What’s up?” “Hi, Irishka!
Привéт, Ири́ шка! У меня́ всё путём, Things are fine, how’re you?”
а ты как?
Здрáвствуйте! [inform.]
The plural form can also be used to express disagreement or astonishment.
К нам зáвтра приезжáют нáши “Our colleagues are coming tomorrow and
коллéги, и вéчером придýт к нам. – will visit us in the evening.” “Heeeello! You
Здрáвствуйте! А рáньше нельзя́ couldn’t have said something earlier?!”
бы́ ло сказáть?!
Знáешь (ли), знáете (ли) Parenthetical word

You know
Calls for a listener’s attention, informal with знáешь, formal with знáете, or
plural with знáете. Can express doubt or disbelief. The particle ли makes the
utterance less direct. As a parenthetical word, it should be separated by commas.
А нам, знáете ли, зарплáту не бýдут And you know – they’re not going to pay
плати́ ть, поскóльку дéнег нет. us, seeing as they’re out of money.
Ты, знáешь, всё-таки найди́ врéмя и You know, you should still find time and
приéдь. visit us.
Note!
The parenthetical word знáешь, знáете must be distinguished from when it is
a part of a sentence. As a predicate, it is not separated by commas.
Знáете ли вы, что в Ки́ еве такогó Do you know that Kiev hasn’t had this
коли́ чества снéга не было послéдние much snow in the last 100 years?
100 лет?
Знáчит Parenthetical word. Conjunction

Parenthetical word [coll.]
So
Expresses the conclusion or a consequence of what was said earlier or of the
situation. Separated by commas. Informal, while its synonym стáло быть it
seems sounds bookish. (See also стáло быть.)
Ромáн, знáчит, не собирáется никудá So, Roman isn’t going to go anywhere?
уезжать?
Entries 103
Note!
The parenthetical word знáчит must be distinguished from when it is a part of
a sentence. As a predicate, it is not separated by commas.
Э́ то ничегó не знáчит. It doesn’t mean anything.
Conjunction
So
Знáчит or и знáчит, а знáчит connects parts of a sentence or clauses and
indicates that their content is a conclusion of what was said in the previous part.
It is an informal synonym of the slightly bookish стáло быть it seems and the
formal слéдовательно ergo, which is used mostly in literature. (See also слéдо-
вательно, стáло быть, так.)
Стáло теплéе, знáчит скóро зацветýт It got warmer, so trees will start blooming
дерéвья. soon.
Банк закры́ т, а знáчит придётся The bank’s closed, so we’ll have to get
снять дéньги в автомáте. money from an ATM.
И Conjunction. Particle
Conjunction
And
Designates the unification of objects, actions, or signs according to their similar
features. Likewise points out that a list of objects, actions, or signs is exhausted.
(See also и . . . и.)
Отéц сидéл в пáрке и смотрéл‚ как The father sat in the park and watched the
дéти игрáют в мяч. kids play ball.
В садý росли́ ли́ лии, рóзы, азáлии и Lilies, roses, azaleas, and rhododendrons
рододендрóны. grew in the garden.
And
Connects similar/analogous statements and reports about simultaneous actions,
facts, and phenomena and expresses a relation between them. (See also и . . . и.)
Дул си́ льный вéтер, и бы́ ло довóльно A strong wind blew, and it was pretty cold.
хóлодно.
104 Entries
Аnd
Used to show a sequence of actions, events, or facts that follow one after
another. Displays relation to time. In addition, a part of a sentence accompanied
by и closes the utterance. It does not express an attitude towards them.
Натáша полýчит ви́ зу и кýпит билéт. Natasha will receive a visa and buy a ticket.
And
Indicates logical connections between two or more situations. Signifies that the
previous action had a result. The phrase и вот [coll.] also means “as a result.”
Ли́ зе óсенью испóлнится семь лет, и Liza will be seven years old in the fall and
онá пойдёт в шкóлу. will go to school.
Влáсти боя́ тся социáльных сетéй и Governments are wary of social networks
стремя́ тся их ликвиди́ ровать. and strive to eliminate them.
But
Connects parts of a sentence where the second part displays contradiction
towards the previous part. The conjunctions но but, however (more frequently)
or а but, while (less frequently) can be used to express, respectively, negative or
less negative feelings towards a situation, while и is neutral. (See also а‚ но.)
Сергéй хотéл пойти́ в казинó и не Sergey wanted to go to the casino, but
пошёл didn’t.
And
Connects repeating words to emphasize their significance.
Говори́ т и говори́ т – головá ужé He just talks and talks so much, my head’s
боли́ т от э́ того. splitting.
And
Joins parts of a sentence where the second part clarifies what is said in the previ-
ous part.
Серёжа хорóший музыкáнт, и Seryozha is a good musician and plays the
осóбенно хорошó он игрáет на accordion especially well.
бая́ не.
And
Attaches and emphasizes additional information to the main statement. Can be
combined with крóме тогó besides. (See also а‚ но.)
Entries 105
Кáтя занимáлась в театрáльном Katya studied at the theater institute, and at

инститýте‚ и крóме тогó‚ в the institute of literature as well.
литератýрном.
And
Starts an utterance indicating a connection with the previous statement.
Expresses a positive or negative reaction to it. Used in poetry and literature.
Жéня потеря́ ла рабóту. – И что онá “Zhenya lost her job.” “And what is she
тепéрь собирáется дéлать? going to do now?”
И пéсней я не скли́ чу вас, / Слезáми You won’t return despite my song,/My tears
не вернý, / Но вéчером в печáльный won’t help me too,/But in the hour, sad and
час / В моли́ тве помянý. long,/My prayer will speak of you. (Anna
(А. Ахмáтова) Akhmatova)
In combination with всё-таки anyway, still, и opens a sentence and connects

the utterance with a thought asserted earlier in the discourse. The synonymous
conjunctions a and, но and, but are used more often than the conjunction и in
these situations, because they convey nuances that are expected and could be
utilized in such discourses. (See also а‚ но.)
И всё-таки ты не прав! Still, you’re not right!
Phrases with и
Вот тó-то и онó. That’s exactly it.
И без тогó плóхо / хорошó. It’s bad/good enough without it.
И впрямь. [coll.] Really? (in disbelief)
Э́ то и есть . . . This is . . .
И так дáлее. Et cetera.
И томý подóбное. And such.
Particle
Even, and, but
Used to emphasize that something is happening unexpectedly. Used before the
word to be emphasized. (See also дáже.)
Онá и самá вéрит в то, что говори́ т. Even she herself believes what she says.
Ви́ ктор и предстáвить себé не мог, Viktor couldn’t even believe that he could be
что емý мóжет так повезти́ . so lucky.
И какóй же ты стрáнный. How strange you are.
106 Entries
Имéнно об э́ том я и хотéла тебя́ And that’s exactly what I wanted to ask you
спроси́ ть. about.
Expressions with и
И копéйки нет. Not even a penny.
И не проси́ . And don’t even try to ask.
И́ бо [book.] Conjunction
For
principal part of a sentence. Usually, a subordinate clause with и́ бо follows a
principal clause. Synonymous with the neutral потомý что because. Sounds
archaic and is used in literature. (See also потомý что.)
Гóсподи – взмоли́ лась Сю́ зан, снóва “God above,” prayed Susan, once more
понимáя, что никогдá бóльше не realizing that she will never again see her
уви́ дит своегó люби́ мого, и́ бо егó beloved, for his soul and body were forever
душá и тéло навéки поглоти́ ло devoured by the void. “Why?” (Valerie,
небытиé – за что? (Луи́ за Валери́ , For the Night Came)
«И́ бо пришлá ночь»)
Из (изо) Preposition
From
In combination with inanimate nouns, denotes the origin of something or some-
one, or a place where an object is located. These combinations respond to the
question откýда? where from? (See also от.)
Все надéются, что Андрéй скóро Everyone is hoping that Andrey will return
вернётся из Афганистáна. from Afghanistan soon.
О́ ля из Волгогрáда. Olya is from Volgograd.
Дед обы́ чно забирáл внýка из Grandpa usually picked up his grandson
шкóлы. from school.
Из тюрьмы́ сбежáл престýпник. A criminal broke out of jail.
From
Used with nouns that indicate a source of origin. These combinations respond
to the question откýда? where from?
Entries 107
Э́ та статья́ из стáрого журнáла. This article is from an old journal.

Кто-то стреля́ л из пистолéта. Someone shot a gun.
Ну что ты пьёшь из буты́ лки, как Why are you drinking from the bottle as if
бýдто стакáна нет? there were no glass?
From, out of
Used with nouns that indicate the place from which something or someone is
excluded or extracted. These phrases respond to the question откýда? where from?
А́ ллу исключи́ ли из инститýта за Alla was expelled from the institute for poor
неуспевáемость. grades.
Страни́ ца вы́ рвана из тетрáди. The page is torn out of a notebook.
Из тéкста вы́ черкнули вáжные словá. Important words were crossed out of the text.
Э́ то плáтье ужé давнó вы́ шло из This dress went out of style long ago.
мóды.
From, out of
Used with nouns that indicate the material or substance from which something
is made. These phrases respond to the question из какóго материáла? from
what material? or из чегó? from what?
Шкаф сдéлан из крáсного дéрева. The dresser is made of mahogany.
Из чéго э́ тот джем? – Из кры- “What is this jam made out of?” “It’s made
жóвника. from gooseberries.”
Out of
Used with nouns that indicate conditions or circumstances from which someone
is pulled out. Verbs like вы́ вести to take (someone) out, вы́ йти to leave,
вы́ тащить to drag out are usually utilized in these situations.
Тóлько отéц мог вы́ тащить её из Only her father could drag her out of her
депрéссии. depression.
Не выводи́ меня́ из терпéния. Don’t test my patience.
From
Used with nouns that indicate the whole from which a part is singled out. Used
in or implies the combination оди́ н из one of.
Онá из профéссорской семьи́ . She is from a family of professors.
Тóлько он оди́ н выделя́ лся из всей He alone stood out from the whole crowd.
толпы́ .
108 Entries
Used with nouns to denote circumstances or feelings that are a reason or motive
for the action. Translations may vary.
Исходя́ из анáлиза происходя́ щего, Based on the analysis of the current
мы принимáем решéние о закры́ тии situation, we are making the decision to close
магази́ на. the store.
Из боя́ зни остáться без рабóты он Out of fear that he will be left without a job,
берётся за все проéкты. he accepts every project.
Ли́ за не спóрит с Ники́ той Liza doesn’t argue with Nikita Sergeevich
Сергéевичем из вéжливости. out of politeness.
Of
Used with nouns that indicate parts or fragments that comprise a whole. The
verb состоя́ ть to make up is used or implied in these sentences. These phrases
respond to the question из скóлькиx? out of how many?, из чегó? out of what?
Из скóлькиx частéй состои́ т How many parts does the exam have?
экзáмен? Обéд из трёх блюд. Dinner consists of three courses.
Грýппа тури́ стов из восьми́ человéк A group of eight tourists is arriving by the
приезжáет к вéчеру. evening.
Хоккéйная комáнда состои́ т из пяти́ A hockey team is made up of five field
полевы́ х игрокóв и вратаря́ . players and a goalkeeper.
Note!
It correlates with the preposition в to, which, with nouns in the accusative case,
denotes a direction of opposite movement (в Новосиби́ рск – из Новосиби́ рска
to Novosibirsk – from Novosibirsk). With nouns in the prepositional case, в in denotes
the source or place of something or someone (в фи́ льме – из фи́ льма in the film
– from the film, в Сóчи – из Сóчи in Sochi – from Sochi). (See also в.)
Sayings and proverbs with из

Изо всех сил. With all of one’s strength.
Из послéдних сил. With one’s last strength.
Из пéрвых рук. From a firsthand source.
Из рук в рýки. To change hands (directly).
Из молоды́ х да рáнний. So young and yet so successful.
Дéлать из мýхи слонá. To make a mountain out of a molehill.
Вы́ вести из себя́ . To drive someone up the wall.
Entries 109
Вы́ йти из себя́ . To be beside oneself with fury.

Из уст в устá. Straight from the horse’s mouth.
Вы́ сосать из пáльца. Make something out of thin air.
Корми́ ть из лóжечки. To spoonfeed.
Изо дня в день. / Из мéсяца в мéсяц. From day to day/from month to month.
Из огня́ да в пóлымя. Out of the frying pan and into the fire.
Из-за Preposition
From, from behind
Indicates movement from behind something into an open area. Used with
nouns that denote inanimate objects. Phrases with this preposition respond to
the question откýда? where from?
Неожи́ данно из-за углá вы́ шли двóе. Two figures suddenly appeared from around
the corner.
Phrases with из-за

Встать из-за столá. To get up from the table.
Встать из-за компью́ тера. To get up from the computer.
Because of
Implies that the cause has negative ramifications. Phrases with this preposition
respond to the questions из-за чегó? because of what?, из-за когó? because of
whom?, почемý why? (See also благодаря́ .)
Из-за болéзни он пропусти́ л мнóго He missed a lot of classes at the university
заня́ тий в университéте. because of his illness.
Он дóлго ждал её и из-за неё He waited for her for a long time and missed
опоздáл на пóезд. his train because of her.
Из-за тогó(,) что Conjunction

Because of
principal part of a sentence. The clause with this conjunction may either follow
or precede the principal clause. A comma does not split the conjunction when
it starts a sentence, but it is placed before что when it follows a principal clause.
Synonymous with благодаря́ томý что thanks to. However, it has negative
110 Entries
implications. Clauses with this conjunction answer the question из-за чегó?
because of what? The conjunctions потомý что because, оттогó что because, так
как given that, ввидý тогó что in light of the fact that, вслéдствие тогó что as
a consequence of the fact that, в си́ лу тогó что given the fact that, and others are
synonymous as well. Nevertheless, they, too, have their own nuances and are
used in different styles. (See also благодаря́ томý что, потомý что, оттогó
что, так как, ввидý тогó что, вслéдствие тогó что, в си́ лу тогó что.)
Из-за тогó что адвокáта Because the lawyer was hospitalized, the hearings
госпитализи́ ровали, слýшания were postponed.
бы́ ли отлóжены.
Пожáр в больни́ це мог начáться The fire in the hospital could have started because
из-за тогó, что кто-то брóсил someone threw a cigarette butt down on the floor.
окýрок на пол.
Из-под Preposition
From under
Indicates the object from which a movement originates, commonly in combination
with inanimate nouns. These phrases respond to the question откýда? where from?
Олéг вы́ тащил я́ щик с Oleg brought out a case of bottles from under the
буты́ лками из-под столá. table.
Вдруг из-под ног вы́ порхнула Suddenly, a bird flew out from under his feet.
какáя-то пти́ ца.
Огрóмную ры́ бину с больши́ м They wrestled the humongous fish out from
трудóм вы́ тянули из-подо льда. under the ice with great effort.
Denotes the object where something was stored previously. These phrases
respond to the question из-под чегó? from what?
Бáбушка держáла ни́ тки в Grandma kept the thread in a tin-plate candy
жестянóй корóбке из-под конфéт. box.
Phrases and expressions with из-под

Из-под земли́ . Out of nowhere.
Достáть что-то из-под земли́ . To obtain something using whatever means
necessary.
Возни́ кнуть из-под земли́ . To appear suddenly out of nowhere.
Из-под (сáмого) нóса. Out from under one’s (very) nose.
Entries 111
Укрáсть из-под нóса. To steal out from under one’s nose.

Увезти́ / унести́ из-под нóса. To take something away out from under one’s nose.
Из-под пáлки. Against your own will.
Рабóтать из-под пáлки. To work against one’s own will.
Из-под полы́ . Illegally.
Продавáть что-то из-под полы́ . To sell something illegally.
Водá из-под крáна. Tap water.
И . . . и Conjunction
And . . . and
Connects similar objects, phenomena, signs, or actions and emphasizes the sig-
nificance of each item in the list. A comma is placed after each of the listed
parts. Used in poetic language. (See also и.)
Они́ успéли и в магази́ н съéздить, и They managed to go to the store and clean
в садý убрáть, и в кинó сходи́ ть. the yard and go to the movies.
И скýчно, и грýстно, и нéкому рýку I am weary and sad and there is no one
подáть. (М. Лéрмонтов) around to look to. (Lermontov)
И́ ли (иль) Conjunction
Or
Connects the last object of a list, which contains words, clauses, or phrases that
denote actions or phenomena that mutually exclude one another. Neutral and is
used in various styles and genres. Used more often than its synonyms и́ ли . . .
и́ ли either. . .or, ли́ бо or, ли́ бо . . . ли́ бо either or. (See и́ ли . . . и́ ли, ли́ бо,
ли́ бо . . . ли́ бо, то ли . . . то ли, не то . . . не то.)
Твой моби́ льник лежи́ т на столé и́ ли Your phone is either on the table or on the
на пóлке. shelf.
Сáра с друзья́ ми пойдёт в кинó и́ ли Sarah is either going to go to the movies with
бýдет игрáть в какýю-нибудь игрý в her friends or will play some online game.
интернéте.
Ты успéешь к шести́ , и́ ли я самá Will you make it by six or will I have to go
должнá бýду уйти́ ? by myself?
Expresses uncertainty in combination with the particle нет no. Semantically close
to the particle ли if, whether. (See also ли.)
Áлик не знáет, приéдет Нáдя и́ ли нет. Alik doesn’t know if Nadya will come.
112 Entries
Note!
The conjunction иль is the same as и́ ли. It is archaic and can be found in lit-
erature and poetry.
Онá, бывáло, нам поёт пéсни иль She used to sing to us or dance the lezginka.
пля́ шет лезги́ нку . . . (М. Лéрмонтов, (Lermontov, The Hero of Our Time)
«Герóй нáшего врéмени»)
И́ ли . . ., и́ ли Conjunction
Еither . . . or
Placed before each of the words or clauses that are listed. Emphasizes the fact
that each part excludes the other. A comma is placed after each of the listed
parts. Used less often than its synonym и́ ли or. At the same time, it is more
neutral than ли́ бо or and ли́ бо . . . ли́ бо either. . . or. (See also и́ ли, ли́ бо, ли́ бо
. . . ли́ бо, то ли . . . то ли, не то . . . не то.)
Бори́ с хóчет занимáться и́ ли Boris wants to work either in programming
программи́ рованием, и́ ли or in journalism.
журнали́ стикой.
(Игрáя на компью́ тере.) И́ ли мы (Playing a video game.) Either we beat this
сейчáс же пройдём э́ тот ýровень, level right now or I’m not going to play with
и́ ли я с вáми игрáть бóльше you anymore!
не бýду!
Expressions with и́ ли . . . и́ ли
И́ ли – и́ ли. Choose!
И́ ли сейчáс, и́ ли никогдá! Now or never!
Note!
The conjunction иль . . . иль is the same as и́ ли . . . и́ ли. It is archaic and can
be found in literature and poetry.
Иль в лесý под нож злодéю Either I’ll fall ’neath a bandit’s knife
Попадýся в сторонé, In the forest off the road,
Иль со скýки околéю Or I’ll die from boredom
Где-нибýдь в карантинé. Somewhere in quarantine.
(А. Пýшкин, «Дорóжные жáлобы») (Pushkin, Complaints from the Road)
Entries 113
И́ менно Particle. Conjunction

Particle
Specifically, exactly
Stresses and specifies the words following it. Makes a certain part of a sentence
more precise, usually somewhat emphatically. Used as a freestanding word and
as a confirming reply.
Ты хóчешь катáться на рóликах “Do you want to go roller-skating right
и́ менно сейчáс? – Да, и́ менно сейчáс. now?” “Yes, exactly right now.”
Мы должны́ купи́ ть и́ менно э́ тот We need to buy this computer specifically.
компью́ тер.
У меня́ такóе впечатлéние, что ты не “I get the feeling that you don’t understand
понимáешь, о чём мы говори́ м. – what we’re talking about.” “Exactly.”
И́ менно-и́ менно.
Used with the demonstrative words вот here and так so to confirm the previous
thought. Translations may vary.
Ты что, не хóчешь éхать с нáми ? – “You mean you don’t want to go with us?”
Вот и́ менно. “That’s right.”
Прáвда, э́ то Васи́ лий Аксёнов напи- “Is it correct that Vasily Aksenov wrote The
сáл «О́ стров Крым»? – И́ менно так. Island of Crimea?” “Yes.”
Я сдéлала э́ ту рабóту и́ менно так, I did the job precisely the way you asked.
как Вы проси́ ли.
Used with interrogative pronouns to specify the utterance как и́ менно? how
exactly/in what way?, что и́ менно? what exactly?, and with other question words
like где where, когдá when, зачéм why, почемý why, etc.
Как и́ менно ты собирáешься How exactly are you going to spend your
провести́ свой óтпуск? vacation?
Что и́ менно мы подáрим ей на день What exactly are we going to give her for her
рождéния? birthday?
Conjunction
Namely [form.]
Used to begin a list of objects or items. Frequently combined with а: а
и́ менно . . . namely . . . Also specifies what was said previously and can be ren-
dered as to be precise. Formal and is often used in scholarly literature, journalism,
etc., contrary to its less formal synonym то есть that is. (See also други́ ми сло-
вáми, ины́ ми словáми, то есть.)
114 Entries
В доклáде глáвный акцéнт был In the report, the emphasis was placed on
сдéлан на разви́ тии коммéрческой developing the university’s commercial
дéятельности университéта, а activities, namely attracting sponsors and
имéнно на привлечéнии спóнсорских grants.
средств и грáнтов.
Основнáя мáсса картóфеля произвó- The bulk of the potatoes is produced in the
дится в срéдней полосé, а имéнно в middle strip, namely in the Belgorod and
Белгорóдской, Новгорóдской областя́ х Novgorod regions and the Republic of
и Респýблике Чувáшия. («Вопрóсы Chuvashia. (“Questions of Statistics,”
стати́ стики», 2004, http://ruscorpora.ru/) 2004, http://ruscorpora.ru/)
Инáче Conjunction
Otherwise
An adversative conjunction used in compound sentences to indicate that the
accomplishment of the action in the second clause depends on the action in the
first clause. Neutral, while the synonyms а то otherwise and не то otherwise are
informal, and в проти́ вном слýчае otherwise is formal. (See also а то, в про-
ти́ вном слýчае, не то.)
Заказáть билéты нáдо ужé, инáче их We need to order the tickets now, otherwise
не бýдет. there won’t be any left.
Возьми́ зóнтик, инáче промóкнешь. Take an umbrella, or you’ll get drenched.
Note!
Do not confuse the conjunction with the adverb, which means differently.
Он дýмает об этом инáче. He thinks about it differently.
Инáче говоря́ Parenthetical expression

In other words
Used to refer to one’s own rhetoric. Separated by commas. This expression is
less formal than its synonym ины́ ми словáми in other words, while the syno-
nym други́ ми словáми in other words is neutral. (See also други́ ми словáми,
ины́ ми словáми.)
Кто в дóме хозя́ ин? Инáче говоря́ , к Who’s the man in charge? In other words,
комý обрати́ ться? who should I speak to?
Ужé пóздно, инáче говоря́ , мы It’s already late; in other words, we might
мóжем не успéть. not make it.
Entries 115
Ины́ ми словáми Parenthetical expression

In other words
Refers to one’s own rhetoric. Separated by commas. More often utilized in lit-
erature and formal language, while its synonym други́ ми словáми in other
words is neutral, and инáче говоря́ in other words is less formal. (See also дру-
ги́ ми словáми, инáче говоря́ .)
Биóлоги предложи́ ли испóльзо- Biologists have proposed utilizing a short
вать для э́ того корóткую genetic sequence, which is related to a standard
генети́ ческую послéдова- part of the genome, which, in other words,
тельность, котóрая отнóсится к everybody has. (Markina, “Details of the
стандáртной чáсти генóма, World,” 2011, www.ruscorpora.ru)
ины́ ми словáми, есть у всех.
(Н. Мáркина, «Детáли ми́ ра»,
2011, www.ruscorpora.ru)
Исключáя Preposition
Excluding
Often used with the particle не not. Usually, constructions with this preposition
are separated by commas. Phrases with (не) исключáя answer the questions
(не) исключáя когó? (not) excluding whom?, не исключáя чегó? (not) excluding
what? Somewhat formal and may sound bookish. (See the synonyms за
исключéнием, крóме.)
Все студéнты лю́ бят игрáть в All the students like to play checkers
шáшки, исключáя Тимýра. excluding Timur.
Всем рабóчим, не исключáя All the workers, not excluding the truck
води́ теля грузовикá, удалóсь driver, managed to listen to the head of the
послýшать начáльника трáнс- transport division.
портного цéха.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition with the verbal adverb исключáя excluding,
expelling.
Исключáя студéнтов из By expelling the students from higher
ВУЗов, влáсти продолжáют education institutions, the government
репрéссии. continues its repressions.
116 Entries
Исключи́ тельно Particle

Exclusively
Emphasizes the exclusiveness of something. Synonymous with еди́ нственно
solely, лишь but, тóлько only. No commas are used with this particle. More
frequently used in formal language. (See also еди́ нственно, лишь, тóлько.)
В корпорáции пóлностью отказáлись The corporation has completely rejected the
от произвóдства сóбственных production of personal computers, focusing
компью́ теров, сосредотóчившись instead exclusively on releasing storage
исключи́ тельно на вы́ пуске систéм systems. (Chernyak, “From Mainframes
хранéния. (Л. Черня́ к, «От мэйн- to Storage Systems,” Computerworld,
фрéймов к систéмам хранéния» // 2004)
«Computerworld», 2004.)
Исходя́ из Preposition
Based on
Indicates circumstances based on which actions occur. Usually, constructions
with this preposition are separated by commas. Answers the question исходя́ из
чегó? based on what? Commonly used in formal styles.
Иванóв бýдет дéйствовать, исходя́ из Ivanov will act based on the interests of his
интерéсов своегó предприя́ тия. enterprise.
Phrases with исходя́ из

Исходя́ из скáзанного. Based on what was said.
Исходя́ из э́ того / тогó. Based on this/that.
Исходя́ из óпыта. Based on experience.
Исходя́ из тогó(,) что Conjunction

Based on the fact that, since
Connects subordinate clauses that indicate circumstances based on which actions
in the principal clauses take place. These subordinate clauses answer the question
исходя́ из чегó? based on what? and the question исходя́ из каки́ х соо-
бражéний? based on what ideas/thoughts? Can appear in the beginning of a sen-
tence or in the middle. Commas are placed before the conjunction and before
что. Used in formal language.
Entries 117
Исходя́ из каки́ х соображéний Вы “Why did you fire several employees

увóлили срáзу нéскольких simultaneously?” “We were forced to fire
сотрýдников? – Вы́ нуждены бы́ ли them, since the firm is experiencing financial
увóлить, исходя́ из тогó, что фи́ рма hardships.”
испы́ тывает финáнсовые трýдности.
И так [coll.] Particle

Anyway
Translated differently based on the context. Underlines that an additional action
or event would exacerbate one’s current disposition. The expression (и) без
э́ того even without can be used similarly. (See also без.)
Не расстрáивай меня́ – и так плóхо. Don’t upset me – I feel bad already.
И так врéмени нет, а тут ещё рабóты I don’t have time anyway, and now I have
добáвили. all of this additional work.
Expression with и так

И так и сяк. This way and that.
Итáк Conjunction
So
Used in the beginning of sentences. Semantically close to the parenthetical слé-
довательно ergo and таки́ м óбразом thus. Separated by commas, sometimes
by a dash. (See also слéдовательно, таки́ м óбразом.)
Итáк, год закáнчивается, и нáдо So, the year is ending, and we have to think
дýмать, что дéлать дáльше. of what to do next.
И то Conjunction
To boot
Connects parts of sentences that add limitations to what was said previously.
Usually, a comma appears before the conjunction.
Дя́ дя Олéг приезжáет рéдко, и то Uncle Oleg rarely visits, and only for a little
ненадóлго. while, to boot.
Ди́ на всё дéлает с опоздáнием, и то Dina does everything belatedly, and poorly,
плóхо. to boot.
118 Entries
Ишь [coll.] Particle

Look at [someone]
Expresses astonishment, admiration, displeasure, or annoyance. Often used with
the words как like, какóй which, что what. In a certain context, it can supply
an opposite, often negative meaning.
Ишь ýмная какáя, дýмает, никтó не Look at you, smarty-pants, thinking nobody
замéтил ничегó. noticed anything.
Ишь чегó захотéли, лишь бы не Look at them, not wanting to work.
рабóтать.
Expression with ишь

Ишь ты! Look at you!
К (ко) Preposition
Towards
Indicates direction. With physical places and objects, denotes the point towards
which a motion is directed. Designates movements towards something that
cannot be entered. Phrases with this respond to the nonspecific question кудá?
where? or the more specific question по направлéнию к чемý? in what direc-
tion? (See also в, на.)
Э́ то дорóга к лéсу. This is the road to the woods.
Иди́ к кинотеáтру. Мы там бýдем Go to the movie theater. We’ll be there in
чéрез полчасá. half an hour.
То
Indicates a person’s place as the destination. These phrases respond to the non-
specific question кудá? where? or the more specific question к комý? to whom?
(See also у.)
Кудá вы собирáетесь? – Идём к “Where are you going?” “We’re going to
Ли́ зе. У неё вечери́ нка. Liza’s. There’s going to be a party.”
Note!
Cannot be used with inanimate nouns, unlike the prepositions в to and на to.
(See also в, на.)
Entries 119
By
Indicates the final moment in time by which an action must be accomplished.
Answers the question к какóму врéмени? by what time?
Бы́ ло бы неплóхо закóнчить ремóнт It would be nice to finish repairing the house
дóма к прáздникам. by the holidays.
Ко дню рождéния роди́ тели купи́ ли My parents got me a treadmill for my
беговýю дорóжку. birthday.
To
Indicates the object to which something or someone is added or joined.
Answers the questions к чемý? to what?, к комý? to whom? The verbs присое-
диня́ ть to join (together), дополня́ ть to supplement, добавля́ ть to add, примы-
кáть to adjoin are used.
Гарáж примыкáет пря́ мо к дóму. The garage is connected directly to the house.
Note!
Phrases with к combine with the verb принадлежáть to belong to express
the idea that someone belongs to a specific group or organization: Они́
принадлежáли к однóй пáртии. They belonged to the same party.
Indicates objects that are adjuncts to other objects. Translations may vary.
Ключ к замкý. The key to the lock.
Эпи́ граф к пóвести. The epigraph to the novella.
Мýзыка к спектáклю. Music for a show.
Пóдпись к письмý. A signature for a letter.
Тéзисы к доклáду. A summary for a paper.
Он так и не закóнчил предислóвие к He never managed to finish the preface

сбóрнику статéй к нýжному срóку. for the collection of papers by the deadline.
Some verbs are used with nouns and the preposition к. This answers the ques-
tions к чемý? to what?, к комý? to whom?
готóвиться к to prepare for
стреми́ ться к to strive for
приближáться к to approach
обращáться к to address
120 Entries
апелли́ ровать к to appeal to

приступи́ ть к to begin to
прикасáться к to touch
привлéчь к отвéтственности to hold accountable
привлéчь внимáние к чемý-то to draw someone’s attention to something
и́ ли к комý-то or someone
Some nouns are used with the preposition к. This answers the question к
чемý? to what?, к комý? to whom?
Любóвь к комý-то и́ ли к чемý-то. Love for someone or something.
Трéбовательность к себé и к други́ м. Expectations for oneself and others.
Привя́ занность к друзья́ м. Attachment to friends.
Пристрáстие к деньгáм. Obsession with money.
Внимáтельность к лю́ дям. Responsiveness to people.
Отношéние к рабóте. Attitude towards work.
Привы́ чка к табакý. Smoking habit.
Expressions and phrases with к

К чемý э́ то? What good is that/what is the point of
that? implies ни к чемý there’s no need
for it.
К лицý. It suits someone.
Не к лицý. It doesn’t become someone./It doesn’t suit
someone.
К мéсту / не к мéсту. Timely/untimely.
К слóву. By the way.
Ни к чемý. Good for nothing.
К томý же . . . Also . . ./In addition . . .
К сожалéнию. Unfortunately.
К счáстью / к несчáстью. Luckily/unluckily.
К бедé. A sign for the worst.
К дождю́ . A portent of rain.
От чáстного к óбщему. From the specific to the general.
Entries 121
Кáбы [arch., folk.] Conjunction

If
Connects subordinate clauses that imply unreal or contrary-to-fact condi-
tions, i.e., if the actions depicted in the principal clause could take
place, the subordinate clause expresses the conditions for possible fulfill-
ment. This conjunction, like éжели бы if, is mostly used in folklore
and literature. Syntactically utilized in the same way as its synonyms
éжели бы if, éсли бы if, когдá бы if. (See also éжели бы, éсли бы,
когдá бы.)
Кáбы я былá цари́ ца, – “Were our tsar to marry me,”
Говори́ т однá деви́ ца, – Said the eldest of the three,
То на весь крещёный мир “I would cook and I would bake — Oh,
Приготóвила б я пир. (А. Пýшкин, what royal feasts I’d make.” (Pushkin,
«Скáзка о царé Салтáне») Tale of Tsar Saltan, translated by Louis
Zellikoff)
Кáжется Parenthetical word. Particle

Parenthetical word
It seems
Demonstrates uncertainty or hesitation. Separated by commas. Used in speech in
the actual present tense, unlike казáлось it seemed, which is used in narration.
(See also казáлось, сýдя по всемý, похóже.)
Вы, кáжется, забы́ ли, что сегóдня It seems you’ve forgotten that you had to
нýжно бы́ ло прийти́ рáньше. arrive early today.
Particle
I think so
The particle кáжется is used as а response that expresses hesitation.
Фильм начинáется в 8:30? – Кáжется. “The film starts at 8:30?” “I think so.”
Note!
Can function as a predicate, depending on its function and the structure of the
sentence. As a predicate, it is not separated by commas.
Онá всегдá кáжется весёлой. She always seems joyful.
122 Entries
Казáлось Parenthetical word

It seemed
Conveys assumption or guess expressed in the next part of an utterance. Said
utterance sounds reasonable and logical, but is not necessarily so. The expression
is separated by commas. Used in narration in the grammatical past tense, unlike
кáжется it seems, which is used in speech in the actual present tense. (See also
кáжется, казáлось бы.)
Казáлось, егó совсéм не интересýют It seemed that he was completely
окружáющие. uninterested in the surrounding people.
Note!
Can function as a predicate, depending on its function and the structure of the
sentence. As a predicate, it is not separated by commas.
Елéне казáлось, что онá ужé былá в Elena thought that she had already been in
э́ том мéсте рáньше. this place earlier.
Казáлось бы Parenthetical word

It would seem
Conveys assumption or guess expressed in the next part of an utterance. Said
utterance sounds reasonable and logical, but is not. Separated by commas. (See
also казáлось.)
Учёному дар расскáзчика, казáлось A scientist, it would seem, has no need for
бы, без нужды́ , а у негó он каки́ м-то the gift of a storyteller, but for him, it was
óбразом входи́ л в егó наýчный somehow ingrained into his scientific talent.
талáнт. (Д. Грáнин, «Зубр») (Granin, The Bison)
Как Conjunction. Particle

Conjunction
How
ing gap in a principal clause. Used to indicate perception and refers to words
that express perception: ви́ деть to see, ви́ дно visible, слы́ шать to hear,
слы́ шно one hears, замечáть to note, замéтно noticeable, ощущáть to sense,
ощути́ мо palpable, чýвствовать to feel, чýвствуется one feels. Как conveys
emotions, while its synonym что that emphasizes the fact that something is
going on. (See also что.)
Entries 123
Зи́ на услы́ шала, как кто-то вошёл в Zina heard how somebody went into the
дом и стал поднимáться по house and started going up the stairs.
лéстнице.
As, as well as
Expresses equality or correspondence. Used to compare objects, features, or
actions in comparative constructions or in subordinate and principal clauses. The
demonstrative words так (же) so (as), такóй (же) so (as), таки́ м (же) óбразом
in the same manner are usually used in the principal clause. A comma is placed
before как. Sentences with как are elliptical. (See also бýдто, слóвно, тóчно.)
Лéна дéлает всё возмóжное, чтóбы Lena does everything she can to help her
помóчь мáтери, как и её сестрá. mother, as does her sister.
Глеб такóй осторóжный, как егó Gleb is as careful as his father.

отéц.
Expressions and sayings with как

Ви́ дно как на ладóни. As clear as if it lay on your palm.
Всё идёт как по мáслу. Like a knife through butter.
Похóжи как две кáпли воды́ . Like two peas in a pod.
Как за кáменной стенóй. To be very safe and secure – “safe as
houses.”
Живёт как у Христá за пáзухой. To be carefree.
Сидéть как на игóлках. To fidget around.
Дрожáть как оси́ новый лист. To tremble like a leaf.
Льёт как из ведрá. It’s raining cats and dogs.
Расти́ как на дрожжáх. To grow by leaps and bounds.
Бежи́ т как угорéлый / сумасшéдший. To run like mad.
Note!
No commas are needed in fixed sayings before как.
As
Signifies that someone or something functions as someone or something else.
No commas are needed.
Он рабóтает сейчáс как дирéктор He currently works as the director of a
кегельбáна. bowling alley.
124 Entries
Как óпытный педагóг онá не торó- As an experienced pedagogue, she does not
пится с вы́ водами в отношéнии спо- reach hasty conclusions concerning the
сóбностей свои́ х ученикóв. abilities of her students.
Э́ тот учéбник мóжно испóльзовать This textbook can be used as a reference
как спрáвочник. book.
Note!
Как is used with an appositive, describing and modifying objects. Separated
by commas. Sometimes, the author can decide if the construction is an
appositive.
О́ льга Николáевна, как знáющий As a knowledgable specialist, Olga
специали́ ст, должнá знать, что Nikolaevna must know what to do in these
дéлать в таки́ х слýчаях. situations.
This conjunction is used in phrases like дом как дом a house like any other
house, кинó как кинó a movie like any other movie, which imply that there is
nothing special about the discussed object. No commas are needed.
Тебé понрáвился матч? – Матч как “Did you like the game?” “A game like
матч. Ничегó осóбенного. any other. Nothing special.”
As soon as
Как or как тóлько connects subordinate clauses, which shows that the action
in the principal clause follows right after the action shown in the subordinate
clause. Срáзу immediately is implied or used with как in these situations. Как,
unlike как тóлько, sounds conversational. Когдá when is used more frequently.
(See also когдá.)
Как зарегистри́ руешься, срáзу As soon as you’ve registered, you can start
мóжешь начáть трéнинг. the training.
Как переéхали в нóвый дом, так As soon as we moved to a new house, we
перестáли ви́ деться. stopped seeing one another.
Particle [coll.]
How. What do you mean?
Used in the beginning of interrogative sentences to express astonishment, doubt,
or unpleasant surprise.
Пóезд ушёл. – Как ушёл? Ещё не “The train left.” “What do you mean, left?
врéмя. It’s not time yet!”
Entries 125
Как бýдто Conjunction. Particle

Conjunction
As if
Connects subordinate clauses that imply some unreal supposition. Can almost
always be replaced with the conjunction как éсли бы as if, but как is not used
in such cases. Sentences with как бýдто cannot, as a rule, be elliptical. The
conjunctions бýдто as if, слóвно as if, тóчно just like are synonyms of как
бýдто. Слóвно, тóчно point to a close resemblance of the actions depicted by
the predicates, while бýдто implies proximity. (See also бýдто, как, как éсли
бы, слóвно, тóчно.)
Ки́ ра смотрéла на Семёна, как бýдто Kira looked at Semyon as if she didn’t
не узнавáла егó. recognize him.
Particle [coll.]
As if
Indicates that something is suppositional, illusory, imaginary, or invented.
Он сидéл и как бýдто спал. He sat as if he were sleeping.
Как бы [coll.] Particle

As if
Conveys doubt, misgiving, or reservation. Very conversational. (See бýдто,
врóде, как бýдто.)
Начáльник как бы хорошó отнóсится It is as if the boss has a good attitude
к свои́ м подчинённым, а на сáмом towards his employees, but in reality, he
дéле о них совсéм не дýмает. doesn’t think about them at all.
Как бы не Conjunction
That
Connects clauses to express awareness or wariness. Here, the particle не does
not express negation. Placed before the predicate in a subordinate clause. The
verbs боя́ ться to be afraid of, волновáться to be worried, опасáться to be wary,
страши́ ться to fear, тревóжиться to be anxious, etc., are used in the principal
clauses.
Роди́ тели боя́ лись, как бы Илю́ ша не Ilyusha’s parents were afraid that he might
заболéл. get sick.
126 Entries
Отéц беспокóится, как бы дочь не The father’s worried that his daughter might
пропусти́ ла заня́ тия. miss her classes.
Note!
The conjunction что can be substituted for как бы не. In these cases, the par-
ticle не is not used.
Отéц беспокóится, что дочь полýчит The father is worried that his daughter will
ни́ зкие оцéнки при поступлéнии в get low grades when she goes to college.
университéт.
Как (бы) ни Conjunction

No matter how
Connects subordinate clauses that point to the circumstances in spite of which
the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. Conveys intensity to
the action described. The particle ни is usually placed before either a predicate
or an adverbial modifier (only when the latter is an adverb). The particle never
precedes a noun. This conjunction can also be combined with бы to emphasize
the meaning of concession. Phrases with всё-таки after all, всё равнó doesn’t
matter, тем не мéнее nevertheless are often used in the principal clause.
Как ни хóчется побы́ ть с вáми, всё- No matter how much I want to stay, I have
таки нýжно идти́ . to leave.
У Поли́ ны никáк не получáлось Polina had no luck patching things up with
налáдить отношéния с коллéгами, her colleagues no matter how hard she tried.
как бы онá ни старáлась.
Как вдруг Conjunction

When suddenly
Indicates that the action in the subordinate clause occurs suddenly following the
action in the principal clause, often interrupting or interfering with it. The sub-
ordinate clause follows the principal clause.
Мы собирáлись вы́ йти пройти́ сь, как We were getting ready to go for a walk when
вдруг началáсь грозá. suddenly a thunderstorm started.
Как éсли бы Conjunction

As if
Connects subordinate clauses, which imply some unreal supposition. Usually
replaced with the conjunction как бýдто as if, but как is not used in such
cases. The conjunctions бýдто as if, слóвно as if, тóчно just like are synonyms
Entries 127
of как éсли бы. Слóвно, тóчно point to a close resemblance of the actions
depicted by the predicates, while бýдто implies proximity. (See also бýдто,
как, как бýдто, слóвно, тóчно.)
На ýлице безлю́ дно, как éсли бы все The streets are empty as if everyone is hiding
попря́ тались от хóлода. from the cold.
Как же [coll.] Particle

How
Expresses astonishment, amazement, or wonder. Sometimes can convey a nega-
tive overtone and imply disagreement akin to certainly not.
Как же тётя Э́ лла обрáдуется, когдá How Aunt Ella will be happy when she
узнáет об э́ той нóвости! finds out about this news!
Тебя́ пригласи́ ли на вéчер? – Как же, “Did you get invited for the evening?”
жди. “Certainly not; wait for it.”
А как же Can be used as a positive response to the utterance.

Вы успéете к назнáченному срóку? – “Will you make it within this time frame?”
А как же! “Of course!”
Как назлó [coll.] Parenthetical expression

As if on purpose
Indicates an event or action that coincides with another event or action
and makes it difficult to fulfill it. Separated by commas. (See also как
нарóчно.)
Нáдо торопи́ ться, врéмени мáло I need to hurry, there’s not a lot of time left,
остаётся, а тут, как назлó, звонóк за and suddenly, as if on purpose – phone call
звонкóм, как сговори́ лись все. after phone call, as if everyone had conspired.
Как нарóчно Parenthetical expression

As if on purpose
Indicates an event or action that coincides with another event or action and
makes it difficult to fulfill. Separated by commas. (See also как назлó.)
Собрáлись éхать на дáчу, а день, как We were getting ready to go to the dacha,
нарóчно, вы́ дался дождли́ вым. but, as if on purpose, the day turned out to
be rainy.
128 Entries
Как ни стрáнно Parenthetical expression

As strange as it is
Used to point out that a situation, action, or event takes place, although this fact
astonishes or suprises the speaker. Separated by commas.
Арéнда такóго дóма, как ни стрáнно, As strange as it is, renting this house is not
обхóдится им не óчень дóрого. very expensive for them.
Как обы́ чно Parenthetical expression

As usual
Indicates the usual, common character of something, someone, or a situation.
Separated by commas.
Сергéй Сергéич, как обы́ чно, As usual, Sergey Sergeyich spoke at great
говори́ л дóлго и прострáнно. length.
Какóй Conjunction
The likes of which
The connective word какóй points out that an object is similar to others. Con-
nects subordinate clauses that usually refer to the part of the principal clause that
is expressed by a noun or nominal phrase. Its case depends on its function in the
attributive clause. (See also котóрый.)
На вы́ ставке бы́ ли мечи́ , каки́ х он At the exhibition, there were swords the likes
никогдá рáньше не ви́ дел. of which he had never seen before.
What kind of, what a

ing gap in a principal clause. Answers the questions of cases. Какóй focuses on
the quality of objects, their type, or the order of their choice.
Вы дáже не мóжете себе предстá- You can’t even imagine what a wonderful
вить, в какóм замечáтельном мéсте place we spent time in!
мы побывáли!
Какóй бы ни Conjunction
Regardless of
Connects subordinate clauses, pointing out that what is said in the principal
clause is true despite someone or something that the subordinate clause discusses.
Used with the past tense.
Entries 129
Почемý-то считáлось, что каки́ м бы For some reason, it was accepted that
ни был муж – э́ то твой крест, и ты regardless of the husband you had, he was
должнá егó нести́ . your cross to bear.
Как оказáлось/окáзывается Parenthetical expression

As it turned out
Shows that something is unexpected. Separated by commas.
Их компáния, как оказáлось, As it turned out, their company offered them
предостáвила креди́ т, не бýдучи их credit, despite not being their sponsor.
спóнсором.
Как полагáется Parenthetical expression

As is expected
Shows that something meets necessary requirements. Used more often than как
полóжено. Separated by commas.
Они́ , как полагáется, толпи́ лись у As is expected, they crowded around the
трýпа. (И. Грéкова, «Без улы́ бок») corpse. (Grekova, Without Smiles)
Note!
The phrase can be a part of a sentence. No commas are needed.
Как полагáется по послóвице: оди́ н As the saying goes, one for all and all for
за всех, и все за одногó! one!
Как прáвило Parenthetical expression

As a rule
Typically used in formal language. Separated by commas.
Морáльный ущéрб, как прáвило, As a rule, emotional distress is subject to
подлежи́ т возмещéнию в пóлном compensation in full.
объёме.
Как раз [coll.] Particle

Specifically
Emphasizes parts of an utterance. Can be a synonym of и́ менно exactly. (See also
и́ менно.)
В вáших дéйствиях как раз нет Specifically your actions are completely
никакóй лóгики. illogical.
130 Entries
Как раз э́ тот фильм нам и не Specifically this film was the one we didn’t
понрáвился. like.
Как . . ., так и Conjunction

Just like, exactly like
Connects coordinate parts of a sentence that are compared or different clauses in
which objects, subjects, or actions are compared.
Как сказáл стари́ к, так и сдéлал. The old man did it exactly like he said he
would.
Как дóма Нáстя ничегó не хóчет Nastya is lazy at school, just like at home,
дéлать, так и в шкóле онá лéнится where she doesn’t want to do anything.
Как тóлько Conjunction

As soon as, the moment
Connects subordinate clauses that indicate when the action depicted in the prin-
cipal clause occurs after the action depicted in the subordinate clause. These sub-
ordinate clauses answer the question когдá? when? The principal clause can start
with the word как. Как тóлько is neutral, unlike its synonyms едвá barely,
лишь just, лишь тóлько the moment, чуть тóлько the moment. (See also едвá,
лишь, лишь тóлько, чуть тóлько.)
Как тóлько закóнчился матч, The moment the game ended, a severe
началáсь си́ льная грозá. thunderstorm started.
Дéти побежáли на ýлицу, как тóлько The children ran outside the moment the sun
вы́ шло сóлнце. came out.
Караýл [coll.] Interjection

Help!
Used when someone is seeking help. Not used often in contemporary language,
unlike its synonyms спаси́ те save me/us, помоги́ те help me/us.
«Караýл! На пóмощь!» – простонáл “Help me! Somebody help!” moaned one of
оди́ н из корреспондéнтов. (Г. Гóрин, the correspondents. (Gorin, Ironic Memoirs)
«Ирони́ ческие мемуáры»)
К несчáстью Parenthetical expression

Unfortunately
Speakers use this expression to articulate their pity or sympathy towards an
utterance. Separated by commas. (See also к счáстью.)
Entries 131
И́ ра, к несчáстью, сломáла нóгу и не Unfortunately, Ira broke her leg and couldn’t
смоглá приéхать с нáми. come with us.
Когдá Conjunction
When
Connects subordinate clauses that indicate the time of the action reflected in the
principal part of a sentence. Used when the action depicted in the principal
clause occurs at the same time, before, or after the action depicted in the subor-
dinate clause. These subordinate clauses answer the questions когдá? when? The
principal clause may include the demonstrative words то then or тогдá then.
Когдá он возвращáется домóй, то все When he comes back home, everyone is
ужé спят. already asleep.
Когдá Пóла откры́ ла сýмку, онá When Paula opened her purse, she found
обнарýжила, что пáспорта нет. that her passport was missing.
Сотрýдники вернýтся, когдá The employees will return when the training
закóнчится трéнинг. ends.
If
Connects subordinate clauses that imply real conditions. They indicate the cir-
cumstances of the action reflected in the principal clause. These subordinate
clauses can be placed before or after the principal clause. If the subordinate
clause precedes the principal one, the principal clause will start with the demon-
strative words то then and тогдá then. Когдá is used to express a generalization,
although it is not used in impersonal sentences: Дед всегдá читáет, когдá у
негó есть свобóдная минýта. Grandpa always reads when he has a free minute.
Когдá is not used frequently, unlike its neutral synonym éсли if. (See also
éсли.)
Когдá есть вопрóсы, то задавáй их. If you have questions, ask them.
Когдá они́ смóгут, тогдá они́ зайдýт к If they can, they’ll stop by.
нам.
When
ing gap in a principal clause. The clauses answer the questions of cases. Когдá
conveys the meaning of time.
Не поня́ тно, когдá у пáртии рéйтинг It’s strange when a party’s approval rating is
мéньше пяти́ процéнтов, а онá below five percent, but it vies for control of
претендýет на роль пáртии влáсти. the government.
132 Entries
Ты лю́ бишь, когдá тебé всё врéмя Do you like it when someone constantly tells
расскáзывают, как нýжно жить? you how to live your life?
Когдá бы Conjunction
If
Connects subordinate clauses that imply unreal or contrary-to-fact conditions,
i.e., if the actions depicted in the principal clause could take place, the subordin-
ate clause expresses the conditions for possible fulfillment. The particle бы
appears in both principal and subordinate clauses. Can emphasize a part of the
principal clause when placed after the part to be emphasized. The neutral syno-
nym éсли бы if is used more frequently, while the synonymous кáбы if,
éжели бы if are archaic. (See also кáбы, éжели бы, éсли бы.)
Когдá бы он постоя́ нно занимáлся, If he were to study consistently, then there
то проблéм бы́ ло бы мéньше. would be fewer problems.
Когдá (бы) ни Conjunction

Whenever
clause is true despite the time of the action in the subordinate clause. Conveys
intensity to the action described. The particle ни is usually placed before a
predicate. Never precedes a noun. Когдá ни can also be combined with бы to
emphasize the meaning. Synonymous with всегдá always and никогдá never.
(See also когдá.)
Когдá ни придёшь, Пáвла дóма нет. Whenever you come over, Pavel isn’t at
home.
Когдá бы ты ни позвони́ ла, я всегдá Whenever you call, I’m always happy to
рáда тебé. hear from you.
Конéчно Parenthetical word. Particle

Parenthetical word
Of course
Can also be translated as sure. Expresses confidence and is separated by commas.
(See also безуслóвно, бесспóрно, естéственно, разумéется.)
Ки́ ра, конéчно, ещё мнóгого не Kira, of course, still doesn’t know much, but
знáет, но онá, рабóтая с таки́ ми she’ll gain experience working with such
специали́ стами, наберётся óпыта. specialists.
Entries 133
Particle
Of course
Used as an independent sentence-reply in confirmation to an utterance. (See also
безуслóвно, бесспóрно, естéственно, разумéется.)
Ты идёшь с нáми? – Конéчно! “Are you coming with us?” “Of course!”
Корóче говоря́ Parenthetical expression

In short
Used to avoid details or when closing the conversation. Separated by commas.
(See also слóвом.)
Стащи́ л я их у председáтеля I stole them from the head of the Leningrad
ленингрáдского горисполкóма. city council. In short, from the mayor of
Корóче говоря́ , у мэ́ ра Ленингрáда. Leningrad. (Dovlatov, The Suitcase)
(С. Довлáтов, «Чемодан»)
Котóрый Conjunction
Which
Connects subordinate clauses that usually refer to the part of the principal clause
that is expressed by a noun or nominal phrase. These clauses answer the ques-
tion какóй? what kind? Котóрый distinguishes one object from others. Agrees
with the noun it modifies in gender and number. Its case depends on its func-
tion in the attributive clause. (See also какóй.)
Клуб, в котóрый друзья́ собирáлись The club the friends planned to go to turned
пойти́ , оказáлся закры́ т. out to be closed.
На моногрáфии, котóрые бы́ ли To this day, people are citing the books
напи́ саны Дми́ трием Алекéевичем Dmitry Alekseevich wrote many years ago.
мнóго лет назáд, ссылáются до сих
пор.
Note!
The subordinate clause should be placed after the word referred to, or else
confusion can occur. Кастрю́ ля стоя́ ла на плитé, в котóрой был суп.
The pot stood on the stove, which had the soup. The subordinate clause should
be placed after the noun кастрю́ ля to avoid awkwardness. Кастрю́ ля, в
котóрой был суп, стоя́ ла на плитé. The pot with the soup stood on the
stove.
134 Entries
Note!
Котóрый cannot be used as the subject of an attributive clause if the predi-
cate expressed by a nominal is in the present tense. The sentence Он уви́ дел
прия́ теля, котóрый диджéй He saw his friend who was a DJ is not correct.
In this case, two sentences can be used or the sentence should be rephrased.
1. Он уви́ дел прия́ теля. Он диджéй. He saw his friend. He is a DJ. 2. Он
уви́ дел прия́ теля, котóрый рабóтает диджéем. He saw his friend, who
works as a DJ.
К примéру Parenthetical word

For example
Its synonym напримéр for example is more formal. Separated by commas. (See
also напримéр, скáжем.)
Мне óчень нрáвятся нéкоторые I like some British actresses a lot, like, for
англи́ йские актри́ сы, к примéру, example, Judi Dench, Helen Mirren, and
Джýди Денч, Хéлен Ми́ ррен, Мэ́ гги Maggie Smith.
Смит.
Крóме Preposition
Besides
Phrases with крóме are separated by commas if the preposition is a synonym of
исключáя еxcluding and за исключéнием еxcluding. Phrases with крóме
answer the questions крóме когó? besides whom?, крóме чегó? besides what?
(See also исключáя, за исключéнием.)
Никомý не расскáзывай, крóме Don’t tell anyone besides Larisa.
Лари́ сы.
Other than
A synonym of не считáя not counting, which is more common, and поми́ мо
besides, which is less common. No commas are needed. (See also не считáя,
поми́ мо, сверх.)
Потасóвки возникáли, когдá крóме There were scuffles when somebody other
студéнтов и приглашённых на than students and guests crashed the parties.
тусóвки проникáл другóй
контингéнт.
Entries 135
Expression with крóме

Крóме шýток. All jokes aside.
Крóме тогó Parenthetical expression

Additionally
Emphasizes additional information in the utterance. Separated by commas.
Он попроси́ л кóфе и, крóме тогó, He asked for coffee and, additionally, a
пирóжное. pastry.
Крóме тогó(,) что Conjunction

Aside from, other than that
Connects clauses that clarify the utterance and displays facts that are of
importance. The part that follows the clause with the conjunction has
additional information. A comma does not split the conjunction when it
starts a sentence, but it is placed before что when it follows a principal
clause. Synonymous with мáло тогó(,) что it’s not enough that, although
крóме тогó(,) что tends to have a positive implication. (See also мáло
тогó что.)
Крóме тогó что О́ льга ýчится, она Aside from studying, Olga also works.
ещё и рабóтает.
Semantically close to не считáя тогó(,) что not counting that, поми́ мо тогó
(,) что aside from. (See also не считáя тогó что, поми́ мо тогó что.)
О ней мáло что извéстно, крóме Little is known about her other than that,
тогó, что в дéтстве онá потеря́ ла when she was little, she lost her loved ones.
свои́ х бли́ зких.
К слóву (сказáть) Parenthetical expression

By the way
А synonym of мéжду прóчим by the way and кстáти by the way, which are
used more often than к слóву. Separated by commas.
Валéрий Ви́ кторович был Valery Viktorovich was an amazing linguist
замечáтельный лингви́ ст и, к слóву and, by the way, knew many languages.
сказáть, знал мнóго языкóв.
136 Entries
К сожалéнию Parenthetical expression

Unfortunately
Speakers use this expression to articulate their dissatisfaction or frustration
towards an utterance. Separated by commas. Semantically close to к несчáстью
unfortunately. (See also к несчáстью.)
Пóсле развáла Совéтского Сою́ за, к Unfortunately, after the collapse of the
сожалéнию, мнóгие остáлись без рабóты. Soviet Union, many people were left
without a job.
Note!
К сожалéнию can be used in combinations with possessive pronouns and some
adjectives that express a degree of emotions.
К моемý сожалéнию. Unfortunately.
К глубóкому сожалéнию. To my deep regret.
К большóму сожалéнию. Much to my regret.
Кстáти Parenthetical word

By the way
A synonym of мéжду прóчим by the way and к слóву by the way. Кстáти and
мéжду прóчим are used more often than к слóву. Кстáти говоря́ by the way
and кстáти сказáть by the way can be used as well. Separated by commas. (See
also к слóву, мéжду прóчим, слýчаем.)
Ты, кстáти, не собирáешься на футбóл? By the way, are you going to the soccer
Можéшь состáвить мне компáнию. game? You can keep me company.
К стыдý своемý Parenthetical expression

To one’s shame
Expresses displeasure or condemnation towards one’s own or someone else’s
actions. Separated by commas. The synonymous сты́ дно сказáть to my shame
is used more often. (See also сты́ дно сказáть.)
Oн, к стыдý своемý, не смог To his shame, he couldn’t answer such
отвéтить на такóй простóй вопрóс. an easy question.
К счáстью Parenthetical expression

Luckily
Speakers use this expression to articulate their delight or satisfaction towards an
utterance. Separated by commas. (See also к несчáстью.)
Entries 137
Ири́ на, к счáстью, вóвремя Luckily, Irina remembered in time that her
вспóмнила, что её ждёт начáльник. boss was waiting for her.
Note!
The phrase can be a part of a sentence. No commas are needed.
Посýда бьётся к счáстью. Broken tableware brings good fortune.
Кто Conjunction
Who
As a connective word, кто focuses on the subject or object, and when it is an
object, it is declined. Connects subordinate clauses that function as subjects or
objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. These clauses answer the
questions of cases.
Совершéнно поня́ тно, о ком они́ It’s completely clear whom they’re discussing.
говоря́ т.
Не пóмню, кто дал мне э́ тот I don’t remember who gave me this number.
телефóн.
Connects subordinate clauses that usually refer to the part of the principal clause
that is expressed by a noun or nominal phrase. These subordinate clauses answer the
question какóй? which? Connects the attributive clause to the pronouns тот that,
все everyone, кáждый each, любóй any in the principal clause when it functions as
a subject or an object. Can be translated in different ways or elided entirely.
Та, о ком он так дóлго мечтáл, The one he had dreamed of for so long was
наконéц былá с ним. with him at last.
Note!
When тот functions as an attribute, the connective word котóрый which is
used.
Та жéнщина, о котóрой он так дóлго The woman he had dreamed of for so long
мечтáл, наконéц былá с ним. was with him at last.
Кто бы ни Conjunction
Whoever
clause is true despite someone or something that the subordinate clause discusses.
Used with the past tense.
138 Entries
Кто бы ни обращáлся к Гали́ не Galina Mikhailovna tried to help whomever

Михáйловне, онá всем старáлась sought her out.
помóчь.
К томý же Conjunction
Additionally
The words connected by this conjunction contain extra information. After к
томý же, a comma is not needed. Often used with и and. (See also при э́ том,
тáкже.)
Бы́ ло пáсмурно, и к томý же всё It was cloudy, and it was raining all the
врéмя шёл дождь. time.
Кудá Conjunction
Where
ing gap in a principal clause. These clauses answer the questions of cases. Кудá
conveys the meaning of direction of movement.
Они́ и тепéрь не знáют, кудá Even now they don’t know where to go after
отпрáвятся пóсле визи́ та к they visit their relatives.
рóдственникам.
Where
Adverbial subordinate clauses of place with кудá refer to a combination
of a predicate and the demonstrative words там there, тудá there in
the principal clause. The adverbs всю́ ду everywhere, вездé everywhere,
напрáво to the right, налéво to the left, and others may be used in principal
clauses.
Матвéй пóнял, что попáл не тудá, Matvey realized that he hadn’t ended up
кудá собирáлся. where he wanted to be.
Note!
the principal clause is possible in colloquial speech, but in many cases, it is not
the preferred style.
Дéти побежáли тудá, кудá éхали The kids ran to where the cyclists were
велосипеди́ сты. headed.
Entries 139
Where
Connects attributive subordinate clauses, which usually refer to the part of the
principal clause that is expressed by a noun or nominal phrase when a noun in
the principal clause indicates a place or a space. These clauses answer the ques-
tion какóй? what kind? Кудá can be replaced by котóрый which.
Лес, кудá / в котóрый дéти ходи́ ли The woods where the children went to pick
собирáть грибы́ и я́ годы, был совсéм mushrooms and berries were quite close.
недалекó.
Кудá (бы) ни Conjunction

Wherever
Connects subordinate clauses that point to places in spite of which the action
described in the principal clause is accomplished. Conveys intensity to the action
described. The particle ни is usually placed before a predicate. The particle
never precedes a noun. Кудá ни can be combined with бы to emphasize the
meaning; in this case, it is used with the past tense. The adverbs всю́ ду every-
where, вездé everywhere, повсю́ ду all around, со всех сторóн from all sides, and
others can be used in principal clauses. (See also где бы ни, откýда (бы) ни.)
Кудá Сáша ни позвони́ т, нигдé никтó Wherever Sasha calls, nobody ever answers.
не отвечáет.
Кудá бы Пáша ни ходи́ л, вездé бы́ ло Wherever Pasha went, there was always a
полнó нарóда. crowd.
Кыш [coll.] Interjection

Shoo!
An exclamation that is used to chase away birds. However, it is used in various
contexts and situations. Used with the adverb отсю́ да from here.
(Отгоня́ я голубéй.) Кыш, кыш (Chasing away pigeons.) Shoo, shoo!
отсю́ да!
(Грýбо в áдрес мальчи́ шек на ýлице.) (Rudely directed at boys playing outside.)
Кыш, а ну пошли́ отсю́ да. Shoo, get out of here.
Лáдно [coll.] Particle

Okay
Expresses agreement. Used as a positive reply. More conversational than its
synonym хорошó okay. (See also хорошó.)
Пойдём вмéсте пообéдаем? – Лáдно. “Let’s go have lunch together?” “Okay.”
140 Entries
Okay?
Used in the end of an utterance with an interrogative intonation when the
speaker expects an affirmative reply.
Я к вам заглянý на минýтку, лáдно? “I’ll stop by for a bit, okay?” “Alright.”
– Хорошó.
Легкó сказáть Parenthetical expression

Easy to say
Implies that it is difficult to do something. Separated by commas or by dashes.
Легкó сказáть, пое́ хали рабóтать It’s easy to say “let’s go work at the
на стрóйку на нéсколько construction site for a few months.”
мéсяцев.
Note!
Can be used as a predicate. In this case, no commas are needed.
Легкó сказáть такóе. Как That’s easier said than done. How do we
осуществи́ ть? make it happen?
The expression легкó сказáть – трýдно сдéлать easy to say, hard to do is

conversational.
Лýчше сказáть Parenthetical expression

More precisely
Semantically close to the parenthetical expressions точнéе говоря́ more precisely,
точнéе сказáть more precisely. Separated by commas.
Прошéдшую ночь я летáл и́ ли, Last night I flew, or more precisely, walked
лýчше сказáть, шагáл по вóздуху. on the air. (Grekova, Without Smiles)
(И. Грéкова, «Без улы́ бок»)
Note!
Can be used as part of a sentence. In this case, no commas are needed.
Вот тут я не знáю, как лýчше Here, I do not know how to say it better:
сказáть «у нас в странé» и́ ли “in our country” or “Russian people.”
«рýсские лю́ ди». (Grishkovets, Simultaneously)
(Е. Гришковéц, «Одноврéмeнно»)
Entries 141
Ли (ль) Particle. Conjunction

Particle
Used to form an interrogative sentence to emphasize uncertainty or doubt.
Всё ли поня́ тно вам? Do you understand everything?
Мы ещё не знáем, хорóший ли он We don’t know yet whether he is a good
дирéктор. director.
Phrases with ли
Мáло ли? Who knows?
То ли дéло . . . It’s another thing . . .
Шýтка ли. It’s not a joke.
Conjunction
Whether, if
Connects subordinate clauses that usually refer to a verb, a participle, a verbal
adverb, or a short adjective in a principal clause. Explanatory clauses function as
subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. These subordinate
clauses answer the questions of cases. Never opens a clause, but follows the word
to which it refers, so it is usually the second word in the clause. Also serves to
express questions in indirect speech. Doubt is reflected by ли in its standard pos-
ition, while и́ ли нет or not is placed at the end of a sentence. (See also и́ ли.)
Я не увéрен, смогý ли почини́ ть I’m not sure if I’ll be able to fix the modem
модéм – возмóжно, придётся – we might have to buy another one.
покупáть новый.
Кáтя спроси́ ла, мóжно ли перенести́ Katya asked whether she could change the
её доклáд на другóй день. date of her presentation.
Note!
The conjunction ль is the same as ли. Archaic and can be found in literature
and poetry.
Ли́ бо Conjunction
Or
Connects the last object of a list, which contains words, clauses, or phrases that
denote actions or phenomena that mutually exclude each other. Semantically
close to и́ ли or, while stylistically it is often used in literature and formal
142 Entries
language. (See the synonyms и́ ли, и́ ли . . . и́ ли, ли́ бо . . . ли́ бо, то ли . . . то

ли, не то . . . не то.)
Раи́ са Михáйловна бýдет принимáть Raisa Mikhailovna will either be taking part
учáстие в нóвом проéкте, ли́ бо уéдет in the new project, or she will be on a
в командирóвку. business trip.
Ли́ бо . . . ли́ бо Conjunction

Either . . . or
Placed before each of the words or clauses that are listed. Emphasizes the fact
that each part excludes the other. A comma is placed after each of the listed
parts. Used less often than its synonym ли́ бо or and much less than и́ ли or. (See
the synonyms и́ ли, и́ ли . . . и́ ли, ли́ бо, то ли . . . то ли, не то . . . не то.)
А́ нна éздит на рабóту ли́ бо на своём Anna gets to work either in her Mercedes or
мéрсе, ли́ бо на такси́ . in a taxi.
Лишь Conjunction. Particle

Conjunction
As soon as, right after
Лишь just, éдва лишь the moment, or лишь тóлько the moment are used
when the action depicted in the principal clause occurs after the action depicted
in the subordinate clause. If а subordinate clause with these conjunctions pre-
cedes the principal clause, the principal clause can start with the word как as. A
subordinate clause with these conjunctions answers the question когдá? when?
These conjunctions can sound archaic in spoken Russian, but they are appropri-
ate for written and literary language. For spoken Russian, the word лишь can
be replaced by тóлько only. (See also тóлько.)
Лишь сóлнце зашлó, срáзу стáло As soon as the sun set, it got dark
темнó. immediately.
Лишь тóлько Пётр закóнчит шкóлу, The minute Pyotr finishes school, he’s going
он тут же уéдет в другóй гóрод. to move to a different city.
Particle
Only
Can be replaced with тóлько only in reference to certain objects or phenomena
without exceptions. (See also тóлько.)
Он пóмнит лишь тебя́ . He remembers only you.
Entries 143
Only
Means “not a lot.” Emphasizes how small the amount of something is. The
combinations лишь тóлько and всегó лишь can be used to highlight the
utterance and denote the insignificance or unimportance of the subject being
discussed. Лишь and the combinations are informal, while the synonym
тóлько only is formal. (See also тóлько.)
Им остáлось учи́ ться всегó лишь два They only have two years of school left.
гóда.
Saying with лишь

Это лишь цветóчки, я́ годки впереди́ . That’s just for starters; the worst is yet to come.
Лишь бы Particle
If only, just
Either expresses a strong desire or wish, or characterizes someone’s indifference
towards something.
Лишь бы он быстрéе вернýлся. If only he comes back sooner.
Тебé лишь бы сказáть что-нибýдь. You just want to say something.
Мáло тогó Parenthetical expression

Not only that
Emphasizes additional information in the utterance, expressing positive or nega-
tive emotions. Separated by commas. (See also крóме тóго.)
Лёнина племя́ нница не приéхала, Lyonia’s niece didn’t come to see us; not
чтóбы уви́ деться с нами, мáло тогó, only that, but she didn’t even call.
дáже не позвони́ ла.
Мáло тогó что Conjunction

It’s not enough that
Connects clauses that clarify the utterance. The part that follows the clause with
the conjunction has additional information. A comma does not split the con-
junction when it starts a sentence. Synonymous with крóме тогó(,) что aside
from, although it may convey a negative overtone. (See also крóме тогó что.)
Мáло тогó что Елизавéта опоздáла, It’s not enough that Elizabeth was late, but
онá и не предупреди́ ла, что she didn’t even warn us that she’d be late.
опáздывает.
144 Entries
Мéжду Preposition
Between, among
Indicates that something or someone is situated between or among animate or
inanimate objects. Also indicates that something is happening between or among
people. Phrases with мéжду answer the questions мéжду кем? between whom?,
мéжду чем? between what? (See also среди́ .)
Стол мóжно постáвить мéжду The table can go between the wardrobe and
шкáфом и стенóй. the wall.
Мéжду ни́ ми завязáлись хорóшие They have established a good relationship.
отношéния.
Мéжду Лари́ сой и её брáтом былá There was a difference of six years between
рáзница в шесть лет. Larisa and her brother.
Saying with мéжду

Мéжду нéбом и землёй. Between heaven and earth.
Мéжду мóлотом и наковáльней. Between a rock and a hard place.
Between
Shows that an action takes place within a certain interval of time.
Я бýду дóма мéжду чáсом и двумя́ . I will be at home between one and two. Do
Заходи́ . drop by.
Мы мóжем встрéтиться в переры́ ве We can meet up in the break between
мéжду сéссиями. sessions.
Мéжду нáми (говоря́ ) Parenthetical expression

Between you and me
Indicates that the discussed information is not intended for other people. Separ-
ated by commas.
Пáвел Сергéевич, нáши заседáния, Between you and me, Pavel Sergeevich, I
мéжду нáми (говоря́ ), мне перестáли don’t much like our meetings anymore.
нрáвиться.
Note!
Can be used as a part of a sentence. Commas are not needed.
Entries 145
Такóе впечатлéние, что мéжду нáми It seems as if our relationship went south.
пробежáла чёрная кóшка.
Мéжду прóчим Parenthetical expression

By the way
Used as a synonym of кстáти by the way. (See also кстáти.)
Андрéй‚ мéжду прóчим‚ чéрез три By the way, Andrey is leaving for a few
дня уезжáет на нéсколько мéсяцев. months in three days.
Note!
Мéжду прóчим‚ как бы мéжду прóчим as if in passing‚ or как бýдто
мéжду прóчим as if incidentally can be used as an adverb. Commas are not
needed.
Он расскáзывал о своéй жи́ зни на He was describing his life in the North
Сéвере и мéжду прóчим сказáл‚ как and mentioned in passing how depressing
емý бывáло тоскли́ во без жены́ и it sometimes was without his wife and
детéй. children.
«Я выхожý зáмуж»‚ – как бы мéжду “I’m getting married,” said Maya, as if in
прóчим сказáла Мáйя. passing.
Мéжду тем Conjunction

While, in the meantime
Мéжду тем and the synonymous а мéжду тем meanwhile, мéжду тем
как while connect clauses that contrast with each other. (See also в то
врéмя как.)
Вéра приéхала днём, мéжду тем Vera arrived in the afternoon, while the
остальны́ е при́ были рáньше. others got there earlier.
Гóсти увлекли́ сь разговóром‚ а They got carried away with their
мéжду тем ужé бы́ ло пóздно, и conversation, and in the meantime, it had
нýжно бы́ ло уходи́ ть. gotten late, and they had to leave.
Мы уходи́ ли всё дáльше от лáгеря‚ We were getting farther and farther from the
мéжду тем как потемнéло, и camp, and in the meantime, it had gotten
началáсь грозá. dark, and a thunderstorm had started.
Note!
Usually, a comma appears before мéжду тем как while without splitting it.
146 Entries
Мéнее Particle
Less
Used together with adjectives and adverbs in their basic forms to form a com-
pound comparative degree that is used most often in literature, while the simple
comparative degree is neutral and is used in different styles, e.g., мéнее
дешёвый less cheap versus дешéвле cheaper. Мéнее should not be confused
with мéньше smaller. The former is used to form the compound comparative
degree, while the latter is the comparative form of the adjective мáленький
small. (See also бóлее.)
Дéятельность их фи́ рмы не так The firm’s activities are not as noticeable,
замéтна, но от э́ того не мéнее важнá. but are no less important.
Ми́ мо Preposition
By, past
Indicates objects that move by other objects without stopping. Phrases with this
preposition answer the questions ми́ мо когó? past whom?, ми́ мо чегó past what?
Кóстя промчáлся ми́ мо нас, не Kostya zoomed past us without stopping.
останови́ вшись.
Мóжет / мóжет быть Parenthetical word/expression

Maybe, perhaps
Мóжет is colloquial and is used less frequently than мóжет быть. Both the
word and the expression are separated by commas. Can also be a particle and
function as an independent sentence-reply. (See the synonyms вероя́ тно,
ви́ димо, возмóжно, навéрное.)
Онá, мóжет, однá из лýчших модéлей She is maybe one of the best models in
в Еврóпе. Europe.
Мóжет быть, вы приéдете к нам “Maybe you’ll come visit us?” “Maybe.”
погости́ ть? – Мóжет.
Note!
Both the word and the expression can be used as a part of a sentence. No
commas are needed.
Степáн Петрóвич мóжет стать Stepan Petrovich could become a sportscaster.
спорти́ вным комментáтором.
Entries 147
Что мóжет быть лýчше, чем óтдых What can be better than a vacation in the
на Багáмах? Bahamas?
Мóжно сказáть Parenthetical expression

You can say
Expresses the possibility of using certain ideas, thoughts, or definitions. Separated
by commas. (See the synonym нáдо сказáть.)
Наш дед, мóжно сказáть, обладáл You can say our grandpa had encyclopedic
энциклопеди́ ческими знáниями. knowledge.
Note!
Can be used as a predicate. No commas are needed.
А́ нне Петрóвне мóжно сказáть всё, We can tell Anna Petrovna everything we
что мы дýмаем по э́ тому пóводу. think about this.
Мол [coll.] Particle

As one put it
Used in reference to someone’s speech, often with a shade of distrust, explaining
someone’s actions. Separated by commas. (See the synonym дéскать.)
Олéг объясни́ л, что, мол, пересéли Oleg explained that they sat at a different
они́ за другóй стóлик, поскóльку им table because, as he put it, they had to talk
нáдо бы́ ло о чём-то поговори́ ть about something by themselves.
вдвоём.
На Preposition
For
Indicates the period or duration of the effect or impact of an action or the
period during which one plans to be doing something. Forms the question на
скóлько врéмени? for how long? The combination на какóй with words that
denote a unit of time form interrogative sentences such as: на какóй день? for
what day? The combination на э́ тот / пéрвый раз are also commonly used.
Translations may vary.
Пéред отъéздом Ки́ ра отдалá собáку Before she left, Kira left her dog with her
свои́ м друзья́ м на пять дней. friends for five days.
148 Entries
На втóрник нýжно успéть мнóго We need to get a lot of reading done for
прочитáть. Tuesday.
На сегóдняшний день нáша As of today, our lab is not able to handle the
лаборатóрия с рабóтой не current amount of work.
справля́ ется.
На пéрвый раз такóе поведéние It’s possible to pardon such behavior the first
мóжно прости́ ть. time.
Used with some verbs like отложи́ ть to postpone, перенести́ to reschedule, опоздáть
to be late, when implying a specific moment or length of time. Answers the questions
на когдá? for when?, на скóлько? for how long?
Тести́ рование перенесли́ на They rescheduled the testing period for next
слéдующую недéлю. week.
Мы отложи́ ли на год поéздку в We postponed our trip to Irkutsk for a year.
Иркýтск.
Вчерá ты опоздáл на 25 минýт‚ You were 25 minutes late yesterday and an
сегóдня – на час. hour late today.
To, on
Designates the direction in which an object moves. In particular, combines with
nouns in the accusative case and is used with or implies verbs of motion. Phrases
with this preposition answer the question кудá? where? Correlates with the
preposition с with. (See also с.)
Веснóй Э́ лла собирáется на Кавкáз Ella is going to the Caucasus in the spring to
снимáть фильм. shoot a film.
Онá поéхала на вокзáл. She went to the train station.
Кудá постáвили чáйный серви́ з? – “Where is the tea set?” “I think it’s on the
Кáжется на шкаф. shelf.”
Note!
Does not follow verbs such as быть to be, рабóтать to work, проводи́ ть to
spend, отдыхáть to take a vacation; for example, compare éду на три дня I’m
going there to spend three days with бýду три дня I’ll be there three days.
Used to define a measurement, amount, range, or volume of a whole. Indicates
the number of parts or pieces into which the whole could be divided. Phrases
with на answer the question на скóльких? for how many?, на скóлько? for
how much? Translations may vary.
Entries 149
Мать приготóвила обéд на дéсять Mother made dinner for 10 people.

человéк.
Разрéжь торт на вóсемь частéй. Cut the cake into eight pieces.
Онá накупи́ ла подáрков на 2000 She spent 2000 rubles on gifts.
рублéй.
Phrases with на and certain verbs

Надéть одéжду на ребёнка. To put clothes on a child.
Наки́ нуть платóк на плéчи. To throw a scarf around one’s shoulders.
Смотрéть / взглянýть на когó-то. To look/glance at someone.
Учи́ ться на инженéра. To study to become an engineer.
Читáть / учи́ ть стихи́ на пáмять. To recite/memorize poetry.
Занимáться на одни́ пятёрки. To get straight As.
Лови́ ть на ýдочку. [lit. and fig.] To hook.
Закры́ ть на замóк. To lock.
Провожáть когó-то на пóезд. To accompany someone to the train.
Приглашáть на пóкер / на обéд. To invite someone to poker/dinner.
Трáтить дéньги на что-то и́ ли когó-то. To spend money on something or for someone.
Рабóтать на когó-то. To work for someone.
Звать на пóмощь. To call for help.
Вызывáть на дуэ́ ль. To challenge to a duel.
Вéрить на слóво. To take one at one’s word.
Хромáть на лéвую нóгу. To have a limp in one’s left leg.
Кричáть на когó-то. To scream at someone.
Производи́ ть впечатлéние на когó-то. To make an impression on someone.
Надéяться на когó-то и́ ли на что-то. To rely on someone or something.
Воздéйствовать на когó-то. To affect someone.
Отвечáть на вопрóс. То аnswer а question.
Настáивать на своём. To insist on one’s own ideas.
Испы́ тывать на прóчность. To test someone or something’s sturdiness.
Быть похóжим на когó-то. To resemble someone.
Меня́ ть что-то на что-то. To exchange something for something.
150 Entries
Phrases with на and certain nouns

Запрéт на алкогóль. A prohibition on alcohol.
Дéньги на ремóнт. Money for repairs.
Прáво на образовáние. The right to education.
Ковёр на пол. A rug for the floor.
Лéкция на какýю-то тéму. A lecture on some topic.
Рецéнзия на статью́ . A review of an article.
Реáкция на кри́ тику. Reaction to criticism.
Sayings with на
На вся́ кий слýчай. Just in case.
Мáстер на вы́ думки. A master inventor.
Готóв на всё. Ready for anything.

On, at, in
Used to indicate an object’s location. Phrases with this preposition answer the
nonspecific question где? where? or the more specific questions на ком? on
whom?, на чём? on what?
Семья́ Ли́ дии всю жизнь жилá на Lydia’s family lived in Alaska all their
Аля́ ске. life.
Где лежáт докумéнты? – В портфéле “Where are the documents?” “In the
на пóлке. briefcase on the shelf.”
На Жéниной рукé браслéт смóтрится The bracelet looks great on Zhenya’s
замечáтельно. wrist.
Ребёнок лежи́ т на животé и не хóчет The baby is lying on his stomach and
переворáчиваться. doesn’t want to turn over.
Used with nouns indicating units of time to imply that something is happening
at that moment. Combined with the noun недéля a week. Forms phrases like
встать на рассвéте to get up at dawn, умерéть на какóм-то годý жи́ зни to
die at some specific age, повидáть на своём векý to have seen a lot, на пя́ том
Entries 151
мéсяце берéменности in her fifth month of pregnancy. These phrases answer the
nonspecific question когдá? when?
На прóшлой недéле в компáнию Last week, a lot of guests from many
приéхали гóсти из мнóгих countries visited the company.
стран.
Phrases with на and certain verbs

Учи́ ться на пя́ том кýрсе. To be in one’s fifth year of college.
Победи́ ть на вы́ борах. To win the elections.
Отсýтствовать на лéкции. To be absent from the lecture.
Выступáть на фóруме. To present in a forum.
Говори́ ть на какóм-то языкé. To speak a language.
Игрáть на музыкáльных To play musical instruments.
инструмéнтах.
Жáрить на мáсле. To fry in oil.
Вязáть на спи́ цах. To knit.
Что-то рабóтает на батарéйках. Something runs on batteries.
Что-то происхóдит на чьих-то Something is happening in front of someone’s
глазáх. eyes.
Сосредотóчиться на проблéме. To concentrate on the problem.
Оснóвываться / бази́ роваться на To be founded/based on data.
дáнных.
Phrases with на and certain nouns

Пальтó на мехý. A fur-lined coat.
Тýфли на каблукáх. High-heeled shoes.
Стóлик на колёсах. A table on wheels.
Кáша на молокé. Kasha made with milk.
Sayings with на
На лю́ дях. To be among people.
На войнé как на войнé. Business as usual. (From the French “à la
guerre comme à la guerre”)
152 Entries
Particle
Here
Used when offering someone something. Very informal. Can sound rude if
addressing people who are not very close. Separated by commas.
Дай, пожáлуйста, тот словáрь. – На, “Give me that dictionary, please.” “Here,
возьми́ . take it.”
Навéрно(е) Parenthetical word

Probably
Separated by commas and utilized in different styles. Can be used as a separate
sentence. Expresses confirmation with a shade of doubt. (See the synonyms воз-
мóжно, ви́ димо, должнó быть, мóжет быть.)
Я, навéрное, вернýсь к девяти́ . I’ll probably be back by nine.
Note!
Can be used as an adverb in a sentence. The choice depends on the speaker’s
perception. No commas are needed.
Он навéрное придýмает, как вы́ йти He’ll probably come up with a way out of
из э́ той ситуáции. this situation.
Навстрéчу Preposition
Towards
Used to indicate movement in an opposite direction. Phrases with this prepos-
ition answer the questions навстрéчу комý? towards whom?, навстрéчу чемý?
towards what? Used in many phrases figuratively.
Навстрéчу нам шли солдáты. Soldiers were walking towards us.
The commonly used phrase идти́ навстрéчу чьим-то желáниям means to

acquiesce to someone’s wishes.
Note!
Do not confuse навстрéчу with the two words на встрéчу to a meeting.
Entries 153
Над (надо) Preposition

Надо is the same as над and is used before one-syllable words that begin
with two consonants, the first of which is either р or л (надо лбом over
one’s forehead, надо рвом over a ravine). Used in contemporary language
mostly with a personal pronoun in the first person singular надо мной over
me.
Over
The spatial preposition над indicates the place where objects are situated. Used
in response to the question где? where?
Над пóлем пролетéла стáя птиц. A flock of birds flew over the field.
Фотогрáфии вися́ т над столóм. The photos are hanging over the table.
Saying with над

Стáвить тóчку над и. To dot the is and cross the ts.
On, over
Combines with the verbs рабóтать to work, дýмать to think over, смея́ ться to
laugh at and the nouns рабóта work, смех laugh. Тhe question над чем? over
what? is used to form interrogative sentences.
Вы дóлго ещё бýдете рабóтать над Will you be working on your program much
прогрáммой? longer?
Подýмай над э́ тим. Think about it./Think it over.
Дéти смея́ лись над Кири́ ллом и The children laughed at Kirill and drove him
довели́ егó до слёз. to tears.
Phrases with над

Не влáстен над собóй. Has no control over himself.
Сдéлать над собóй уси́ лие. To force yourself to make an effort.
Вознести́ сь над всéми. To rise above everyone.
Побéда над врагóм. Victory over one’s foes.
Наси́ лие над ли́ чностью. Abuse.
154 Entries
Нáдо дýмать / нáдо полагáть Parenthetical expression

Most likely
Semantically and syntactically, these expressions are close to ви́ димо it seems,
вероя́ тно likely, возмóжно possibly, очеви́ дно obviously and others. They are
separated by commas. (See also ви́ димо, вероя́ тно, возмóжно, очеви́ дно.)
Алексéй Дми́ триевич, нáдо полагáть, Aleksey Dmitrievich will, most likely, be
бýдет зáнят своéй наýчной рабóтой, busy with his scholarly work and won’t have
и на внýков врéмени у негó не бýдет. time for his grandkids.
Note!
Нáдо дýмать о дóме, о бли́ зких, о One should think about home, about
чём-то хорóшем. relatives, about something good.
Нáдо сказáть Parenthetical expression

I have to say
Used to draw someone’s attention to the subject discussed. Separated by
commas. (See also мóжно сказáть.)
Обстанóвка в нáшем отдéле, нáдо I have to say, the situation in our division is
сказáть, не хорóшая. not good.
Note!
Нáдо сказáть всю прáвду, а не ждать, One should say the whole truth instead of
покá всё раскрóется. waiting for it to come out on its own.
На здорóвье Interjection
You’re welcome
Used as a conversational response to someone who says спаси́ бо thanks among
people who are familiar with one another and, specifically, after a meal. In
many everyday situations, people also use the informal не за что it’s nothing,
while пожáлуйста you’re welcome is used in more formal situations. (See also не
за что, пожáлуйста.)
Ну, спаси́ бо за обéд. Порá идти́ , ужé “Well, thanks for dinner. I should go, it’s
пóздно. – На здорóвье. getting late.” “You’re welcome.”
Entries 155
На и́ мя [form.] Preposition
Indicates that something is addressed to someone. Used with the name of the
addressee in the genitive case.
На и́ мя рéктора университéта A statement composed by a group of teachers
поступи́ ло заявлéние от грýппы was brought to the attention of the
преподавáтелей. university’s provost.
Наканýне Preposition
On the eve of
Phrases with this preposition answer the question наканýне чегó? on the eve of
what?
Стáрые друзья́ приéхали наканýне Old friends came on the eve of the wedding.
свáдьбы.
Note!
Can be used as an adverb. In this case, it functions as an independent part of a
sentence.
Е́ сли вы хоти́ те приготóвить пирóг, If you want to bake a cake, you have to
то тéсто нýжно замеси́ ть наканýне. prepare the dough beforehand.
Наконéц Parenthetical word

Finally
Expresses impatience or annoyance. Separated by commas.
Когдá же, наконéц, закóнчится э́ то When is this endless construction finally
бесконéчное строи́ тельство? going to end?
Finally
Emphasizes the final argument during a discussion or is used to finalize thoughts.
Synonymous with в концé концóв finally, which is used to put thoughts or
ideas in order when listing something. Наконéц pertains to the same semantic
group as во-пéрвых first of all, слéдовательно consequently, and others. Can be
accompanied by the conjunction и and. (See also в концé концóв,
слéдовательно.)
156 Entries
Эми́ лия дóлго сидéла, слýшала, о Emilia sat for a long time, listening to what
чём говори́ ли, и, наконéц, встáла и was said, and, finally, stood up and walked
вы́ шла из кóмнаты. out of the room.
Гри́ ша рабóтает, занимáeтся Grisha works, takes care of his home, and,
хозя́ йством, наконéц, вóзится с finally, takes care of the kids.
детьми́ .
Наоборóт Parenthetical word. Particle

Conversely, on the contrary
As a parenthetical word, it emphasizes the speaker’s opposite opinion. As a par-
ticle, it is used as a reply to express disagreement. Separated by commas. Neutral
in terms of style, unlike its synonym напрóтив conversely, which sounds book-
ish. (See also напрóтив.)
Чéрез нéкоторое врéмя стáнет я́ сно, In some time, it will become clear which
каки́ е направлéния бесперспек- options are unpromising, and which,
ти́ вны, а каки́ е, наоборóт, нýжно conversely, should be explored.
развивáть.
Ты со мной не соглáсен? – Наоборóт, “You don’t agree with me?” “On the
я поддéрживаю тебя́ . contrary, I support you.”
Note!
Can be an adverb and function as a part of a sentence. In this case, no commas
are needed.
Разумéется, Ли́ на не прислýшалась и As was expected, Lina didn’t listen and did
сдéлала всё наоборóт. everything backwards.
На основáнии Preposition
As per
Phrases with this preposition answer the question на основáнии чегó? as per
what? Frequently used in journalism and scholarly and bureaucratic language.
(See also в соотвéтствии с, соглáсно.)
На основáнии прикáза президéнта As per the company president’s order, all
компáнии все сотрýдники полýчат employees will receive a raise.
прибáвку к зарплáте.
Entries 157
На основáнии тогó(,) что Conjunction

Based on the fact that
На основáнии тогó(,) что or на том основáнии(,) что connects subor-
dinate clauses that indicate something that can be a base for actions shown
in the principal clause. A comma can appear before что and before the
whole phrase. Frequently used in journalism and scholarly and bureaucratic
language.
Не поня́ тно, закóнно ли увóлить It is unclear whether it is lawful to fire an
рабóтницу на основáнии тогó, что employee based on the fact that when she
при приёме на рабóту онá скры́ ла was hired, she concealed the fact that she was
информáцию о своéй берéменности. pregnant.
На оснóве Preposition
Based on, as a result
Indicates something that is the base or starting point for the creation of
something. Phrases with this preposition answer the question на оснóве
чегó? based on what? Frequently used in journalism and scholarly and bur-
eaucratic language. The synonyms в соотвéтствии с in accordance with and
на основáнии as per are more commonly used. (See also в соотвéтствии
с, на основáнии.)
Успéхи в э́ той óбласти мóгут быть Achievement in this field may be possible
дости́ гнуты тóлько на оснóве only as a result of the use of new
испóльзования нóвых технолóгий. technologies.
Наперекóр Preposition
To oppose
Phrases with this preposition answer the questions наперекóр чемý? as
opposed to what?, наперекóр комý? as opposed to whom? Наперекóр is used
in literature and journalism. (See the synonyms вопреки́ , невзирáя на,
несмотря́ на.)
Идти́ наперекóр общéственному To oppose public opinion is very difficult.
мнéнию совсéм нелегкó.
158 Entries
Наподóбие Preposition
Resembling, like
Implies uncertainty or supposition. Phrases with this preposition answer the
question наподóбие когó? like whom?, наподóбие чегó? like what? Can be
used with the demonstrative word тот that. Наподóбие is more literal,
unlike its synonym врóде like, which is used in informal speech. (See also
врóде.)
По мнéнию нéкоторых депутáтов, In the opinion of a few representatives, the
калинингрáдскую проблéму мóжно Kaliningrad problem can be solved with the
реши́ ть с пóмощью соглашéния help of something like the Schengen
наподóбие Шенгéнского. Agreement.
Напримéр Parenthetical word

For example
The synonymous к примéру for example is less formal. Separated by commas.
(See also к примéру, скáжем.)
Поэ́ тому ИТ-директорá бы́ стро This is why IT directors quickly give up
опускáют рýки, когдá речь захóдит, when talk starts up about, for example,
напримéр, об управлéнии ýровнями controlling different levels of service.
обслýживания. (Н. Дýбова, «Вокрýг (Dubova, Around ITSM, 2004)
ITSM» // «Computerworld», 2004)
Напрóтив Preposition. Parenthetical word. Particle

Preposition
Across from
Indicates objects that are located against something or someone. Phrases with
this preposition answer the questions напрóтив когó? across from whom?,
напрóтив чегó? across from what? The verb находи́ ться to be located is used or
implied.
Напрóтив общежи́ тия нахóдится Across from the dorm is the cafeteria.
столóвая.
Entries 159
Parenthetical word. Particle

Conversely, on the contrary
As a parenthetical word, it emphasizes the speaker’s opposing opinion. As a par-
ticle, it is used as a reply to express disagreement. Sounds bookish, unlike its
synonym наоборóт conversely, which is neutral in terms of styles. Separated by
commas. (See also наоборóт.)
И́ горь Влади́ мирович, напрóтив, Conversely, Igor Vladimirovich is very
умнéйший человéк. smart.
Ты считáешь, что нýжно покупáть “You think that we should buy a Ford?”
Форд? – Напрóтив, я дýмаю, что “On the contrary, I think that a Toyota
Тойóта лýчше. would be better.”
На протяжéнии Preposition
During, throughout
Used with nouns that denote time during which something is happening.
Phrases with this preposition answer the question на протяжéнии какóго
врéмени? during what time? Used in various styles. Used less frequently than в
течéние throughout. (See also в течéние.)
На протяжéнии всегó мéсяца шли It rained very heavily throughout the entire
си́ льные дожди́ . month.
Note!
На протяжéнии is not used when the utterance is about an event. In this case,
в течéние is used. (See also в течéние.)
Нарядý с Preposition
Along with
Shows that some objects participate in actions along with other objects.
Phrases with this preposition answer the questions нарядý с кем? along
with whom?, нарядý с чем? along with what? Commonly used in formal lan-
guage. Constructions with нарядý с can be separated by commas. (See also
крóме.)
160 Entries
В ины́ х слýчаях, нарядý с между- In other cases, along with an international

нарóдным договóром, слéдует agreement, it is necessary to implement a
применя́ ть и соотвéтствующий concordant intragovernmental rights act.
внутригосудáрственный правовóй (Kozlova, Freedom of Conscience and a
акт. (М. Козлóва, «Свобóда сóвести Secular State, 2004)
и свéтскость госудáрства» //
«Адвокáт», 2004)
Наскóлько . . . настóлько Conjunction

As much as . . .
Used to juxtapose comparable characteristics of someone or something in two
clauses of a sentence. The characteristics’ intensity or degree is the thing being
contrasted. A comma splits the two clauses.
Наскóлько поéздка в Испáнию нам As much as we didn’t like our trip to Spain,
не подошлá, настóлько путешéствие our trip to France was much more enjoyable.
по Фрáнции нам понрáвилось.
Насчёт [coll.] Preposition

About, concerning
Used when one makes inquiries about someone or something. (See also относи́ -
тельно, по пóводу.)
Так как насчёт билéтов? Ты ужé So what about those tickets? Have you
заказáл? ordered them already?
Начинáя с Preposition
Starting with, beginning with/on/in
Shows the starting point that relates to time or various objects, topics, etc. When
structures with this preposition clarify the utterance, they are separated by commas.
(See also с.)
Начинáя с понедéльника кни́ жный Starting on Monday, the bookstore will be
магази́ н закрывáется на ремóнт. closed for repairs.
Entries 161
Её ромáн, начинáя с назвáния и Her novel, from the title to the very last
закáнчивая послéдним абзáцем, paragraph, suggests a deep knowledge of
свидéтельствует о глубóком history.
понимáнии истóрии.
Не Particle
Not
Negates various parts that denote actions, objects, modifiers, etc., in a sentence.
Встрéча состои́ тся не сегóдня. The meeting is not taking place today.
Не врéмя об э́ том рассуждáть. Now is not the time to discuss this.
Трéнер не дóлжен был собирáть The coach should not have had to draft the
комáнду вчерá. team yesterday.
Used together with the particle ни not with negative pronouns. (See also ни.)
Никогдá рáньше у них не было таки́ х Never before did they have such problems.
проблéм.
Used with another не to confirm something.

Евгéний не мóжет не игрáть на Evgeny cannot help but play the piano.
пиани́ но.
Used in sentences with double negation, e.g., where the particle не appears
before an auxiliary verb and before an infinitive in a compound predicate. Can
be affirmative and may emphasize a positive meaning.
Невозмóжно не вéрить емý. It’s impossible not to believe him.
Frames something as irrelevant, e.g., in such phrases as спит не спит, а хотя́

бы отдыхáет regardless of whether he’s sleeping, he’s at least relaxing.
Хóчешь не хóчешь, а решéние Want it or not, we need to make a decision.
принимáть нáдо.
Морóз не морóз, но ты, лýчше, Cold or not, you’d better take something
возьми́ тёплое с собóй. warm with you.
Emphasizes the significance of an action with a repeating verb where the second
verb has a prefix, e.g., слýшать нам зáписи не переслýшать no matter how
long we listen to these recordings, we will not finish them all.
Мáша рáдуется встрéче с дочерьми́ Masha can’t stop feeling happy about seeing
не нарáдуется. her daughters.
162 Entries
Used in exclamatory and interrogative sentences to express surprise, astonish-

ment, or admiration. Combines with pronouns, adverbs, and particles как не,
кто не, кто тóлько не, чегó не, чегó тóлько не and others. Combines
with ли, e.g., не ты ли?
Каки́ е фи́ льмы он не смóтрит! What movies doesn’t he watch!
Что онá тóлько не дéлала, чтóбы What hasn’t she done to become the district
получи́ ть дóлжность райóнного judge!
судьи́ !
Ты не рад нáшему прихóду? – Как “You’re not glad to see us?” “What do you
не рад?! О́ чень рад! mean – ‘not glad?!’ I’m very glad!”
Не хоти́ те ли вы съéздить кудá- Would you like to go somewhere?

нибудь?
Forms the fixed phrases éдва ли не barely didn’t, чуть ли не almost didn’t,
вряд ли не unlikely that one won’t that indicate supposition or emphasized neg-
ation. Also forms the similar phrases далекó не by far not, отню́ дь не not quite,
ничýть не completely not, нискóлько не not at all, вóвсе не completely not.
Proverbs with не
Не мытьём, так кáтаньем. By any means possible.
Вы́ ше головы́ не пры́ гнешь. Know your limits.
Волкóв боя́ ться – в лес не ходи́ ть. Nothing ventured, nothing gained.
Слóво не воробéй, вы́ летит не A word spoken is past recalling.
поймáешь.
Под лежáчий кáмень водá не течёт. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
Не пóйман – не вор. If no one caught you – you’re innocent.
Гусь свиньé не товáрищ. A sow is no match for a goose.
Небóсь [coll.] Parenthetical word

Probably
Expresses assurance or supposition. Separated by commas. Utilized in informal
language. (See the synonyms возмóжно, ви́ димо, должнó быть, мóжет
быть, навéрное.)
А вы, небóсь, меня́ забы́ ли? But you probably forgot me?
Entries 163
Note!
Can function as a particle; in this case, commas are not needed. An author can
decide if the comma should appear.
Невдалекé от Preposition
Not far from
the specific questions невдалекé от когó? not far from whom?, невдалекé от
чегó? not far from what? Can be used in elevated styles like неподалёку от
not far from, while its synonym недалекó от not far from is neutral (See also
недалекó от, неподалёку от and the antonyms вдали́ от, вдалекé от,
далекó от.)
Невдалекé от хáты протекáл A cold river flowed not far from the hut.
холóдный ручéй.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition невдалекé от, which governs nouns in the
genitive case, with the adverb невдалекé far away, which is used
independently.
Невдалекé сидéли тури́ сты и пéли There were tourists not far away playing
под гитáру. guitar and singing songs.
Невзирáя на Preposition
Despite
Phrases with this preposition answer the questions невзирáя на что? despite
what?, невзирáя на когó? despite whom? Constructions with this preposition are
usually separated by commas. Невзирáя на sounds bookish when compared
with its neutral synonym несмотря́ на despite. (See also незави́ симо от, нес-
мотря́ на.)
Невзирáя на пéрвую неудáчу, я Despite the first failure, I pulled myself up
подтянýлся на брýсьях и стал махáть on the parallel bars and started waving my
ногáми. (В. Аксёнов, «Пóра, мой legs around. (Aksyonov, It’s Time, My
друг, порá») Friend, It’s Time)
164 Entries
Saying
Невзирáя на ли́ ца. Regardless of anyone.
Невзирáя на то, что Conjunction

Despite the fact that
Connects subordinate clauses of concession and point to the circumstances
in spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accom-
plished. These subordinate clauses answer the question невзирáя на что?
despite what? Sounds more bookish than its neutral synonym несмотря́
на то, что regardless of the fact that. Commas usually appear before
the whole conjunction and before что. (See the synonym несмотря́ на
то, что.)
Невзирáя на то, что емý необходи́ ма Despite the fact that he needs a job, he will
рабóта, он не смóжет приня́ ть Вáше not be able to accept your offer.
предложéние.
Не дай Бог Parenthetical expression

God forbid
Expresses vigilance, concern, alertness. Separated by commas. Can sound sarcas-
tic, implying the opposite of what is actually said. Informal. (See also чегó
дóброго.)
И обязáтельно нáдо уточни́ ть, что он And it’s vital to stress that he’s a
ýчится на вторóм кýрсе, а то, не дай sophomore, else, God forbid, they’ll think
бог, подýмают, что на пя́ том! that he’s in his fifth year. (Aleksin, My
(А. Алéксин, «Мой брат игрáет на Brother Plays the Clarinet)
кларнéте»)
Note!
Can function as part of a sentence. No commas are needed.
Не дай бог вам нéрвничать. Э́ то God forbid that you worry. That will only
тóлько покáжет вáше бесси́ лие. show your helplessness. (Dombrovsky,
(Ю. Домбрóвский, «Факультéт The Department of Unnecessary Things)
ненýжных вещéй»)
Entries 165
Недалекó от Preposition
Not far from
the specific questions недалекó от когó? not far from whom?, недалекó от
чегó? not far from what? Neutral, while its synonyms вдалекé от far from and
неподалёку от not far from can be used in elevated styles. (See also невдалекé
от, неподалёку от and the antonyms вдали́ от, вдалекé от, далекó от.)
Недалекó от пансионáта находи́ лось Not far from the resort, there was an arcade.
здáние с игровы́ ми автомáтами.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition недалекó от, which governs nouns in the geni-
tive case, with the adverb недалекó far away, which is used independently.
Где нахóдится почтóвое отделéние? “Where is the post office?” “It’s here, close
– Тут недалекó за углóм. by, just around the corner.”
Незави́ симо от Preposition

Regardless of
Phrases with this preposition answer the specific questions незави́ симо от
когó? regardless of whom?, незави́ симо от чегó? regardless of what?
В театрáльный кружóк принимáют Everyone is accepted into the theater club
всех незави́ симо от спосóбностей. regardless of skill.
Не за что Interjection
Not a problem
Used as an informal response to someone who says “thank you.” In many
everyday situations, people use the informal не за что, while пожáлуйста
you’re welcome is used in more formal situations; на здорóвье you’re welcome is
conversational and is used in informal situations. The particle не in this phrase is
stressed. (See also на здорóвье, пожáлуйста.)
Мóжно Вáшу рýчку? – Пожáлуйста. – “May I borrow your pen?” “Here you are.”
Спаси́ бо. – Не за что. “Thank you.” “Not a problem.”
166 Entries
Не мóжет быть Interjection

No way! Impossible!
Used as a reaction to something that invokes surprise, strong astonishment, or
doubt. Separated by commas. (See also неужéли.)
Ты знáешь, ипподрóм ужé откры́ т, “You know, the racetrack is already open,
строи́ тельство закóнчено. – Не the construction’s over.” “No way!”
мóжет быть!
Note!
Can be a part of a sentence. No commas are needed.
Э́ та эксперти́ за не мóжет быть This expertise cannot be accepted as
при́ знана незави́ симой. independent.
Не повéришь Parenthetical expression

You won’t believe it
Не повéришь (an informal address to one person) or не повéрите (a formal
address to one person or a neutral address to more than one person) are used
when a speaker is aware that the about-to-be-given information can invoke
doubt. Separated by commas.
А по нáшей ли́ нии дви́ нешь, не Take a walk in our shoes; you’ll never
повéришь, скóлько зарабóтать believe how much you can earn if you fit in.
мóжно, éсли вписáлся прáвильно. (Pelevin, S.N.U.F.F.)
(В. Пелéвин, «S.N.U.F.F.»)
Note!
Я сдéлаю тебя́ настóлько I’ll make you so happy that you won’t even
счастли́ вым, что ты не повéришь в believe it yourself. (Pelevin, S.N.U.F.F.)
э́ то сам. (В. Пелéвин, «S.N.U.F.F.»)
Неподалёку от Preposition
Not far from
and the specific questions неподалёку от когó? not far from whom?,
Entries 167
неподалёку от чегó? not far from what? Can be used in elevated styles,
like невдалекé от not far from, while its synonym недалекó от not far from
is neutral. (See also невдалекé от, недалекó от and the antonyms вдали́
от, вдалекé от, далекó от.)
А ещё в рáннем дéтстве мы ходи́ - And in our early childhood, we went to the
ли в располóженный неподалёку от Alexandrovsky garden, which was located
нáшего дóма Алексáндровс- not far from our house. (Arkhipova, The
кий сад. (И. Архи́ пова, «Мýзыка Music of Life)
жи́ зни»)
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition неподалёку от, which governs nouns in the
genitive case, with the adverb неподалёку nearby, which is used independently.
Сýдя по нéкоторым при́ знакам, Judging by certain signs, there is forestry
лесни́ чество неподалёку. going on nearby.
Не прáвда ли Particle
Right?
Used when it seems that a speaker is asking a listener for agreement or
confirmation. Separated by commas or can be a freestanding sentence. Used
in the same way as не так ли? does it not? while the synonym прáвда?
really? is more neutral and informal. (See also не так ли, прáвда,
прáвильно.)
Спеши́ ть нéкуда, не прáвда ли? There’s no need for speed, right?
Гри́ ша ужé вернýлся. Не прáвда ли? Grisha has already come back. Right?
Не рóвен час Parenthetical expression

Heaven forbid
Expresses vigilance, concern, alertness. Separated by commas. Widely used in lit-
erature and can sound bookish if used in speech. (See also не дай бог, чегó
дóброго.)
Порá éхать, не рóвен час, грозá We need to go, or else, heaven forbid, it will
хлы́ нет, и мы не смóжем никудá start pouring, and we won’t be able to go
дви́ гаться. anywhere.
168 Entries
Несмотря́ на Preposition
Despite
Phrases with this preposition answer the questions несмотря́ на что? despite
what?, несмотря́ на когó? despite whom? Constructions with this preposition
are usually separated by commas. Neutral, while its synonym невзирáя на des-
pite can sound bookish. (See also вопреки́ , наперекóр, невзирáя на.)
Несмотря́ на непрекращáющиеся Despite the perpetual storms, Zhenya goes
грóзы, Жéня éздит на óзеро кáждый to the lake every day.
день.
Несмотря́ на то, что Conjunction

Despite the fact that
Connects subordinate clauses of concession and points to the circumstances in
spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished.
These subordinate clauses answer the question несмотря́ на что? despite what?
Neutral, while its synonym невзирáя на то, что despite the fact that sounds
more bookish. Commas can appear before the whole conjunction and before
что or just before the whole construction. (See also невзирáя на то, что.)
Рефóрма пенсиóнной систéмы ужé The retirement reform is almost finished,
близкá к завершéнию, несмотря́ на despite the fact that some unsolved questions
то, что остáлись неразрешённые remain.
вопрóсы.
Несомнéнно Parenthetical word. Particle

Parenthetical word
Indubitably, no doubt
Expresses certainty, confidence. Used in various styles and genres, especially in
literature and journalism. Separated by commas. (See the synonyms бесспóрно,
без сомнéния, безуслóвно, конéчно, разумéется.)
Несомнéнно, мы бы за мéньшие No doubt that we would be able to support
дéньги содержáли гóрод, чем егó the city with less money than is used to
сегóдня содéржат. (Е. Семёнова, maintain it right now. (Semyonova,
«Олигáрх без гáлстука» // «Аргу- Oligarch Without a Tie, 2003)
мéнты и фáкты», 2003)
Entries 169
Particle
No doubt
Used as a reply that expresses certainty and assurance. Can sound very brusque
and forceful. (See the synonyms бесспóрно, без сомнéния, безуслóвно,
конéчно, разумéется.)
Вы смóжете прийти́ рáньше и “Will you be able to come in earlier and help
помóчь? – Несомнéнно! out?” “Sure, no doubt about it!”
Не стóлько . . ., скóлько Conjunction

Not . . . so much as
Indicates that what is shown in the second part of a sentence is more important
than what is shown in the first part. A comma appears before скóлько.
Ви́ димо, для негó э́ то и́ мя знáчило Apparently, this name didn’t mean to him
не стóлько, скóлько для меня́ . what it meant to me. (Senkevich, A
(Ю. Сенкéвич, «Путешéствие Journey as Long as Life)
длинóю в жизнь»)
В Вашингтóне мнóгие понимáют, In Washington, many understand that
что Сéверная Корéя хóчет не North Korea doesn’t want to scare everyone
стóлько напугáть, скóлько заяви́ ть о so much as let them know that it’s there.
себé.
Не считáя Preposition
Not counting
Phrases with this preposition answer the questions не считáя когó? not counting
whom?, не считáя чегó? not counting what? Synonymous with крóме other than
and поми́ мо besides, which are less common. Constructions with this prepos-
ition are separated by commas. (See also крóме, поми́ мо.)
Итогó сóрок человéк, не считáя детéй, Overall, there are 40 people, not counting
котóрые вертéлись вокрýг столá. the kids, who are hovering around the table.
(А. Рыбакóв, «Тяжёлый песóк») (Rybakov, Heavy Sand)
Нет Particle
No
Expresses disagreement and is used in negative replies.
Есть хóчешь? – Нет. “Do you want to eat?” “No.”
170 Entries
No
Forms impersonal constructions to express the absence of something or
someone.
Нет никакóго желáния кудá-нибудь I have no desire to go anywhere.
идти́ .
No
Substitutes a predicate, a phrase, or a sentence with a negation when they are in
opposition to the previous utterance.
Онá спрáшивала меня́ , не рассказáл She asked me whether I told you her story.
ли я вам её истóрию, – я, разумéется, Needless to say, I said “no.” (Turgenev,
сказáл, что нет. (И. Тургéнев, «А́ ся») Asya)
[coll.]
Evokes a listener’s attention to the utterance. No translation.
Нет, вы тóлько посмотри́ те на негó. Just look at him. Look at how self-confident
Нáдо же быть таки́ м he is.
самоувéренным.
[coll.]
Used in the end of an interrogative sentence in the hopes that a listener gives a
positive reply.
Идём в кинó, нет? Let’s go to the movies, ok?
Saying and phrase with нет

На нет и судá нет. What can’t be cured must be endured.
Да нет. Well, no.
Не так ли Particle
Does it not?
Used in the end of an interrogative sentence in the hopes that a listener gives a
positive reply. Separated by commas. Stylistically and semantically used in the
same way as не прáвда ли? right? while the synonym прáвда? really? is more
neutral. (See also не прáвда ли, прáвда.)
Entries 171
Увы́ , они́ теря́ ют часть своéй таи́ нст- It’s sad, but they lose part of their mystery,
венности, не так ли? (В. Аксёнов, do they not? (Aksyonov, All Day Long
«Крýглые сýтки нон-стоп») Non-Stop)
Не то Conjunction
Otherwise, or
This adversative conjunction is used in compound sentences to indicate that the
accomplishment of the action in the second clause depends on the action in the
first clause. Synonymous with the informal а то otherwise, the less informal
инáче otherwise, and the formal в проти́ вном слýчае otherwise. Used less fre-
quently than а то. (See also а то, в проти́ вном слýчае, инáче.)
Чéрез мéсяц онá должнá вернýться, She has to return in a month, or she’ll be
не то её увóлят. fired.
Не то . . ., не то Conjunction
Either . . . or (else)
Used when a speaker is expressing the uncertainty or the probability of an action.
Used in compound sentences in which clauses indicate sequence or mutual exclu-
sion. Also used to connect coordinate parts of a sentence. Не то . . . не то can be
replaced by то ли . . . то ли either . . . or. The conjunction и́ ли . . . и́ ли either . . .
or is also synonymous, but emphasizes less ambiguity. (See also то ли . . . то ли,
и́ ли . . . и́ ли.)
Не то Пáвел идёт на рабóту, не то Either Pavel is going to work or else
кто-то дóлжен прийти́ к немý, но он someone’s supposed to come see him, but
бýдет зáнят в воскресéнье. he’ll be busy on Sunday.
Не тóлько Particle
Not only
Shows that the content of the utterance is not complete and that there is some-
thing else. (See also не тóлько . . ., но и.)
Илья́ не тóлько игрáет на гитáре, он Not only does Ilya play the guitar, he also
игрáет на други́ х инструмéнтах. plays other instruments.
Не тóлько . . ., но и Conjunction
Not only . . . but
Connects parts of a sentence and shows that the content of one part is not complete
and there is something else that is placed in another part. (See also не тóлько.)
172 Entries
В сýмке, котóрую онá потеря́ ла, The purse that she lost contained not only
бы́ ли не тóлько дéньги, но и money, but documents too.
докумéнты.
Не то чтóбы/чтоб [coll.] Particle

It’s not that
Expresses an indefinite negation of what is more precisely defined later.
Commas are not needed between the parts of the particle.
Не то чтóбы óчень устáл, а спать It’s not that I’m tired, but I want to sleep.
хóчется.
Онá, не то чтóбы рассерди́ лась, но It’s not that she became angry, but she
былá не довóльна. wasn’t pleased.
Неужéли Particle. Interjection

Really?
Forms interrogative sentences. Expresses astonishment, surprise, or amazement.
Can be an interjection that is used as an exclamation. (See also не мóжет быть,
рáзве.)
Неужéли они́ отсю́ да никогдá не Will they really never leave here?
уéдут?
Травý стригýт кáждые три дня. – “They mow the lawn every three days.”
Неужéли?! “Really?!”
Ни Particle
Not
With nouns in the genitive case, indicates the complete absence of someone/
something. This construction has or implies a negative predicate (a verb with
the particle не) or the negation нет in the present tense, which is used or
implied. (See also не.)
На нéбе не зажглóсь ни однóй There was not a star in the sky.
звезды́ .
На ýлице ни души́ . There is not a single person on the street.
Used with nouns in the genitive case to express an order or prohibition.

Стоя́ ть! Ни с мéста! Stop! Don’t move!
Молчи́ те. Ни слóва. Silence. Not a word.
Entries 173
Phrases and expressions with ни

Ни в какýю. [coll.] Not at all.
Егó дóлго уговáривали, а он ни в They tried to convince him for a long time,
какýю. Так и не захотéл поéхать. but he was having none of it. Ultimately, he
didn’t want to go.
Ни за что! Never! An informal expression that can sound categorical and rude.
Ни за что не повéрю, что ты так мог I’ll never believe that you could have done
сдéлать. this.
Ты дóлжен извини́ ться. – Ни за что! “You have to apologize.” “Never.”
Ни к чемý. There’s no need.

Беспокóиться о нас не нýжно, ни к You don’t have to worry about us, there’s no
чемý. need.
Ни при чём. Doesn’t matter.

Не взя́ ли Петрá на э́ ту дóлжность, и They didn’t take Pyotr for the job, and his
вóзраст совершéнно ни при чём. age didn’t matter at all.
Ни в кóем слýчае. Under no circumstances. Can sound formal and categorical.

Ни в кóем слýчае нельзя́ допускáть Under no circumstances can we allow the
монополизáции ры́ нка. market to become monopolized.
Ни в кóей мéре. Never. Sounds bookish.

Мы ни в кóей мéре не хоти́ м никогó We don’t intend to offend anyone at all.
оби́ деть.
Ни . . ., ни Conjunction
Neither . . . nor
Used in negative sentences that list coordinate subjects, objects, predicates, and
modifiers, or joins independent clauses, as in a list, within a compound
sentence.
Он не хóчет ни читáть, ни смотрéть He wants neither to read nor watch
телеви́ зор. television.
Ни в кинó мы не пошли́ , ни в We neither went to the movies, nor did we
ресторáн не захотéли идти́ , а want to go to a restaurant – we stayed home.
остáлись дóма.
174 Entries
Note!
No commas are needed if ни . . . ни is a part of a fixed phrase, saying, or
proverb.
Ни да ни нет. Neither yes nor no.
Ни пýха ни перá. Break a leg.
Ни ры́ ба ни мя́ со. Neither this nor that.
Ни бе ни ме ни кукарéку. (Somebody has) no idea about anything.
Ничегó не скáжешь [coll.] Parеnthetical expression

Can’t say anything
Expresses agreement with something and indicates the impossibility of objecting
to something. Separated by commas.
В брассери́ готóвят вкýсно, ничегó The brasserie makes good food, can’t say
не скáжешь. anything bad about it.
Note!
Can be used as a part of a sentence. No commas are needed.
Ты ничегó не скáжешь об э́ том, You won’t say anything about this, you’ll
забýдешь и всё. forget it and that’s it.
Но Conjunction
But
Indicates features, phenomena, objects, facts that do not correspond, but contra-
dict one another.
Свети́ ло сóлнце‚ но бы́ ло хóлодно. The sun was shining, but it was cold.
But, however
Indicates inconsistency when the second part of an utterance has information
that limits the content in the first part and seems illogical with regard to it. Syn-
onymous with однáко however‚ nevertheless. Но but, however might be used (less
preferably) as a synonym of а but if a speaker would express a less negative atti-
tude towards the utterance. (See also а, однáко, тем не мéнее.)
Я люблю́ э́ того человéка‚ но иногдá I love this man, but sometimes I don’t
совсéм не понимáю егó. understand him at all.
Entries 175
Андрéй с дéтства игрáет в волейбóл, Andrey has played volleyball since his
но éздил на соревновáния тóлько childhood, but has been in a tournament
оди́ н раз. only once.
But, however
Spins the information presented in the first clause of a sentence in a more posi-
tive light. The “positive” information contained after но balances the “negative”
information before но. Can be a synonym of the informal затó at the same time.
(See also затó.)
Он ужé закóнчил свою́ рабóту? – “Did he finish his work?” “No, but he’ll
Нет, но он закóнчит её зáвтра. finish it tomorrow.”
Рабóта трýдная‚ но интерéсная. The job is difficult, but it is interesting.
In combination with всё-таки anyway, still, opens a sentence connecting the utter-
ance with a thought asserted earlier in the discourse. Can be used the same way as
the conjunctions и but and а but in conveying a negative overtone. (See also а, и.)
Но всё-таки мы хорошó провели́ Still, we had a good time in France.
врéмя во Фрáнции.
Ну [coll.] Particle. Interjection

Particle
Well
Emphasizes the sense of a phrase. Used to conclude something. Not separated
either by commas or by intonation.
Ну нет. Well, no.
Ну нет, так дéло не пойдёт. No, you can’t do it that way.
Ну да. Well, yeah.
Ну да, приéхал ещё вчерá. Well, yeah, he came yesterday.
Ну и что. So what?
Не поéдешь никудá. – Ну и что, “You’re not going anywhere.” “So what,
найдý, что дéлать дóма. I’ll find something to do at home.”
Ну уж. Yeah, right. (expresses distrust and
skepticism)
По дорóге домóй ви́ дели лáму. – Ну “We saw a llama on the way home.”
уж и лáму?! “Really? A llama?”
Ну что? So?
Ну что, убеди́ лся, что я прав? So, do you understand that I’m right?
176 Entries
Ну что ж. Why . . .
Ну что ж вы не пришли́ ? Why didn’t you come?
Ну и . . . Used to express astonishment.
Ну и морóз! It’s so cold!
Ну и ну. Huh.
Ну и ну, нáдо же такóе. Huh, it came to this.
Ну как? So how . . .
Ну как ты? So, how are you?
Ну как же. Emphasizes one’s disapproval.
Ну как же он мог так сдéлать?! How could he do that?
Ну что ты / вы . . . Come on.
Ну что ты, я ведь не имéл в видý Come on, I didn’t mean anything bad.
ничегó плохóго.
Ну а [a personal pronoun] что? And what about . . .
Ну а он что? And what about him?
Ну знáешь / знáете Expresses indignation.
Ну знáешь, э́ то ужé сли́ шком! Well that’s just too much!
Interjection
Well
Expresses wonder, encouragement, or surprise. Used with an imperative. Separ-
ated by commas and by intonation.
Ну, расскáзывай, как делá? Well, go ahead, what’s up?
Ну, Пáвлик, смотри́ , какáя пти́ ца Pavlik, look how pretty the bird is!
краси́ вая!
Phrases like ну егó screw him, ну тебя́ screw you imply a negative or an indiffer-
ent attitude toward someone. They can be combined with к чёрту to hell with
it or к лéшему to hell with it or imply these phrases.
О (об, обо) Preposition. Interjection

Preposition
О is used before nouns that start with a consonant or the vowels е, ё, ю, я. Oб
is used before the vowels э, о, у, а, и. Обо is used in combination with мне,
что, всём, всех.
Entries 177

About, of
Used with objects that are the content of the utterance. Phrases with this
preposition are used with verbs of speech, thoughts, and feelings, e.g., про-
си́ ть to ask‚ написáть to write‚ мечтáть to dream/to desire, забывáть to
forget, расскáзывать to tell, вспоминáть to remember, сообщáть to report,
дýмать to think, пóмнить to remember, говори́ ть to say. Phrases with this
preposition answer the questions о ком? about whom? and о чём? about what?
Semantically, о is close to про about in that it tends to be restricted to collo-
quial speech. (See also про.)
О чём вы чáсто мечтáете? – О том, “What do you often dream about?” “About
Чтóбы посели́ ться в мáленьком moving to a little town on the edge of the
городкé на берегý океáна. ocean.”

On, over
Used to indicate the object with which something or someone physically inter-
acts. Phrases with this preposition answer the question обо что? on what?/over
what?
Ребёнок споткнýлся о кáмень и упáл. The child tripped on a rock and fell.
Матвéй удáрился плечóм о шкаф. Matvey hit his shoulder on the wardrobe.
Interjection
Oh
Used as an address in rhetoric. Common in poetry and folklore. Often, an
exclamation mark follows sentences that feature it.
О Русь моя́ ! Oh, my Rus’!
Огó [coll.] Interjection

Wow!
Expresses wonder, astonishment, or amazement.
(В зоопáрке.) Огó, какáя большáя! (In a zoo.) Wow, it’s so big!
178 Entries
Однáко Conjunction. Parenthetical word

Conjunction
However, nevertheless
Connects parts of a sentence or clauses in compound sentences that imply some
kind of limitation or inconsistency. Semantically close to но but, stylistically
more formal. If opening a sentence, no commas are needed. (See also впрóчем,
но, тем не мéнее.)
У моегó дрýга мнóго рабóты, однáко My friend has a lot of work; however, he
у негó всегдá есть свобóдное врéмя. always has free time.
Однáко всем поня́ тно, что про- Nevertheless, everyone understands that the
грáмму нýжно меня́ ть. program must be changed.
Parenthetical word
Nevertheless
Emphasizes inconsistency or contradiction. Separated by commas if it is placed
in the middle of a sentence; no commas are needed if it opens a sentence.
Я дýмаю, однáко, нам ужé нýжно Nevertheless, I think we should be going.
идти́ .
Ой Interjection
Ouch, whoa, oh
Expresses pain, alarm, astonishment, pleasure, or other feelings. When articulat-
ing displeasure, criticism, or reproach, it can be repeated: ой-ой-ой. Intensifies
the expressed emotions when used with the pronominal words как how and
какóй what. Frequently used in lyrics, folklore, and poetry. Used in the same
situations as ай oh. Separated by commas. (See also ай.)
(О котёнке.) Ой, какóй хорóшенький. (About a kitten.) Aw, look how cute he is!
Ой, что э́ то вы дéлаете? Whoa, what are you doing there?
Ой, то не вéчер, то не вéчер, Oh, it ain’t evening yet, it ain’t evening yet,
Мне малы́ м-малó спалóсь. . . I couldn’t close my eye even a wink.
(Из рýсской нарóдной пéсни) (From a Russian folk song)
Окáзывается Parenthetical word

It turns out
Shows that the information in the utterance is new. Separated by commas.
Entries 179
Ники́ та, окáзывается, стáрше Дáни Nikita, as it turns out, is 12 years older
на 12 лет. than Danya.
Note!
Когдá он окáзывается на сцéне, он When he is on stage, he forgets about
забывáет обо всём на свéте. everything in the world.
О́ коло Preposition
By, close to, near
Used to express location. Phrases with this preposition respond to the question
где? where?
Где располóжена городскáя “Where is the library?” “Close to the art
библиотéка? – О́ коло музéя museum.”
искýсств.
Around, about
Used to express time. Phrases with this preposition respond to the question
когдá? when?
Мы собирáемся вернýться óколо We’re going to return around 11.
оди́ ннадцати.
Around, about
Combines with nouns indicating an approximate length or amount of something.
Phrases with this preposition respond to the question скóлько? how much?, how many?
Скóлько врéмени шёл фильм? – “How long did the movie last?” “Аbout two
О́ коло двух часóв. hours.”
Корóбка конфéт стóит óколо 90 A box of chocolates costs about 90 rubles.
рублéй.
От (ото) Preposition
Ото is used before some combinations of consonants, e.g., ото сна from dream-
ing, день ото дня day to day, and others.
180 Entries
From
Shows the point of origin of something and implies a distance, a period of time,
or a source. От must be used whenever the point of origin is a person. The
prepositions от from and до to, up to are opposites and denote a distance separat-
ing one thing from another. (See also до, из.)
Он отплы́ л далекó от бéрега. He swam far away from the shore.
Шкóльники прочитáли мнóго произ- The students read a lot of works by Russian
ведéний рýсских писáтелей 19-го authors of the 19th century – from Pushkin
вéка – от Пýшкина до Чéхова. to Chekhov.
Я получи́ ла письмó от дрýга. I received a letter from my friend.
Phrases with this preposition are used with verbs that have the prefix от- and
indicate a point of movement of something.
Отъéхать от здáния. To drive away from the building.
Отойти́ от окнá. To go away from the window.
Отскочи́ ть от кострá. To jump away from the fire.
Оттолкнýться от земли́ . To push away from the ground.
Отойти́ от когó-то / от чегó-то. To walk away from someone/something.
Отвернýться от нас. To turn away from us.
Отплы́ ть от бéрега. To swim away from the shore.
Пýговица оторвáлась от кóфты. The button ripped off the sweatshirt.
Отстáть от когó-то. To fall behind someone.
Отвести́ взгляд от когó-то / от чегó- To move one’s gaze from someone/
то. something.
Because of
Indicates an object or phenomenon that is the cause – positive or negative – of
something. Can be synonymous with из-за because of, which is used more fre-
quently. (See also из-за.)
От си́ льного вéтра упáло стáрое The old tree fell because of the strong wind.
дéрево.
Умерéть от инфáркта. To die of a heart attack.
Глазá крáсные от слёз. Eyes are red from tears.
Засты́ ть от стрáха. To freeze in fear.
Entries 181
Забы́ ть всё от волнéния. To forget everything because of worry.

Покраснéть от смущéния. To blush in confusion.
Растеря́ ться от неожи́ данности. To forget oneself in surprise.
Мóкрый от дождя́ . Wet from rain.
From
Identifies a thing to which something else belongs, the former often being a
whole of some sort.
От чегó э́ тот ключ? – От шкáфа. “What is this key from?” “From the
closet.”
Вéтка от дéрева. A tree branch.
Пóяс от брюк. A belt for trousers.
Прóвод от компью́ тера. A computer cable.
Футля́ р от очкóв. A glasses case.
Корóбка от чáйного серви́ за. A box for a tea set.
Against, from
Phrases with this preposition indicate objects or phenomena that are to be elim-
inated or prevented.
Лекáрство от гри́ ппа. A medicine for the flu.
Срéдство от комарóв. A spray for mosquitoes.
Защищáться от врагóв. To defend oneself against enemies.
Держáть секрéты от когó-то. To keep secrets from someone.
Indicates objects that are sources or phenomena of something.

Зáпах от цветóв. The smell of flowers.
Дýет от окнá. There is a draft coming through the window.
Дым от сигарéт. Cigarette smoke.
Свет от фонаря́ . Light from the street lamp.
Тень от дéрева. Shadow from the tree.
Дéти от пéрвого брáка. Children from the first marriage.
Выступáть от чьегó-то и́ мени. To represent someone.
182 Entries
From
Indicates a connection with something, like someone’s activities.
В её поэ́ зии что-то от Бéллы There is something of Bella Akhmadulina in
Ахмадýлиной. her poetry.
В харáктере сы́ на мнóгое от The son’s character has much from his
бáбушки. grandmother.
Indicates objects that are in opposition to other objects.

Отличáть добрó от зла. To discern good from evil.
Зави́ сеть от когó-то и́ ли чегó-то. To depend on someone or something.
Быть незави́ симым от обстоя́ тельств. To be independent of the circumstances.
From [form.]
Used to indicate dates in official documents.
Прикáз от деся́ того мáя. The orders from the 10th of May.
Газéта от 21 ию́ ля. The newspaper from July 21st.
In phrases that show a time sequence.

Час от часу не лéгче. It doesn’t get easier from hour to hour.
Год от гóда. Year to year.
Врéмя от врéмени. From time to time.
Шесть лет от рóду. Six years since birth.
Откровéнно говоря́ Parenthetical expression

Frankly speaking
Separated by commas. (See the synonyms по прáвде говоря́ , чéстно говоря́ .)
Откровéнно говоря́ , встречáться ни с Frankly speaking, I don’t want to see
кем не хóчется. anyone.
Откýда Conjunction
Where, from which
Connects explanatory clauses, which usually refer to a verb, a participle, a verbal
adverb, or a short adjective in a principal clause. Explanatory clauses function as
subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal clause. These clauses
answer the questions of cases. They convey the meaning of space.
Entries 183
Таня́ не объясни́ ла, откýда приéхали Tanya didn’t explain where her friends came
её прия́ тели, и где они́ собирáются from or where they are planning to stay.
останáвливаться.
Where, from which

Adverbial clauses of place indicate the place of the action expressed in the prin-
cipal part; subordinate clauses of place answer the question откýда? where from?
They refer to a combination of a predicate and the demonstrative words там
there, тудá there, and оттýда from there in the principal clause. The adverbs
всю́ ду everywhere, вездé everywhere, спрáва on the right, слéва on the left, and
others may be used in principal clauses.
Весёлая тoлпá шла оттýда, откýда A cheerful crowd was coming from where the
раздавáлась мýзыка. music was emanating.
Note!
the principal clause is possible in colloquial speech, but, in many cases, it is not
the preferred style.
Он убежáл оттýда, откýда никтó не He ran away from the place that nobody
возвращáлся. (Ф. Искандéр, «Сандрó came back from. (Iskander, Sandro from
из Чегéма») Chegem)
Where, from which

Connects attributive subordinate clauses, which usually refer to the part of
the principal clause that is expressed by a noun or nominal phrase when a
noun in the principal clause indicates a place or a space. These clauses
answer the question какóй? what kind? Откýда can be replaced by
котóрый which.
Мéсто, откýда / из котóрого мы The place from which we ran away was soon
сбежáли, скóро скры́ лось из ви́ да. hidden from view.
Откýда (бы) ни Conjunction

Regardless from where
Connects subordinate clauses that point to the places in spite of which the
action described in the principal clause is accomplished. Conveys intensity to the
action described. The particle ни not is usually placed before either a predicate
or an adverbial modifier (only when the latter is an adverb). Never precedes a
noun. Can also be combined with бы would to emphasize the meaning. The
adverbs всю́ ду everywhere, вездé everywhere, повсю́ ду all around, со всех
184 Entries
сторóн from all sides, and others can be used in principal clauses. (See also кудá
(бы) ни, где (бы) ни.)
Откýда Петрóвич ни приéдет, Regardless from where Petrovich comes, he
отовсю́ ду привóзит всем подáрки. always brings presents for everyone.
Однáко откýда бы ни черпáл However, regardless from where the actor
примéры актёр, éсли у негó есть takes his examples, if he has the necessary
и́ скренность и темперáмент, он candor and temperament, he’ll be able to
сумéет вы́ жать слезý из пýблики. squeeze a tear from the public. (Limonov,
(Э. Лимóнов, «Молодóй негодя́ й») The Young Rascal)
Относи́ тельно Preposition

Regarding, concerning
Phrases with this preposition answer the questions относи́ тельно когó?
regarding whom?, относи́ тельно чегó? regarding what? Frequently used in
journalism and scholarly literature, although it is less formal than its syno-
nym в отношéнии regarding. (See the synonyms в отношéнии, по
пóводу.)
В прави́ тельстве в цéлом есть кон- Overall, there is consensus in the government
сéнсус относи́ тельно строи́ тельства. regarding the construction.
Note!
Can be an adverb and function as a part of a sentence not governing nouns.
Всё в э́ том ми́ ре относи́ тельно. Everything is relative in this world.
Оттогó и Conjunction
That’s why
Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. If a subordinate
clause is the first part of a sentence, что joins the principal clause. Semantically
close to вслéдствие чегó (и) as a consequence of which, поэ́ тому that’s why; styl-
istically informal and close to отчегó и and so, почемý и which is why and used
in literature. (See the synonyms в результáте чегó, вслéдствие чегó (и),
поэ́ тому, отчегó и, почемý и.)
Вот что: я хотéл Наполеóном Here’s what I’ll say: I wanted to become
сдéлаться, оттогó и уби́ л . . . Napoleon. That’s why I killed her . . .
(Ф. Достоéвский, «Преступлéние и (Dostoevsky, Crime and Punishment)
наказáние»)
Entries 185
Оттогó онá и не спит по ночáм, что That’s why she doesn’t sleep at night; she’s
дýмает тóлько о нём. thinking only about him.
Оттогó(,) что Conjunction

Because
Connects subordinate clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in
the principal part of a sentence. Subordinate clauses with оттогó что follow the
principal clause. Can be split so that оттогó opens the principal clause; in this
case, the cause is emphasized. When it is not split, a comma can be placed
before either оттогó or before что. The latter focuses on the cause. The
comma may also be placed before что, emphasizing the demonstrative word.
Оттогó что is a little bit bookish, while its synonym потомý что because is
more neutral and is used more frequently. (See also поскóльку, потомý что,
так как.)
У них никогдá нет врéмени, оттогó They never have time due to the fact that
что они́ óчень неорганизóванные they’re very disorganized people.
лю́ ди.
Оттогó онá так грусти́ т, что И́ горь She’s so unhappy because Igor has gone
уéхал надóлго. away for a long time.
Отчегó (и) Conjunction

Which is why
Connects subordinate clauses that indicate a consequence or a result. Used less
frequently than its synonyms поэ́ тому therefore, оттогó и and that’s why,
потомý и and that’s why. (See also поэ́ тому, оттогó и, потомý и, почемý и.)
Кáтя проболéла всю зи́ му, отчегó и Katya was sick all winter, which is why she
не поéхала в Москвý, как didn’t go to Moscow as she had planned.
собирáлась.
Ox [coll.] Interjection
Oh
Expresses fear, sudden pain, sympathy, blame, and other feelings. Separated by
commas or followed by an exclamation mark. If ох is used to emphasize the
utterance, the comma is not needed.
Ох! – óхнул Ёжик и ки́ нулся к окнý. “Oh!” cried the Hedgehog and made for the
(С. Козлóв, «Новогóдняя скáзка») window. (Kozlov, A New Year’s Tale)
Ох уж э́ ти дéти. Oh these kids.
186 Entries
Очеви́ дно Parenthetical word

Obviously
Semantically and syntactically close to ви́ димо it seems, вероя́ тно likely, воз-
мóжно possibly, нáдо полагáть most likely, and others. Separated by commas.
Фёдор, очеви́ дно, забы́ л о том, что Fyodor obviously forgot about the fact that he
собирáлся прийти́ . was going to come.
Note!
Can function as a part of a sentence. No commas are needed.
Бы́ ло очеви́ дно, что Вáля не приéдет. It was obvious that Valya wouldn’t come.
Пéред Preposition
In front of, ahead of
Indicates the place where objects are situated or in front of which something is
happening, sometimes metaphorically. Used in response to the question где?
where? or the more specific question пéред чем? in front of what?
Паркóвку пострóили пря́ мо пéред They built a parking lot right in front of the
дóмом. house.
Вéртится пéред зéркалом весь день. He twirls in front of the mirror all day long.
Онá всегдá смущáется, когдá нáдо She always grows shy when she has to
выступáть пéред большóй perform in front of a large audience.
аудитóрией.
Пéред нáми вся жизнь. Our whole life is ahead of us.
Before, shortly before

Indicates the moment before an event. Used in phrases that respond to the ques-
tion когдá? when?
У них былá серьёзная тренирóвка They had an intense training session before
пéред мáтчем. the match.
Indicates an object or a phenomenon regarding which some actions occur. The

following verbs are usually used in these situations: встать to stand up, оказáться
to appear, отступáть to retreat, пасовáть to pass, стать to become. Translations
may vary.
Entries 187
Сергéй Олéгович оказáлся пéред Sergey Olegovich found himself in the

необходи́ мостью бы́ стро принимáть position of having quickly to make a
решéния. decision.
Но кудá чáще, отступáя пéред But far more often, retreating from the
трýдностями, сегóдняшняя difficulties, contemporary science fiction shies
фантáстика рóбко пя́ тится назáд – к away in the direction of fairy tales. (Genis,
скáзкам. (А. Гéнис, «Три «Соля́ риса» Three “Solarises,” 2003)
// «Звездá», 2003)
Indicates someone or something that is juxtaposed or contrasted with someone
or something and thus appears worse.
Красотá древнеэлли́ нского кóсмоса The beauty of the cosmos of Ancient Greece
блéкнет пéред сия́ нием цéркви. pales before the glory of the Church.
(А. Гурéвич, «Категóрии (Gurevich, Categories of the Culture of the
средневекóвой культýры») Middle Ages)
Обы́ чные проблéмы кáжутся Mundane problems seem meaningless before
несущéственными пéред опáсностью the peril of death.
смéрти.
Phrases with пéред

Преклоня́ ться пéред кем-то / чем-то. To revere someone/something.
Благоговéть пéред кем-то / чем-то. To be in awe of someone/something.
Быть виновáтым пéред кем-то / To feel guilty before someone/something.
чем-то.
Испы́ тывать нелóвкость пéред кем- To be awkward with someone/ something.
то / чем-то.
Пéред тем(,) как Conjunction

Before
Used to connect adverbial clauses of time to the principal clause, if the action
described in the principal clause occurs before the action described in the subor-
dinate clause. Can be combined with verbal infinitives. When opening a sen-
tence, it is not split by a comma; the comma is instead placed between the
principal and subordinate clauses. (See also прéжде чем, до тогó как.)
Пéред тем как предприня́ ть каки́ е- Before taking any kind of actions, he had to
либо шаги́ , он дóлжен был хорошó thoroughly think things through.
всё продýмать.
Нýжно бы́ ло провéрить, в какóм It was necessary to check the condition of the
состоя́ нии нахóдится маши́ на пéред car before going on their trip.
тем, как отправля́ ться в путешéствие.
188 Entries
По Preposition
Along, on
Indicates a surface on or along which an action occurs. Translations may
vary.
Мы шли по пешехóдному We walked along the pedestrian
мостý и смотрéли на плывýщие bridge, looking at the passing steamboats.
парохóды.
Тури́ сты весь день хóдят по гóроду. Tourists walk around the city all day long.
Плыть по течéнию. To swim along the current.
Идти́ по вóлчьим следáм. To follow wolf tracks. [lit. and fig.]
Плáтье с разрéзами по бокáм. A dress with split sides.
Вы́ шивка по шёлку. Silk embroidery.
To
Indicates places that are visited. Some nouns are used in the plural.
Е́ здить по магази́ нам. To shop (at multiple stores).
Ходи́ ть по теáтрам. To go to (several) theaters.
Путешéствовать по А́ фрике. To travel across Africa.
Бéгать по бáрам. To bar hop.
With plural nouns, shows the same kind of objects throughout which an action
is spread.
Разли́ ть по рю́ мкам. To pour shots.
Расстáвить кни́ ги по пóлкам. To shelve books.
Смотрéть по сторонáм. To look around.
Разойти́ сь по местáм. To have everyone take their place.
Used with objects towards which an action is directed.

Похлóпать когó-то по плечý. To clap someone on their shoulder.
Стýкнуть по столý. To make demands. [lit. and fig.]
Дождь стучи́ т по кры́ ше. The rain is battering the roof.
Entries 189
Sayings
Удáрить по рукáм. To reach an agreement.
(Не) поглáдить по голóвке. (Not) to pat someone on the back.
At, on, in, by

Shows an area, a subject, a field of learning, or a kind of activity.
Учени́ ца забы́ ла дóма учéбник по The student forgot her Russian textbook and
рýсскому языкý. left it at home.
Э́ тот человéк – чемпиóн по This person is a chess champion.
шáхматам.
Специали́ ст по налóгам. A tax specialist.
On, based on
Indicates works of literature, music, or science that are the basis for other works.
Фильм по пóвести. A film based on a novella.
According to, by (means of)

Shows that an action occurs in accordance with something.
Рабóтать по плáну. To work according to plan.
Поступáть по закóну. To act within the law.
Отвечáть по устáву. To respond according to the formula.
Одевáться по мóде. To dress according to fashion.
По всем прáвилам. In compliance with the rules.
Рабóта не по си́ лам. The work is beyond one’s skill level.
Суди́ ть по внéшности. To judge based on appearance.
Рабóтать по грáфику. To work within the allotted time.
По расписáнию. According to the schedule.
По Михаи́ лу Бахтинý. Based on the work of Mikhail Bakhtin.
Знать по óпыту. To know from experience.
Узнáть когó-то по гóлосу. To recognize someone by their voice.
Вспóмнить по зáпаху. To remember something by its smell.
190 Entries
Indicates an action that occurs as a result of something or in accordance with

something.
Ошиби́ ться по рассéянности / по To make a mistake because of absent-
незнáнию. mindedness/insufficient knowledge.
Опоздáть по чьéй-то винé. To be late because of someone else.
Брак по любви́ / по расчёту. A marriage of love/convenience.
Сдéлать по наи́ вности. To act in one’s naivete.
Игрáть не по прáвилам. To play not according to the rules.
По совéту врачá. According to the doctor’s orders.
По инстрýкции. According to the instructions.
Приготóвить что-то по рецéпту. To prepare something according to the recipe.
Shows objects by means of which something happens.

Концéрт по рáдио. A concert on the radio.
Разговáривать по телефóну. To talk on the phone.
Послáть посы́ лку по пóчте. To send a package by mail.
Ориенти́ роваться по звёздам. To orient oneself by the stars.
Гадáть по кáртам. To read cards.
With plural nouns that denote time, indicates the regularity or duration of an action.
По вечерáм. In the evenings.
По понедéльникам. On Mondays.
Рассчитáть по минýтам. To plan it down to the minute.
Гости́ ть по месяцáм. To stay at someone’s for months.
Indicates the amount of something when distributing something. (See also по

with the accusative.)
Дать всем по я́ блоку. To give everyone an apple.
Принимáть по таблéтке три рáза в To take a pill three times a day.
день.
Phrases with по and such verbs as скучáть to miss someone, горевáть to grieve,
тосковáть to long.
Тосковáть по дóму. To long for one’s home.
Скучáть по родны́ м. To miss one’s loved ones.
Горевáть [liter.] по люби́ мой. To grieve for one’s beloved.
Entries 191
Грусти́ ть по прóшлому. To yearn for the past.

Плáкать по ушéдшим. To weep for the dead.
Saying
Сня́ вши гóлову, по волосáм не If you sell the cow, you sell her milk too.
плáчут.
Used to name someone.

Назывáть когó-то по фами́ лии, To call someone by their last name, first
и́ мени-óтчеству. name, and patronymic.
По кли́ чке. By their nickname. (usually a pet’s name)
По прóзвищу. By their nickname.

Used with nouns that denote the edge, margin, or border of something. Used as
a point of reference.
Воды́ по колéно. Water up to the knee.
По пóяс. To the waist.
По другýю стóрону реки́ . On the other side of the river.
По лéвую рýку от тебя́ . To your left.
Saying
Рýки по лóкоть в крови́ . Up to one’s elbows in blood.
Points out a period, term, or duration with the preposition с from, used or
implied. (See also с.)
С пя́ того по двадцáтое мáя. From the 5th to the 20th of May.
С сентября́ по декáбрь. From September to December.
По сей день. To this day.
Indicates the amount expressed by cardinal and collective numerals of something

when distributing.
По две чáшки чáя. Two cups of tea each.
По 100 рублéй за штýку. A hundred rubles per each.
192 Entries
По-вáшему Parenthetical word

In your opinion
Close to по вáшему мнéнию, which is more formal. Separated by commas.
The parenthetical words по-мóему in my opinion and по-твóему in your opinion
are used in the same way.
Что же, по-вáшему, опрáвдывает What, then, in your opinion, justifies the
сложи́ вшуюся ситуáцию? current situation?
Note!
Do not confuse the parenthetical word with the adverb, which is not separated
by commas.
Пусть бýдет по-вáшему. Let’s do it your way.
Повéрь(те) Parenthetical word

Believe me
Used to convince someone. Separated by commas.
Ли́ я, повéрь, поня́ тия не имéла о Believe me, Leah didn’t know anything
том, что произошлó. about what just happened.
Note!
Can function as a part of a sentence. Commas are not needed.
Повéрьте в и́ скренность мои́ х слов. Believe the sincerity of my words.
Повéрх Preposition
Over
Points out the object over which something is located or something happens.
Он надéл пиджáк повéрх сви́ тера. He put a jacket on over the sweater.
По-ви́ димому Parenthetical word

It seems
Expresses uncertainty. Stylistically close to its synonyms вероя́ тно likely, по
всей вероя́ тности in all probability, по всей ви́ димости it seems, and ви́ димо
Entries 193
it seems, which are primarily used in literature and journalism. Separated by

commas. (See also вероя́ тно, по всей вероя́ тности, по всей ви́ димости,
ви́ димо.)
По-ви́ димому, ещё оди́ н вáжный It seems that another important factor of
при́ знак социáльности – нали́ чие sociability is the presence of specific
осóбых поведéнческих реáкций, behavioral reactions, which are directed solely
напрáвленных тóлько на общéние с at discourse with similar individuals.
себé подóбными. (К. Ефрéмов, (Efremov, Thoughts Besides a Bookshelf:
«Размышлéния у кни́ жной пóлки: On the Run from Solitude, 2003)
Бéгство от одинóчества» //
«Знáние – си́ ла», 2003)
По всей вероя́ тности/по (всей) ви́ димости Parenthetical

expressions
In all probability, it seems
Express assurance. Stylistically close to the synonyms вероя́ тно likely, по-ви́ ди-
мому it seems, ви́ димо it seems, and очеви́ дно obviously, which are primarily
used in literature and journalism. Separated by commas. (See also вероя́ тно,
ви́ димо, очеви́ дно, навéрное.)
Со стороны́ , по-ви́ димости, Apparently sad to an onlooker’s eyes, Gleb
несчастли́ вый, Глеб был тáйно secretly took pleasure in his sorrow.
счáстлив в э́ том несчáстьи. (Solzhenitsyn, In the First Circle)
(А. Солжени́ цын, «В крýге пéрвом»)
Под (подо) Preposition

Подо is used before words that start with a certain combination of consonants,
e.g., подо мной under me, подо льдом under the ice.

Under
Designates the direction in which an object moves when used with verbs that
imply movement. Phrases with this preposition answer the question кудá? where
to? or the more specific question под что? under what?
Стань под дéрево, там мнóго тéни. Go stand under the tree; there’s lots of shade
there.
Дровá положи́ ли под кры́ шу. They put the logs under the roof.
194 Entries
Under
Used with the verbs попáсть to get to, встать to stand, подстáвить to put in
front of, посади́ ть to sit (someone) down, приня́ ть to accept, and взять to take in
certain contexts.
Попáсть под снегопáд. To get caught in a snowstorm.
Попáсть под чьё-то влия́ ние. To fall under someone’s influence.
Встать под душ. To get in the shower.
Посади́ ть под арéст. To place someone under arrest.
Приня́ ть когó-то под своё крылó. To take someone under your wing.
Взять когó-то и́ ли что-то под To keep someone under observation.
наблюдéние.
Взять когó-то под защи́ ту. To take someone under one’s protection.
Постáвить под контрóль To put something under the government’s
госудáрства. control.
To
Used when an action occurs while accompanied by something.
Под шум дождя́ . To the sound of rain.
Под стук колёс. To the banging of wheels.
Под гитáру. To a guitar accompaniment.
Под аккомпанемéнт. To an accompaniment.
Под мýзыку. To music.
For
Indicates an object that is used as something else.
Отвести́ зéмлю под кукурýзу. To allocate land for planting corn.
Вы́ дeлить помещéние под To allocate space for a library.
библиотéку.
Отдáть под строи́ тельство больни́ цы. To allocate space for the construction of a
hospital.
Before
Indicates dates or holidays before which something happens.
Под Нóвый год. Just before the New Year.
Entries 195
Под конéц жи́ зни. Just before the end of one’s life.
Под Рождествó. Just before Christmas.
About
Indicates an approximate measure.
Лет под три́ дцать. About 30 years old.
Рост под метр. About a meter tall.
Человéк под пятьдеся́ т. About 50 people.
The preposition is used with such expressions:

Шкаф под старинý. An old-style wardrobe.
Поддéлываться под когó-то. To imitate someone.
Гáлстук под цвет рубáшки. A tie that matches the color of the shirt.
Сыр под винó. Cheese to complement the wine.

Under
Indicates the place where objects are situated with verbs (used or implied) that
denote state or location. Phrases with this preposition answer the question где?
where? or the more specific question под чем? under what?
Где мой мяч? – Под столóм. “Where is my ball?” “Under the table.”
Письмó оказáлось под кни́ гами. The letter turned out to be under the books.
Гуля́ ть под снéгом. To walk under the snow.
Быть под дýшем. To be in a shower.
Находи́ ться под огнём. To be under fire.
Под деревя́ нной кры́ шей. Under a wooden roof.
Под томáтным сóусом. Under a tomato sauce.
Корáбль под флáгом. A ship under a flag
Under
Used with verbs in certain contexts that imply circumstances or conditions.
Быть под чьим-то влия́ нием. To be under someone’s influence.
Оказáться под наблюдéнием. To become observed by someone.
Остáвить ребёнка под присмóтром. To leave the child in someone’s care.
196 Entries
Под чьим-то предводи́ тельством. Under someone’s lead.

Под чьим-то руковóдством. Under someone’s supervision.
Под чьим-то взгля́ дом. Beneath someone’s gaze.
Под воздéйствием сóлнца. Under the effect of the sun.
Под давлéнием большинствá. Under peer pressure.
Under
Phrases with this preposition can function as adverbial modifiers.
Выступáть под псевдони́ мом. To perform under a pseudonym.
Расскáз под и́ менем Петрóва. A short story under Petrov’s name.
Кни́ га под определённым назвáнием. A book with a specific title.
Подóбно Preposition
Like
Indicates the object or phenomenon that is of the same kind when compared
with other objects or phenomena. Phrases with this preposition can be con-
sidered parenthetical constructions and can be separated by commas or paren-
theses. Подóбно is frequently used in literature and is not as neutral as its
synonym как as. (See also как.)
Моя́ пáмять, подóбно шагрéневой My memory, like the magic piece of
кóже, всё сжимáется и сжимáется. shagreen, keeps shrinking and shrinking.
(С. Спивакóва, «Не всё») (Spivakova, Not Everything)
Подóбно томý(,) как Conjunction

Similar to how
Connects subordinate clauses that explain actions discussed in the principal
clause by distinguishing their likeness. When the conjunction opens a sentence,
it is not split by a comma; the comma is instead placed between the principal
and subordinate clauses. Frequently used in literature and is not as neutral as its
synonym так как. (See also как.)
Подóбно томý как Госпóдь сотвори́ л Similar to how God created man and
мужчи́ ну и жéнщину, он создáл woman, he created the hero, and the poet or
герóя, а с ним поэ́ та и́ ли писáтеля. the writer along with him. (Otroshenko,
(В. Отрошéнко, «Тáйная истóрия The Secret Story of Creation, 2001)
творéний» // «Октя́ брь», 2001)
Entries 197
Подýмаешь Interjection
Big whoop
Expresses irony, sarcasm, or scorn. Separated by commas or dashes.
Подýмаешь, из столи́ цы приéхал. Big whoop – he came from the capital.
Подýмаешь – начáльник нашёлся! They found the boss, big whoop!
Note!
Подýмаешь об э́ том и не захóчешь If you think about it, you won’t want to
дéло с ни́ ми имéть. deal with them at all.
Пожáлуй Parenthetical word. Particle

Parenthetical word
Probably
Semantically close to вероя́ тно likely, возмóжно possibly. Can sound a little
bookish. Separated by commas. (See also вероя́ тно, возмóжно.)
Мы, пожáлуй, всё-таки не поéдем We probably won’t be going anywhere after
никудá. all.
Particle
Probably
Used as a reply to express unsure agreement.
Бýдешь отдыхáть зáвтра? – Пожáлуй. “Are you going to relax tomorrow?”
“Probably.”
Пожáлуйста Particle
You are welcome, please.
Used as a polite address or a request to do something. Used as a formal response
to someone who says “thank you.” In many everyday situations, people use the
informal не за что not a problem. Separated by commas. (See also на здорóвье,
не за что.)
Два билéта, пожáлуйста. Спаси́ бо. – “Two tickets, please. Thank you.” “You’re
Пожáлуйста. welcome.”
198 Entries
Note!
Usually, in less formal situations, the responses не за что not a problem or на
здорóвье you’re welcome are used.
Дáйте, пожáлуйста, стакáн воды́ . “Could you please give me a glass of water?
Спаси́ бо. – Не за что. Thanks.” “Not a problem.”
Expressions and phrases with пожáлуйста

Пожáлуйста-пожáлуйста. Yes-yes. Uttered very quickly.
Я возьмý ненадóлго э́ ту кни́ гу. – “I’ll take the book for a bit.” “Go ahead,
Пожáлуйста-пожáлуйста. go ahead.”
(Да,) пожáлуйста. Certainly. Used as a positive reply to a request.

Мóжно войти́ ? – Да, пожáлуйста. “May I come in?” “Yes, please.”
Да пожáлуйста. Go for it/go ahead. When said, the stress is on пожáлуйста.

This utterance expresses indifference or annoyance.
Я уезжáю на недéлю в Москвý. – Да “I’m leaving for Moscow for a week.” “Go
пожáлуйста. for it.”
Ну, пожáлуйста. Do it. Used when someone is impatiently urging someone

to do something.
Ну, пожáлуйста. Please, do it.
Ну пожáлуйста. Come on. Begging, pleading about something.

Ну пожáлуйста, приéдьте к нам – мы Come on, come visit us – we haven’t seen
же óчень давнó не ви́ делись. each other in so long.
Ну и пожáлуйста. [coll.] Go ahead/have at it. Used as a remark/reply with a

negative attitude towards what is happening.
Мы ухóдим – уже пóздно. – Ну и “We’re leaving. It’s late.” “Go right
пожáлуйста. ahead.”
И вот / и вдруг, пожáлуйста. [coll.] And suddenly, here [something/

someone] is. Used when something unpredictable happens that displeases
the speaker.
Не звони́ л, не приходи́ л сто лет и You haven’t called, haven’t visited in 100
вот, пожáлуйста, яви́ лся. years and now, suddenly, here you are.
Entries 199
Позади́ Preposition
Behind
the more specific questions позади́ когó? behind whom?, позади́ чегó? behind
what? (See the antonym впереди́ .)
Позади́ всех мéдленно шёл Little Pet’ka walked slowly behind everyone
мáленький Пéтька. else.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition позади́ , which is combined with nouns and
governs them in the genitive case, with the adverb позади́ , which is used
independently.
Гóрод остáлся позади́ . The city was left behind.
Покá Conjunction
While
Used when the actions expressed in the principal and subordinate clauses occur
simultaneously (with imperfective verbs in both parts), or when the action
expressed in the principal clause partially coincides with the action expressed in
the subordinate clause (with perfective and imperfective verbs accordingly). (See
also в то врéмя как.)
Бáбушка сидéла и вязáла, покá я Grandma sat and knitted while I made
готóвила обéд. dinner.
Покá пáпа убирáл в садý ли́ стья, While dad was raking leaves in the garden,
приéхали гóсти. the guests arrived.
Покá не Conjunction
Until
Used like до тех пор покá не until to connect adverbial clauses of time to
the principal clause, when the action expressed in the subordinate clause indi-
cates a time boundary. Clauses with this conjunction answer the question до
каки́ х пор? until what time? Typically, a verb in the subordinate clause is per-
fective. Покá не is less formal than до тех пор покá не until, which empha-
sizes the content in the subordinate part. (See also до тех пор, покá; до тех
пор, покá не.)
200 Entries
Мы не могли́ вы́ йти из дóма, покá не We couldn’t go out of the house until the
прекрати́ лся ли́ вень. downpour stopped.
Note!
The particle не in this conjunction does not mean negation.
Полóжим Parenthеtical word

Let’s say
Semantically the same as допýстим let’s say. Stylistically bookish. Separated by
commas. (See also допýстим.)
В тéхнике, полóжим, они́ мáло что Let’s say that they understand very little
понимáют. about tech equipment.
Note!
Сначáла полóжим в ми́ ску я́ йца, First, we’ll put eggs, butter, and sour cream
мáсло и сметáну. into the bowl.
По мéре Preposition
As
Used with nouns that indicate progress in action. Constructions with this prep-
osition can be separated by commas. Used in formal language.
По мéре приближéния вы́ боров мэ́ ра As the mayoral election draws closer, the
об оппози́ ции вспоминáют всё рéже. opposition is considered more rarely.
По мéре тогó(,) как Conjunction

As
Used when the circumstances or conditions of an object described in the subor-
dinate clause gradually change in the principal clause. Imperfective verbs express
this change. Usually, no comma is used in the conjunction when it opens a
sentence.
По мéре тогó как мы поднимáлись в As we climbed higher up the mountain, there
гóру, расти́ тельности станови́ лось was less and less vegetation.
всё мéньше.
Entries 201
Он станови́ лся задýмчивее по мéре He became more pensive as the night drew
тогó, как врéмя приближáлось к closer.
нóчи.
Поми́ луй(те) [coll.] Parenthetical word

Forgive me
Articulates disagreement, objection. Separated by commas. Can sound a bit
archaic.
Поми́ луйте, рáзве мóжно бы́ ло такóе Forgive me, but how could you have said
говори́ ть?! such a thing?!
Поми́ мо Preposition
Aside from
A synonym of the more common не считáя not counting and крóме оther than.
Frequently used in formal language. Phrases with this preposition answer the
questions поми́ мо когó? aside from whom?, поми́ мо чегó? aside from what?
Constructions with поми́ мо can be separated by commas. (See also крóме, не
считáя, сверх.)
Цéнность э́ той конферéнции в том, The value of this conference is that aside
что поми́ мо учёных в ней обы́ чно from scholars, public figures also take part in
принимáют учáстие общéственные it.
дéятели.
Банди́ ты, поми́ мо орýжия, закупи́ ли Aside from weapons, the bandits also bought
óколо деся́ тка автомоби́ лей, порта- about 10 cars, portable radios, a cell phone,
ти́ вные радиостáнции, моби́ льный and a video camera.
телефóн и видеокáмеру.
Against
Can be a synonym for вопреки́ against, which is more commonly used. No
commas are needed. (See also вопреки́ .)
Встрéча былá организóвана поми́ мо The meeting was organized against my
моегó желáния. wishes.
202 Entries
По направлéнию к Preposition
In the direction of
Phrases with this preposition answer the question по направлéнию к чемý? in
the direction of what? Synonym with к to, which is used more often. (See also к.)
Иди́ те по направлéнию к кинотеáтру. Go in the direction of the movie theater.
Мы идём навстрéчу. We’re headed your way.
Понимáешь (ли)/понимáете (ли) [coll.] Parenthetical word

You see
Used to draw a listener’s attention and establish a sense of trust or confidentiality
in the conversation. Separated by commas.
У нас, понимáете ли, весь мéсяц You see, our relatives were staying with us
гости́ ли рóдственники, и врéмени for the whole month, and we didn’t have
ни на что не было. time for anything.
Note!
Понимáешь / понимáете can function as a predicate. No commas are needed.
Наступáет врéмя, когдá ты The time comes when you understand what
понимáешь, что происхóдит вокрýг. goes on around you.
Поня́ тно Parenthetical word. Particle

Parenthetical word
Clearly
Expresses assurance. Semantically close to конéчно of course and разумéется
naturally, which are used more often. Поня́ тно is separated by commas. (See
also конéчно, разумéется.)
Фильм, поня́ тно, достáточно глýпый. The film, clearly, is pretty foolish.
Particle
Understood
Can be used as a separate sentence as a reply.
Мы сегóдня никудá не идём. – “We’re not going anywhere today.” “Got
Поня́ тно. it.”
Entries 203
Note!
Can function as a predicate. No commas needed.
Вам поня́ тно, о чём мы говори́ ли? Do you understand what we were talking about?
По отношéнию к Preposition
Regarding, towards
The same as в отношéнии к regarding. Bookish. (See also в отношéнии к.)
Вы поступи́ ли несправедли́ во по You behaved unjustly towards Vasily
отношéнию к Васи́ лию Андрéевичу. Andreevich.
Поперёк Preposition
Across
Invokes the connotation that something is situated incorrectly and gets in the
way. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions поперёк когó? across
whom?, поперёк чегó? across what?
О́ чень раздражáет, когдá кто-то It’s very irritating when somebody parks
стáвит маши́ ну поперёк паркóвки. their car across several spots.
Note!
Do not confuse with the adverb поперёк, which is not used in combination
with nouns.
Они́ распили́ ли дóски поперёк и They sawed the wooden beams in half and
положи́ ли их пéред порóгом дóма. placed them in front of the porch.
Sayings with поперёк

Встать поперёк дорóги. Stand in the middle of the road.
Стать поперёк гóрла. Stick in one’s craw.
Вдоль и поперёк. Inside out. [fig.]
204 Entries
По пóводу Preposition
About
Used when the utterance concerns something or someone. Phrases with this
preposition answer the questions по пóводу когó? about whom?, по
пóводу чегó? about what? Stylistically close to насчёт about and относи́ -
тельно concerning. Its synonym в отношéнии regarding is more formal. (See
also в отношéнии, насчёт, относи́ тельно.)
Что вы дýмаете по пóводу доклáда? “What do you think about the report?”
– Доклáд был хорóший и вы́ звал “The report was good and elicited a lot of
мнóго вопрóсов. questions.”
По прáвде говоря́ Parenthetical expression

To tell the truth
Emphasizes the frankness or honesty of the speaker. Stylistically used in the
same way as чéстно говоря́ to tell the truth or откровéнно говоря́ frankly
speaking and more often than сказáть по прáвде / по сóвести to tell the
truth. Separated by commas. (See the synonyms откровéнно говоря́ ,
чéстно говоря́ , сказáть по прáвде / по сóвести.)
По прáвде говоря́ , éхать сейчáс To tell the truth, I don’t want to go
никудá не хóчется. anywhere right now.
По причи́ не Preposition
As a result of
Indicates the cause of the action. Phrases with this preposition answer the ques-
tion по какóй причи́ не? for what reason? Used in formal language, unlike its
synonym из-за because of, which is neutral. Constructions with this preposition
can be separated by commas. (See also из-за.)
Конфли́ кты усложни́ лись по Conflicts became more serious as a result of
причи́ не углубля́ ющегося the worsening economic crisis.
экономи́ ческого кри́ зиса.
Entries 205
По причи́ не тогó, что Conjunction

As a result of
Connects clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the principal part
of a sentence. These clauses answer the questions почемý? why?, по какóй
причи́ не? for what reason? Frequently used in scholarly language and journalism.
(See also ввидý тогó что, вслéдствие тогó что, в си́ лу тогó что, поскóльку.)
Никтó не мог воспóльзоваться Nobody could invoke their civil rights as a
правовы́ ми нóрмами по причи́ не result of the ongoing war.
тогó, что шла войнá.
По прошéствии Preposition
Past
Indicates time after which an action takes place. While its synonym спустя́ since
is neutral, по прошéствии is commonly used in literature.
Сейчáс, по прошéствии десяти́ лет, Now, 10 years past, you remember how
вспоминáешь, скóлько замечáтельных many wonderful people were sitting at the
людéй сидéло за столóм. (Г. Гóрин, table. (Gorin, Ironic Memoirs)
«Ирони́ ческие мемуáры»)
Поскóльку Conjunction
Because
Connects clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the principal part of
a sentence. Can be placed before, after, or in the middle of the principal clause. Пос-
кóльку is a little bit bookish, as is its synonym оттогó что because, while потомý
что because is more neutral and is used more frequently. (See also оттогó что,
потомý что, так как.)
Все пи́ сьма остáлись в поли́ ции, All of the letters were left with the police,
поскóльку э́ то вещéственные because they were material evidence.
доказáтельства.
Пóсле Preposition
After
Shows that something occurs after something else ends. Phrases with this prepos-
ition answer the common question когдá? when? and the more specific
206 Entries
questions пóсле какóго врéмени? after what time?, пóсле чегó? after what?
The last question can imply an event or phenomenon.
Срáзу пóсле окончáния концéрта Right after the concert ends, we’re meeting in
встречáемся в кафé. the cafe.
Твоя́ óчередь пóсле Пéтиной. Your turn is after Petya’s.
Note!
Do not confuse the preposition with the adverb пóсле after, which is used inde-
pendently without nouns in the genitive case. Can be a synonym of потóм
later.
На разговóры сейчáс нет врéмени. There’s no time for talking right now. We’ll
Поговори́ м пóсле. talk later.
Пóсле тогó(,) как Conjunction

After
depicted in the subordinate clause. Usually, no comma is used when opening a
sentence. Specifies the time of an action, while its synonym когдá when is
generalizing.
Пóсле тогó как Вéра вернýлась из After Vera returned from her business trip,
командирóвки, онá уéхала к сы́ ну. she went to visit her son.
Ники́ та Сергéевич ушёл на пéнсию Nikita Sergeevich retired immediately after
срáзу пóсле тогó, как емý испóлни- he became 60.
лось шестьдеся́ т.
Постóльку, поскóльку Conjunction

To the degree that
principal part of a sentence. The action described in the principal clause depends
in some degree on the action in the subordinate clause.
Есть тóлько сознáние, а всё There is only consciousness, and everything
остальнóе, в том числé и мы сáми, else, including ourselves, exists only to the
существýет тóлько постóльку, degree that it enters the sphere of that
поскóльку попадáет в егó сфéру. consciousness. (Pelevin, The Yellow Arrow)
(В. Пелéвин, «Жёлтая стрелá»)
Entries 207
По сравнéнию с Preposition
When compared with
Phrases with по сравнéнию с answer the questions по сравнéнию с чем?
when compared with what?, по сравнéнию с кем? when compared with whom?
Constructions with по сравнéнию с can be separated by commas when they
are placed in the middle of a sentence, between a subject and a predicate, or
when they clarify what is said in the sentence. Tends to be utilized in less
formal speech than в сравнéнии с in comparison with. (See also в сравнéнии с.)
В э́ том годý заболевáемость This year, the incidence of chicken pox has
ветря́ нкой значи́ тельно сни́ зилась, greatly decreased in number when compared
по сравнéнию с прóшлым гóдом. with last year.
Посреди́ Preposition
In the middle of
Used to express location or time. Phrases with this preposition answer the common
question где? where? or the more specific question посреди́ чегó? between what?
Посреди́ кóмнаты стои́ т большóй There is a big table in the middle of the
стол. room.
Егó прервáли посреди́ доклáда. He was interrupted in the middle of his
presentation.
Посрéдством Preposition
By means of
Indicates the object or phenomenon by means of which an action occurs.
Phrases with this preposition answer the questions посрéдством чегó? by means
of what?, посрéдством когó? by means of whom? Has a bookish shade and is
widely used in professional language for specific purposes. Its synonyms при
пóмoщи aided by and с пóмощью with the help of are more informal.
Блоки́ рование áдреса бýдет осу- The address will be blocked by changing the
ществленó посрéдством изменé- firewall settings.
ния прáвил сетевóго экрáна.
208 Entries
По сýти (дéла) Parenthetical word

In essence
Used to show that the speaker is focusing on the essence of the thought. Separ-
ated by commas. Used in the same way as its synonym в сýщности in essence
and more frequently than по существý basically. Less informal than сóбст-
венно (говоря́ ) strictly speaking. (See also в сýщности, по существý, сóбст-
венно говоря́ .)
Дéлать здесь, по сýти, остаётся In essence, there’s little more to be done here,
немнóго, поэ́ тому мы вскóре which is why we are getting ready to leave
собирáемся уéхать. soon.
Note!
По сýти так ничегó и не было All in all, nothing of much importance was
скáзано. said.
По существý Parenthetical word

Basically
Semantically and functionally close to в сýщности in essence, по сýти in essence,
and сóбственно (говоря́ ) strictly speaking. Stylistically close to по сýти and is
less informal than сóбственно (говоря́ ) strictly speaking. Separated by commas.
(See also в сýщности, по сýти, сóбственно (говоря́ ).)
По существý, сегóдня любóй человéк Basically, these days, anyone can become a
мóжет стать жéртвой террори́ зма. victim of terrorism.
Note!
Э́ ти рефóрмы по существý явля́ ются These reforms are pointless by their very
бессмы́ сленными. essence.
Потомý и Conjunction
That’s why
close to вслéдствие чегó (и) as a result of which, поэ́ тому that’s why, оттогó и
that’s why. Stylistically informal and close to отчегó и which is why, почемý и
Entries 209
which is why and used in literature. (See also в результáте чегó, вслéдствие
чегó (и), оттогó и, отчегó и, поэ́ тому, почемý и.)
Но, мóжет, потомý и не вы́ держал, But maybe that’s why he couldn’t take it,
что был сáмым си́ льным, потомý и because he was the strongest. That’s why he
надорвáлся. (В. Бы́ ков, «Кáмень») crumbled. (Bykov, The Stone)
Потомý(,) что Conjunction

Because
Connects adverbial clauses that indicate the cause of the action reflected in the princi-
pal part of a sentence. Used frequently, since it is neutral in terms of style. Its closest
synonym оттогó что because is less colloquial; the synonyms ввидý тогó что in light
of the fact that, вслéдствие тогó что as a consequence of the fact that, в си́ лу тогó что
given the fact that, из-за тогó что because of have their own nuances and are used more
frequently in formal language. Потомý что follows the principal clause. It can be split
so that потомý opens the principal clause; in this case, the cause is emphasized. When
the conjunction is not split, a comma can be placed either before потомý or before
что. The latter focuses on the cause. The comma may also be placed before что,
emphasizing the demonstrative word. (See also ввидý тогó что, в си́ лу тогó что,
вслéдствие тогó что, из-за тогó что, оттoгó что, так как.)
На вéчер мы опоздáли, потомý что We were late to the party because Semyon
Семён задержáлся на собрáнии. was held up at the meeting.
Потомý они́ не пришли́ , что ребёнок They didn’t come, because their child got
заболéл. sick.
Натáша реши́ ла не переезжáть в Natasha decided not to move to another city,
другóй гóрод потомý, что не хóчет because she doesn’t want to get a new job.
меня́ ть рабóту.
Похóже Parenthetical word

It looks like
Semantically close to кáжется it seems. Stylistically more colloquial. Separated
by commas. (See also кáжется.)
Мы, похóже, застря́ ли в прóбке и к It looks like we’re stuck in traffic and won’t
фи́ льму не успéем. make the film in time.
Note!
Это бы́ ло совершéнно не похóже на It was completely unlike him.
негó.
210 Entries
Почемý и Conjunction
Which is why
close to вслéдствие чегó (и) as a result of which, поэ́ тому therefore, оттогó и
that’s why. Stylistically informal and close to отчегó и and so, потомý и that’s
why and is used in literature. (See the synonyms в результáте чегó, вслéдст-
вие чегó (и), оттогó и, отчегó и, поэ́ тому.)
Онá пребывáла в убеждéнии, что She lived with the conviction that she
понимáет людéй с полуслóва, почемý understood people right away, which is why
и начинáла запáльчиво отвечáть при she responded hotheadedly as soon as the
пéрвых попы́ тках собесéдника что бы person she was talking to uttered half a
то ни бы́ ло произнести́ . (А. Вóлос, word. (Volos, Immobility, 2001)
«Недви́ жимость» // «Нóвый Мир»,
2001)
Поэ́ тому Conjunction

Therefore, so, that’s why
close to вслéдствие чегó (и) as a result of which, почемý и which is why,
оттогó и because of which. Stylistically neutral and used in various genres. (See
the synonyms вслéдствие чегó (и), знáчит, оттогó и, отчегó (и), слéдо-
вательно, так что.)
Кáтя проболéла всю зи́ му, поэ́ тому Katya was sick all winter, so she didn’t go to
и не поéхала в Москвý, как Moscow as she had planned.
собирáлась.
Поэ́ тому мы и не стáли слýшать That’s why we didn’t listen to the lecture,
лéкцию, что тéма никогó не because the topic didn’t interest anyone.
заинтересовáла.
Прáвда Parenthetical word. Particle. Conjunction

Parenthetical word
Really
Confirms the veracity of a given utterance. Separated by commas.
Трофи́ м, прáвда, говори́ т, что всё Trofim really says that he’ll do everything.
сдéлает.
Entries 211
Particle
Right, really
Expresses affirmation. No commas are needed. Used in a question that requires
assurance or confirmation. Can be a synonym of да. (See also да, хорошó.)
Вáся прáвда уезжáет. Vasya really is leaving.
Ты скóро к нам опя́ ть приéдешь, You’re going to visit us soon, right?
прáвда?
Conjunction
Though
Clarifies what was said before and may soften the contrast between parts of a
sentence. (See also всё же, но, однáко, тем не мéнее, хотя́ .)
Он мóжет хорошó рабóтать, прáвда He can work well, though he doesn’t have a
óпыта у негó мáло. lot of experience.
Note!
Can be a part of a sentence. No commas needed.
Мне не нужнá такáя прáвда. I don’t need that kind of truth.
Предполóжим Parenthetical word

Suppose
Used when the speaker is about to make a concession or compromise. Separated
by commas. Can be used as a response. Can be utilized in various styles.
Ну, предполóжим, согласи́ тся Тáня Suppose that Tanya agrees to this proposal.
приня́ ть это предложéние. А кто с Who’ll babysit the kid then?
ребёнком сидéть бýдет?
Придётся комý-то другóму заня́ ться “Will someone else have to take care of the
газéтой? – Предполóжим. magazine?” “I suppose so.”
Note!
Предполóжим, что никтó здесь не Let’s assume that nobody’s left here.
остáлся.
212 Entries
Предстáвь(те) (себé) Parenthetical word

Imagine
Draws someone’s attention to something. Separated by commas.
Ви́ дели мы, предстáвьте себé, в э́ том If you can imagine it, we saw coyotes and
пáрке койóтов и олéней. deer in the park.
Note!
Предстáвь себé, что ты оди́ н в Imagine that you’re alone in a dark forest
тёмном лесý и не знáешь, кудá идти́ . and don’t know where to go.
Прéжде чем Conjunction

Before
Used if the action described in the principal clause occurs before the action
described in the subordinate clause. Can be combined with verbal infinitives. Usu-
ally, a comma appears before the first word of the conjunction if it is in the middle
of a sentence. When opening a sentence, the comma is placed between the clauses.
Прéжде чем подавáть докумéнты в Before submitting an application to the
э́ ту прогрáмму, нýжно бы́ ло ознакó- university, you had to familiarize yourself
миться со всéми услóвиями. with all the requirements.
Андрéй убежáл, прéжде чем О́ ля Andrey ran away before Olya could figure
понялá, что происхóдит. out what was happening.
При Preposition
Attached to, affiliated with
Indicates that an object has an attachment to or affiliation with another object.
При инститýте откры́ ли нóвую They opened a new chemical laboratory
хими́ ческую лаборатóрию. affiliated with the institute.
During the time of, under

Shows a person during whose reign something happened. Phrases with this
preposition answer the nonspecific question когдá? when?
Entries 213
Перестрóйка началáсь при Perestroika began under Gorbachev.

Горбачёве.
Пéрвый рýсский университéт был The first Russian university was opened
откры́ т при Михаи́ ле Ломонóсове. during the lifetime of Mikhail Lomonosov.
In the presence of someone, in certain conditions

(При ком?) При свидéтелях. (In the presence of whom?) In the presence of
witnesses.
Пожáлуйста, не нýжно говори́ ть об Please, there’s no need to talk about this in
э́ том при дéтях. the presence of children.
Онá обещáла отдáть фотогрáфии при She promised to return the photos when we
встрéче. see one another.
При такóм хóлоде недóлго и заболéть. It’s easy to fall ill in such cold weather.
With
Indicates someone who is somehow connected with someone. Phrases with this
preposition answer the question при ком? with whom?
Татья́ на всегдá при своéй мáме – у Tatyana is always with her mother; she has
неё нет никакóй возмóжности вы́ йти no opportunity to go anywhere.
кудá-нибудь.
When, while
Indicates the action during which something occurs. Used with words that are
derived from verbs. Phrases with this preposition answer the nonspecific ques-
tion когдá? when?
При решéнии задáчи студéнт While solving the problem, the student made
допусти́ л оши́ бку. a mistake.
При появлéнии Поли́ ны все When Polina showed up, everyone fell
замолчáли. silent.
By
Indicates a phenomenon, event, or circumstances during which the action
occurs. Phrases with this preposition answer the question как? how?
При лунé. By moonlight.
Ю́ ля читáла при свéте свечи́ . Yulia was reading by candlelight.
214 Entries
Indicates an object that someone has in their possession.

При орýжии. Armed (with weapons).
При орденáх. Decorated (with medals).
Жéня всегдá при деньгáх. Zhenya always has money.
Indicates a phenomenon, situation, or circumstances that would allow or cause

an action to happen.
Мы встрéтимся при пéрвой же We’ll meet at the first opportunity.
возмóжности.
При такóй дальнозóркости Кáтя With such farsightedness, Katya has to wear
должнá носи́ ть очки́ , не снимáя. glasses all the time without taking them off.
При желáнии ты всегó мóжешь If you want to, you can accomplish
доби́ ться. anything.
Причём Conjunction
And
Connects words, phrases, or clauses in compound sentences that contain add-
itional information or clarify what was said. Constructions with this conjunction
are separated by commas. (See also к томý же.)
Мнóгие роди́ тели не рабóтают, Many parents do not work, and the amount
причём коли́ чество нерабóтающих of nonworking mothers and fathers is the
матерéй и отцóв сущéственно не same. (From newspapers)
отличáется. (Из газéт)
Note!
Do not confuse the conjunction причём with the combination of the prepos-
ition and the pronoun при чём what. (See also при.)
При чём здесь погóда? – “What does the weather have to do with
Совершéнно ни при чём. У нас anything?” “Nothing. We just have a lot to
прóсто мнóго дел. do.”
При э́ том Conjunction

All the while, still
The words connected by this conjunction contain extra information. Construc-
tions with при э́ том are usually separated by commas. Often used with и and.
(See also к томý же.)
Entries 215
Алексéй Петрóвич говори́ л дóлго, Aleksey Petrovich spoke for a long time,
старáлся произвести́ впечатлéние и trying to have an effect on the audience, all
при э́ том не замечáл, что порá the while not noticing that it was time to
закáнчивать. wind down.
Note!
Do not confuse the conjunction with the adverb. No commas are needed.
При э́ том он многозначи́ тельно At the same time, he looked at me
посмотрéл на меня́ . meaningfully.
Про Preposition
About
Synonymous with the preposition о about. Tends, however, to be restricted to
colloquial speech. (See also о.)
Ты слы́ шала, что говоря́ т про “Have you heard what they say about us?”
нас? – Ну и пусть. Не обращáй “Let them. Pay no attention to it.”
внимáние.
Прóсто Particle
Just
Emphasizes the idea of the utterance.
Он прóсто неýмный человéк, и с ним He’s just not a very smart person, and you
не нáдо имéть дéло. shouldn’t have any contact with him.
Expression with прóсто

Прóсто так. Just because.
Note!
Do not confuse the particle with the adverb.
Всё óчень прóсто, и не нáдо It’s all very simple, and there’s no need to
усложня́ ть. make it more difficult than it is.
216 Entries
Прóтив Preposition
Against
Indicates objects that are situated against something or move in opposite direc-
tions. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions прóтив когó? against
whom?, прóтив чегó? against what? Translations may vary.
Стол постáвили прóтив окнá – They put the table right across from the
сóлнце бьёт пря́ мо в глазá. window; the sun hits you right in the eye.
Велосипеди́ ст éдет прóтив движéния The bicyclist is going against the flow of
и создаёт авари́ йную ситуáцию. traffic and is creating the potential for an
accident.
Sayings with прóтив

Друг прóтив дрýга. Against one another.
Идти́ прóтив вéтра. To go against the wind.
Плыть прóтив течéния. To swim against the current.
Against
Indicates objects or phenomena against which something or someone
acts or functions. Phrases with this preposition answer the questions
прóтив когó? against whom?, прóтив чегó? against what? Translations may
vary.
Рабóтники предприя́ тия выступáют The workers are protesting mass layoffs.
прóтив мáссовых увольнéний.
Срéдство прóтив насекóмых. Bug spray.
Вакци́ на прóтив гри́ ппа. A flu vaccine.
Against
Points out the factor in spite of which an act occurs. Phrases with this prepos-
ition answer the question прóтив чегó? against what? (See also вопреки́ .)
В цéнтре гóрода води́ тели Van drivers have made an unofficial pickup
маршрýток сдéлали останóвку location in the middle of town that goes
прóтив прáвил. against the rules.
Entries 217
Expressions with прóтив

Вы́ ступить прóтив вóли. To act against your will.
Сдéлать что-то прóтив желáния. To do something against your wishes.
Поступи́ ть прóтив сóвести. To do something against your beliefs.
Пря́ мо [coll.] Particle

Straight up
Emphasizes the utterance. Very informal.
Совсéм невозмóжный стал, пря́ мо He’s become completely unbearable, it’s a
кошмáр какóй-то. straight up nightmare.
Note!
Do not confuse the particle with the adverb.
Иди́ те пря́ мо, не сворáчивая. Go straight ahead and don’t make any
turns.
Пусть (пускáй) Particle. Conjunction

Particle
Let
Combined with the present tense or the simple future, can form imperative sen-
tences referring to the third person. These sentences are pronounced with a
tense intonation and a raised voice. In writing, this is expressed by a period or
an exclamation mark. These particles are used in slogans, sayings‚ toasts, and
aphorisms.
Пускáй Семён схóдит в магази́ н и Let Semyon go down to the store and buy
кýпит картóшку. potatoes.
Пусть все бýдут здорóвы! Let everyone be healthy!
Conjunction
May
Connects subordinate clauses that point to the circumstances in spite of which
the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. Strengthens the
contradiction between the principal and the subordinate clause and makes
speech more emotional and colorful. Has a conversational shade.
218 Entries
Пускáй на ýлице вéтер и дóждь, в There may be wind and rain outside, but it’s
дóме теплó и ую́ тно. warm and comfortable in the house.
Что до богóв? Пускáй они́ What about the gods? Let them rule the
Судьбáми управля́ ют ми́ ра! Fates of the world!
(А. Дéльвиг, «Поэ́ т») (Del’vig, The Poet)
Путём Preposition
By way of
Indicates the means by which something is accomplished. Phrases with this
preposition answer the question каки́ м óбразом? by what means? Bookish.
Путём манипули́ рования молéку- By manipulating the DNA and RNA
лами ДНК и РНК совремéнный molecules, the modern human can, of his
человéк мóжет произвóльно и own volition and with determination, change
напрáвленно изменя́ ть наслéдствен- the inheritance of the surrounding world.
ность окружáющего егó живóго (Spirin, Fundamental Science and Problems
ми́ ра. (А. Спи́ рин, «Фундамен- of Ecological Safety, 2004)
тáльная наýка и проблéмы эколо-
ги́ ческой безопáсности» // «Вéстник
РАН» 2004)
Рáди Preposition
For the sake of
Indicates the person, item, or idea in whose name something is done. Phrases
with this preposition answer the questions рáди когó? for whom?, рáди чегó?
for what?
Готóвы ли лю́ ди поступи́ ться Are people ready to give up their human
свобóдами и правáми человéка freedoms and rights for the sake of greater
рáди бóльшей безопáсности? security?
Он готóв рáди неё на всё. He’s ready to do anything for her.
Indicates the reason of the action. Phrases with this preposition answer the ques-
tion рáди чегó? for what?
Entries 219
Рáди справедли́ вости нáдо отмéтить, For the sake of fairness, it should be noted
что Татья́ на вы́ глядела прóсто that Tatyana looked absolutely fantastic.
замечáтельно.
Expressions and proverb with рáди

Шýтки рáди. For the sake of the joke.
Простоты́ рáди. For simplicity’s sake.
Рáди крáсного словцá For the sake of being witty, he’ll betray
не пожалéет и отцá. his own father.
Рáди тогó, чтóбы Conjunction

In order to
Connects subordinate clauses that indicate the motive or purpose of the action
reflected in the principal part of the sentence. These clauses answer the questions
зачéм? for what purpose?, с какóй цéлью? with what goal? Emphasizes the action
decribed in the subordinate clause, but is used less frequently than its synonyms
чтóбы in order and для тогó чтóбы in order to. A comma appears before
чтóбы. A subordinate clause with this conjuction can be placed before or after
the principal clause, as well as in the middle of a sentence. (See also чтóбы, для
тогó чтóбы.)
Я понимáла, что мой муж принёс I understood that my husband made another
очереднýю жéртву [. . .] и вы́ вез из sacrifice [. . .] and got an entire plane of
Росси́ и цéлый самолёт людéй лишь people out of Russia just in order to keep the
рáди тогó, чтóбы не разлучáть orchestra together. (Spivakova, Not
оркéстр. (С. Спивакóва, «Не всё») Everything)
Рáди тогó, чтóбы встрéтиться с In order to meet her friends, Zhanna was
друзья́ ми, Жáнна готóва былá на ready to do whatever it took.
мнóгое.
Раз Conjunction
Since
or circumstance needed to accomplish an action. A subordinate clause starting
with this conjunction can be placed at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.
Subordinate clauses with раз answer the questions при какóм услóвии? on
what condition?, в какóм слýчае? in what case? If the subordinate clause with
the conjunction раз precedes the principal one, the latter is often introduced by
220 Entries
the word то then. A comma is placed between the two parts of the complex
sentence. Раз is informal. (See also éсли, когдá, кóли, éжели.)
Раз Мирóн позвони́ л, то давáй Since Miron called, let’s meet up.
встрéтимся.
Не вмéшивайся, пожáлуйста, раз ты Please don’t interfere, since you don’t know
ничегó не знáешь об э́ том. anything about it.
Рáзве Particle
Really?
Used in interrogative sentences to express disbelief, surprise, or amazement. Can
be an interjection that is used as an exclamation. Translations may vary. (See also
не мóжет быть, неужéли.)
Рáзве вы не договори́ лись поéхать Didn’t you agree to go fishing tomorrow?
зáвтра на рыбáлку?
Он давнó увóлился. – Рáзве?! “He quit his job a long time ago.”
“Really?!”
Рáзве тóлько [coll.] Conjunction

Unless
Connects a subordinate clause to the principal clause to express a real condition,
i.e., a circumstance that can limit an action. (See also éсли.)
Светлáна приéдет обязáтельно, рáзве Svetlana will definitely come, unless her boss
тóлько её не отпýстит начáльство. doesn’t let her.
Разумéется Parenthetical word. Particle

Parenthetical word
Of course, naturally
Can also be translated as “certainly” or “sure.” Expresses confidence and is sep-
arated by commas. Less informal than конéчно of course. Can be used together
with the parenthetical expression самó собóй it goes without saying. (See also
безуслóвно, бесспóрно, естéственно, конéчно, самó собóй.)
Ивáн Ивáнович, разумéется, Naturally, Ivan Ivanovich refused to come.
отказáлся приéхать.
Entries 221
Particle
Naturally
Used as an independent sentence-reply in confirmation to an utterance. Some-
times used with the particle самó собóй it goes without saying. (See also безус-
лóвно, бесспóрно, естéственно, конéчно, самó собóй.)
Ты помóжешь отцý? – Разумéется. “Will you help your father?” “Naturally.”
Ря́ дом с Preposition

Next to
Phrases with this preposition answer the questions ря́ дом с кем? next to whom?,
ря́ дом с чем? next to what? Can be used to compare something or someone
with something or someone. Colloquial.
Ря́ дом с Ви́ ктором он прóсто Next to Victor, he’s simply Einstein.
Эйнштéйн.
Светлáна всегдá сиди́ т ря́ дом с Svetlana always sits next to Tagir.
Таги́ ром.
С (со) Preposition
Со is used before words that start with two or more consonants if the first one
is с or з or with a certain combination of consonants (со шкáфчика from the
bookcase, со лба from the forehead), before the words весь whole, вся́ кий any,
мной me, and others.

From, off
Defines the place, object, or event from which something or someone is
moving. Phrases with this preposition answer the question откýда? from where?
Correlates with the preposition на towards, denoting opposite movement, i.e.,
from a specified location. (See also на.)
Он взял с пóлки кни́ гу. He took the book off the shelf.
Игнáт приéхал с рабóты пóздно. Ignat arrived late from work.
Улы́ бка сошлá с её лицá. The smile slid off her face.
222 Entries
Phrases with с are used with the verbs снять to take off, стянýть to drag off,
стащи́ ть to drag off, увóлить to fire (an employee), упáсть to fall down and verbs
of motion with the prefix у-.
Снять с ребёнка пальтó. Take the coat off the child.
Снять / увóлить с дóлжности. To lay off the job.
Стянýть с себя́ фóрму. To pull the uniform off oneself.
Стащи́ ть мешóк с вещáми с пóлки. To drag the bag with the things off the shelf.
Упáсть с дéрева. To fall out off a tree.
Indicates something that changes from one position to another or shows some-
thing that is located on the other side.
Переступáть с ноги́ на нóгу. To shift from one foot to the other.
Перевернýться с одногó бóка на To turn from one side to the other.
другóй.
С изнáнки. Inside out.
С фасáдной стороны́ здáния From the facade, the buildings look different.
вы́ глядят ина́ че.
Expressions with с
С больнóй головы́ на здорóвую. To shift blame to somebody else.
С однóй стороны́ и с другóй On one hand and on the other.
стороны́ .
Indicates something that is the starting point for something. Phrases with this
preposition answer the questions с чегó? from where?, с когó? from whom?
С когó начнём? Давáйте с Вас. Who will we start with? Let’s start with
you.
Влюби́ ться с пéрвого взгля́ да. To fall in love at first sight.
Попáсть в цель с пéрвой попы́ тки. To hit the target on the first try.
Expressions with с
С размáха. With all of one’s might.
С разбéга. At a run.
Since
Expresses time. Phrases with this preposition respond to the more general ques-
tion когдá? when? or the specific questions с какóго врéмени? from what
Entries 223
time?, с какóго числá? from what date? and others. Can combine with the word
начинáя starting. Can combine with phrases with the prepositions до until or
по along. (See also до, по.)
Петрýша игрáл на скри́ пке с сáмого Petrusha played the violin since his
дéтства. childhood.
Он с утрá ещё ничегó не ел. He hasn’t eaten anything since morning.
Indicates something that is the basis or the source of something.

Кóпия с карти́ ны. A copy of the painting.
Перевóд с италья́ нского на рýсский. A translation from Italian into Russian.
Used in phrases which imply that something happens from someone’s point of
view.
С юриди́ ческой тóчки зрéния. From a legal point of view.
С пози́ ции совремéнного искýсства. From the position of modern art.
С морáльной стороны́ . From the moral side of things.
Used with the nouns разрешéние permission, соглáсие agreement, позволéние

allowance, одобрéние approval, and others.
С Вáшего позволéния я ухожý. With your permission, I’m leaving.
Used in phrases like the following:

Хвáтит с вас. That’s enough out of you.
С вас 100 рублéй. A hundred rubles from you.
Сгорéть со стыдá. To burn from shame.
Сказáть со злóсти. To say out of spite.
Устáть с дорóги. To be tired from travelling.
Корми́ ть с лóжечки. To spoonfeed.
Умирáть с гóлоду. To die of hunger.
Запи́ ть с гóря. Drown your sorrows.
Трýдно с непревы́ чки. Difficulties from lack of experience.
With the accusative case [coll.]

Points out an approximate measure or amount of something.
224 Entries
Они́ прóжили на мóре с мéсяц и They spent about a month at the seashore
уéхали обрáтно. and then went back.

With
Indicates the object or objects with which an action is performed. Can be trans-
lated as “accompanied by” or “together with.” The questions с кем? with
whom?, с чем? with what? are used to form interrogative sentences in such cases.
Вмéсте together is used or implied.
Плáтье с цветáми. A dress with flowers.
Кольцó с гранáтом. A garnet ring.
Человéк с харáктером. A person with character.
Я не люблю́ пить чай с сáхаром. I don’t like to drink tea with sugar.
Expressions with с
Вмéсте с тем . . . Along with . . .
С пóмощью. With help.
Used in combinations of words that indicate time and with the word кáждый
each.
Встать с зарёй. To get up with the sunrise.
Проснýться с рассвéтом. To wake up with the dawn.
Всё измени́ лось с её приéздом. Everything changed with her arrival.
С кáждым гóдом бáбушке всё It gets more difficult for grandma with every
труднéе и труднéе. year.
Indicates conditions that accompany the action.

Проснýться с головнóй бóлью. To wake up with a headache.
Сказáть что-то со смéхом. To say something while laughing.
Вы́ бежать из кóмнаты с плáчем. To run out of the room in tears.
Дéлать что-то с боя́ знью. To do something in fear of something.
Entries 225
Indicates an additional amount that accompanies something.

Час с чéтвертью. An hour and a quarter.
Долг с процéнтами. A debt with interest.
Киломéтр с небольши́ м. A kilometer and then some.
Двóе с полови́ ной сýток. Two and a half days.
Indicates an object to which something happens. The verbs случи́ ться to

happen and произойти́ to happen can be used or implied.
Катастрóфа с пóездом. A trainwreck.
Трýдности с рабóтой. Hardships at work.
Авáрия с маши́ ной. A car accident.
Indicates the goal of an action.

Обрати́ ться к комý-то с прóсьбой. To come to someone with a request.
Прийти́ с доклáдом. To come with a report.
Яви́ ться с жáлобой. To arrive with a complaint.
Отпрáвиться к комý-то с каки́ ми-то To go to someone with some kind of
намéрениями. intentions.
Отпрáвиться к комý-то с визи́ том. To visit someone.
Expression with с
Прийти́ с ми́ ром. To come in peace.
С рáдостью! With pleasure!
С трудóм. With difficulty.
С чéстью. With honor.
Indicates an object that is involved in reciprocated actions.

Спóрить с сы́ ном. To argue with one’s son.
Игрáть с маши́ нками. To play with toy cars.
Свидáние с дéвушкой. A date with a girl.
Прогýлка с коллéгами. A walk with colleagues.
Перепи́ сываться с друзья́ ми. To correspond with friends.
Phrases with с are used with the verbs здорóваться to say hello‚ прощáться to
part, знакóмиться to get acquainted‚ случáться to happen to. Used to extend
holiday greetings or to congratulate someone on a special occasion, with or
without the verb поздравля́ ть to congratulate.
226 Entries
Познакóмьтесь с мои́ м дрýгом. Meet my friend.

С Вáми что-то случи́ лось? Did something happen to you?
Что с Вами? What’s the matter (with you)?
Ты ужé попрощáлся с бáбушкой? Did you already say goodbye to grandma?
С прáздником! Happy holidays! (can be used for any holiday)
Самó собóй [coll.] Particle. Parenthetical expression

It goes without saying
Can also be translated as “certainly” or “sure.” Expresses confidence and is sep-
arated by commas. Very informal. Can accompany разумéется naturally. (See
also естéственно, конéчно, разумéется.)
Он, самó собóй, приéдет оди́ н. It goes without saying that he will come by himself.
Particle
Of course
Used as an independent sentence-reply in confirmation to an utterance. Some-
times used with the parenthetical word разумéется. (See also естéственно,
конéчно, разумéется.)
Ли́ ля забы́ ла обéщанную книгý, “Did Lilya forget the book she promised, as I
как я и дýмала? – Самó собóй. expected?” “Of course she did.”
С вáшего/твоегó разрешéния, С вáшего/твоегó позволéния

With your permission
Used as a polite form when asking or saying something. The latter can sound
bookish. Separated by commas.
С вáшего разрешéния, нам порá, With your permission, we should leave; it’s
ужé пóздно. late.
Note!
Мáра взялá ключи́ с моегó Mara took the keys with my permission.
разрешéния.
Entries 227
Сверх Preposition
Extra
Indicates something that is extra or superfluous or that it exceeds a limit or boundary.
Взялá сверх декрéтного за свой счёт, I took my maternity leave and then a
до гóда тепéрь даю́ т. (И. Грéкова, little extra at my own expense; they give
«Перелóм») you up to a year now. (Grekova, The
Fracture)
Semantically can be close to крóме besides, не считáя not counting, although it

is used with inanimate nouns. (See also крóме, не считáя.)
Они́ должны́ бы́ ли получáть дéньги They were supposed to get extra money aside
сверх оклáдов и прéмий – на однý from their regular earnings and bonuses –
зарплáту они́ бы не прóжили. they wouldn’t have survived on just their
wages.
Expressions with сверх

Сверх мéры. Exceeding the norm.
Сверх вся́ ких ожидáний. Exceeding all expectations.
Сверх сил. Exceeding one’s abilities.
Свы́ ше Preposition
Upwards of
Indicates that the amount of something is higher than something else. (See also
сверх.)
На симпóзиум приéхали свы́ ше Upwards of 200 people came to the
двухсóт человéк. symposium.
Expression with свы́ ше

Свы́ ше мои́ х сил. More than I can handle.
228 Entries
Скáжем Parenthetical word

Like, for example
Used in the same way as for example, for instance. Informal. Separated by commas.
(See also к примéру, напримéр.)
Кáждый год принóсит рáзные Each year brings different surprises, like last
сюрпри́ зы, скáжем, в прóшлом годý year, which brought a drought, while this
былá зáсуха, а в э́ том дождь не year, the rain never stops.
прекращáется.
Note!
Do not confuse this with the predicate. No commas are needed.
Срáзу скáжем, что в э́ тих местáх We can immediately say that grapes grow
виногрáд растёт плóхо. poorly in these parts.
Скажи́ те пожáлуйста! [coll.] Interjection

Oh really?
Expresses sarcastic astonishment or indignation.
Он рабóтает здесь всегó пять лет, а “He’s worked here for only five years
ужé успéл стать зав. кáфедрой! – and has already managed to become
Скажи́ те пожáлуйста! chair of the department!” “Oh really?”
Сказáть по прáвде/Сказáть по сóвести

To tell the truth
Expresses frankness. (See also чéстно говоря́ .)
В своё врéмя, сказáть по прáвде / To tell the truth, I missed a lot in my time.
сóвести, я мнóгое упусти́ л.
Note!
Do not confuse it with a part of a sentence. No commas are needed.
Нáдо сказáть по прáвде – мы э́ того I have to tell the truth – we didn’t expect
не ожидáли. this.
Entries 229
Сквозь Preposition
Through
Designates the object through which another object moves. Phrases with this
preposition answer the question сквозь что? through what?
Тóлько ýтром они́ замéтили‚ что Only in the morning did they notice that water
сквозь щель в стенé теклá водá. was leaking through the crack in the wall.
Expressions with сквозь

Смех сквозь слёзы. Laughter through tears.
Сквозь огóнь и вóду. Through hell and high water.
Скóлько Conjunction
As much, as many
ing gap in a principal clause. The clauses answer the questions of cases.
Скóлько conveys the meaning of measure and degree.
Татья́ на И́ горевна так и не сказáла, Tatyana Igorevna didn’t say how much
скóлько дéнег нáдо внести́ за money you had to pay for the exam.
экзáмен.
Connects subordinate clauses that imply the meaning of measure and degree.
Can be used in sentences with the corresponding стóлько this much.
Нáдо проводи́ ть с ней стóлько It is important to spend as much time with
врéмени, скóлько мóжно. her as possible.
Скóлько людéй, стóлько мнéний. There are as many opinions as there are people.
Скóлько (бы) ни Conjunction

No matter how much
Connects subordinate clauses that point to the measure of something in spite of
which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished. Conveys
intensity to the action described. The particle ни is usually placed before either
a predicate or an adverbial modifier (only when the latter is an adverb). The
particle never precedes a noun. Phrases with всё-таки after all, всё равнó
doesn’t matter, тем не мéнее nevertheless are often used in the principal clause.
They can also be combined with бы to emphasize the meaning of concession.
230 Entries
Скóлько бы раз ни смотрéла э́ тот No matter how many times I see this film, I
фильм, он никогдá мне не never grow tired of it.
приедáлся.
Ничéго не получáется, скóлько бы Nothing comes of it, no matter how many
ни старáлся. times I try.
Слáва бóгу/гóсподи Parenthetical expression

Thank God!
An exclamation that expresses satisfaction. Separated by commas.
Всё, слáва бóгу, обошлóсь. Thank God it’s over.
Слéдовательно Conjunction. Parenthetical word

Conjunction
Ergo
Слéдовательно, и слéдовательно, or а слéдовательно connect clauses
that imply a consequence or a result. Semantically close to поэ́ тому that’s
why and synonymous with знáчит so, although слéдовательно is formal
in terms of style. (See also вслéдствие чегó, знáчит, поэ́ тому, стáло
быть.)
Слéдственный комитéт решéние The investigative committee did not recieve
судá не получáл, слéдовательно the decision of the court, ergo, it is necessary
необходи́ мо продли́ ть срóки на to prolong the term for appeals.
обжáлование.
Parenthetical word
Adds a conclusive weight to an utterance. Separated by commas. Formal and
used in bureaucratic, scholarly language, and journalism. (See also знáчит,
стáло быть.)
Слéдовательно, докумéнты у Вас не So, in conclusion, they didn’t accept your
при́ няли? documents?
Слóвно Conjunction
As though
Connects subordinate clauses that point to a close resemblance of the actions
depicted by the predicates. Subordinate clauses with this conjunction answer the
questions как? how?, каки́ м óбразом? in what manner? Synonymous with
Entries 231
тóчно and semantically close to бýдто as if and как бýдто as if. Used in vari-
ous styles. (See also бýдто, как бýдто, тóчно.)
Илья́ смотрéл на собесéдника так, Ilya looked at his conversation partner as
слóвно был не соглáсен ни с одни́ м though he didn’t agree with a single word he
слóвом. was saying.
Слóвом Parenthetical word

In short
Слóвом or одни́ м слóвом are used to avoid details or when closing the con-
versation. Separated by commas. More formal than корóче говоря́ in short. (See
also корóче говоря́ .)
Слóвом, вéчер удáлся. In short, the evening was a success.
Note!
Do not confuse it with the part of a sentence. No commas are needed.
Одни́ м слóвом э́ того не вы́ разить. It’s impossible to express this in one word.
Слýчаем Parenthetical word

Incidentally
Expresses a guess. Used in the same situations as кстáти by the way and
случáйно by any chance. Informal. Separated by commas. (See also мéжду
прóчим, кстáти, случáйно.)
Ты, слýчаем, не собирáешься в Incidentally, are you planning on going to
магази́ н? the store?
Note!
Do not confuse it with the part of a sentence. No commas are needed.
Возмущённый э́ тим слýчаем он Indignant because of the incident, he
никáк не мог успокóиться. couldn’t calm down.
Случáйно Parenthetical word

By any chance
Expresses a guess. Can be used in the same situations as кстáти by the way and
слýчаем incidentally. Used rather often in interrogative sentences. Informal. Sep-
arated by commas. (See also мéжду прóчим, кстáти, случáйно.)
232 Entries
Ми́ ша, ты, случáйно, не ви́ дел мои́ Misha, have you, by any chance, seen my
очки́ ? glasses?
Note!
Do not confuse it with the adverb. No commas are needed.
Кристи́ на оказáлась свидéтелем их Kristina witnessed their argument
ссóры совершéнно случáйно. completely by accident.
Сóбственно говоря́ Parenthetical word

Strictly speaking
Used to show that the speaker focuses on the essence of the thought. Separated
by commas. Semantically and functionally close to в сýщности in essence, по
существý basically, по сýти in essence. Informal and used more frequently than
its synonyms. (See also в сýщности, по существý, по сýти.)
Сóбственно говоря́ , ничегó нóвого и Strictly speaking, we didn’t take away
полéзного из э́ той лéкции мы не вы́ несли. anything new from this lecture.
Согласи́ сь Parenthetical word

You have to agree
Согласи́ сь or согласи́ тесь solicits a listener to agree with the utterance.
Согласи́ сь, нельзя́ же тóлько фанфи́ ки You have to agree, you can’t just read
читáть. fanfics.
Note!
The imperative согласи́ сь or согласи́ тесь functions as a part of a sentence.
Согласи́ тесь с тёткой, она ведь правá. Agree with your aunt, she’s right.
Соглáсно Preposition
In accordance with
Phrases with соглáсно answer the question соглáсно чему? in accordance with
what? Constructions with this preposition can be separated by commas when
they are a part of a predicate, or when they are semantically close to the predi-
cate. Frequently used in journalism, as well as scholarly and bureaucratic lan-
guage. (See also в соотвéтствии с, на основáнии.)
Entries 233
Kлáссовое расслоéние, соглáсно In accordance with the state of the market

ры́ ночной пози́ ции и эконо- and the economic capital, the class divide has
ми́ ческому капитáлу, привелó к led to a drastic difference not only in
рéзкой дифференциáции не тóлько earnings, but in lifestyle. (Shpakovskaya,
дохóдов, но и сти́ лей жи́ зни. ruscorpora.ru)
(Л. Шпакóвская, ruscorpora.ru)
С однóй / с другóй стороны́ Parenthetical expression

On one hand/on the other hand
Shows that there are a couple of points of view. Points out the order of
thoughts. Separated by commas. When both expressions are placed close to each
other, it is appropriate to omit the word стороны́ in the second one.
Причи́ ной неудáчи мóжно считáть, On one hand, you can consider the
с óдной стороны́ , увéренность confidence in the product’s superiority as the
в превосхóдстве своегó продýкта, cause of the misfortune, but on the other
а с другóй, серьёзные оши́ бки hand, the same can be said of the serious
мéнеджмента. errors on the part of the management.
Note!
С однóй стороны́ дорóги стоя́ л There was a store on one side of the street
магази́ н, а с другóй – жилы́ е домá. and houses on the other.
Спаси́ бо Particle
Thank you
Expresses gratitude according to etiquette. Can function as a part of a sentence.
Can be ironic or sarcastic, expressing a negative attitude to the utterance.
Спаси́ бо Вам, Ефи́ м Михáйлович, за Thank you, Efim Mikhailovich, for your
Вáшу добротý. kindness.
Передáй спаси́ бо тёте Гáле за пироги́ . Thank Aunt Galya for the pies.
Нет уж, спаси́ бо, сáми дéлайте э́ то. Thanks, but no thanks, do it yourselves.
Спустя́ Preposition
In
Indicates the time or period after the end of which an action occurs. Phrases
with this preposition answer the nonspecific question когдá? when? or the
234 Entries
specific question спустя́ какóе врéмя? after how long? Спустя́ is more formal
than its synonym чéрез. (See also чéрез.)
Пáвел вернётся спустя́ недéлю. Pavel will return in a week.
Среди́ Preposition
In the middle of
Expresses location, shows that an object is inside or in the middle of a space.
Phrases with this preposition answer the question где? where?
Вдруг мы оказáлись среди́ глухóго All of a sudden, we found ourselves in the
лéса. middle of a thick forest.
Expresses time, i.e., between the beginning and the end of a period of time.
Phrases with this preposition answer the question когдá? when?
Ребёнок проснýлся среди́ нóчи и не The child woke up in the middle of the night
мог никáк уснýть. and could not fall asleep again.
Among
Shows something or someone among other objects, phenomena.
Она выделя́ лась среди́ други́ х своéй She stood out among the others for her
красотóй. beauty.
Стáло быть Parenthetical expression. Conjunction

It seems, it looks like
Expresses the conclusion or a consequence of what was said earlier or of the
situation itself. Separated by commas. Sounds bookish and is used more often in
literature, while the synonyms знáчит so is colloquial and слéдовательно ergo
is formal. (See also знáчит, слéдовательно.)
Вы, стáло быть, никудá не So, it seems you’re not going anywhere.
собирáетесь.
Entries 235
Conjunction
Which means
Connects parts of a sentence or clauses and indicates that their content is a con-
clusion of what was said in the previous part. Mostly used in literature, while
the synonyms слéдовательно ergo and знáчит so are formal and informal
respectively. (See also знáчит, слéдовательно.)
Ты сéрдишься, стáло быть не прав. You’re angry, which means you’re wrong.
С тем(,) чтóбы Conjunction

In order to
Connects clauses that indicate the motive of the action reflected in the principal
part of the sentence. These clauses of purpose answer the questions зачéм? for
what purpose?, с какóй цéлью? with what goal? Clauses with this conjunction
can be placed before, in the middle of, or after the principal clause. A comma
does not split off the conjunction when it starts a sentence. When it follows a
principal clause, a comma can be placed before the first word or before чтóбы.
A comma before чтóбы emphasizes the demonstrative word. Bookish and most
frequently used in business, while its neutral synonym чтóбы in order to is used
more broadly. (See also для тогó чтóбы, чтóбы.)
С тем чтóбы провести́ нéсколько In order to spend a few days with his son,
дней с сы́ ном, Андрéй Петрóвич Andrey Petrovich took a vacation.
взял óтпуск.
Закáзчикам необходи́ мо объясни́ ть, It is imperative to explain to consumers how
как испóльзовать материáлы с тем, to use the materials properly, in order to
чтóбы избежáть авáрий. avoid accidents.
С тех пор(,) как Conjunction

Since
Connects clauses that indicate the time of the action reflected in the principal
part of a sentence. Used when the action described in the principal clause begins
after the action described in the subordinate clause. Usually, no comma is used
in this conjunction when it opens sentences. These clauses answer the general
question когдá? when? and the specific questions с какóго врéмени? since what
time?, с каки́ х пор? since when? (See also с тогó врéмени как.)
Я знáю Поли́ ну с тех пор, как мы I’ve known Polina since we moved to the
переéхали на нóвую кварти́ ру, и я new apartment and I went to third grade.
пошлá в трéтий класс.
236 Entries
С тех пор как приéхала моя́ сестрá, Since my sister came, our life changed
нáша жизнь совершéнно измени́ лась. completely.
С тóчки зрéния Parenthetical expression

From the point of view of
Refers to someone to whom the point of view belongs. Separated by commas.
С тóчки зрéния глáвного редáктора, From the point of view of the chief editor,
таки́ е статьи́ принóсят тóлько вред. articles like this bring only harm.
Note!
Can function as a part of a sentence if the expression does not have a reference
to a person. No commas are needed. Phrases like с наýчной тóчки зрéния
from a scientific point of view, с хими́ ческой тóчки зрéния from a chemical point
of view are not separated by commas.
Стрáнное дéло [coll.] Parenthetical expression

It’s strange
Expresses wonder towards the described situation. Separated by commas.
Стрáнное дéло, я ведь знáла, что It’s strange, I knew I would have to speak,
придётся говори́ ть, но совершéнно but I didn’t prepare at all. (Grekova,
не подготóвилась. (И. Грéкова, Without Smiles)
«Без улы́ бок»)
Сты́ дно сказáть Parenthetical expression

I’m ashamed to say
Expresses displeasure or condemnation towards one’s own or someone’s actions.
Separated by commas. Used more often than its synonym к стыдý своемý to
one’s shame. (See also к стыдý своемý.)
Когдá мы приéхали, сты́ дно сказáть, When we got there, I’m ashamed to say that
банáны éли, не останáвливаясь. we ate bananas nonstop.
Note!
Сты́ дно сказáть коллéгам, что я I’m ashamed to say to my colleagues that I
прóсто забы́ л прийти́ на собрáние. simply forgot to come to the meeting.
Entries 237
Сýдя по Preposition
Judging by
Indicates objects or phenomenona that are the basis for judgment. Phrases with
this preposition answer the questions сýдя по комý? judging by whom?, сýдя по
чемý? judging by what? Constructions with сýдя по are usually separated by
commas. (See also по, сýдя по всемý.)
Сýдя по облакáм, погóда бýдет Judging by the clouds, the weather will
меня́ ться. change.
Сýдя по всемý Parenthetical expression

It looks like
Expresses guess, deduction, or assumption based on one’s impressions, feelings,
or intuition. Separated by commas. More formal than its neutral synonym
кáжется it seems and the informal похóже it looks like. (See also кáжется,
похóже.)
Из э́ того мероприя́ тия, сýдя по It looks like nothing good will come from this
всемý, ничегó хорóшего не event.
полýчится.
Счастли́ во Interjection
Good luck!
Всегó хорóшего, счастли́ во! Goodbye, good luck!
Expression with счастли́ во

Счастли́ во оставáться. All the best!
Так Particle. Conjunction

Particle
Nothing much [coll.]
Separated by commas.
Чемý ты улыбáешься? – Так, “What are you smiling about?” “Nothing
вспóмнилось что-то. much. I just remembered something.”
238 Entries
Right [coll.]
Used as a positive reply or as a question that implies a positive reply or confirm-
ation. Separated by commas.
Ты смóжешь заéхать в магази́ н, так? “You’ll be able to drop by the store, right?”
– Так. “Right.”
[coll.]
Emphasizes an object or idea that opposes another object or idea. Always
unstressed. Not separated by commas. Can be used with а.
Я так не люблю́ плáвать в бассéйне. I don’t like swimming in the pool.
Ты так смóжешь пойти́ на концéрт, а You will be able to go to the concert, but I
я – нет. won’t.
Approximately [coll.]
Not separated by commas.
Е́ хать до ближáйшего магази́ на It is about 30 kilometers to the nearest store.
киломéтров так 30.
i.e., that is
Clarifies what is said previously. (See also и́ менно.)
Лéто обы́ чно на ю́ ге страны́ сухóе, The summer in the southern part of the
так, в э́ том годý дождéй не было три country is dry, i.e., there was no rain there
мéсяца. for three months.
[coll.]
This unstressed particle is used when there is repetition, and it intensifies the
thought. Not separated by commas.
Э́ то бы́ ли грóзы так уж грóзы. Now those were thunderstorms.
Нéчего валя́ ть дуракá – рабóтать так Enough dilly-dallying;if we’re gonna work,
рабóтать. let’s work.
Conjunction
Then [coll.]
An unstressed conjunction that is functionally close to the conditional éсли . . .
то if . . . then. (See also éсли, знáчит.)
Сказáл, что сдéлаешь, так сдéлай. If you said you do’ll something, then do it.
Entries 239
So
Connects clauses that imply a consequence or result of what is said in the other
clause. Can sound very informal. Can be a synonym for поэ́ тому therefore. (See
also поэ́ тому.)
Э́ то довóльно дорогáя кни́ га, так ты This is a pretty expensive book, so you take
береги́ её. care of it.
Note!
Do not confuse it with the adverb так in this way. No commas are needed.
Вы так объясни́ ли, что мы совсéм You explained it in such a way that now
запýтались. we’re completely confused.
Тáкже Conjunction
Also
Indicates an additional action or an additional object, phenomenon, etc. May be
used when both clauses have the same subject. Can start a sentence pointing out
that the subsequent utterance is an addition to the previous and is, in a way, more
important. Can be a synonym of ещё also. No comma is needed. (See also ещё.)
Лари́ са посади́ ла помидóры, онá Larisa planted tomatoes and also started
тáкже стáла вырáщивать сморóдину. growing blackcurrants.
Тáкже емý хотéлось поéхать в He also wanted to go to Paris.
Пари́ ж.
Note!
Cannot be a synonym of тóже also in this meaning.
Also, likewise
Can be a synonym for тóже also and can replace it when it means the same way
as someone/something else. Has a bookish shade, while тóже is neutral. (See also
тóже.)
Мнóгих не устрáивало врéмя Nobody was satisfied with the scheduled
заня́ тий, – Ми́ ша тáкже хóтел class time, and Misha likewise wanted to
приходи́ ть в другóе врéмя. come at a different time.
Note!
Do not confuse the conjunction тáкже with the demonstrative word так and
the emphatic particle же.
240 Entries
Так как Conjunction

Given that
principal part of a sentence. These clauses answer the questions почемý? why?,
по какóй причи́ не? for what reason? Clauses with this conjunction either
follow or precede the principal clause. This conjunction cannot be split. More
formal than its neutral synonym потомý что because and used less frequently.
(See the synonyms ввидý тогó что, в си́ лу тогó что, вслéдствие тогó что,
из-за тогó что, оттoгó что, потомý что.)
Так как премьéра спектáкля чéрез Since the play opens in a week, there are
недéлю, репети́ ции кáждый день с rehearsals every day from morning till late at
утрá до пóзднего вéчера. night.
Репети́ ции кáждый день с утрá до There are rehearsals every day from morning
пóзднего вéчера, так как премьéра till late at night, since the play opens in a
спектáкля чéрез недéлю. week.
Так что [coll.] Conjunction

So
Connects adverbial clauses that imply a consequence or a result. The subordinate
clause with this conjunction follows the principal clause. Semantically close to
вслéдствие чегó (и) as a result of which, почемý и which is why, оттогó и because
of which, поэ́ тому therefore. Stylistically extremely informal. (See the synonyms
вслéдствие чегó (и), знáчит, поэ́ тому, оттогó и, отчегó (и), так что.)
Я с тобóй не соглáсен, так что не I don’t agree with you, so don’t expect any
жди от меня́ каки́ х-то дéйствий. actions on my part.
Note!
Do not confuse the conjunction так что with the adverb and conjunction,
which are split by a comma так, что.
Дéти спря́ тались так, что их дóлго не The kids hid so well that nobody could find
могли́ найти́ . them for a long time.
Таки́ м óбразом [book.] Parenthetical expression

Thus
Adds a shade of conclusion or logical consequence to an utterance. Semantically
close to the less formal знáчит so and the formal слéдовательно ergo. Separ-
ated by commas. (See also знáчит, слéдовательно.)
Entries 241
Словá Вáши, таки́ м óбразом, ника- Thus, your words aren’t supported by any
ки́ ми реáльными дéйствиями не real actions.
подкрепля́ ются.
Note!
Can function as an adverbial expression. No commas are needed.
Проблéма былá решенá таки́ м The problem was resolved in that manner.
óбразом.
Так сказáть [coll.] Parenthetical expression

So to speak
Softens the utterance. The speaker uses this to diminish the sharpness of the
speech. Can also be used when the speaker is looking for words. Separated by
commas. Informal.
Пóсле сегóдняшнего, так сказáть, After today’s “dinner,” so to speak, I’m
обéда ужé хóчется есть. already hungry.
Note!
Учи́ тель замéтил, что так сказáть The teacher noted that you can’t say it like
нельзя́ . that.
Тем бóлее Particle. Conjunction

Particle
Furthermore
Semantically close to the adverb осóбенно especially. Separated by commas
when introducing a construction with additional explanations. Translations may
vary.
Е́ сли тебé э́ то не интерéсно, то мне If this doesn’t interest you, then I need it
тем бóлее э́ то не нýжно. even less.
Во врéмя своéй болéзни онá ни с кем When she was sick, she didn’t want to speak
не хотéла разговáривать, тем бóлее to, let alone see, anyone.
ви́ деть когó-нибудь.
242 Entries
Conjunction
Especially
Connects clauses with an additional argument or reason that is the basis for what
is said earlier. Semantically close to the more formal к томý же in addition to,
while тем бóлее is informal. (See also к томý же.)
Сегóдня мы не смóжем уви́ деться с We won’t be able to see him today,
ним, тем бóлее он рабóтает до especially seeing as he’s working late.
позднá.
Can function as an informal parenthetical expression.
Я, тем бóлее, хочý уйти́ быстрéе. Furthermore, I would like to leave as quickly
as possible.
Тем не мéнее Conjunction

Nevertheless
This adversative conjunction connects clauses of compound sentences, indicating
that the information in the first clause is not categorical or uncompromising,
and it clarifies this information. Synonymous with однáко however, and it is
close to впрóчем although. Can sound bookish. (See the synonyms впрóчем,
однáко.)
Он, хотя́ и не профессионáльный Despite not being a professional artist, he
худóжник, тем не мéнее пи́ шет nevertheless makes noteworthy paintings.
замечáтельные карти́ ны.
Тогдá как Conjunction

While, whereas
Used when the content in the principal clause is contradictory to the content in
the subordinate clause. Used in scholarly literature. A comma appears before the
first word. (See the synonyms в то врéмя как, мéжду тем.)
Они́ пытáлись навязáть Достоéвс- They tried to attribute a single system of
кому еди́ ную систéму мы́ слей, тогдá thought to Dostoevsky, while Dostoevsky
как Достоéвский как раз не призна- expressly refused to acknowledge any system
вáл никакóй систéмы. (М. Бахти́ н, at all. (Bakhtin, Problems of Dostoevsky’s
«О полифони́ чности ромáнов Poetics)
Достоéвского»)
Entries 243
То есть Conjunction. Particle

That is, to be precise
Clarifies what was said previously. Also begins a list of objects or items in the
second part of a sentence. Informal, contrary to its formal synonym (а) и́ менно
specifically. Can be a synonym of други́ ми словáми in other words, ины́ ми
словáми in other words as well, which are formal. То is stressed. In writing, can
be abbreviated as т.е. (See also (а) и́ менно, други́ ми словáми, ины́ ми
словáми.)
Они́ собирáются в похóд чéрез две They’re going to go hiking in two weeks, the
недéли, то есть пятнáдцатого числá. 15th, that is.
Мы купи́ ли óчень мнóго всегó, то We bought a lot of everything, that is, a lot
есть и винó, и сыр, и óвощи, и хлеб. of wine and cheese and vegetables and bread.
Particle [coll.]
What do you mean?
In discourse, the listener can ask a speaker for clarification using a question: то
есть? Can express astonishment and surprise. Very informal.
Ты ни кудá не идёшь. – То есть? “You’re not going anywhere.” “What do
you mean?”
Тóже Conjunction. Particle

Conjunction
Also
Can mean the same way as someone/something else. This neutral conjunction can be a
synonym of тáкже also, although the latter has a bookish shade. (See also тáкже.)
И́ нна не поéдет на дáчу в э́ том годý, Inna won’t go to the dacha this year, and
Бори́ с тóже не собирáется éхать Boris is also not planning to go there.
тудá.
Particle [coll.]
Expresses disapproval, displeasure, or annoyance. Very conversational. Often
used with the personal pronoun мне: тóже мне.
Тóже мне специали́ ст. Научи́ сь Yeah right, a specialist. Learn how to do it
сначáла, а потóм дéлай. first, then do it for real.
244 Entries
Expressions with тóже [coll.]

Скáжет тóже. He/she just says the dumbest things. (a
very conversational expression used in
response to someone saying something
that the speaker cannot accept)
Тóже нашёлся (на нáшу гóлову). And look at this one (for us to deal with).
Note!
Do not confuse the conjunction тóже with the demonstrative word то and the
emphatic particle же. (See also же.)
То ли . . .‚ то ли Conjunction
Either . . . or
Expresses the uncertainty or the probability of an action. Used in compound
sentences in which clauses indicate sequence or mutual exclusion. Also used to
connect coordinate parts of a sentence. Can be replaced by не то . . . не то
either . . . or. The conjunction и́ ли . . . и́ ли is also synonymous, but emphasizes
less ambiguity. (See also то ли . . . то ли, и́ ли . . . и́ ли.)
То ли ни́ щих стáло мéньше, тó ли Either poor people have become fewer, or
их всех вы́ гнали неизвéстно кудá. they were all chased away somewhere.
Пáвел Ивáнович хотéл написáть о Pavel Ivanovich wanted to write either an
своём дрýге то ли óчерк, то ли essay or a big novel about his friend.
большóй ромáн.
Тóлько Conjunction. Particle

Conjunction
As soon as
depicted in the subordinate clause. If the subordinate clause introduced by the
conjunction тóлько precedes the principal clause, the principal clause can start
with the word как when. The synonyms как тóлько as soon as and лишь
тóлько the moment are used more frequently. Sounds informal. (See the syn-
onyms когдá, пóсле тогó как, как тóлько, едвá, лишь, лишь тóлько.)
Тóлько пáпа вошёл в дом, как As soon as dad walked into the house, he
срáзу же пошёл к компью́ теру. immediately made for the computer
Entries 245
Телеви́ зор перестáл рабóтать, тóлько The TV stopped working as soon as it

пошёл снег. started snowing.
Only, but
Connects parts of a sentence or clauses in compound sentences that imply some
kind of limitation or inconsistency. May confine the positive content of what is
said in the other part. Less categorical than its synonym но but and more infor-
mal than однáко however. (See also однáко, но.)
Ю́ ля купи́ ла краси́ вого стекля́ нного Yulia bought a pretty glass clown, only it
клóуна, тóлько у негó не оказáлось turned out one of his hands was missing.
однóй руки́ .
Чай есть, тóлько невкýсный. There is tea, but it isn’t very good.
Все собирáются на встрéчу, тóлько Everybody is going to the meeting, only
Кóнор не придёт. Connor won’t be there.
Particle
Only
Emphasizes how small the amount of something is. More formal than its syno-
nym лишь only. (See also лишь.)
Сéне тóлько три гóдика. Senya is only three years old.
Just, only
Emphasizes the insignificance of something or someone.
Ни́ на Анатóльевна тóлько Nina Anatolyevna is just the assistant
замести́ тель дирéктора, мнóгое director. A lot of things are outside her
не в её влáсти. purview.
Exclusively, only
Emphasizes selectiveness.
Их сын éздит тóлько на маши́ не. Their son gets around only by car.
Used after зачéм for what purpose, почемý why to stress the questions, which are
rather rhetorical.
Зачéм тóлько мы купи́ ли э́ ту мéбель? Why is it that we bought this furniture?
Combined with imperatives to express a threat or a warning.

Тóлько попрóбуй, тóлько скажи́ ! Just try, just say it!
246 Entries
Phrases with тóлько

Всегó тóлько. Just. Underlines a small amount.
Тётя и дя́ дя приéхали всегó тóлько Aunt and Uncle came just for five days.
на пять дней.
Тóлько и всегó. That’s all. Can be used as a remark or a reply to emphasize

the insignificance of what is said, often in interrogative form.
Пригласи́ ли на семéйный обéд – They invited us to a family dinner –
тóлько и всегó. that’s all.
Купи́ ла блýзку. – Тóлько и всегó? “I bought a blouse.” “And that’s all?”
Да и тóлько. And that’s it, and nothing more. [inform.] Can express insignificance
or astonishment. Separated by commas. Can be a synonym of тóлько и всегó
that’s all.
Пóсле óтпуска он стал спокóйнее, After the vacation, he became calmer, and
да и тóлько. that’s it.
Emphasizes the emotion expressed in certain situations. Separated by commas.

Смех, да и тóлько. Hilarious.
Цирк, да и тóлько. It’s a circus and nothing more.
Тóлько бы. If only. Usually used in the beginning of exclamatory sentences to

express a strong wish, hope, or desire.
Тóлько бы они́ вернýлись! If only they returned!
То-то [coll.] Particle

No wonder
Тогдá поня́ тно. То-то я смотрю́ в Then it makes sense. No wonder it’s dark in
подъéзде темнó. (А. Гелáсимов, the driveway. (Gelasimov, Fox Malder
«Фокс Мáлдер похóж на свинью́ ») Looks Like a Pig)
То-то он удиви́ тся. No wonder he’ll be surprised.
And that
То-то и or вот то-то и underline the main idea in the previous utterance. (See
also вот.)
Entries 247
То-то и бедá, что тóлько я и Берлиóз. And that’s the problem: that only I am
(М. Булгáков, «Мáстер и Маргари́ - Berlioz. (Bulgakov, Master and Margarita)
та»)
Вот то-то и онó! And that’s just it!
Used as an exclamation when expressing strong feelings.

То-то стрáшно! Of course it’s scary!
То-то гляди́ , кры́ ша обвáлится. Or else look out, the roof will cave in.
Forms a conclusion with regard to the previous utterance or discussed topic.

Can be in the beginning or the end of an utterance.
Ну, так что же вы не встаёте? – То- “Well, so why aren’t you getting up?” “As
то! Никудá вы и не встáнете, никудá if! There’s nowhere to get up here, nowhere
не пойдёте . . . (Ю. Домбрóвский, to go. . .” (Dombrovsky, The Monkey
«Обезья́ на прихóдит за свои́ м Comes for His Skull . . .)
чéрепом . . .»)
Expressions with то-то [coll.]

То-то рáдости! There’ll be much joy.
То-то и онó. That’s exactly it.
Ну то-то. As I thought.
То-то же. That’s what I thought.
Тóчно Conjunction. Particle. Parenthetical word

Conjunction
As if
Connects subordinate clauses that point to a close resemblance of the actions
depicted by the predicates. Subordinate clauses with this conjunction answer the
questions как? how?, каки́ м óбразом? in what manner? Synonymous with
слóвно as though and semantically close to бýдто as if and как бýдто as if.
Sounds colloquial. (See also бýдто, как бýдто, слóвно.)
Он говори́ л так бы́ стро, тóчно He spoke so quickly as if he was afraid that
боя́ лся, что не успéет сказáть всё. he wouldn’t be able to say everything.
248 Entries
Particle [coll.]
Exactly
Used as a confirmation in a reply. Translations may vary.
Мне показáлось, что Вы заходи́ ли в “It seemed to me that you went into the
óфис ýтром. – Тóчно. office this morning.” “Yes I did.”
Parenthetical word [coll.]

For sure
Used as a synonym of в сáмом дéле actually, действи́ тельно certainly, but less
frequently. Separated by commas. (See also в сáмом дéле, действи́ тельно.)
Мы, тóчно, опоздáем. We’ll be late for sure.
Note!
Can function as an adverb. No commas are needed.
Я попáл тóчно в цель. I hit the target exactly.
Точнéе (говоря́ , сказáть) Parenthetical expression

Specifically
With or without говоря́ saying or сказáть to say, used to point to a more pre-
cise explanation of an utterance. Separated by commas.
Пётр Ильи́ ч – музыкáнт, точнéе Pyotr Ilyich is a musician, more specifically,
говоря́ , пиани́ ст. a pianist.
Note!
Точнéе or точнéе сказáть can function as a part of a sentence. No commas
are needed.
Ничегó не поня́ тно, нáдо точнéе You can’t understand anything, you need to
сказáть. say it more clearly.
Тут [coll.] Particle

Here
Used with adverbial words together with which they emphasize negative
connotations.
Entries 249
Емý жить охóта, и мне охóта, он If he wants to live, so do I, if he dies, then

умрёт, и я умрý – кудá тут девáться? I’ll die too – there’s nowhere to hide.
(И. Грéкова, «Перелóм») (Grekova, The Fracture)
Expressions with тут [coll.]

И всё тут! And that’s that!
Тут как тут! Right here!
Не тут-то бы́ ло. That wasn’t going to happen.
У Preposition
Can be a synonym of the preposition óколо near, near by and there is/there are
when indicating the location of objects. The location can imply that it is some-
one’s place. Phrases with this preposition answer the question где? where?
Их дом нахóдится у пáрка. Their house is near the park.
Где стои́ т пиани́ но? – Пиани́ но в “Where is the piano?” “It’s in my dad’s
кóмнате у пáпы. room.”
At
Indicates approaching a goal or a point of something [lit. or fig.].
Быть у фи́ ниша. Be at the finish line.
Почти́ у цéли. Almost at the goal.
At
Means at someone’s place. Questions answered with this expression could start
with the word где where? (preferably) or у когó at whose place? (less preferable).
Где былá мáма? – Онá дéлала “Where was mom?” “She was getting her
причёску у знакóмого парикмáхера. hair done by her stylist.”
Где / у когó живёт Бори́ с? – У “Where does Boris live?” “He lives with his
роди́ телей. parents’.”
Used in the expression у когó-то есть someone has with the interrogative у когó
есть? who has? when inquiring about a possession. When inquiring about the loca-
tion [lit. or fig.] of an object that belongs to someone, the verb есть is omitted (in
both questions and replies), and the questions где? where? or у когó? who has? can
be used.
250 Entries
У когó есть журнáл? – У меня́ есть. “Who has a magazine?” “I do.”
Где моя́ маши́ на? – У Пáши. Он “Where’s my car?” “Pasha took it. He
уéхал в банк. went to the bank.”
Used in situations when the phrase I/we have or the question who has can be
utilized.
У когó день рождéния? Whose birthday is it?
У нас на сегóдня мнóго рабóты. We have a lot of work today.
Что у вас говоря́ т о ситуáции в What are they saying about the situation in
Си́ рии? Syria over there?
У меня́ боли́ т головá. I have a headache.
У когó роди́ лся ребёнок? Who had a child?
У кáждого свои́ недостáтки. Everyone has their shortcomings.
Used to indicate a part of something or someone.

Нýжно почини́ ть рýчку у чемодáна. The handle on my suitcase needs to be fixed.
У тебя́ рубáшка пóрвана. Your shirt is torn.
Points out the source of something. The source is an animate noun. Phrases
with this preposition answer the questions где? where? or у когó? from
whom?
Он купи́ л рéдкие кни́ ги у знакóмого He bought rare books from a used book
букини́ ста. dealer he knows.
Спроси́ у Клáвы мóжно ли взять у Ask Klava if I could borrow one of her films.
неё фильм.
Points out someone who is a possessor of intellectual property.

У Вýди А́ ллена во мнóгих фи́ льмах Woody Allen uses classical music in many of
испóльзована класси́ ческая мýзыка. his films.
Expressions with у
Ты у нас молодéц. You did a good job!
Смотри́ у меня́ ! [coll.] (Menacingly.) Watch out!
Entries 251
Увы́ Interjection
Alas
Expresses regret. Separated by commas or sometimes by dashes. Can be a separ-
ate sentence with an exclamation mark.
Нет, увы́ , ни желáния, ни Alas, I have no desire or intention to do this.
стремлéния занимáться э́ тим.
Увы́ ! Нам так и не удалóсь Alas! We never met up, after all.
встрéтиться.
Уж [coll.] Particle
Emphasizes someone’s assurance in what is said.
Уж óчень А́ нна хóчет игрáть э́ ту Anna really wants to play this role.
роль.
Stresses request, order, or permission.

Уж будь добр, не забýдь позвони́ ть. Be so kind, don’t forget to call.
Expresses and underlines displeasure or negative feelings contrary to what is pre-

viously said.
Дми́ трий Петрóвич óчень “Dmitry Petrovich is very talented.” “You
талáнтливый. – Уж и талáнтливый! call that talented? He’s just talks big.”
Говорýн он.
Used in exclamatory sentences with the particle тóлько only in combination

with interrogative pronouns and adverbs.
Уж кудá их тóлько жизнь не Where has life not taken them?
заноси́ ла!
Уж где мы тóлько не были! Where haven’t we been?
Combines with interrogative pronouns and adverbs to form rhetorical questions

or exclamatory sentences.
Где уж нам?! [coll.] How can we?!
Что уж тепéрь переживáть?! What’s the point of worrying now?!
Уж как он рáдовался! He was so joyful!
Used in folklore and poetry.

Уж скóлько их упáло в э́ ту бéздну, How many of them fell into that abyss,
Развéрзтую вдали́ . (М. Цветáева) Unfurling far away. (Tsvetaeva)
252 Entries
Expressions with уж
Ничегó уж тут не подéлаешь. Nothing to be done here.
Так уж и быть. Fine, so be it.
Уж на что, а [coll.] Particle

He/she/it might be
Means “despite the fact that.” Used with а or но. Expresses concession.
Дáже леснáя канарéйка, уж Even a forest canary might be very dumb,
на что глупá, а и то её так не but you still can’t catch her so easily.
поймáешь. (Ю. Домбрóвский, (Dombrovsky, The Monkey Comes for
«Обезья́ на прихóдит за свои́ м His Skull . . .)
чéрепом . . . »)
Уж что-что, а [coll.] Particle

Say what you want, but
Stresses one’s confidence in something or someone. (See also что-что.)
Уж что-что, а говори́ ть непрáвду Say what you want, but you definitely
ты научи́ лся. learned how to lie.
Урá Interjection
Hurrah, hurray
An exclamation that is used in combat. Can also express approval or satisfaction
about something.
Урá, господá, мы победи́ ли. Hurrah, gentlemen, we’ve won!
Note!
Can function as a part of a sentence.
Их урá никтó не услы́ шал. Nobody heard their hurrah.
Expression with урá

Сдéлать что-то на «урá». To do something well.
Entries 253
Уф [coll.] Interjection
Phew
Expresses tiredness or exhaustion. Can also articulate relief.
Уф! – сказáл дирéктор и повали́ лся в “Phew,” said the director and toppled into
крéсло. (Ю. Домбрóвский, the armchair. (Dombrovsky, The
«Факультéт ненýжных вещéй») Department of Unnecessary Things)
Уф, отлеглó. Знáчит, дéло не в дéтях. Phew, that’s a relief. Then the children aren’t
(И. Грéкова, «На испытáниях») the problem. (Grekova, During the Tests)
Ух [coll.] Interjection
Oh man
Expresses positive or negative feelings. Can combine with the pronoun какóй
such, the adverb как so, and the particle и and.
Ух, каки́ е у вас в Алма-Атé нóчи! Oh man, you have such nights in Alma-
(Ю. Домбрóвский, «Факультéт Ata! (Dombrovsky, The Department of
ненýжных вещéй») Unnecessary Things)
Ух и жарá! Oh man, it’s so hot!
Combines with the word чёрт damn to express a negative overtone and the pro-
noun ты you to express admiration. Pay attention to the commas. (See also фу.)
Ух, чёрт! – Он удáрил кулакóм по “Damn!” He hit the couch with his fist.
дивáну. (Ю. Домбрóвский, (Dombrovsky, The Department of
«Факультéт ненýжных вещéй») Unnecessary Things)
Ух ты, как заколоти́ лось опя́ ть Oh man, my heart’s beating really fast
сéрдце. (С. Ю́ рский, «Бумáжник again. (Yursky, Hofmann’s Wallet)
Хóфманна»)
Фу [coll.] Interjection
Ew
An exclamation that expresses a strongly negative attitude towards something or
someone.
Фу, какáя гáдость! Ew, how disgusting!
Фу, как не сты́ дно! Ew, have you no shame!?
Phew
An exclamation that expresses relief.
254 Entries
(Со вздóхом облегчéния.) Фу, как же (With a sigh of relief.) Phew, you scared me.
ты меня́ напугáл.
Combines with the word чёрт damn and the pronoun ты you to express disap-
pointment, anger, or irritation. Pay attention to the commas. (See also ух.)
Фу ты, дья́ вольщина какáя! Damn it, devil’s spawn. That didn’t turn
Нехорошó получи́ лось. out good at all.
Фу ты чёрт, как врéмя лети́ т! God damn, how time flies! (Nekrasov, In
(В. Некрáсов, «В окóпах the Trenches of Stalingrad)
Сталингрáда»)
Хорошó Particle. Parenthetical word

Particle
Yes
Expresses agreement. The same as да yes. Separated by commas and can be a
separate sentence. (See also да.)
Хорошó, договори́ лись. Yes, deal.
Придёшь к пяти́ ? – Хорошó. “Will you come by five?” “Yes.”
Right
Used in a question that requires assurance or confirmation at the end of a sen-
tence: хорошо? i.e., as a tag question. (See also да, прáвда.)
Перезвони́ шь Э́ лле, хорошó? You’ll call Ella back, right?
Expresses threat or warning, often with the particle же.

Хорошó же, вы ещё пожалéете об Alright then, you’ll be sorry for this yet.
э́ том.
Parenthetical word
Alright
Expresses a readiness to agree. Separated by commas. (See the synonyms допýс-
тим, предполóжим.)
Хорошó, я поговорю́ с ней, но э́ то Alright, I’ll speak with her, but it won’t
ничегó не измéнит. change anything.
Entries 255
Note!
Can function as an adverbial modifier in a sentence. No commas are needed.
Онá хорошó написáла эссé. She wrote the essay well.
Хоть Particle
Even
Accompanies phrases that indicate something unrealistic or unfeasible to empha-
size the utterance.
Иди́ , кудá хóчешь, хоть на край Go wherever you want, even to the end of
свéта. the world.
Even
Хоть or да хоть are used when one needs to give arguments. Less formal than
the synonymous хотя́ бы if only. (See also хотя́ бы.)
Что Вы имéете в виду? – Да хоть “What do you mean?” “Take, for example
наш послéдний разговóр, котóрый even our last conversation, which didn’t lead
ни к чемý не привёл. to anything.”
At least [coll.]
Synonymous with хотя́ бы at least and is used informally. (See also хотя́ бы.)
Не мóжешь мнóго, дай хоть 100 If you can’t give a lot, at least give 100
рублéй. rubles.
Can be used with the following combinations [coll.]:

With кто who, кудá where, где where, respectively meaning кáждый each,
всю́ ду everywhere, вездé everywhere.
Запрýт кýхню с вéчера и никогó не They close the kitchen in the evening and
пускáют. Хоть в мили́ цию бежáть, don’t let anyone in. All you can do is run to
хоть кудá. (Ю. Три́ фонов, «Дом на the police or wherever. (Trifonov, House on
нáбережной») the Embankment)
Хоть бы. . . If only . . . Expresses a wish for something to happen. With infini-
tives and verbs in the past, functions as an imperative. (See also хотя́ бы.)
Хоть бы Гáля скорéе вернýлась. If only Galya had returned quickly.
Хоть бы поспáть чуть-чуть. If only I could sleep just a little.
256 Entries
Хоть бы и так. / А хоть бы и так. / Да хоть бы и так. So what?

Expresses partial agreement. Used as a reply that means “nothing bad.” Informal.
Synonymous with (а) хотя́ бы и так at least. (See also хотя́ бы.)
Ну что, вы́ гнали? Доигрáлась. – А “So what, they kicked you out? You had it
хоть бы и так. Моё э́ то дéло. coming.” “So what? It’s my problem.”
Хоть бы что. / Хоть бы хны. [coll.] Doesn’t care. Means that one does not
care or is indifferent.
Вчерá мнóго вы́ пили. У меня́ головá We drank a lot yesterday. My head’s
разрывáется, а емý хоть бы что. splitting apart, but he’s right as rain.
Хоть бы не. Hopefully. Expresses a wish.

Хоть бы не опоздáть. Hopefully, I won’t be late.
Хоть умри́ . [coll.] Die trying.

Хоть умри́ , а экзáмен сдай. You can die trying, but pass that exam.
Хоть кудá. [coll.] Used with admiration about someone or something.

Онá былá далекó не молодáя, а ещё She was far from young, but she looked
хоть кудá! great!
Хотя́ (хоть [coll.]) Conjunction

Although
Connects adverbial clauses of concession that point to the circumstances in
spite of which the action described in the principal clause is accomplished.
These clauses answer the question несмотря́ на что? despite what? Adverbial
clauses of concession can be placed before, in the middle of, or after the prin-
cipal clause. Can be used with the particle и and, which is placed before the
predicate in the subordinate clause. Neutral and is used in various genres,
while its synonyms несмотря́ на то что regardless of the fact that, невзирáя
на то что not considering the fact that are formal. (See also и, несмотря́ на то
что, невзирáя на то что.)
Натáша не пойдёт в магази́ н, хотя́ в Natasha won’t go to the store, although
дóме ничегó нет. there’s nothing to eat at home.
Хотя́ гóсти бы́ ли приглашены́ на Although the guests were invited at five,
пять, в полови́ не шестóго ещё there was still nobody there at half past.
никогó не было.
Ужé пóздно, и, хотя́ ýтром нáдо рáно It’s late, and even though we need to get up
вставáть, мы продолжáем игрáть в early, we’re still playing cards.
кáрты.
Entries 257
Плáтье, хотя́ и стáрое, всё-таки Although the dress is old, it’s still pretty.
краси́ вое.
Even though, but

Semantically close to но but, однáко however, а but. Can be used with the par-
ticle и and. Хотя́ can be accompanied by всё-таки still to stress the articulated
idea. (See also а, и, но, однáко.)
Он всегдá дéлает то, о чём егó He always does what is asked of him, even
прóсят, хотя́ и не срáзу. though not right away.
На ýлице сóлнце, хотя́ всё-таки It’s sunny out, but still cold.
хóлодно.
Хотя́ бы Particle
If only
Expresses a desire for something to happen. With infinitives and verbs in the
past, it functions as an imperative. Used less frequently than хоть бы at least
and is used more formally. (See also хоть бы.)
Хотя́ бы вам удалóсь спрáвиться с If only you had at least managed to deal
э́ тими проблéмами. with these problems.
Хотя́ бы пéнсия былá бóльше. If only my pension were higher.
At least
Synonymous with хоть at least and is more likely used in formal texts. (See also хоть.)
Приéдь хотя́ бы на пáру дней. Come at least for a couple of days.
Взять хотя́ бы [coll.] take, for example is used when one needs to give argu-
ments. Used less frequently than the semantically close хоть even and да хоть
even. Its synonym напримéр for example is neutral and is used in various styles
and genres. (See also напримéр, хоть.)
Взять хотя́ бы совремéнный балéт – Take, for example, modern ballet. Is it even
рáзве э́ то балéт? ballet?
(А) хотя́ бы и так so what? indicates partial agreement. When used as a reply,
it means “nothing bad.” Informal and is a synonym of хоть бы и так / а
хоть бы и так / да хоть бы и так so what? (See also хоть бы.)
Знáчит, я психи́ чески бóлен, “So, I’m psychologically ill, abnormal?”
ненормáлен? – Хотя́ бы и так. Что “So what? There’s no need to shy away
смущáться? (А. Чéхов, «Чёрный from it.” (Chekhov, The Black Monk)
монáх»)
258 Entries
Чáсом [coll.] Parenthetical word

By any chance
Used in interrogative sentences when a speaker has a guess or a supposition.
Semantically and stylistically close to случáйно by any chance, слýчаем inciden-
tally. Separated by commas. (See also случáйно, слýчаем.)
Ты, чáсом, не оши́ бся? А́ дрес-то Could you have been wrong by any chance?
прáвильный? Is the address correct?
Note!
Do not confuse the parenthetical word with the part of a sentence that is not
separated by commas.
С кáждым чáсом станóвится всё It gets colder by the hour.
холоднéе.
Чегó дóброго Parenthetical expression

God forbid
Expresses vigilance, concern, alertness. Separated by commas. (See also не дай
бог, не рóвен час.)
Нéзачем пéред сном смотрéть таки́ е You shouldn’t watch films like that before
фи́ льмы. Чегó дóброго, ýжасы бýдут bed. God forbid, you might have
сни́ ться. nightmares.
Чем Conjunction
Than
Used when a predicate in the principal clause includes a comparative degree.
Расскáз получи́ лся смешнéе, чем The story turned out funnier than you would
мóжно бы́ ло ожидáть. have expected.
Instead of [coll.]
Used with infinitives. Subordinate clauses with this conjunction can precede or
follow principal clauses. The word лýчше better is used or implied in the princi-
pal clause. Чем is an equivalent of вмéсто тогó, чтóбы instead of, which is
used in various styles and genres, while чем is informal. (See also вмéсто тогó,
чтóбы.)
Чем сидéть без дéла, пошёл бы Instead of sitting around with nothing to do,
кудá-нибудь. you should go somewhere.
Entries 259
Proverb with чем

Лýчше пóздно, чем никогдá. Better late than never.
Чем . . ., тем Conjunction

The . . . the
Used when both principal and subordinate clauses include the comparative
degree. However, it is not possible to determine what part of a sentence the
principal clause is and what part the subordinate clause is with the conjunction.
Чем рáньше ты придёшь, тем The sooner you come, the more we’ll manage
бóльше мы успéем сдéлать. to get done.
Proverb with чем . . ., тем

Чем дáльше в лес, тем бóльше дров. The further you get, the harder the going.
Чéрез Preposition
Across
Designates the direction in which an object moves. Responds to the nonspecific
question кудá? where?
Перейти́ чéрез ýлицу / дорóгу. To cross the street/road.
Переплы́ ть чéрез рéку. To swim across the river.
Перепры́ гнуть чéрез лýжу / забóр. To jump over a puddle/fence.
Проéхать чéрез мост. To go across a bridge.
Designates the place or space on the other side of which something is located.
Responds to the nonspecific question где? where?
Магази́ н чéрез дорóгу. The store is across the street.
Аптéка чéрез ýлицу. The pharmacy is across the road.
Through
Semantically close to сквозь through. Phrases with this conjunction answer the
question чéрез что? through what? Used in certain phrases.
Вдеть ни́ тку чéрез игóльное ýшко. To thread a needle.
260 Entries
Просéять мукý чéрез си́ то. To sift flour.

Пропусти́ ть мя́ со чéрез мясорýбку. To grind meat.
Проти́ скиваться чéрез толпý. To squeeze through a crowd.
Through
Used with verbs that indicate movement with the prefix про-.
Проéхать чéрез весь гóрод. To drive through the whole city.
Пройти́ чéрез пóле. To walk through a field.
In
Indicates how long (spacially or temporally) after the utterance an action or
event occurs or begins. Forms the question чéрез скóлько врéмени? in how
long?, чéрез какóе расстоя́ ние? in how long?
Вáдик и Тáня встрéтятся чéрез Tanya and Vadik will see each other in a
мéсяц‚ когдá закóнчится лéто. month, when the summer’s over.
Дерéвня чéрез два киломéтра. The village is in two kilometers.
Мы выхóдим чéрез три останóвки. We’re getting out in three stops.
In
Indicates the interval that defines the regularity of the action. Forms the ques-
tions как чáсто? how often? and когдá? when?
Нýжно принимáть лекáрство чéрез You need to take the medicine in three
три часá. hours.
Through
Used figuratively with words that denote a “negative experience” with the verb
пройти́ to walk through.
Чéрез страдáния. Through suffering.
Чéрез испытáния. Through trials.
Чéрез ýжасы войны́ . Through the horrors of war.
Expression with чéрез

Дéлать что-то чéрез си́ лу. To do something with great effort.
Entries 261
Through
Used figuratively in phrases with the verbs пройти́ to walk through and писáть
to write.
Все докумéнты прохóдят чéрез All documents go through the administrative
канцеля́ рию. office.
Э́ то слóво пи́ шется чéрез чёрточку. This word should be hyphenated.
Through
Indicates a person or an object by means of which something takes place.
Сообщи́ ть что-то чéрез газéту. To say something through the newspaper.
Передáть извéстия чéрез знакóмых. To pass along news through people you
know.
Кот залéз в кварти́ ру чéрез окнó. The cat climbed into the room through the
window.
Used in phrases like the following:

Переки́ нуть кóсу чéрез плечó. To toss one’s braid over one’s shoulder.
Сýмка чéрез плечó. A bag over one’s shoulder.
Чёрт возьми́ /побери́ [coll.] Interjection

God damn it!
An exclamation that expresses irritation, anger, impatience, or even admiration.
Can be used separately or in a sentence as a parenthetical expression, which is
separated by commas.
Когдá же мы, наконéц, вы́ йдем, чёрт When are we finally going to leave, God
побери́ ! damn it!
Чёрт возьми́ ! До чегó здесь хорошó! God damn! It’s so good here!
Чéстно говоря́ /сказáть Parenthetical expression

To tell the truth
Еmphasizes the frankness or honesty of the speaker. Stylistically used in the same
way as по прáвде говоря́ to tell the truth or откровéнно говоря́ frankly speak-
ing and more often than сказáть по прáвде / по сóвести to tell the truth. Sep-
arated by commas. (See the synonyms откровéнно говоря́ , по прáвде
говоря́ , сказáть по прáвде / по сóвести.)
262 Entries
Чéстно говоря́ , мы над э́ тим не To tell the truth, we hadn’t thought about
задýмывались. this.
Note!
The phrase чéстно сказáть can be used as a part of a sentence. No commas
are needed.
Он мóжет чéстно сказáть, что He can truthfully say that he had no desire
желáния оставáться там у негó не to stay there.
было.
Что Conjunction. Particle

Conjunction
That
Connects explanatory subordinate clauses that function as subjects or objects and
fill a missing gap in a principal clause. Used to clarify what is said in the princi-
pal clause of the sentence. Clauses with this conjunction answer the questions of
cases. Что is also used when clauses imply confidence or assurance, while the
synonym бýдто as if is used to express doubt, supposition, or uncertainty. Что
emphasizes the fact that something is going on, while its synonym как how con-
veys emotions. (See also как, что.)
Волóдя всегдá был увéрен, что Volodya was always sure that he would be
добьётся успéха. successful.
Ей óчень не нрáвится, что Пáша She really doesn’t like it that Pasha plays
игрáет в футбóл. soccer.
What
Что as a connective word can function as a part of a clause. Focuses on the
subject (что) or object (чегó, чемý, что, чем, о чём).
Ты мóжешь вспóмнить, о чём мы Can you remember what we talked about
говори́ ли пéред собрáнием? before the meeting?
Тhat
Что connects the subordinate clause to the pronouns всё everything or то that in
the principal clause, when these pronouns function as subjects, predicates, or
objects, but not when they function as attributes; in this case, the connective
word котóрый which is used. (See also котóрый.)
Entries 263
Всё, что остáлось пóсле вечери́ нки, We need to put everything that was left after
нýжно положи́ ть в холоди́ льник. the party in the fridge.
Студéнты не смогли́ сдéлать всё The students couldn’t do the whole problem
задáние, котóрое бы́ ло на экзáмене. that was on the exam.
That
Connects explanatory subordinate clauses with the words and phrases так so,
настóлько to such an extent, до тогó to such an extent, стóлько so much,
так мнóго so much, с такóй си́ лой with such intensity in the principal
clause.
Кто-то так кричáл, что сбежáлись Somebody screamed so hard that all the
все сосéди. neighbors came running.
Particle
What
Used as an interrogative reply or when reasking something.
А́ ня! – Что? – Идём смотрéть “Anya!” “What?” “Let’s go watch TV.”
телеви́ зор. – Не слы́ шу, что? “I can’t hear you. What?”
What [coll.]
Used in the beginning of an interrogative sentence in which the speaker
expresses supposition, astonishment, or doubt about someone or something. Can
sound very conversational and even rude. Can be used in the phrases ну что so
what, ты / вы что what are you talking about, а что so what.
Что, не хóчешь éхать? What, you don’t want to go?
Ты что, не слы́ шал нóвости? What, you didn’t hear the news?
Чтóбы/чтоб Conjunction. Particle

Conjunction
That
Чтóбы or чтоб [coll.] (which is used less often) connects explanatory subordin-
ate clauses that function as subjects or objects and fill a missing gap in a principal
clause. Used to indicate a demand, request, or wish. Also serves to express indir-
ect speech. Translations may vary.
Желáтельно, чтóбы мéбель привезли́ It would be good if they brought the furniture
до выходны́ х. over before the weekend.
264 Entries
Пéтя прóсит, чтóбы мы перестáвили Petya asks that we move the car to another
маши́ ну в другóе мéсто. spot.
In order to
Connects adverbial clauses of purpose that indicate the motive of the action
reflected in the principal part of the sentence. This neutral conjunction is fre-
quently used, while its synonyms для тогó чтóбы in order to, с тем чтóбы in
order to are used less frequently. These clauses answer the questions зачéм? for
what purpose?, с какóй цéлью? with what goal? This conjunction can be placed
before, in the middle of, or after the principal clause. (See also для тогó
чтóбы, с тем чтóбы.)
Олéг купи́ л мнóго продýктов, чтóбы Oleg bought a lot of groceries in order to
приготóвить прáздничный обéд. make a celebratory dinner.
Note!
If the actions described in the principal and subordinate clauses are performed
by different subjects, the predicate of the latter is in the past tense.
Емý дáли дéньги, чтóбы он мог They gave him money so that he could buy
купи́ ть себé необходи́ мые кни́ ги и the required books and textbooks.
учéбники.
Note!
If the actions described in the principal and subordinate clauses are performed
by the same subject, the predicate of the latter is in the infinitive.
Чтóбы встрéтиться с родны́ ми, мы In order to meet with our relatives, we’ll go
поéдем в Гермáнию. to Germany.
In order to
If the predicate of the principal clause is expressed by нýжен needed,
необходи́ м essential, слýжит serves as, предназнáчен intended to (in all genders
and numbers), the predicate of the subordinate clause can be expressed by a
verbal infinitive and a verb in the past tense.
Сáше нужны́ нóвые сапоги́ , чтóбы Sasha needs new boots so that he’ll have
бы́ ло в чём ходи́ ть зимóй в лес. something to wear in the woods in the winter.
So that
Used to imply purpose with adverbial clauses of manner or measure and degree,
which describe the manner or quantity of the action that occurs in the principal
clause. The demonstrative words так so, таки́ м óбразом thus, довóльно enough,
Entries 265
настóлько to such an extent, сли́ шком too, чересчýр overly are used in the prin-
cipal clause. These subordinate clauses answer the questions как? how?, каки́ м
óбразом? in what manner? and refer to the predicate in the principal clause.
Одéнься таки́ м óбразом, чтóбы Dress in such a way so that you could take
мóжно бы́ ло снять с себя́ чтó- something off if it gets too hot.
нибудь, éсли бýдет жáрко.
Рабóта не достáточно хорошó This work is not written well enough to

напи́ сана, чтóбы её мóжно бы́ ло present it for discussion.
предстáвить на обсуждéние.
Particle
An unstressed particle. Used to express an order, demand, or command. Can
sound very rude.
Чтóбы / чтоб дýху их здесь не было! Don’t let me catch them here!
Что (бы) ни Conjunction

No matter what
Connects subordinate clauses that point that the content of the principal clause
is factual in spite of the action described in the principal clause. Conveys inten-
sity to the action described. The particle ни is usually placed before a predicate.
This conjunction can also be combined with бы to emphasize the meaning of
concession. Phrases with всё-таки after all, всё равнó doesn’t matter, тем не
мéнее nevertheless can be used in the principal clause. (See also что ни.)
Что Аркáдий ни сдéлает, всё No matter what Arkady does, everything
пoлучáется вкривь и вкось. turns out poorly.
Не хóчет Сáра переезжáть в другóе Sarah doesn’t want to move to another place,
мéсто, что бы ни происходи́ ло. no matter what happens.
Что (же) касáется Conjunction

Concerning, as for
Used to draw someone’s attention to the utterance. The particle же can be used
to emphasize the expressed idea when this conjunction starts the sentence.
When this conjunction is used in the beginning of a sentence, which happens
frequently, the demonstrative то can be used in the other clause. The preposi-
tions в отношéнии regarding, относи́ тельно regarding, по пóводу about are
synonymous. However, this conjunction is more formal and is used in journal-
ism and different genres where formal language is used. (See also в отношéнии,
относи́ тельно, по пóводу.)
266 Entries
Что же касáется борьбы́ с As for the fight against corruption, it’s not so
коррýпцией, всё не так прóсто. simple.
Что касáется кри́ зиса, то госудáрство The government is losing a lot with regard to
мнóгое теря́ ет. the crisis.
Что ни Conjunction
Another
Connects subordinate clauses that indicate repetition. The demonstrative word
то can be used in the principal clause. (See also что (бы) ни.)
Что ни год, то нóвые проблéмы. Another year, new problems.
Что ни говори́ (те) Parenthetical expression

Say what you will
Indicates that despite anything else, the expressed idea is reliable. Separated by
commas.
Коплю́ дéньги, хочý съéздить, я ведь I’m collecting money, I want to go there, I
мальчи́ шкой из дóму уéхал. Что ни left as a little boy after all. Say what you
говори́ , всё же рóдина. (Д. Грáнин, will, but it’s still my home. (Granin, The
«Мéсяц вверх ногáми») Overturned Crescent)
Что ты/вы [coll.] Interjection

What are you talking about?
This exclamation expresses astonishment, fear, or refusal. May be used when some-
one informally thanks another. Can be used with ну or да. (See also не за что.)
Ну что ты?! Он не мóжет себé такóе What are you talking about?! He can’t
позвóлить. allow himself to do this.
Ну что Вы! Какие благодáрности. No, no, please! There’s no need for thanks!
Да что ты! Не мóжет такóго быть. What are you talking about! That’s
impossible.
Что ты говори́ шь [coll.] Interjection

(Please,) tell me more, you don’t say
Что ты говори́ шь or что вы говори́ те expresses astonishment, amazement,
wonder, bewilderment, etc. Used with an exclamation mark. Can sound sarcas-
tic. Can be combined with да. Что is stressed.
Entries 267
Иванькó – писáтель? Да что вы Ivan’ko is a writer? Tell me more!

говори́ те! (В. Войнóвич, (Voynovich, Ivan’kiada)
«Иванькиáда»)
Note!
Do not confuse this interjection with a part of a sentence or a question.
Лев! Что ты говори́ шь? Как тебé не Lev! What are you talking about? How are
сóвестно? (Ю. Три́ фонов, «Дом на you not ashamed? (Trifonov, The House
нáбережной») on the Embankment)
Что . . ., что [coll.] Conjunction

Implies that there is no difference between two objects, actions, or phenomena.
Connects clauses or coordinate parts that have objects, actions, or phenomena
that are similar in some aspects. There is no universal translation.
Что дéти, что взрóслые – все ведýт Kids, adults – they all behave the same.
себя́ одинáково.
Что они́ ýчатся, что они́ не ýчатся – Regardless of whether they study, the result
рáзницы никакóй. for them is always the same.
Что-что, а [coll.] Particle

Underlines one’s assurance or confidence in something or someone. (See also уж
что, а.)
Что-что, а дéлать яи́ чницу я умéю. Say what you will, but I can make some
good scrambled eggs.
Чуть не [coll.] Particle

Almost
Indicates an action (often undesired) that was close to completion, but that was
not ultimately completed. Used with verbs in the past tense. Sounds even more
informal than its synonym едвá не nearly. (See also едвá не.)
Ой, чуть не упáл. Whoops, I almost fell.
Чуть ли не [coll.] Particle

Practically
Conveys uncertain supposition or comparison that includes exaggeration. (See
the synonym едвá ли не.)
268 Entries
Говоря́ т, в университéт дóлжен They say that someone is supposed to be

приéхать кто-то из аппарáта coming to the university from the president’s
президéнта, чуть ли не сам administration, practically the president
президéнт. himself.
Шýтка ли [coll.] Parenthetical expression

No small feat, nothing to laugh at
Articulates the importance or significance of something. Шýтка сказáть
means the same thing and functions in the same way; however, it is used
less frequently. Separated by commas, or else an exclamation mark follows
it.
Прóжили вмéсте в э́ том дóме сóрок We lived together in this house for 40 years
лет, шýтка ли. – no small feat.
Эй [coll.] Interjection
Hey
An exclamation that draws someone’s attention. Often sounds very rude. Separ-
ated by commas.
Эй, слы́ шишь, подожди́ , не спеши́ . Hey, do you hear me? Hold up, slow down!
Э́ то Particle
That
Focuses on the most important part of an utterance. Often used in questions
with a negative shade.
Кто э́ то там кричи́ т? Who’s that yelling over there?
Я всё-таки не соглашýсь с тобóй. – “I still won’t agree with you.” “That’s up
Э́ то пожáлуйста. to you.”
Note!
Do not confuse the particle with the link and the neuter demonstrative
pronoun.
Шарлóтка – э́ то десéрт из бéлого A Charlotte is a dessert out of white bread
хлéба и я́ блок. and apples.
Э́ то окнó нáдо меня́ ть. We need to change this window.
Entries 269
Эх [coll.] Interjection
Bah
An exclamation that expresses displeasure or disappointment. Separated by
commas. Can be used in exclamatory sentences. Translations may vary.
Эх, не успéли. Пóезд ушёл минýту Bah, we didn’t make it. The train left a
назáд. minute ago.
Эх, прокачýсь! Well, I’ll go for a ride!
Я́ кобы Particle. Conjunction

Conjunction
As if
Used in complex sentences to express disbelief and skepticism. The verbs in the
principal clause indicate speech, thought, or perception. Semantically close to
the conjunction бýдто as though, which articulates doubt, supposition, or uncer-
tainty. However, я́ кобы expresses a greater degree of doubt. When it implies
confidence or assurance, the conjunction что is used. (See also бýдто, что.)
По рáдио сказáли, я́ кобы бýдет снег. They said on the radio something about how
there might be snow.
Particle
It sounds like
Expresses distrust, suspicion, and disbelief. No commas are needed.
Он сказáл, что егó я́ кобы перевóдят He said that it sounds like they’re
в другóй отдéл. transferring him to another department.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Даль В.И. Пословицы русского народа. Москва: «Издательство Астрель». – 2000.

Объяснительный словарь русского языка. Под редакцией В.В. Морковкина и др.
Москва: «Издательство Астрель». «AST». – 2003.
Ожегов С.И., и Шведова Н.Ю. Толковый словарь русского языка. Москва: «Азбуков-
ник». – 1999.
Розенталь Д.Э. Справочник по русскому языку. Практическая стилистика. Москва:
«Мир и образование». – 2003.
Rojavin, M., Dengub, E., and Forrester, S. Russian for Advanced Students, Hyattsville, MD:
Dunwoody Press, 2013.
Rojavin, M., and Reid, A. A Guide to Russian Words and Expressions That Cause Difficulties.
Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 2004.
Русская грамматика. Под редакцией Н.Ю. Шведовой и др. Москва: «Наука». –
1980.
Словарь сочетаемости слов русского языка. Под редакцией П.Н. Денисова и В.В.
Морковкина. Москва: «Русский язык». – 1983.

Russian Function Words Meanings and Use Conjunctions, Interjections

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Russian Function Words Meanings and Use Conjunctions, Interjections

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Russian Function Words Meanings and Use Conjunctions, Interjections

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

RUSSIAN FUNCTION WORDS:

MEANINGS AND USE

Marina Rojavin and Alexander Rojavin

ISBN: 978-0-367-08690-9 (hbk)

semantics and grammar will deliver a sophisticated level of theoretical knowledge,

Overview of the content

Structure of the main part

Actual present tense

Compound comparative degree

Conditional clause (real and unreal)

Main parts of the sentences

Secondary parts of the sentence

Simple comparative degree

about за; насчёт; о (об, óбо); о́ коло; по по́ воду;

and а; да; и; причём

at the same time as в то вре́ мя(,) как

does it not? не так ли

God forbid не дай бог; чего́ до́ брого

in the direction of по направле́ нию к

more precisely верне́ е; лу́ чше сказать

okay ла́ дно

similar to how подо́ бно тому́ (,) как

to the point вплоть до того́ , что

without question бесспо́ рно

а and, but, while, though; hey, yeah; ah conj.; part.;

бу́ дто (бы) as if, looks like; as if conj.; part.

в (во) in, away, at; to; within; into prepos.

вро́ де like; it seems prepos.; part.

где where conj.

да yes, right; really; by the way; yes?; part.; conj.

до тех пор(,) пока́ не until conj.

едва́ barely conj.

жаль (жа́ лко) (it’s a) pity parenth.

за behind; at; for; about; out of; before; prepos.

и and; so; but; while; even conj.; part.

к (ко) towards; to; by prepos.

к тому́ же additionally conj.

ла́ дно okay part.

ма́ ло того́ not only that parenth.

на for; in; at; on; to; here prepos.; part.

наскóлько . . . as much as conj.

о (об, о́ бо) about, of; oh; on, over prepos.

отку́ да where, from which conj.

пе́ ред in front of, before; ahead of prepos.

по сравне́ нию с when compared with prepos.

ра́ ди for (the sake of) prepos.

с (со) from, oﬀ; since; with prepos.

ско́ лько (бы) ни no matter how much conj.

так nothing much; right; approximately; i.e., part.; conj.

фу ew; phew interj.

хорошо́ yes; right; alright part.; parenth.

ча́ сом by any chance parenth.

шу́ тка ли no small feat, nothing to laugh at parenth.

я́ кобы as if; it sounds like conj.; part.

А Conjunction. Particle. Interjection

Авóсь [coll.] Particle. Parenthetical word

Агá [coll.] Interjection