RUSSIAN SYNTAX

RUSSIAN SYNTAX
ASPECTS OF
MODERN RUSSIAN SYNTAX
AND VOCABULARY

F. M.BORRAS
University of Leeds
AND

R. F. CHRISTIAN
University of St. Andrews

SECOND EDITION

OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1971
 Oxford Universiry Press, Ely House, London W. 1

GLASGOW NEW YOR.K TORONTO MELBOURNE WELUNGTON

CAPE TOWN SALISBURY IBADAN' NAIROBI DAR ES SAIAAII LUSAKA ADDII ABABA.
BOMBAY CALCUTTA KADRAS KARACHI LAHORE DACCA
KUALA LUIIPUR SINGAPORE HONG KONG TOX.YO

@ OXPORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 1971

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, OXFORD
BY VIVIAN RIDLER
PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
 Preface to the Second Edition

THIS book first appeared ten years ago. It has been extensively
reviewed, and we have received many letters about its content
and layout. In producing this second edition we have taken into
account the many useful comments which these contained. Since
the book has been useful primarily as a work of reference, the
index, in particular, has been radically revised and extended.
The lexical material, limited and somewhat arbitrarily selected
in the first edition, has been considerably enlarged and now
contains many words which seem to give the greatest difficulty
to English speaking students translating into Russian or writing
free composition in Russian. No chapter in this new edition has
been left without some amendment but the most conspicuous
additions and revisions have been made in the chapters on the
noun, the adjective, and the verb. A bibliography of the main
sources used has also been added.
In our original preface we expressed the hope that this book
would play its part in placing the study of Russian in this coun-
try on an equal footing with that of other modern European
languages. Since 1959 many books and articles on Russian
syntax in English, Russian, and other languages have been
published. Russian is now much more extensively studied in
English schools, institutes of higher education, and the univer-
sities than was the case ten years ago. We hope that this new
edition will be useful to students and teachers alike, and that
it will make some contribution to the continued expansion of
Russian studies.
We wish to thank Miss Zinaida Uglitsky, of the Univer-
sity of Melbourne, for several useful suggestions, and, in
vi PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
particular, Mr. Peter Mayo, who gave us invaluable help in
revising the text, typed out the revisions and compiled the new
indexes.
1969 F. M. B. and R. F. C.
 Preface to the First Edition

THIS book does not contain all that would normally be found
in a work on Russian syntax. It does not, for example, attempt
to classify the various types of sentence. At the same time, it in-
cludes lexical material which does not come within the scope
of syntax. For these reasons the title Russian Syntax has been
qualified in the sub-title by the words Aspects of Modern Russian
Syntax and Vocabulary.
Our principal object in writing this book has been to help
English-speaking students with a good knowledge of Russian
grammar to overcome some of the difficulties of writing con-
secutive Russian prose. While keeping this object in view, we
have tried to bring out some of the essential characteristics of
the Russian language as an instrument of expression. The choice
of material, especially lexical material, may in places appear
arbitrary, but it has been governed largely by a consideration
of our own difficulties in learning to write Russian, and by the
observation of difficulties experienced by English students. We
hope that this book, based on such an approach, may contribute
within its limits to putting the study of Russian in English-
speaking countries on a comparable footing to the study of other
European languages.
Examples to illustrate the text have been drawn from Soviet
literature and the Soviet press, as well as from nineteenth-
century authors. Much valuable help has been obtained from
the Soviet Academy of Sciences' fpaMMaTnKa pyccKoro H3LIKa,
vol. ii, Moscow, 1954, and also from standard Russian dictio-
naries, notably that edited by Ushakov (ToAKOBLIH CAOBapL
pyccKoro H3LIKa, Moscow, 1935-40), and the volumes so far
published of the current Academy Dictionary (CAOBapL coBpe-
MeHHoro pyccKoro AHTepaTypHoro H3LIKa, Moscow-Leningrad,
viii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
1950- ). Sections on the translation of certain common English
words have been appended to four of the eight chapters, and
word-order is dealt with briefly in the final chapter. The Table
of Contents is comprehensive, but a separate English-Russian
index and an index of Russian words have also been included.
These indexes do not include words listed alphabetically in the
vocabulary sections, which can easily be located.
The book was read in manuscript by Professor Unbegaun
and Mrs. Arian, to both of whom we are indebted for sugges-
tions and improvements. Other native Russian speakers have
giveri valuable assistance on occasions, notably Mrs. Birkett,
Mr. Zekulin, and Dr. Inna Baykov. We wish to acknowledge
our gratitude to all the people mentioned, and also to Professor
Jopson, who saw and commented on part of the work in its early
stages. We would also like to thank the Delegates of the Oxford
University Press for the attractive presentation of the volume.
F. M. B. and R. F. C.
1959
 Contents

with links
I. THE NOUN
I. GENDER

11. ANIMATE AND INANIMATE CATEGORIES 7

Ill. NUMBER 9
IV. DECLENSION 12
V. THE CASES
1. Nominative 13
2. Vocative 17
g. Accusative 18
4· Genitive 19
(a) Genitive case after nouns 19
(b) Genitive case in -y, (-ro) 20
(c) Genitive case after verbs 23
(d) Genitive case after negatives 28
5· Dative 31
6. Instrumental 38
7· Prepositional 49
VI. DIMINUTIVES 51
VII. SOME COMMON NOUNS AND THEIR TRANSLATION 55

II. THE ADJECTIVE

I. LONG AND SHORT FORMS So
II. COMPARISON
1.Comparatives used predicatively 8g
2. Comparatives used attributively 8g
3· Superlatives go
4· Comparatives/Superlatives in -wuii 92
III. POSSESSION
93
IV. RUSSIAN ADJECTIVE FOR ENGLISH NOUN IN THE
GENITIVE

V. ADJECTIVAL NOUNS
X CONTENTS
VI. PARTICIPLES USED AS NOUNS 98
VII. PARTICIPLES USED AS ADJECTIVES
1. With no change in spelling or in stress 98
2. With change of spelling or stress 99
VIII. RUSSIAN ADVERB FOR ENGLISH ADJECTIVE 101
IX. SIMILAR OR RELATED ADJECTIVES 102
X. SOME COMMON ADJECTIVES AND THEIR TRANSLATION 106

III. THE VERB

I. ASPECT
1. Aspect and tense 117
(a) Simple Present IJ7
(b) Historic Present 120
(c) Imperfect and Past Definite 123
(d) Future 1 34
(e) Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect 1 37
(f) Negative constructions 141
(g) Tenses in Indirect Speech 144
2. Aspects in the non-temporal forms of the verb 146
(a) Imperative 146
(b) Infinitive 152
3· Aspect and meaning 157
(a) Special perfective meanings 159
(b) Semelfactive verbs !64
(c) Iterative verbs !65
II. VOICE !65
1. Passive !65
2. Transitive and Intransitive verbs 170
3· Other uses of Reflexive verbs I7I
Ill. MOOD 173
1.Subjunctive 173
2. Perfective Future 177
3· Infinitive 178
4· Imperative !82
IV. VERBS OF MOTION !84
1. Indeterminate and Determinate verbs 184
(a) XOAllTb, lfATH I e3AifTb, exa'fb 192
V. IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS 194
1. There is, there are 194
 CONTENTS xi
2. Impersonal constructions expressing obligation, possibility,
fitness, chance 198
3· Impersonal constructions expressing the physical, mental,
or emotional state of human beings 202
4· Impersonal constructions expressing English passives 203
VI. PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS 205
VII. THE TRANSLATION OF THE VERB 'TO BE' 210
VIII. SOME COMMON VERBS AND THEIR TRANSLATION 2I4

IV. THE ADVERB, THE CONJUNCTION

I. TilE FORMATION OF ADVERBS 240
I.Adverbs formed from adjectives and participles 240
2. Adverbs formed from nouns 245
3· Gerunds used as adverbs 24 7

II. TilE COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 248

Ill. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 249

I.Time 249
2. Place 258
3· Cause, reason 259
4· Consequence 26I
5· Purpose 262
6. Comparison 263
7· Condition 265
8. Concession 269

IV. TilE CONJUNCTIONS 'A', 'u', AND '.lKE' 270

V. THE PARTICLES 273
VI. SOME COMMON ADVERBS AND THEIR TRANSLATION 276

V. THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS

I, PERSONAL 286
II. POSSESSIVE 290
Ill, DEMONSTRATIVE 293
IV. EXCLAMATORY 295
V. ARTICLES 296
VI. INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE 298
VII, INDEFINITE 302
VIII. OTHER INDEFINITE WORDS 310
IX. QUANTITATIVE WORDS 3I2
X. THE PRONOUN 'ONE' 314
XI. DEFINITIVE WORDS 3I6
XII. NEGATIVE WORDS 318
xii CONTENTS
VI. THE PREPOSITION
I. TIME 320
II. PLACE 332
Ill. CAUSE 352
IV. PREPOSITIONS OTHER THAN THOSE OF TIME, PLACE,
AND CAUSE 355
V. RUSSIAN PREPOSITIONS USED WITH CERTAIN NOUNS,
VERBS, AND ADJECTIVES 378
VI. RUSSIAN PREPOSITIONAL EXPRESSIONS
CORRESPONDING TO ENGLISH COMPOUND NOUNS 384

VII. THE NUMERAL AND NUMERAL WORDS

I. CARDINALS 386
II. ORDINALS 394
Ill. COLLECTIVE NUMERALS 395
IV. NOUNS EXPRESSING NUMBER 396
V. DISTRIBUTIVE EXPRESSIONS 396
VI. ADVERBS 396
VII. ADJECTIVES 398
VIII. AGREEMENT OF NUMERAL AND PREDICATE 398

VIII. SOME REMARKS ON WORD-ORDER AND

OMITTED WORDS
I. The position of the subject 403
2. The inversion of subject and verb 404
3· The position of subject and complement 409
4· The position of the object 410
5· The position of the adjective and adjectival expressions 412
6. The position of the adverb and adverbial expressions 414
7· Omitted words 414

LIST OF MAIN WORKS CONSULTED 418

RUSSIAN WORDS 421

ENGLISH INDEX 439

 I ·The Noun

1. In this chapter we shall deal mainly with problems related

to gender, number, and the use of cases. The question of
diminutive nouns will also be treated, and a final section will
be devoted to the translation of individual words which in
our experience have given difficulty to students.

GENDER
2. With the exception of nouns ending in a soft sign in the no-
minative case, the determination of gender in Russian is quite
straightforward. Nevertheless there are some difficulties related
to gender which are worth commenting on.
3· (i) Generally speaking the gender of declinable foreign
words taken over by Russian is determined by their endings and
not by their gender in the language from which they are bor-
rowed. Thus AOn.ta is feminine, though neuter in Greek; aKBa-
p~t is masculine though neuter in Latin.
(ii) If the boiTowed noun is not declined in Russian and
refers to an inanimate object (e.g. TaKen), it is nearly always
neuter. One exception is Kocf>e, which is now considered mascu-
line (black coffee -qepHLIH: Kocf>e), although in colloquial speech it
may still be neuter (this coffee is not nice aTO Kocf>e He BKYCHo).
Bll:cKH whisky and 6peHAH brandy oscillate between neuter and
masculine, with the tendency nowadays for masculine adjec-
tives to predominate: moTAaHACKu:ii BHCKH Scotch whisky. YpAy
Urdu and some other languages are masculine, under the in-
fluence of 113hiK. Caillm salami sausage is feminine under the
influence of KoA6aca.
(iii) If the borrowed noun is not declined and refers to a
human being it takes its gender from the sex of that being. Thus
 THE NOUN
.1\eAn is feminine. IIpoTeme protege can be either masculine or
feminine according to context. JKrop:H jury as a collective noun
comprising both sexes is neuter.
(iv) Borrowed indeclinable nouns denoting animals (e.g.
mmmaHae) are generally masculine regardless of sex, except
when unmistakable reference is made to the female.
(v) The principle followed with foreign indeclinable nouns
denoting rivers, towns, and newspapers is for the noun to take
the same gender as the generic words peKa, ropOA, and raaeTa:
Down the wide Missouri BHna no wnp6Koii Mnccypn
'The Times' published extracts from <<TaiiMo> ony6.1\UKOBa.l\a oTphiB-
the novel Kn na poMaHa
(vi) Indeclinable Russian and foreign abbreviations consist-
ing of initial letters take their gender from the key word in the
combination: e.g. OOH- OpzaNuJdy,uR 06oeAnHeHHLIX HaQnii
United Nations Organization is feminine; MfY- MocKOBCKMH
rocyAapcrneHHLlH yNuBepcumem Moscow State University is mas-
culine. The same principle holds good for a number of indec-
linable Russian abbreviations which are not initial letters,
e.g. MeCTHoe ce.I\Lno (ce.I\LCKoe noTpe6nTe.I\LCKoe 661!JecmBo) local
village consumer's association or more simply village shop, which is
neuter. Note, however, that several abbreviations of the latter
type are regularly declined, and in that case their gender is
determined by their final letter and not by the gender of their
keyword. Thus KO.I\X03 collective farm and BY3 higher educational
institution are both masculine, although their noun components
in their unabbreviated form are neuter.
4· As a general rule the gender of a diminutive or augmentative
noun is the same as that of the parent word. Hence the final
vowel gives no indication of gender (but it does indicate the type
of declension). For example, the augmentative suffix -nm- has
an -e ending for masculine as well as neuter nouns: orpoM-
HLm AOMHI!!e (gen. orpoMHoro AOMnma) huge house. The pejora-
tive suffix -mnK- has, in theory, an -a ending for masculine
nouns denoting persons and animals, and an -o ending for
inanimate masculines: ymacHLIH xaacTYHHWKa (gen. ymacnoro
XBaCTYHHlliKM) awful little braggart; ma.I\KMH AOMliWKO (gen. ma.l\-
 GENDER 3
Koro AO!I.UtlllKa) squalid little house. In practice, since -HlllKa and
-HlllKO are pronounced alike, the tendency in the modern lan-
guage is for all such nouns to have feminine endings, whether
they are animate or inanimate, and to write AOMHlllKn (gen.),
AOMHlllKe (dat.), AO!'>-n1lllKO~i (instr.). The augmentative (and
often pejorative) suffix -1m-a is rarely used except after mascu-
line nouns, and adjectives in agreement are normally (though
not invariably) masculine: cTnAbHbiii AOMlina (gen. cni:Abuoro
AOI\.tHHbi) period house; nocTpOHAH yp6AAHBbiH AOMHHY they buil
a big ugly house.
5· To the masculine gender belongs a group of nouns denoting
male persons such as AHAH uncle, K>HOllla youth, cAyra servant.
They are declined as feminine nouns, while adjectives in agree-
ment with them have masculine endings:
I see your uncle R BII.iKY Balllero MAIO
I do not see your uncle R He BII.iKY Balllero AJ!An
Such nouns denote male persons only, although an exception
must now be made for cyAblr.judge which in the Soviet Union
can be used of a woman judge. In this use it is still regarded as
masculine and adjectives in agreement with it have masculine
endings:
She is a people's judge
6. Not to be confused with the examples in paragraph 5 are
nouns with the conventional feminine final vowels -a, or -x,
which can be applied to either sex. When adjectives qualify
these nouns of common gender, they are declined with masculine
or feminine endings according to whether the noun denotes a
man or a woman (in contrast to cyAblr. above):
This girl has no mother or father ::ha AeBotJKa- KpyrAax cnpo-
Ta
This boy has no mother or father STOT MllAL'IHK- KpyrALiii cn-
poTa
Many such words have a pejorative meaning, e.g. uese)Ka ignora-
mus, ueplr.xa sloven, o6)Kopa glutton, Ae)Ke66Ka sluggard, nblr.HHya
4 THE NOUN
drunkard, y6M:ifua murderer, cnrNira teddy-boy, rrAaKca cry-baby.
Those which are not disparaging often express suffering or de-
privation, e.g. 6e,li;Hxra poor fellow/girl, KaAeKa cripple, cnpoTa
orphan, and possibly in the same category may be included AeBwa
left-handed person, i.e. a departure from the norm. But notice too
y~umua clever person and pa6oTara hard worker.

7· Nouns with masculine endings which, by virtue of their

meaning, can be applied to both sexes, e.g. "tJeAOBCK person, Apyr
friend, TOBapm,g comrade, and nouns denoting membership of a
profession open to both sexes which do not have a feminine
equivalent, e.g. rre,ztaror teacher, AOUCHT universiry lecturer, a.ztBOKaT
lawyer, reOAOr geologist, have adjectives in agreement with them
declined in the masculine, even when they refer to a woman:
Sonya is a nice person and a very C6Hll- MHAbiH qeAOBCK II oqeHb
good teacher xop6nmft rre,~~;ar6r
Similarly, verbs of which they are the subject will normally
have masculine endings in the past tense in literary Russian:
The lawyer gave advice on a legal .AABoKaT ,ll;aA coBeThi no npaBo-
question BoMy Bonp6cy
even when the context makes it clear that the subject is a
woman, although the feminine form of the verb is sometimes
found in colloquial speech, and this tendency appears to be
growing. If one of these nouns is combined with the name of the
person concerned, the latter is considered to be the subject, and
the verb is feminine if the subject is a woman:
Comrade Titova made a speech Bqepa B aKTOBOM 3aAe, BbiCTY-
yesterday in the assembly hall IIHAa C peqbiO TOBapHJ,!!
TnT6Ba
Note that in the form of address YBaiKaeMaJI TOBapm,g TFnoBa
the feminine form of the adjective is due to the influence of the
proper noun. If no name is expressed, YBaiKaeMLiii: TOBapm,g is
used to address women as well as men.

8. (i) There are many masculine nouns denoting persons which

have corresponding feminine forms with characteristic suffixes.
 GENDER 5
\Ve are accustomed in English to such pairs as Englislllnan, Eng-
lishwoman; hero, heroine, and therefore to the Russian aHrAH'Ia-
Hnu, aurAH"'aHica; repoti, repoH:H.H. But in Russian the range of
feminine suffixes is wider than in English and the appropriate
feminine form more widely used. It is important therefore to
observe pairs like CTyAeHT, cTyAeHTKa, student; neBey;, neBH:y;a,
singer; KpeCThKHHH, KpeCThKHKa, peasant; yqaCTHIIK, yq:aCTHHQa,
participant; KOM.M:YHIIcT, KOMM)'HHCTKa, communist; pa66THHK, pa-
66THHQa, worker; ytniTeAL, yq:IheALHny;a, teacher where English
uses one form for both sexes.
(ii) With the participation of women in almost all trades and
professions in Russia, the number of specifically feminine forms
has considerably increased, e.g. KOHA)h<Toprna, cnopTcMeHKa,
Kacc1lprna (woman) conductor, athlete, cashier. However, the
majority of these words, unlike those in section (i) of this para-
graph, are limited to colloquial speech, and mainly used of a
third party not taking part in the conversation. When address-
ing a ·woman, the masculine form of the noun is normally used,
often preceded by ToBapiiiJ!:
The conductress announced the next KoHAyKTopwa o6'DHBiha cAeAyro-
stop I,YYJO OCTaHOBKY
But
Conductress! Will you change five ToBapni,Y KOHAYKTop, paaAiemiii:-
roubles for me, please? Te :r.me, nojKiAyii:cTa, IHITb
py6Aefl
The chairman of the meeting an- IlpeACeAaTel\bHny;a aaceAaHIIH
twwzced the agenda 06'DHBII/\a llOBeCTKY ,1\HH

But
iWadam chairman, may I have ToBapniJJ npeACe,l\aTel\b, npowy
leave to speak? CAOBa

In official documents the masculine form of the noun is standard

usage:
A. A. Ivanova is employed as a A. A. HBaH6Ba cocTmh npenoAa-
teacher of English in the Saratov BaTeAeM aHrAiiii:cKoro H3biKa B
Institute of Foreign Languages capiTOBCKOM J1HCTH$e HHO•
CTpaHHblX H3hlKOB
6 THE NOUN

(iii) CAyra is a male servant, cAy.IKaHKa a female servant, npncxy-

ra either a female servant or a collective word for the servants.
(iv) Kmrah prince, has two feminine forms where English has
one: KHHfHHH princess, means a prince's wife; KHH.IKHa princess,
means a prince's daughter.
9· There are a few nouns in -rna still in colloquial use which
mean the wife of a man of a certain occupation, e.g. reHepaAhllia
general's wife, HH.IKeHeprna engineer's wife. In modern Russian this
suffix is not productive in the meaning: wife of, but only in the
meaning: a woman of a particular occupation, e.g. 6n6AnoTeKaprna
woman librarian. Nevertheless, for historical reasons, ambiguities
may arise. ,ll;oKTOprna, npoq>eccoprna, and several other such
nouns may be found with either meaning, although in practice
nowadays ADKTop and npoq>eccop are nearly always used of both
sexes, and ADKToprna, npoq>eccoprna, etc., if met in colloquial
speech, will mean doctor's wife, professor's wife, etc.
10. (i) Russian is more observant of gender distinctions with
animals than English now is. Both languages share such pairs
as AeB, AhBnua, lion, lioness or TMrp, THrpnua, tiger, tigress, but
Russian has separate words for the male and the female bear
(MeABCAh, MeABeAnua), eagle (opeA, opAll:ua), hare (aaHu, aall:-
tinxa), and several other animals and birds.
(ii) Cat and dog are usually translated by the feminine nouns
KOlliKa and co6aKa unless specific reference is made to the sex
of the animal. In this case the pairs are KOT, KornKa, tom-cat, she-
cat; and Ko6eAh, cYI<a, dog, bitch. IIec, which suggests hound, is
colloquial and sometimes vulgar.
(iii) .l\.6rnaAh is the normal word for horse. KoHh is used of a
cavalry horse, and it often corresponds to steed in poetic or
rhetorical contexts. When specific reference is made to the sex,
the pair is .1Kepe6eu, Ko6LrAa, stallion, mare.
II. Of the more common nouns in Russian which exist in both
masculine and feminine variants with no difference of meaning
aaA large hall, pofl:Ah (m.) piano and .IKHpaq> giraffe have now be-
come the standard forms, a<iAa, pofl:Ah (f.) and .IKnpaq>a being
considered colloquial or archaic. 3aAa, however, is still accepted
 GENDER 7
in literary Russian in the special meaning of reception room in a
private house. Conversely, TY<f>NI slipper, cniBHH shutter, CKIIp.zta
haystack and KaTapaKTa cataract (in a medical sense) have ousted
Ty<f>eAh (m.), CTaBeHb (m.), CKU:pA, and KaTapaKT.
There is a semantic difference between iKap heat, fire and iKapa
hot weather. Mam!p manner is now confined to a few idiomatic
expressions such as TaKll:M MaHepoM = TaK thus, or Ha HOBblli
MaHep in the modern style. MaHepa expresses the manner of doing
a thing, the characteristic properties of an art form or an artist
and, in the plural, manners in the sense of behaviour.
ANIMATE AND INANIMATE CATEGORIES
12. Next to gender may be considered the question of the ani-
mate and inanimate object. This distinction is encountered very
early in the study of Russian but mistakes are often made be-
cause of the apparent reluctance to regard animals, birds, and
insects as animate beings:
I heard a lark R CA:bnnaA )KiBopoHKa
He found a bug in the bed OH Hawi!A KAomi B nocTeAu
13. The following irregularities or illogicalities in the system of
assigning to all nouns not only a specific gender but also an
animate or inanimate label should be noticed:
(i) Trees, plants, and vegetables are not regarded as animate
objects although they are alive. The same is normally true of
microbes MHKp66I>I and bacteria 6aKTepuu. On the other hand
noKoiiHnK the deceased and MepTBe:g a corpse are animates.
(ii) A distinction is observed between C'l>eCTh ABe ph16Kn to
eat two fish and noilMaTh AByx p1>16 to catch two fish, which might
seem logical since in the first case the fish are dead. However,
there is no consistency with words for sea-fish and shell-fish
when used after the verb to eat, and one finds, for example, both
ecTb ycTpnW>£ and eCTh ycTpnu to eat oysters.
(iii) A few neuter adjectives or participles used as nouns such
as HaceK6Moe insect, iKllBOTHOe animal, npecMI>IK:iiOI,ijeec.H reptile,
and l.'.lAeKonnTaiOI,ijee mammal, and also the neuter nouns ,ltllTH
child and AII:!JO person, are animate as their meaning would
suggest, but it is only in the plural that their accusative and
8 THE NOUN
genitive cases coincide. In the singular their accusative is the
same as their nominative form.
(iv) Sometimes a normally inanimate noun is used figuratively
to designate a living person. Then it becomes animate:
Do you know this old simpleton? 3mieTe Bhi {IToro cTaporo KOA-
naKa?
KoAmiK which normally means a tall cap is here colloquially
used to mean dunce or dunderhead. Similarly too with KyMHp idol
and 3Be3,ZJ;a star:
There is no need to make an idol
of him
You could see the best American Ha KnHo<J>ecniB<iAe MO.lKHO 6h'IAO
film stars at the festival }'BH,ll;eTh AYqiiiHX aMepHKaH-
CKHX 3Be3,ll; !:lKpaHa
The normally inanimate KyKAa doll (rmm. KYKAbi to make dolls)
is treated as an animate noun in such expressions as O,ZJ;eBaTL
KYKOA to dress dolls.
(v) Sometimes a normally animate noun is used in an inani-
mate context, as in the title of a book. It then retains its animate
character:
To read The Brothers Kara- qHTaTh <<EpaTheB KapaMaaoahiXl)
mazov
Alternatively one says: qiiTaTL poMaH <<BpaTLH KapaMa30Bbi)>.
Compare too:
They were watching the sculptor OHM CMOTpeAu, KaK CKYAhnTop
model a horse AennA KOHH
CnyTHIIK, however, in the meaning of an artificial earth satel-
lite has tended to shift from an animate to an inanimate noun
and aanycn!TL H<lBbiH c$HIIK to launch a new satellite is now
normal usage.
(vi) Technical terms in certain games illustrate some curious
uses of the animate genitive. The logic behind c6p6ciiTL xopoAfl
to discard a king is clear enough. Perhaps too CH.IITL ryaa to cut an
ace is understandable since TY3 was once applied figuratively to
an important person, although this use is now archaic. IIoAo-
 ANIMATE AND INANIMATE CATEGORIES 9
)KihL rmipa B J'I.Y3Y to pot a billiard ball remains curious, but the
accusative map is also widely found in this expression nowadays.
Notice nycKaTL 6)'MaJKHoro 3Mex to fly a kite. The accusative
3Meli is now regarded as archaic in this construction.
(vii) Tn:rr, in the colloquial sense of a type, a person only, has
rnrra for its accusative:
To meet an interesting type
(viii) Collective nouns referring to a group of animate objects
are as a rule inanimate:
rou must love the people
Compare too nSArrLI crowds, oTpHA detachment.

NUMBER
14· Many Russian nouns which have only plural forms (plura-
lia tantum) have parallels in English: O'IKII spectacles, HO)KHH:YLI
scissors, 6proKn trousers. Among the more common pluralia tan-
tum where English has a singular noun are: qepHil:J'I.a ink, AeHLni
money, CAHBKH cream, o66n wallpaper, '!ac:bx watch, C'ICTLI abacus,
c)'MepKn: twilight, p6ALI childbirth, KpecTnHLI christening, rr6xopoHLI
funeral, I,gH cabbage soup, caHH sledge, XJ\OIIOTLijuss, trouble, HCJ\H
creche, maXMaTbi chess. Some of these nouns admit of a singular
or plural meaning, i.e. qacLr can mean both watch and watches,
caHH can mean both sledge and sledges. Compare:
I have onry one watch Y MeHH T<hhKO OAHI1: qacLI
I have two watches Y MeHJi AB6e qac6a

15. (i) Nouns used only in the singular give no difficulty with
the possible exception of the names for various fruits and vege-
tables, and for some precious stones. KapT6<f>eJ\h means potatoes,
not simply a potato; KpLI)KOBHHK gooseberries; MopKOBh carrots;
rop6x peas; 3eJ\.eHL vegetables; *ewryr pearls, and there are other
common examples.
(ii) To express one potato, carrot, pea, pearl, etc., a suffix is
usually employed, e.g. KapT6<f>eJ'I.HHa, MopKOBKa, rop6mnHa, *eM-
'lY*HHa. (But N.B. a gooseberry irroAa KpLJ)KOBHHKa.) MopKOBKa
10 THE NOUN

and KapTornKa are both used colloquially to mean carrots and

potatoes collectively, as well as a carrot and a potato. Notice also
co.>.oMa straw, co.>.OMima a straw.
(iii) Other useful singular collective nouns are rrpoBH3HH (no
plural) provisions and .>.yq:HHa sticks, matchwood (plural not used
collectively).

16. .l\.o)f{L a lie, lies is a singular noun and has no plural (one
may use BLip;yMimjabrications). 3AO evil has only one form in the
plural, namely the genitive 30A.
It's a pack of lies lho Bee AO)K:&
The lesser of two evils MeH:&wee Ma .lUlyx aoA

17. In the case of homonyms, difference in meaning may be

shown by different plural endings:
(i) Plurals in -LI (-n) and -a (-x):
EopoB (a) boar, plural 66poBLI
(b) chimney flue, plural 6opoBa
.l\.arepL (a) political or social camp, plural Aarepn
(b) military or tourist camp, plural .>.arepx
Mex (a) bellows, plural Mex:H
Note that both singular and plural can denote
a pair of bellows: :hn Mex:H these bellows, KY3-
He'IHLiii: Mex a blacksmith's bellows
(b) fur, plural Mexa
06pa3 (a) shape,Jorm, plural 66pa3LI
(b) icon, plural o6pa3a
Op,zr;eH (a) order (monastic, architectural), plural op,zr;eHbl
(b) order (decoration), plural op,zr;eHa
Iloxc (a) belt (geographical), ;:;one, plural rroxci>r
(b) belt (clothing), plural noxca
IlporrycK (a) omission, plural nporrycKH
(b) permit, password, plural rrporrycKa
C11eT (a) abacus, counting-machine c11enr (no singular)
(b) bill, account, plural c'leTa
But N .B. cBo.zr;HTL (cBecn"r) c11enr c to settle
accounts (settle up) with
 NUMBER II

ToH (a) tone (of sound), plural TOHbi

(b) shade (of colour), plural Tomi
T6pM03 (a) obstacle, impediment, plural TOpM03bi
(b) brake, plural TOpMoaa
YquTeM> (a) ideological leader, plural yquTeAH
(b) teacher, plural yqnTeNI
XAe6 (a) loaf of bread, plural XAe6bi
(b) com, cereal crops, plural XAe6a
lJBeT (a) flowers QBeTLI (singular aflower QBeToK)
(b) colour, plural QBeTa
(ii) Plurals in -hi (-n) and -:oK:
3y6 (a) tooth, plural ay6:ox
(b) tooth (of a saw, machine, or other implement),
plural ay6:oK
KopeH:o (a) root, plural KOpHII
(b) spices KopeHLK (no singular)
AncT (a) sheet (of paper, metal), plural AIICTLI
(b) leaf (of a plant), plural AHCTbK
IloBOA (a) pretext, plural noBOAhi
(b) rein, plural noBOAbK (also noBO,ll;a, colloquially,
in this meaning)
(iii) Cbrn may have two plural forms. The usual plural is
CbiHOBhii, but CblliLI is used in a figurative, rhetorical context
such as cAaBHLie CbiHLI cAaBHOli po,li;IIHbi glorious sons of a glorious
motherland (cf. the use of AIITii for pe6eHOK in a few stock expres-
sions of a figurative nature, e.g. OH AIITii cBoer6 BeKa he is a child
of his time).
(iv) Notice the difference in meaning between rAa3KM little
eyes and rAa3KII buds (i.e. for grafting). The singular in both
cases is rAaaoK.
18. KoAeHo has three possible plural forms:
(i) knees, lap: KOAeHa, KOAeHefi, KOACHKM ... ;
(ii) sections or stretches between two bends (e.g. of a river, an
instrument, a stem or stalk of a plant) or the bends themselves:
in these meanings both KOAeHLK, KOAeHLeB, KOAeHLKM ... and
KOACHa, KOAeH, KOAeHaM ... are USed;
12 THE NOUN

(iii) branches of a geneaological tree, and in a biblical context

tribes (ABeHa,zmaTb KOACH llapaHAeBMX the twelve tribes of Israel).
In this meaning, which is generally archaic, only KOAeHa,
KoAeH, KOAeHaM ... are used.
19. Some general semantic observations on singulars and
plurals:
(i) ,LI,oAr which means both debt and duty in the singular, only
means debts in the plural (duties is o6.HaaHHOCTH).
(ii) IToAefield can, in the plural only, mean the brim of a hat:
A hat with no brim IIIAlina 6ea noAeii
It is also used commonly in the plural, where English uses a sin-
gular, to mean the margin of a book, etc.:
To write in the margin IlHc<h& Ha noAlix
but the singular form is used to emphasize one particular mar-
gin:
In the left margin Ha AeBoM n6Ae
(iii) The plural form XOAO,ll;a can mean a cold spell. )KapLr in
the sense of a hot spell is seldom, if ever, used now.
(iv) Compare KpacOTa beauty, KpacoT&r beauty spots; ,li;AHHHoTa
length, ,li;AHHHOTbi diffuseness. (N.B. ,li;AHHa is the usual translation
of 'length'-see para. 99).
(v) Notice the use of the singular to denote an occupation or
class of people in honour of whom a day is named: ,LI.eHh max-
Tepa Miners' Day, ,LJ.eHh Mopm<a Sailors' Day.
(vi) Compare English plural: exhibition of English books (book-
exhibition) with Russian singular: BLICTaBKa aHrAilikKoii KHI1ru.

DECLENSION
20. Here the greatest difficulty is caused by alternative mas-
culine nominative plurals in Lr/a and by irregular genitive
plurals of all genders. As these are strictly morphological and
do not involve word combinations or semantic differences they
will not be considered here. Attention is drawn, however, to the
following peculiarities of declension involving combinations of
nouns and of Christian names and surnames.
 NUMBER 13
21. (i) Hyphenated nouns such as Bar6H-pecTopaH and MocKBa-
peKa have both parts declined in the literary language, but in
the spoken language the first part normally remains unchanged,
e.g. in the restaurant car B Bar6H-pecTopaHc; beyond the river Moscow
3a MocKBa-peK6ii.
(ii) Names of lakes, mountains, islands, stations, etc., do not
awee with their generic nouns, and this is increasingly true also
of towns, although there is still divergence of usage : on Lake
Baikal Ha 63epe EaiiKaA, near Mount Elbrus y ropbi 9A~>6pyc, on
the island of Madagascar Ha 6CTpoBe Ma.ztar:icKap, in the ciry of
Moscow B r6po.zte MocKBa and ·B r6po.zte MocKBe.
22. (i) Foreign surnames ending in a consonant normally de-
cline if they refer to a man, but not if they refer to a woman: cf.
poMaH~>I AHH~>I 3erepc and y KapAa 3erepca.
(ii) Foreign surnames ending in a vowel do not normally
decline unless the final vowel is an unstressed a/H: cf. CTMxorno-
peHMH froro, ni.ecM III6y, but YHMBepcMTeT MMeHM IlaTpi1ca
AyM)lM6I.I.
(iii) Ukrainian surnames ending in -Ko are very seldom de-
clined in modern Russian, although nineteenth century habits
persist in some instances. PaccKa3I.I KopoJI.eHKO is now con-
sidered normal usage.
(iv) Foreign Christian names ending in a consonant and re-
ferring to men normally decline: paccKa3I.I MapKa TBcHa. In
the case of hyphenated French names, only the second part
declines: B3rA.ff.ztM /KaH-/KaKa Pycc6. Foreign Christian names
ending in a vowel generally follow the same principles as
foreign surnames ending in a vowel.
THE CASES
Nominative
23. The construction 'ITO 3a with the nominative case should be
noted. This is used in both interrogative and exclamatory senses,
compare German was fur ....
What sort of man is Smith? tho aa 'IJeAoBeK CMIIT ?
What weather! (i.e. What awful tho aa nor6.zta!
weather!)
 THE NOUN
Whatever do you want to write tho Te6e aa ox6Ta nncaT& po-
novels for? MaHhl?
24. It is often difficult to choose between the nominative and
instrumental case to translate a predicative noun after the verb
to be (whether or not 6&ITL is actually expressed in Russian). Two
sets of circumstances may be considered:
(i) When there is no verbal link. Here the predicate will nor-
mally go in the nominative:
I am an engineer R nH.)KeHep
The main aim is justice fAaBnall QeA& - cnpaBeAAHBOCT&
rour aunt is a beautiful woman Barna TeTll- KpacnBall .)KeHrJ!nHa
Sometimes, however, the predicate appears in the instrumental
case:
(a) with mmafault, rrplmina reason and rropyKa token:
rour laziness is to blame for it all BceMy Bl!HOH - Barna .1\eH&
Constructions of this type are now rare.
(b) idiomatically, as an alternative to the nominative, when
it denotes certain occupations or professions, and when the pre-
dicative noun is qualified or restricted by an adjunct:
My mother is a teacher here Y MeHJi Man JOecb yqiheA&Hnueti
(Fedin)
Once again I am a dishwasher R cu6ea nocyAHHKOM Ha rrapox6Ae
on the Perm' <<IlepMM (Gor'ky)
(c) when the same noun is used both as subject and predicate
and the clause followed by an adversative statement introduced
by 'a':
Business may be business, but love 4bo AeAo:o.t, a Aio€i6B& AI066B&Io
is love (Kazakevich)
(ii) When subject and predicate are linked by some part of
6LITL:

(a) With the present tense of 6LITL (ecTL, and occasionally

cyTL) a nominative predicate is always used:
Business is business
(cf. (c) above)
 THE CASES 15
The history of the C.P.S.U.(b) is I1cT6pnH BKIT(6) ecn. ucT6pnH
the history of three revolutions Tpex peBO.'\royuii (Press)
(b) With thefuture tense of6Din a nominative predicate is
very rare in modern Russian (though not in the nineteenth cen-
tury) and the instrumental can be regarded as standard usage:
I shall be an engineer R 6y,~~;y HH.lKeHepoM
(c) With the past tense of6~oxn, both nominative and instru-
mental noun predicates are found. In general the choice is de-
termined by whether the predicate denotes a temp•rary state
or property, or a characteristic related to a particular moment
in time (instrumental), or a more or less static or permanent
characteristic unrelated to any particular moment in time
(nominative):
At the time I was a student at Ox- B TO Bpe:-.Illll6biJ\ cry,~~;eHTOM 6Kc-
ford q>op,l!;CKOro ynnBepcrueTa
The new headmaster was a child- HoB&rii ,~~;upeKTop IIIK6Abr 6~oiA
hood friend of mine ,~~;pjroM Moer6 ,~~;eTcTBa
My governess was Swedish Moa ryaepHai!TKa 6&IAa IUBe,l!;Ka
He was a coward-! had always OH 6&IA Tpyc - ll Bcer,~~;a sTo
known it 3HaA
The above distinction is a guiding rule only. The tendency now
is for the instrumental to predominate, and even with per-
manent characteristics, statistics show that its use is gaining
ground in the modern language. Notice, however, that 'IeAoBeK,
when used predicatively and accompanied by an adjective, is
usually found in the nominative ({noT Bac~oKa 6~oiA CKBepHMfr
'IeAoBeK (Panova) this Vas'ka was a nasty man)-unless the verb
is negated: CTaXOBH'I H B cal\IOM ,l!;eAe He 6I.IA IV\OXIIM 'IeAOBeKOM
(Fadeyev) Stakhovich was not in fact a bad man. The same is true
of a number of nouns with either a pejorative or laudatory
meaning, e.g. llOAA,eu;, MOAO,ll;eu;. See para. s6 for the use of the
instrumental predicate after synonyms of 'to be'.
25. (i) Noun predicates following the infinitive, imperative,
subjunctive, gerund or participles of6~orr~o are almost invariably
in the instrumental in modern Russian:
I want you to be chairman R xo'ly, 'IT66&r Bbi 6hiAH npe,~~;ce­
,l!;aTeAeM
 THE NOUN
While still Minister of Justice he EI,!!e 6yAyt~u Mmni:cTpOM mcni-
began to take bribes QHH oH cTaJ\ 6paTb Ballnm
(ii) A noun predicate may appear in the instrumental when
the past tense of 6J>ITI> is not expressed, but is implied:
Even as a boy I loved music

where Mihi>'IMKOM = KOrAa SI 6biA MaAh'IMKOM.

26. The difficulty of agreement of verbs (gender and number),
linking subject and predicate is most apparent when numerals
and numeral words form the subject and predicate of a sentence.
This will be considered in the chapter on the numeral (paras.
826 ff.). Here it may be noted that in combinations of nominal
or pronominal subject, with verb and nominal or pronominal
predicate, if the subject and predicate are of different gender or
number, the verb agrees in gender and number with the sub-
ject. As a guiding rule the subject is the more particular or speci-
fic word, the predicate the more general, abstract or generic:
The Professor (subject) was a Tipoclleccop 6biA Ayrna - t~eAo­
sympathetic soul (predicate) BeK
It seemed to him that the cause EMy KaaaJ\och, 'ITO nput~Ihmii
(predicate) of the war was the BOHHhi 6&IAn HHTpll.rn AHrJ\HH
intrigues (subject) of Britain
In combinations involving :ho, agreement is always with the
noun:
It was our friends 3To 6&1/\H Haum Apyahll
Somebody entered the room. It KTo-To Borne" B KOMHaTy. 3To
was the doctor's wife 6hiJ\a a<eHa AOKTopa
Note that the subject of the sentence cannot go in the instru-
mental case. In the sentence chess was his favourite recreation, where
chess is the subject and recreation the predicate, one can say urpa
B maXMaThl 6hiJ\a era AI06HMhiM pa3BAe'leHMeM or era AI06HMOe
pa3BAe'leHfre 6J>IAa urpa B maxMaTI>I, but one cannot say era
AI06HMOe pa3BAe'leHMe 6hiAO urpail: B maxMaTbl.
27. (i) While not strictly relevant to the nominative case of
nouns, the idiomatic translation of an English multiple subject,
 THE CASES 17
not by two or more nominatives, but by a nominative coupled
with one or more instrumentals after the preposition c, may
conveniently be considered here.
My brother and sister and I Mbi c 6paToM n cecTp6u
J'ou and Peter must work harder Bhl c fleTp6!1r AOA*H:bi (Tbl c
fleTpOM,li;OA)KeH) 66AbWe pa66-
TaTh
A:(y grandfather and grandmother B KYxHIO BOWAii AeAywKa c
went into the kitchen 6a6ywKmi

This idiomatic construction may be used of all persons, ( rst,

2nd, and srd) where a combination of noun and pronoun forms
the subject of the sentence, and also where there are combina-
tions of two or more nouns, or two or more pronouns as plural
subjects. It is very common with nouns referring to members of
the family circle and with words such as TOBapniJ! (comrade) or
Apyr (friend) which border on the family circle. The rst person
plural Mbi c 6paToM construction (which is always followed by
a plural verb) may be replaced by the somewhat less common
.11 c 6p:hoM (with a I st person singular verb). }I II 6paT (plural verb)
is also occasionally found.
(ii) When the construction is used, as it sometimes is, with
inanimate objects, the two nouns involved are always closely
linked together, the first as the main and the second as the sub-
sidiary object. Thus qaiiiKa c 6..ru0,ll;yeM cup and saucer, caMoBap
c qaifHnKoM samovar and tea-pot, where in both cases the
nouns are intimately associated in daily use as parts of a whole
unit.
(iii) The construction may also be used in an oblique case:
Did you see her and her mother? Bu,ll;eAII Bbl ee c MciTepblO?
That was a stroke of luck for us Eho HaM c To66u noBeaA6
both

Vocative
28. Although this case is quite obsolete there are two common
survivals in modern Russian as popular interjections: EoJKe
MOM! focno,ll;n! good heavens! good Lord!
 THE NOUN

Accusative
29. Apart from its obvious function of expressing the direct ob-
ject of a transitive verb, the accusative case is used:
(i) To express time during which, the implication being that the
action of the verb occupies the whole time referred to (cf. the
accusative in Latin and Greek in the same sense) :
All the time she was looking at me Bee BpeMH omi CMOTpeAa Ha MeHa
with curiosiry c Aro6onb'ITCTBOM (Chekhov)

(ii) To express space over which, extent:

He ran two kilometres OH 6e)K<l.J\ ,llBa KIIAOMeTpa
He slept the whole journey OH npocn<l.A BCIO AOpory

The latter example may, of course, be regarded as duration of

time. Notice however the translation of wide or broad:
Ten miles wide IIInpimotl: B ,lleCHTh MHJ\b
or less commonly: ,ll;ecxTt. MHAL wnpnHotl:
(iii) To express repetition, with pa3:
I've told you a thousand times JI BaM Th'Icxqy pa3 roBopiiA
(iv) To express time when, an archaic usage superseded now
for the most part by B and the accusative. Cmo MHHYTY this
minute, at once, survives, the adjective ce:ii ({noT) betraying the
archaic form, as also in ceftqac now.
(v) Both the accusative and the genitive case are used after
)l(aAt.. Followed by the accusative it means be sorry for; by the
genitive grudge, regret the lack or loss of:
I am sorry for your sister MHe )KaJ\t. Bawy cecTpy
I grudge the time MHe )KaJ\b BpeMeHn
(vi) The predicative ,llO)\)I(eH in the sense of owe is treated as
a transitive verb and is followed by a direct accusative:
I owe you a thousand roubles

30. Notice the use of the nominative/accusative, not the geni-

tive/accusative form of animate nouns denoting members of a
class, social rank, trade, profession, etc., when used after the pre-
 THE CASES 19
position B and a verb indicating entering, being promoted to or
becoming a member of such classes or occupations:
He became a waiter OH noCTymi:A B ocfmymiHTbi
To get on in the world Bh'li:tTH B AID~II
To take on as an assistant Ba.IITb ce6e B nO!Ir6IQHnKu

Genitive

31. Genitive case after nouns

There is no need to dwell on the more obvious uses of the
genitive after nouns which can signify 'possession' (the boy's book
Kmlra M~b'lHKa, and N.B. this house is not mine but Meshkov's
:hoT ,n;oM He Mo:ii, a MelllKosa), 'definition' (a man of outstanding
valour 'leAoBeK Bbl,ll;ai(n,gerocH M}'iKecrna), 'the subject' (the tsar's
decree yK:ia uapJI), 'the object' (the capture of Berlin saJITue Eep-
MIHa), and several minor properties which are sometimes called
'aggregation' (a pile of stones rpy,n;a KaMHe:ii), 'relation' (the mana-
ger of afactory ,n;HpeKTop aaBo,n;a) and others. In all these examples
a comparison \vith the English of or the apostrophes makes the
Russian construction quite comprehensible. An obvious differ-
ence between English and Russian usage, however, is the trans-
lation of the city of Moscow (and other similar constructions) by
two nouns in apposition-ropo,n; MocKB:i. See para. 21 (ii).

32. Notice:
(i) nouns followed by a genitive case in Russian but by a pre-
position other than of in English :
Khrushchev's visit to London I1oceJ,!!eHireXpyiQeBLIMA6H~OHa
My plan for producing Boris Moil DAaH noCTaHOBKn «Eopnca
Godunov fo~}'HOBa»

(ii) nouns followed by of in English, but by a prepositional

construction in Russian (see paras. 653, 721):
A work of 250 pages Pa66Ta B 250 CTpaHHU
A view of the lake Bl{,ll; Ha 6aepo
A bag offerrets Memo~< c xopbKaMn
20 THE NOUN
Compare:
He received a sack offlour in pay- B3aMeH n.l\aTbi OH llO.II.}"'HA Me-
ment (i.e. a sackful) WOK MYKH
He is dragging a sack offlour (i.e. OH TaiJ!HT Mem6K c MYK6fi
containing, but not neces-
sarily full of, flour)
(iii) elliptical constructions of the type:
Do you want to know my opinion BLI xonhe 3BaTb Moe MHeHne
as a natural scientist? eCTeCTBeHHIIKa? (Pasternak)
33· A Russian noun, or adjective and noun, in the genitive case
may idiomatically render an English adjective or adjectival ex-
presswn:
The chair was early 18th ceutury Cry.11. 6LI.II. Ha'la.ll.a 18-oro aeKa
My sister is very robust Moll ceCTpa 6tJeHL KpenKoro 3AO-
p6BLH
At that point a middle-aged gentle- TYT BOIIIe.l\ B KOMHaTy cpeAHIIX
man entered the room .11.eT rocnoAiiH
What colour are the flowers? They KaK6ro IJBCTa ljBeT:bi? 0Hn cnHe-
are blue ro IJBeTa

Genitive case in -y (-10)

34· Probably the chief difficulty students have with the genitive
case concerns the -a( -y), -.11( -10) alternation in certain masculine
nouns. The difficulty is to know which nouns may take -y (-10)
in the genitive singular, and under what circumstances. Two
general observations may be made first of all. In the first place
there is not a single masculine noun which cannot form its geni-
tive singular in -a (-.11), while the parallel forms in -y (-10) are
losing ground all the time. In the second place the use of -y (-10)
in the genitive singular is most common in colloquial and fami-
liar speech forms and dialects, proverbs, fables, and certain
stock expressions.
35· There are a small number of masculine nouns referring to
concrete material substances or objects in the mass which show a geni-
tive in -y (-10) in certain constructions on{y. Their number is limited
by the fact that they are all nouns which cannot be combined
 THE CASES 21

with numerals; that is to say, they are all aggregative or quan-

titative nouns, and not nouns denoting single objects. Some
Russian grammars give a comprehensive list of these words,
including many where a genitive in -a (-H) is far more usual
nowadays than one in -y (-10). The list below, on the other hand,
is small and includes only those words which are expressly shown
in the three most recent and authoritative dictionaries as having
alternative genitive forms: BnHorpaA grapes, rop6x peas, KAefi
glue, .'l.eA ice, MeA honey, MeA chalk, Hap6A (=AIDAn) people, nec6K
sand, caxap sugar, cop dirt, t:rafi tea. These words only show a
genitive in -y (-10) after:
(i) A very limited number of nouns expressing quantity,
measurement, or weight of which the commonest include: !pYHT
pound, KnA6 kilogramme, cTaKaH glass, t:raiiiKa cup, Kfqa heap, Kyc6K
piece, 6aHKajar. It is perhaps best to try to remember them in
combination with one of these nouns with which they are com-
monly associated, e.g. a cup of tea t:ralliKa t:raiO, a piece of chalk
Kyc6K MeAy, aJar of honey 6aHKa MCAY· When there is no quanti-
tative meaning present, the noun takes the normal genitive in -a
(-H), e.g. the taste of sugar BKyc caxapa. Similarly, if an adjective
qualifies the noun in the genitive, the -a (-H) ending is normally
used: a cup of strong tea t:raiiiKa KpenKoro t:raH.
(ii) Adverbial expressions of quantity such as r.m6ro a lot,
Her.m6ro a little, and the negative HeT there is not. Note l'.moro
Hap6Ay many people in the sense ofr.m6ro AIOAeii:.
(iii) Verbs such as the following, after which the-y (-10) end-
ing of the noun suggests some:
To take some sugar B3liTb caxapy
Give me some more tea, please .LJ.ai:iTe MHe, no;K<iA.yiicTa, eiJJe
'lalO

Also buy Kynll:n. and get AOCTan..

36. There are also several abstract nouns which in the above par-
titive or quantitative senses, often after MHoro, MiAo, Her.m6ro,
may form their genitive singular in -y (-10), notably Bee weight,
JKap heat, CTpaxfear, TOAK sense, XOA motion, IIIYM noise. However,
in modern Russian, the genitive in -a (-H) is probably just as
51563~ B
22 THE NOUN

common with these nouns, although the-y (-ro) ending is still

frequently met in speech in combinations involving verbs pre-
fixed by Ha- in the meaning of a lot of: e.g. Ha,~~;e.MTL IIIYMY to
make a lot of noise, HarHaTL cTpaxy to terrorise.
37· There are a considerable number of nouns which, in con-
junction with certain prepositions only (6e3, U3, oT, c) take -y
(-ro) in the genitive singular, often in expressions of place, cause,
or manner.
(i) Sometimes the prepositions have become merged with the
nouns to form new adverbs (e.g. cBepxy from above, cHJby from
below, c66Ky from the side).
(ii) Alternatively the prepositions and nouns may remain
separate, but form an invariable combination which is virtually
an abverb:
Of/from laughter Co cMexy
At a run C pa36ery
In alarm C 11cnyry
Indiscriminately Be3 pa366py
With all the power of one's arm Co Bcer6 pa3Maxy
To talk non-stop foBopHTL 6e3 yMoAKY
A1ry moment (of something im- c lJacy Ha tJac
minent)
Tete a tete
Compare:
He ran away from home OH y6e.lKaA H3 ,~~;oMy
He ran out of the house OH Bhi6e.lKaA 113 ,~~;6Ma

(iii) In other cases the preposition-noun combinations are not

fully adverbialized, and besides the -y (-ro) genitive one will
also find the normal genitive in -a (-11):
Out of the wood M3 Aecy (or 113 Aeca)
To pick up qff the floor Tio,~~;HnMaTL (no,~~;r-ni:TL) c n6Ay (or
c n6Aa)
To lose sight of YnycKaTL ( ynycniTL) J\:3 BH,II;Y (or
113 BII,~~;a)

It often happens that the preposition is accented when the noun

following takes its genitive in -y (-ro).
 THE CASES 23
(iv) There are quite a number of stereotyped expressions in-
volving a noun with an-y (-10) genitive ending ,.,i.th or without
a preposition which one meets frequently in spoken Russian:
There's no doubt about it Cnopy HeT
To confuse (disconcert) some- C6HBaTb (c6nTb) c TOAKY Kor6-
body HIJ6yAJ>
There's no news of him at all Hero HeM Hn CA)'xy Hii A}'XY
To miss an opportunity, to make a /];aTb Maxy
mistake
To give somebody a roasting 3aAaTb nepuy
A few days, a short period of time Eea roAy He,!J,e,'\JI

It is better to regard the examples in this paragraph as idioms,

rather than to think of CMex, pa36er, etc., as having alternative
genitive singulars in -y.
Genitive case after verbs
38. Verbs requiring an object in the genitive case to indicate
desire, request, aim, or achievement of aim may be divided into two
categories:
(i) The following verbs only govern the genitive case:
iKa)f(,ltan
The country craves for peace
,ll;o6Jmanc.11
We must strive for better results HaM HaAo Ao6nBaTbC.II AY'unmc
peayAhThoB (Press)
(The perfective aspect .zto6liTLC.II does not mean to stn've, but only
to attain.)
,ll;ocnrran (.ztocnirnyn)
Tour mother has attained fame Bawa MarywKa AocnlrAa IiaBecr-
HOCTii (Panova)
KacaTLc.ll (Kocn1TLcH)
As far as mother is concerned
( KacaTLC.II .zto is archaic)
 THE NOUN

,LJ,ep)KaTbcH
Keep to the left side of the street ,ll;ep;Kihech AeBo:ti CTopomd
fAH!!hl

IlpnAep)KnBaThCH
The ship hugged the coast
(ii) After the following verbs either the genitive or the accusa-
tive case may be used according to circumstances: ncKaTh,
npocnTh (nonpoc:HTL), cnpamnBaTh (cnpoc:HTL), Tpe6oBaTh (no-
Tpe6oBaTh), )K,ltaTh, *eAaTh, and xoTeTh:
(a) The accusative is almost always used if the object of the
verb is a person or animate object:
I am waiting (looking) for my R ;KAY (nl!!y) cecTpy
sister
I want a daughter
(With masculine animate objects, of course, the accusative/geni-
tive is used.) Occasionally a feminine noun denoting a person
is foWld in the genitive after ncKaTh, as in the following sentence
from Sologub:
Everyone knew that Volodin was BceM II3BCCTHO 6bJAO, 'ITO BoAo-
looking for a bride with a AHH ncKaA HeBeCThi c npHAa-
dowry . . . HhiM •.•

but HeBecTy would be correct in this context and indeed more

likely in modern Russian.
(b) With inanimate objects, there is undoubtedly some
confusion of usage in modern Russian. For example, there is no
apparent difference between ToACToii MJ!!eT HOBbie .1\nTepaTyp-
Hhie <J>opMhr. .. AAH Bhrpa)KeHnH cBoer6 3aMhiCAa (Bychkov) Tol-
stoy is seeking new literary forms to express his intention; and ToACToii
ncKaA HOBhiX npneMoB conocTaBAeHnH n npoTnBonocTaBAemm
(Vinogradov) Tolstoy was seeking new methods of comparison and
antithesis .••. However, the following general principle may be
laid down. The accusative case is used if the object is individual-
ized or particularized (most commonly with concrete nouns
which are much more readily particularized than abstract
 THE CASES
nouns), while the genitive is used if the object is not particular-
ized (most commonly with abstract nouns), or if the object,
although concrete, is used figuratively. Compare:
He is looking for the brief-case he
has lost (concrete and speci-
fic)
I was looking for a chance to hal'e R ncKci." uy.ra11 cnoKoiiHo noqn-
a quiet read (abstract) ran.
He asked for a pound of rusks On cnpocHA. cpyHr cyxapefi (Grin)
(concrete and specific)
To ask for advice (abstract) Cnpawusan. cosera
She asked for an entry visa for the 0Ha nonpoc1i.,a BJby Ha B'l>ea,IJ; B
U.S.S.R. (concrete and CCCP (Press)
specific)
I have come to ask for )'OUT R npuexa.A npoctln. pYKJi sawe:ii
daughter's hand (figurative) ,ll;oqepu (Chekhov)
This worker is demanding his ::hor pafioqnfl rpe6yer aapnAary
wages (concrete and specific)
J:()· clietzt demands an explanation
(abstract)
The idiom to cry halves may be translated either by Tpe6oBaTL
CBOIO .ZJ;0.\10 or Tpe6oBaTL CBOeJ':'I .ZJ;O.UI.
(c) As a general principle, the accusative case is used when
the object in question is kno·wn to both speaker and hearer, or
reader and writer, i.e. when it has already been talked about
or referred to before. The follo,..,ing example is from a letter
written by Gor'ky:
.Huch excited by your news and 6qeHb B3BOAHOBaH BalliUM C006-
eagerly await the manuscript IQeHneM n .iKAY p)·Konncb ne-
repneAimo
(the manuscript has already been referred to in the letter to
which Gor'ky is replying).
But:
I am waiting for a train R ;K,i.~;Y noea,21;a
With this may be conveniendy contrasted:
What train are you waiting for? KaKoii n6ea,~~;
Bbi *AeTe ?
I am waiting for the passenger R ;K,i.~;Y
nacca;.KJipCKHH noea,ll;,
train which lea;}eS at 7 o'clock Koropbtii orx6,21;1n s 7 qacos
 THE NOUN

(N.B. The use of the accusative here is a feature of spoken, rather

than of written Russian.)
(d) With xOTen., although the genitive is still normal usage
with abstract nouns, 'ITO is much more common than qer6 in
the spoken language:
What do you want? qTo Bbl xonhe?
The shops sell everything you want B MaraaiiHax npo,~~;aeTC.II Bee, 'ITO
xonhe

(e) With )Ke.han. the genitive is normal usage; the accus-

ative is used when the verb means to desire sexually.
39· Verbs requiring a genitive to indicate movement away
from an object, avoidance, flight, revulsion, fear, deprivation.
There are many parallels with the Greek genitive and Latin
ablative of separation. In English the prepositions of or from
prepare the way for the genitive:
Bo.HncH, nyraTbC.H (wcnyraTbc.H)
He replied that all three had been OH oTBeTnA, 'ITO Bee Tp6e wcny-
frightened by the noise and the raAncL rnyMa H CTpeAbObl
firing (Fedin)
Cn.r,li;HTbC.H (noCTbi,li;HTbC.H)
I am ashamed of my appearance R CTbDKycb CBoer6 BHAa
CTopoHnTbc.H, qy)K,ll;anc.H
He began to shun (keep clear of) . OH cTa.l\ cTopoHiiTbc.ll CBoH:x cTa-
his old friends pbrx ,~~;py3en

CTeCHHTbC.H (nocTeCHHTbC.H)
The little boy is shy of girls
11a6enin (wa6e)KaTb and wa6emyTL)
She always avoided (kept clear Omi Bcer,~~;a n36er3.Aa 66I,!!eCTBa
of) the company of unpleasant HenpmiTHblx .1\IOAeii
people
Amnan (AHIIInn)
To deprive someone of civil rights AurnaTb Kor6-nn6yAb rpa.>K,ll;aH-
CKiiX npaB
 THE CASES

Some verbs which would once have come into this category are
now constructed with oT, e.g. yAaNin.cH (yAaAliTbCH) oTto move
away from, withdraw from, where a simple genitive would be
archaic.
40. Verbs requiring a genitive to indicate value:
3acAy)KHBaTb
This suggestion merits serious ::ho npeMO;KeHne aacxy;KusaeT
attention cepbeaHoro BHnM{mmr
Compare the perfective verb aacAy;K{ITb (no imperfective)
which means to earn in the sense of to receive (often praise or
blame), to obtain, to win. 3acAy)I<IlTb is followed by the accusa-
tive case:
He won the confidence of his chief OH aaCAyaoiA AOBepne csoero
Ha'li,u,HuKa
CTOliTb
With CTOHTb the genitive implies the meaning to be worth, the
accusative-to cost (a sum of money):
One hour in the morning is worth 1.Jac 'YTpo.M CTOIIT AByx 'lacos
two in the evening se'lepoM
The book is worth three roubles KHll:ra CTOIH Tpex py6.\efl
The book costs three roubles Kmira CTOIIT TPH py6...X
The genitive case may also translate to cost in the sense of to need,
to require:
It cost me a great deal of effort l'vfHe CTOnAo 6o.\bWOro TPYAa
Notice that the distinction between cost and value can also be
expressed with the noun yemi but with the genitive and dative
cases respectively:
The price (cost) of this book is IJeHa aTofl KHiirn BbiCOKa
high
The author of Oblomov knows AsTop «06.\0MOBa~ 3HaeT no,n;-
the true value of this milieu AIIHHYIO yeHy STOll cpe,ll.e
(Tseitlin)
41. Some verbs require a genitive case when a partitive mean-
ing is to be conveyed, the object following them being divisible.
 THE NOUN

To give, to take, and cognate verbs are common examples. Com-

pare:
Give me some bread ,ll;aiiTe .r.me xAe6a
Pass me the loaf Tiepe,~~;aiiTe MHe XAe6

Here, as elsewhere in Russian, the precise use of cases can com-

pensate for the lack of an article. Notice also the partitive geni-
tive in the idiom:
To add fuel to the flames IlO,IJ;AUBaTb (nO,IJ;AMTb) MaCAa B
or6Hb

42. The verbs Hae,~~;aTbC.K (HaecTLc.K) and HarrusaTLC.K (HarrHTh-

c.K) which, in the perfective aspect, mean to satisfy one's hunger
or thirst, both require the genitive case:
He had his fill of strong beer OH HamiAC.II KpenKoro mlsa

This sense of sufficiency (and the genitive case to express it) is

evident in xsaTaTb (xsaniTL). The opposite sense of inadequacy,
deficiency, is conveyed by the genitive case after He,~~;ocTaBaTb
(He,~~;ocTaTL). Compare the genitives in Latin and Greek with
verbs of filling and lacking, and for examples see para. 335·
43· Genitive case after negatives
There is considerable confusion in modern Russian over the
use of the genitive and accusative cases after negative verbs.
The broad distinction between abstract object (genitive) and
concrete object (accusative) is a useful working one, but does
not go far enough. While this distinction should always be kept
in mind, there are other criteria for choosing one case in prefer-
ence to the other.
(i) The accusative is normal usage in the following cases:
(a) When the object is qualified by an instrumental predicate:
I do not find Russian very dijficult R He Haxo.lKy pyccKMH .113biK oqeHb
TPYAHbiM
(b) With a double negative:
It is impossible not to admit the HeAbaH He npHanaTb cHA.y er6
force of his arguments ,II;OBO,II;OB
 THE CASES 29
(c) When the negative particle He limits a word other than
the verb or when the negation is unemphatic:
I don't know everything JI ue ece aHaro
He has not completely mastered OH He enomd ycn6uA yp6K
the lesson
It was not I who devised the new He 11. npuAyMaA HOBhiit nop.H,11.oK
voting procedure roAoconaHIIJI
I don't read books nowadays, I JI ue ttumd10 Kmirn Tenep~>, TOAhKO
on(y skim through them IIX nepeMicTbmaro
(d) With the combinations qyr~> He, eABa AII He:
I have been practical(y right round JI 'l:)'Th ue o6nexaA Bech 3el'.m6ii
the globe map
(e) In certain stock expressions where noun and verb arc
closely associated: mi.AeQ o n<i.AeQ He yp;apnTI> not to lift afinger;
He CK<iAJITh ay6hi not to grin; He l\IOpoqU:Tb rOAOBY KOMy-Hn6yp;b
not to pull a person's leg (N.B. parts of the body: see below).
(ii) The accusative will be preferred to the genitive:
(a) When the object precedes the verb:
He remembers the last war, but the OH nol\IHIIT np6rnAyro nofmy, HO
First World War he no longer nepByiO MHf>OBYIO BOHHY OH y.lKe
remembers He llOl\IHIIT
(b) When the objectis a concrete noun denoting a part of
the body or a common object in everyday use. This is especially
true if such a noun is qualified by an adjective or pronoun:
I have not yet read today's news- JI el!!e He 'l:UTaA cer6AHHIIIHIOIO
paper raahy
(c) With feminine nouns (and masculines of the~ type)
which refer to persons, and especially with proper names:
We had not seen .Nadyafor a long MI>I AaBn6 ue BUAaAii H<iAIO
time
(d) With negative imperatives (except in certain stock ex-
pressions-see below):
Do not hang your hat on this hook He BeiiiaiiTe Baiiiy IIINiny Ha :hoT
Kf>IO'l:OK
 THE NOUN

(e) When for stylistic reasons it is desired to avoid a series

of genitives:
Nobody set atry limit to the confer- HHKTO He orpaHJiqnBa.ll. noBecTKy
ence agenda AHH coBeJ!!aHHH (Press)

(iii) The genitive is normal usage in the following cases:

(a) When the idea of negation is strengthened by the pre-
sence of the particle HH or of an adverb or pronoun containing it
(HliKOrAa, HHKaKOH, etc.):
The Germans did not lose a single HeM.!Jl>I He noTepH.II.H HH OAHOH
machine MamHHI>I

(b) When the meaning is partitive:

She did not buy any rolls for tea
(c) In certain stock expressions, e.g. He rrpHHHMan> yqacTHH
not to take part; He o6paJ!!aTb BHHMaHHH not to pay attention; He
rrponsBo,li;HTL BrreqaT.II.eHnH not to make an impression; He yrrycK<iTL
CAY'raH not to miss an opportunity; HH asa He 3HaTL not to know the
first thing about; He noKAa,ll;aH pyK indifatigably.
(iv) The genitive will be preferred to the accusative:
(a) After He HMCTL.
(b) After He BHAHO, He cdmmo, He HaAo, He HY*HO.
(c) If the negated form is a participle or gerund.
(v) Both the accusative and genitive cases are commonly found
when the direct object is not governed directly by a negative
verb, but by an infinitive dependent on it. Most authorities
advocate a free choice in this context, but statistically there is
evidence that the accusative is now becoming rather more com-
mon than the genitive:
He did not wish to see this play OH He XOTe.ll. CMOTpeTb lhy nl>ecy
(<hOM meCI>I)

44· The simple genitive case with no preposition is used to ex-

press the date:
On the first of May llepBoro MaH
(Cf. too cero,li;HH, from ceii ,ll;eHL.)
 THE CASES 31

It is also used to express age (at the age of):

I started smoking at sixteen Jl Hll'laA KypHTb (aaKypiiA) IIIeCT-
Ha,li.QaTII ACT

Dative
45·
The use of the dative case presents some difficulties owing to
the various possible ways of rendering in Russian the English
preposition to:
I gave the book to the teacher Jl ,ll.aA KHIIry yqiiTeAIO
I walked to the window Jl llOIIICA K OKHY
We are going to school today Cero,~~;Hx MLr n,~~;eM B IIIKOAy
We are going to the Caucasus Cero,li;H.H Mbl e,ll;eM Ha KaBKi:J
today
Two (tickets) to the terminus ,Ll;sa ,~~;o I<OHQa
In the first sentence the simple dative, in its most obvious con-
struction, translates the indirect object after a verb like give, send,
show, write, tell, etc. (N.B. nncaTL may also be followed by K and
the dative, but a simple dative with no preposition is usual in
modern Russian.) The translation of to in the other sentences
will be dealt with in the chapter on the preposition.

46. There are many verbs which are followed in Russian by a

dative case without any preposition. The example given in para-
graph 45 is an obvious one, but the following verbs need special
care.

47· (i) To help, aid, assist:

IIm.mraTL (rroMotiL) KOM)', t~eMy:

He said that he would always help OH cKaaaA, 'ITO scer,11.a noMO)KeT

a man in trouble 'IeAOBeKy B 6e,11.e
The wide discussion of this book IllnpoKoe o6cpKAeHHe aTOM
will help to remove defects KHlirM llOMO)KCT ycrpaHeHIIIO
He,li.O'ICTOB (Press)
Co,11.eiicTBoBaTL KOMy, t~eMy: to aid digestion coAei'kTBosaTL
IIHI!!esapemtiO; to abet crime coAeiicTBOBaTL rrpecrynM~HIIIO.
32 THE NOUN
BAaronpmiTCTBOBaTb KOM)\ qeMy: to favour the growth of indus-
try 6AaronpHHTCTBOBaTh pa3BMTHIO npOMLIIIJAeHHOCTH.
(ii) To hinder, impede, harm, threaten, prevent, and related verbs
with the sense of acting contrary to or causing some difficulty:
MernaTh (noMernaT~>) KoMy, qeMy:
I am not disturbing you, am I? R BaM ne Mewaro?
These two occupations did 1zot 3nr ,li,Ba 3aH.Iinur He MewaAn
interfere with each other ,ll,pyr ,~~,pyry

Ilpen.liTCTBOBaTb (Bocnpen.liTcTBOBaTh) KOMY, qeMy:

It was necessary to impede the flow Ha,11,o 6hi.I\O BocnpemhcTBoBaTh
(of capital) abroad yTe'!Ke (Kamni.l\a) 3a py6eJKii
(Fedin)

This doesn't hurt me 3To MHe He Bpe,li,MT

Smoking harms the lungs KypeHlle BpeAih AerKnM
fp03MTh KOMy, qeMy:
Misfortune threatens us HaM rpo3HT 6e,11,a
Disaster threatened the town KaTacrp6<f>a rpo3H.I\a r6po,11,y
(See para. 51 (ii).)
Yrpoman also governs a dative in the same meaning.

IIponiBopeqnTh KoMy, qeMy:

He frequently contradicts himself OH '!acTo caM ce6e nponiBope'lnT
Tour second remark patently con- Bawe BTop6e 3aMe'laHne HBHO
tradicts the first npOTI1BOpe'IHT nepBOMY

Aoca)I{AaTL (Aoca,ZJ;nTL) KoMy:

The pupil annoyed his teacher by Y'leHJfK ,li,OCa,li,JI.I\ Y'!IITeAIO cBmi-
his questions Mil Bonp6caMn

She betrayed both her husband and 0Ha n3MeH11Aa n MY.lKY 11 po,11,H6ii
her native land crpaHe
Betrayal of one's country 113MeHa pO,ll,llHe
 THE CASES 33
(iii) To allow andforbid:
IIoaaol\kn. (noaaoAJm,), paapeman (paapennin.) KOMy:
Allow me to introduce ... IToaBOALTC (pa3peunhe) MHe
npe,ll;CTaBUTb ...

3anpeiJ!aTL (aanpeniTL) Ko~ry:

I forbid you to smoke
(iv) To order:
IIpnKaai>man, (npnKaaan,), aeJ\eri> and cognate verbs govern
a dative of the person:
He ordered the driver to stop the OH npnKa3aJ\ JlMI!!HKY ocTaHo-
horses Bm Amua,~~;eii:

BepnTI> KoMj, qeMj:

I don't believe you R BaM He BepiO
To believe one's own eyes BepuTb c66CTBeHHbL\l rAa3aM
(But aepnn, B + accusative to believe in; I believe in God .II Bepro B
E6ra)
Belief in the rightness of our cause Bepa B npasoT)• Harnero ,~~;eAa

(vi) To please, satisfy, suit:

Yro.lK,ll;aTI> (yro.zuhi>) KOMy:
It is easy to please him
(Also Ha +accusative)
You can't please eveT)'One Ha scex He }TO,Il;Hllih

Y.li;OBJ\ernopkri> (YAOBAernopliTb) qe~iY:

(a) When yAoMernopflTL is used of persons it will always
govern the accusative/genitive case.
(b) YAOBAernopfln is followed by both dative and accusative
of the thing with a fine distinction of meaning. With the accusa-
tive it means to carry out a request, fulfil a requirement, satisfy
or meet a need:
Not all shops satisfy the customers' He see !'orara31lHbi y,~~;osAeTBopH:IOT
need for tinned goods noTpe6HOCTb llOK}'IlaTCACH B
KOHcepsax
34 THE NOUN

With the dative it means to measure up to the standards of, to

be in accordance with:
This wallpaper does not satisfy my 3m: o66H He YAOBAeTBopliroT
taste MOeMy BKycy (or MHe He no
BKycy)

IIoAXOAHTh (noAoiiTll:) KoMy:

I hope my terms will suit you (i.e.
be convenient, agreeable)
Compare the more common use with K
They suit each other (i.e. are a
good match)
R Ha,ll;eiOcb, 'ITO MOH ycAOBHll BaM
no,li;OHAYT
+ dative:
0HH no,li;XO,ll;liT ,ll;pyr K Apyry

(vii) A number of verbs expressing the emotional responses

of envy, flattery, revenge, surprise, sympathy, joy, laughter,
etc.:
3aBH,li;OBaTb (no3aBII,li;OBaTb) KOMy, 'tleMy:
Everyone envies him Bee aaBHAYIOT eMy
She envied his free life Om1 aaBH,li;OBaAa er6 CBo66,li;HOM
)KH3HH

Russian cannot express a double object after 3aBHAOBaTb and to

translate a sentence such as I envy you your wife some periphrasis
is necessary, e.g. MHe 3aBHAHO, 't!To y Bac TaKall )KeHa.
Envy of ... 3aBHCTL K ...

.l\.bCTHTb (ITOAbCTHTb) KOMy, lJeMy:

Don't flatter me He ALCTihe MHe
Her attention flattered his vaniry Ee BHHMaHne ALCTHAo er6 caMo-
Aro6nro
But notice:
To flatter oneself with the hope ... ALcTHTb ce6.H Ha,ll;e)K,li;OM ...
Flattery of . . . AecTL K...

McTHTh (OTOMCTHTh) KoMy:

I avenged myself on him for these R OTOMCTHA eMf aa am o611ALI
insults
 THE CASES 35
y AHBA1ITLC.Il (YAIIBihbC.Il) 'leMy:
When the object is a thing, YAUBNITLCH is always followed by" the
dative case. \Vhen a person is the object, it is common to invert
the sentence:
I am surprised at ;·ou

Coll}'BCTBOBaTL KOM}', qeM)':

I can't help sympathizing with ..R He Morf He cot~)'BCTBOBaTb
your intentions BaliiHM Ha~H!peHIIH:Ii
Sympathy for a friend CoqyseTBne AP'YrY

It was so clear to Anna that no- AHHe 6LIAO TaK 51eHo, 'ITO HHKOMY
body had anything to be glad HetieMy 6hlAO paAOBaTbeli ...
about ... (L. N. Tolstoy)

CMe.IITLcK KoMy, 'leMy:

In the meaning of to make fun of CMeHTbC.Il is no longer followed
by the dative case in modern Russian, but only by HaA and the
instrumental case. CMeHTLCK, however, is still followed by the
dative in the meaning of to laugh at something funny:
All the others laughed at his anec- Bee ocraAbHLie eMewreb er6
dotes aHeKAOTaM (Panova)

Don't smile at my ignorance He · YAb16atiTeeb MOeMY Hese-

)KeeTBy

AIIAoAJiposaTL KoMy, qeMy:

The public warmly applauded the IIy6NrKa ropHti6 an,\OAiiposa.ll.a
actors aKTepaM
All to a man applauded Lenin's Bee AO OAHOr6 anAo;~;M:posaAu
speech BhleTYDAeHino AeHuHa

I'm sick of work fla66Ta MHe HaAO<!Aa

 THE NOUN

Ha,ll;oecrr,, a resultative perfective, is found in the past tense,

where English uses the present to mean to be sick of. The present
tense of Ha,li;Oe,ll;aTb suggests to plague or pester:
He keeps pestering me with his OH nee HaAOe,l\aeT MHe cnonMH
questions nonp6caMH
(viii) To stucry and to teach:
Y qJhLC.H qeMy:
To study singing
Cf. He is studying to be a doctor
yqJhL qeMy:
He teaches the children grammar OH Y"~~HT AeTefi rpaMMaTHKe
(accusative of person, dative of thing). Compare yqnrL qro
to learn something: he is learning the part oH y'IMT poAL
(ix) To imitate, to follow, to serve:
llo,ll;paiKaTb KOMy, 'leMy:
It is impossible to imitate Shake- Illexcm1py HeB03M0)KH0 DOApa-
speare )KaTb
It is impossible to imitate Shake- Heno3MO)KHO noApa*aTL crnAIO
speare's style Illexcn11pa
Imitations of the classics IToApa)KaHHH xAaccnxaM

CAeAOBaTL (nocAeAOBaTb) xoMy, qeMy:

He followed his father in every- OH no nceM CAeAoBaA OTuY
thing (i.e. modelled himself
on him)
To follow the fashion CAeAOBaTL MOAe

To follow in the sense of to come after is CACAOBaTL aa + m-

strumental.
CAyJKnTL xoMy, qeMy:
Honourably to serve king and qecTHo cAy)KHTL uapw H aTe-
country qecTBY
The honourable service of the EAarop6AHOe cAy*eHHe Hap6Ay
people
 THE CASES 37
(x) To advise:
CoBcroBan. (rrocoBeToBaTL) Ko~ty:

I advise you not to work R BaM coseTy!O ne pa66TaTL

But:
The doctor advises a trip to the ,L1;6KTOp coscryer noe3,li;KY Ha
Caucasus KasKa3

(xi) To equal:
PaBHHTLCH 'l!eMy:
Twice three equals six
(xii) To belong to:
IlpHHaAAeiKaTL KOJI.tY 1 'lleMy:
To whom does the North Pole be- Km.rj npnHa,n;Ae.lKIIT cesepHbiH
long? (i.e. who owns it?) ITOAIOC?
But:
IlpHHaAAeiKaTL K + dative to be a member of, be included among:
Tolstoy's novels belong among the PoMaHLI ToAcr6ro npnnaAAe.lKaT
best in world literature K xyqwnM B Mnpos6ii AnTepa-
rype
(xiii) To remind:
HanoMHHan. (HanoMHHTL) KOMY
This city reminds me of Rome STaT r6po,n; HanOMimaer Mne
Pm.I
(xiv) To refuse:
0TKa3LmaTb (oTKaaan.) KOMy, 'l!eMy (B 'I!CM):
She refused him and married his Ona OTKa3aAa eMy u BhiWAa
friend aaMy.lK aa er6 ToBapmga
48. The dative case is found as well as the genitive:
(i) With npHMep and AOKaaaTeAbCTBO:
One curious fact may serve as evi- ,L1;oKa3aTeALCTBOM {noMy MO.lKeT
dence of this CAY.lKIITb o,n;IiH AI06onhiTHbiH
~aKT (Press)
 THE NOUN

(ii) with BHH<i and npnql1Ha, especially when these nouns arc
themselves in the instrumental case:
My continual rashness is to blame BceMy BIUIOH Moll: Betman
for everything HC06AyMaiiHOCTb (Turgenev)
(iii) with some stock expressions in which a noun closely
associated with a verb may be followed by another noun in the
dative case. The noun in the dative case in Russian is in effect
the indirect object of the verb, the direct object of which is the
noun in the accusative case:
An essay summing up the author's 6t~epK, nOABOAHIA!HH HT6rn MHO-
researches over many years roAeTHHM IiCCAeAOBaHHHM aB-
TOpa (Press)
But compare The results of his l/horu ero IiCCAeAOBaHIIH
researches
To give a proper appreciation of a ,Ll;aTb npaBHAbHYJO O!JeHKy Ali-
work of literature TepaTypnOMf np0113BCAeHiilO
(Press)
But compare The evaluation of OyenKa HMYIQCCTBa
property
To shake the soldier's hand Ilo"mMaTb (nmKaTb) PYKY coA-
AiTy
Notice the colloquial poaHb used prcdicativcly with the same
noun in both nominative and dative cases to indicate dissi-
milarity:
There are contradictions and con- IlpoTnBopet~uH nponiBopet~Hl!M
tradictions po3Hb
49· The dative case is used after the adjective paA:
I am glad of the opportunity
and rather colloquially:
I was glad to get your letter

Instrumental
50. Apart from its obvious use to denote the instrument or
agent by which an action is performed, the instrumental case is
 THE CASES 39
commonly found in expressions of time, manner, route, and
extent or measurement:

(i) Time
(a) Such forms as )hpoM in the morning, AeTOM in summer, Beqe-
poM in the evening, are in effect temporal adverbs, although their
instrumental endings indicate their origin. With them it is not
the whole period of time which is envisaged (all the morning,
all summer); it is the action, qualified by the adverb, which is
thought of as taking place at some time in the morning, in the
summer, etc. Compare I start school in winter (3MM6i1) and I
attended school all winter (BclO 3HMY)· Such adverbialized instru-
mentals may be qualified by adjectives: rAy66Kofr H0%10 at dead
of night; paHHHM YTPOM early in the morning; rr63,li;Hei1 6ceHLID late
in autumn. Notice too with the seasons:
The house was finished last spring ,Ll;oM 6brA 3aK6Ht~eH np6IIIAoii
BCCliOU (BeCHOH npoiiiAOro
r6Aa)
The house will be finished next ,Ll;oM 6yAeT 3aK6Ht~eH 6yA)'l.!.!HM
summer AeTOM (AeToM 6yAyr,gero r6Aa)

But: this morning cer6AHH yTpoM (not anrM )hpoM); last night
B'lepa BeqepoM; next morning Ha cAeAYIDJMee yTpo. N.B. Combi-
nations with a noun as the main word: pa66Ta BeqepaMM yToM-
AHeT Meml evening work tires me.
(b) The instrumental case is used to translate on end in expres-
sions of time :
For hours on end QeAbiMn qacaMH
and with actions repeated from time to time over a given period
-English on and off= now and again:
The rain would stop now and ,LI;mKAb nepecTaBaA BpeMeHaMH
agazn (Pasternak)

(ii) Manner
To sing tenor ileTh TeHopoM
To sleep soundly CnaTh KpenKHM cHoM
To speak in a whisper fOBOpHTb IIIOIIOTOM
 THE NOUN

To weep bitter tears IlAaKaTh r6phKHMH cAe3aMH

The articles came out as a separate CTaThH BLIIIIAU OT,ll;~hHOii
book (in book form) Kmrroii

N.B. Combinations with a noun as the main word: neHHe 6acoM

bass singing.
Under this heading may be included the instrumental case
denoting comparison:
To die like a hero YMnpaTb (yMepeTb) rep6eM
and such figurative expressions as KHneTh KAIOqoM to boil over,
6HTb KAIOqoM to well up, where the instrumental literally means
like a fountain.
(iii) Route
He was returning home through the
forest
To walk across the field (along the
bank)
To travel by land (sea) IlyTellleCTBOBaTh cyxHM nyTeM
(MopeM)
He went his own way OH norneA CBOeii ,ll;Op6roii
N.B. Combinations with a noun as the main word: r.oea,~J;Ka
TpaMmieM a tram journey.
(iv) Extent or measurement
The instrumental is sometimes used with comparatives to
express the extent or degree of comparison:
He is a year older than his sister OH r6,ll;oM cTapliie cecTpLl (but
more commonly Ha roA)
A page later he writes just the CTpaHirQeii ,ll;aAhrne OH mirneT
opposite KaK pa3 o6phHoe
51. The following common verbs which are transitive in Eng-
lish require the English object to be expressed in the instru-
mental case in Russian:
(i) A number of verbs which may be grouped together as hav-
ing a cognate meaning of authority over, e.g. rule, guide, manage,
 THE CASES
direct, own, etc. These verbs, which express essentially durative
actions, have no perfective aspects:
To govern a country YnpaBNITb cTpaHofi
To drive (steer) a car YnpaBNITb (npaBHTb) MauniHoti
N.B. The most usual expression now is Bop;{m, (BecT:H) Maun1:Hy.
To own one's own house BAa,~~;eTb ,~~;6:-.roM
To possess an acute mind 06Aa,~~;aTb 6cTpbrM yM6M
To possess (have available) the PacnoAaraTb nepBbl:\t ne'laTHbiM
first printed edition JI3,ll;aHUeM
To command a division KoMaH,~~;oBaTb .ZI;HBI-ianeti
To lead the masses f>yt<OBO.ZI;IlTb MaCCaMH
To run (be in charge of) a depart- 3aBe,~~;oBaTb Ka~e,~~;poti
ment (e.g. at a university)
To boss the show (colloq.) Bopo'laTb BceM
Nouns formed from some of these verbs may themselves govern
other nouns in the instrumental case:
In full possession of one's powers B n6AHOM o6Aa,~~;aHnH CBOHMH
ciiAaMH
Leadership of the masses f>yt<oB6,~~;cTBo
Maccal\m
.\1anagement of a factory YnpaBAeHne 3aB6,~~;oM
(And manager of a factory is yrrpaBNliOI!!nli aaBo,li;OM.)
Ifit is further desired to express the agent (e.g. the management
of the factory by the director .•• ) the theoretically possible transla-
tion yrrpaBAeHne aaBo.ZI;OM p;upeKTOflOM ... would be avoided be-
cause of its obvious clumsiness, and the phrase yrrpaB.I\CHne
p;npeKTopa aaBop;oM ... may be used. In the spoken language of
an educated Russian one may nowadays even hear yrrpaB.I\eHne
3aBO,ZI;a .ZI;HflCKTOflOM ...
(ii) With the following verbs this sense of authority is not
present:
06MCHimaTbC.II (o6MeHHTbC.11)
After the battle both sides ex- II6CAe 61ITBhl 66e cTopoHhl o6-
changed prisoners MeHliMICb nAeHHbiMn
N .B. Exchange ofprisoners may be translated both by o6MeH IIACH-
mrMn and o6MeH IIACHHbiX.
 THE NOUN

Ilepe6pacbmaTbcH (nepe6pociiThCH)
They exchanged a few words Oml nepe6poCHAHCb HeCKOAb-
KilMU CAOBclMH

and more colloquially

She exchanged some meaningless 0Ha nepei<riAhiBaAaCI, uuqero
remarks with patients from HC3UaqaJ!!HMII 3aMeqllriHHMH C
other wards 6oAhBhiMH H3 Apynlx naAaT
(Pasternak)

Harpa)I{AaTb (HarpaAHTb)
He was awarded the Order of the Ero uarpa,ll;HAII op,ll;eHOM Kpac-
Red Banner HOro 3naMeHH
N .B. The conferment of a decora- Harpam,ll;eHne op,ll;eHOM
tion
To express both donor and recipient would involve a cumber-
some series of nouns in Russian, e.g. Stalin's conferment of the
Order of Lenin on Malenkov surprised nobody Harpa)I{AeHIIC CT<iAn-
HbiM MaAeHKOBa opAeHOM AeunHa He YAHBHAO HHKOro. Such
a heavy nominal construction would be avoided by using some
such translation as TO, 'ITO CTaAHH HarpaAHA MaAeHKOBa opAe-
HOM Aeuuua He YAHBI1Ao uuKoro.

Aro6osiThcH (noAro6osaThcH)
You cannot help admiring her Bhl He MomeTe He Al06oBaTbCll ee
beauty KpaCOTOM

N.B. (a) Aro6oBaTbC.II means to look with pleasure at, enjoy looking at,
and not admire in the sense of respect, esteem. (b) Aro6osaTbC.II may
also be followed by ua and the accusative, especially with per-
sons and concrete or specific objects:
To admire oneself in the glass A106oBaThCH ua ce6n n 3epi<aAo

~epTBOBaTb {nO)KepTBOBaTb)
Out of Love for him she sacrificed 113 Al06BH I< HCMj oua BCCM
all nomepTBOBa,\a
 THE CASES 43
N .B. )KeprnoBaTb is followed by the accusative when it means
to donate, to contribute:
To contribute monry to the upkeep .IKeprnoBaTL ,~~;eHhrn Ha co,~~;ep-
of the church JKaHne QepKBI1

,lJ,opO)KllTb
The Russian people values its heri- PyccKnti Hap6,~~; ,~~;opoiKih CBOHM
tage HaCAe,~~;neM

3.i\oynoTpe6.M1TI> (3.i\oynoTpe6:Hn)
You are taking unfair advantage of Bbl 3.i\oyrroTpe6NieTe ero ,11;06-
his kindness poToii
N.B. Abuse of power 3AoyrroTpe6AeHne BAacTbiO

Hac.i\a)K,ll;aTbCH (HaC.i\a,li;HTLCH)
The travellers were enjoying the IIyreiiiecrneHHnKn HaCAaJK,~~;a-
scenery AHCh netiaaJKeM
N.B. Enjoyment of the scenery Hac.i\aiK,ll;emre neliaa)KeM

BepTen
She can twist him round her little 0Ha BepTH:T HM, KaK xoqcr
finger
N.B. In this figurative sense only the instrumental is used, but
an accusative may follow BepTeTI> in its literal meaning of to twist,
to turn.
IlpeHe6peran (npeHe6peqy,)
He spurned the lawyer's advice OH npeHe6per coBeToM ropi1cTa
N.B. Disregardfor wealth IIpeHe6peJKeHne 6orhcrnoM

Again the use of the instrumental to express the subject (e.g.

Tolstoy's disregardfor wealth is well known), though theoretically
possible, would in practice be avoided. A Russian might say
npeHe6pe)KeHue To.i\cToro 6oraTCTBOM ... or use a periphrasis
of the sort BCeM MaBecTHo, liTO To.i\cToil npeHe6pera.i\ 6oraTcT-
BOM.
PMcKoBan (semelfactive pMcimyn)
It's not worth risking your life He cTonT pncKoBan. .lKH3Hbro
44 THE NOUN
ij!croNITb (semelfactive I!!eroALHYTb)
The peacock loves to parade its llaBAHH A.ro6nT IJ!eroNiTb CBOHMH
feathers m!pMlMH

3aHMMllTLC.II (3aHHTLC.11)
This question needs to be studied HaAO 3aHJlTbC.!I aniM BOnp6coM

,LJ;eJ\liTbC.II (no,ZJ;e./\HTbCH)
They exchanged impressions of the OHii AeA.HA.HCb BDe'laTA.eHHHMH o
books they had read n po'IIiTaHHhiX KHlirax

fpo3HTb
An event which threatened serious Co6h'rTne, r·poalisrnee 6oA.LllliiMH
complications OCA.O.lKHeHH.!IMH
The tower threatened to collapse Earnua rpoallA.a naAenneM
Contrast this with the use of rpo3HTb and the dative case (para.
47). Here the instrumental expresses the misfortune which is
likely to happen. The dative (para. 47) expresses the person or
thing to which the misfortune happens, the misfortune itself
being the subject of the sentence.

52. The following verbs constructed with a preposition in Eng-

lish are followed by a simple instrumental case in Russian:

YBAeKanc.~~ (ynAe'lbcH)
OHii yBAeKaJOTC» CBOHMH aau.R-
They are absorbed in their studies
THllMn
N.B. Pushkin's passion for the YBAe'lenne llyrnKnua Te<iTpoM
theatre

Bpe,ZJ;un
He simply raves about music

MnTepecoBaTbcH
Are you interested in art? I1HTepecyeTeCb .1\H Bbl UCKyc-
CTBOM?
N .B. Interest in art 11uTepec K ncKyccTBY
 THE CASES 45
fopAHTbC.!I, :XBClCTaTbC.!I (nmrnacTaTbC.!i)
I am proud ofyou although I never R ropiKycL n<ir.m, xoni x HHKOrAa
boast ofyour achievements He xnacTarocL narnnMII AOCTn-
iKennal\m

IIOAb30BaTbC.!I (BOCll0Ab30BaTbCJ1)
~-vemust make use of this oppor- HaM miAO nocnoAL30BaTLcx aTIIl\1
tuniry c.>.. yqaeM
N.B. In using quotations llpn no.>..b30BaHIIH JlllTaTal\111

TopromiTL
This merchant trades mainly in fhoT KyneQ TopryeT r.>..aBHhiM
ready-made goods 66pa30M rOTOBbll\111 H3AC.>..II!IIIIII
N .B. Trade in ready-made goods Topr6B.\H roTonhiMH H3/J;C.>..HHIIUI

Bocxm,gan.c.!l ( BocxnnhLc.!l)
The girls were delighted with the ,LI,cnyrnKH BOCXIII.l!Mt!Cb KpaCIIBbi-
pretry frocks l\111 n.>..aTb!ll\111
N.B. Admiration of her beaury BoCXIIl.l!CHIIe ee KpacoTOM

OrpaHii'II1Ba TLC.!I ( orpaHit'IHTLC.!I)

The director confined himself to a ,tl;npeKTop orpaml'ln.>..CH KpaTKiiM
brief report AOK.\aAOM

.Pacnop.!!iKaTLC.!I (pacnop.!!AIITLC.!I)
Dispose of the books at ;•our own PacnopHn.aihecL Kmira!\m no
discretion cnoeMy ycMoTpcmno

53· The following verbs have this in common that they all
express scent or smell:
,LV.nuan. (noALIImin.)
I want to get a breath offresh air R xoqy noALirnaTh cnen.nM n63Ay-
xoM

II<ixHyTL
There is a smell of buming llaxueT rapb!O

Be.!!Tb
Spring is in the air (there tS a BeeT necH6ti
breath of spring)
 THE NOUN

THHYTL
A smell of hay wafted through the B OKHO THHYAO aanaxoM ceHa
window
54· CTpa,ll;aTL and 6oAen may be followed either by an instru-
mental case or by oT and the genitive. In the context of disease
or illness, the distinction is between a chronic state of illness
(instrumental) and a temporary ache or pain, mental or physi-
cal (oT and the genitive):
Compare:
He has got consumption OH 6oAeeT qax6TKofi
He is suffering from toothache On cTpa,~~;aeT OT ay6n6M: 66AH
In other contexts the instrumental suggests to possess some negative
characteristic; the genitive after OT to be suffering as a result of:
Compare:
The town suffersfrom a shortage of f6p0,11; CTpa,~~;aeT HC,li;OCTclTKOM
parks napKOB
The east coast is suffering from BocToqHoe no6epe~Le cTpa,~~;aeT
floods OT HaBO,li;HCHIIH

55· The following verbs which all govern an instrumental case

have this in common that they all denote movements involving
different parts of the body:
To throw stones EpocaTL (6p6cuTL) Kal\mHMii
To hurl stones lliBblpHTb (IllBhiPHYTh) KaMHHMU:
(But in both cases the accusative KaMHH is commonly found.)
Compare the following examples in which the instrumental
denotes an instrument of attack:
To throw a stick at a dog EpocnTh miAKOI'f a co6aKy
To throw a stone into the water Epocmb Kal\feHb a Bo,~~;y
To wave one's arms Maxhh ( MaxnjTh) pyKallm
To brandish a sword PaaMaxnBaTh Meqollf
To shrug one's shoulders Tio~nMhh (no~aTh) nAe•IaMu
To move (twiddle) one's fingers ,Ll;BIIraTb (ABihtyTh), meseAHTb
( llleBCAblljTb) naAh]Ja:O..IH
A distinction is usually made between ,li;BiiraT» Hory-deliber-
ately-and ABHran Horoii, e.g. in sleep; and between BepTeTL
 THE CASES 47
miALQLt-deliberately, e.g. to inflict pain, and BepTeTL miAL-
uaMu-idly. N.B. the idiomatic rneBeAiiTL M03r<iMH to use one's
wits.
To bang the door to fp6MKO XAonaTL (xAonHyTL)
ABe pLIO
To nod one's head KuBaTb (KHBHyTL) rOAOBOH
To wink an eye MmaTL (MurnyTL) rAa3oM
To wag the tail BIIAHTb (BIIALHyTL) XBOCTOM
To gnash one's teeth CKpe*eTaTL (npocKpe*eTaTL)
3y6a11m
He didn't bat an qelid (colloq.) OH u 6p6BLIO He nose..\
56. The alternative use of the nominative and instrumental
cases after the verb to be has been discussed above (para. 24).
Here we shall merely list common verbs which are nowadays
virtually always followed by a predicate in the instrumental
case:
(i) Synonyms of to be HsAliTLcH, naxo,~~;liTLcll, cocTOBTL
To become CTanosihLcH (CTaTL), ,~~;eAaTLCH
( c,~~;6AaTLCH)
(ii) Verbs after which to be is explicit or implicit:
To be considered (to be) C•umiTLCll (also 3a + accusative)
To be reputed (to be) CALITL (also 3a + accusative)
To seem (to be) l{a3aT&Cll (noKa3ciTLcH)
To prove (to be), turn out (to be) 0KaaLIBaTbC.II (oKa3aTbCH)
To pretend (to be) TipmsopBTbCll (npiiTBOpiiTbCll)
e.g. He is pretending to be ill On npuTsop.ReTCll 6oALHbiM

With the following verbs, where hvo nouns are involved, the
predicate must go in the instrumental case:
To elect (someone to be) BLI6upaT& (sLI6paTL)
To appoint (someone to be) Ha3IIa'laTL (na3na'lm&)
e.g. The youngest caudidate was llpo~eccopoM ua3IIll'III.'I.II c<iz-IOro
appointed professor liiAa,~~;rnero Kan,~~;n,~~;ciTa
Notice the construction after noTep.RTL where the instrumental
predicate corresponds to who were killed, who were wounded:
In six days the battalion lost about 3a rnecTb AHeH: 6aTaA&oH noTepli"
forty men killed and wounded OKOAO copoKa 'leAOBeK y6HTLI-
MII t1 paHetiLIMII (ShoJokhov)
 THE NOUN

(iii) Verbs after which to be is not explicit or implicit:

To be called Haa&maT&C» (uaan<h&c»)
To part PaccTanciT&c» (paccTciT&c»)
To remain OcTanaT&cH ( oCTaT&cH)
e.g. I am just the same as I always KaKI1M » 6&IA, TaKIIM ocTaAc»
was
To serve (as) CAyn<IITb
To be born, to live Po,zuiT&cH, n<nT&
e.g. He was born a gentleman and 011 po,ll.u.l\cll 6apuuoM n )KHA
led the life of a gentleman 6apCKOH n<IlaHbiO

Notice that with place names which are nouns the instrumental
case is normally used after Ha3&IBaT&C.H:
The little town was called Elton fopo,li.IfiiiKO Ha3&1BaAcHih&TOHOM
(Simonov)

But if the place name is a substantivized adjective, it normally

appears in the nominative:
Our village is called Pokrovskoe Harne ceAo naa&maeTcH I1oKp6n-
cKoe

If the predicate is in inverted commas, the nominative is also

normally used:
This collective farm is called 'Red 3ToT KOAX03 Ha3&InaeTcll d{pac-
Star' Ha» anea,ll.a)>

After 3BaTL, proper names may appear in either the nominative

or the instrumental case:
My name is Katya Memi aonyT KaTll (KaTeii)

57· (i) The adjectives AOBOALH&Ii1 satiijied with, 6oraTI>Ifl rich in,
o6HALH&Iii abounding in, all govern the instrumental case.
(ii) 3amn, the short form of 3clH.HT&Ii1, is followed by the in-
strumental ( = busy with), and in conjunction with a verbal
noun translates the English busy and a present participle in the
following examples:
He is busy reading (playing chess, On 3clHliT l.!TeHneM (nrp6J':i B max-
building a house) 1\JaThi, nocTpoitKOH ,li.OMa)
 THE CASES 49
(iii) Ilo.UibiH:full of is more frequently followed by the geni-
tive than by the instrumental.
58. The function of the so-called limiting accusative in Latin
and Greek is sometimes assumed in Russian by the instrumental,
especially after adjectives:
Weak-spirited (weak as to the c.._a6hrii AYxOM
spirit)
He resembles me facially On nox6JK ua :~.teHH ,\Hl]OM

Here the adjective is limited to a particular quality, feature, or

attribute.

Prepositional
59· Since this case can only be used after prepositions, most of
our material will be included in the chapter on the preposition
(Chapter VI).

6o. Some masculine nouns have stressed -y (-!0) in the preposi-

tional singular, as well as the normal endings in -e. These are
for the most part inanimate, monosyllabic, and accented on the
stem in the singular. For purposes of convenience, common
examples may be classified as follows:
(i) Parts of the body: rAaa ~·e, Ao6 forehead, Moar brain, HOC
nose, poT mouth.
(ii) Localities or surfaces: a,~~; hell, 6a.\ ball, 6eper bank, 6oK
side, 6opT side (of ship) (Ha 6opTy on board), BaA hank, rampart,
Kpaii edge, Kpyr circle, Aec forest, Ayr meadow, MOCT bridge, MhiC
cape, noAjloor, nopT port, npyA pond, pai'r heaven, caA garden, yro.\
corner, XAeB cow-shed, mKa<J> cupboard.
(iii) Collective substances: KAeii glue, Ae,~~; ice, MeA honey, Mex
fur, Mox moss, noT sweat, CHer snow, coKjuice, me.\K silk.
(iv) Temporal expressions: BeK age, lifetime, ro,~~;;·ear, OTnycK
leat•e.
(v) Place-names: ,ll,oH Don, KpbiM Crimea.
(vi) Military expressions: 6oii battle, IL\eH captivity, noAK regi-
ment, noCT post, cMoTp review, CTpoii rank, line, ThL\ rear, home front.
(vii) Miscellaneous: 6peA delirium, 6brT lift, way of life, BeTep
 THE NOUN

wind, BIIA view, B03 cart, AOAr debt, AbiM smoke, *ap heat, )KHP fat,
nap steam, mrp feast, IIAOT raft, nOBOA rein, nyx down, TibiA ardour,
poAfamily, birth, pHA row, CTor stack, cyK bough, TOK current.
61. (i) The form in -y (-ro) is only used after the prepositions B
and Ha (in very rare cases after npn), and then only in a re-
stricted locative or concrete sense:
Although he lived in the forest, he XoTH OH a<IV\ B Aecy, ou HHKOrAa
never spoke about the forest ue roBoptiA o Aece

And compare:
To play in the cherry orchard
To play the main part in The
Cherry Orchard
He was covered in sweat
To work in the sweat of one's brow
In the current year
To take part in the geophysical
year
MrpaTh B BnlllneBoM caAy
MrpaTh rAaBHYIO poAh B «BHliiHe-
BOM CaAe))
Ou 6b1A Bech B noTy
TpyAiiThcll B n6Te AIIQa
B TeK'ftl!eM roAy
IJpHHHMaTh y"'aCTIIe B reotf>H3H•
"'eCKOM r6Ae

(ii) Sometimes there is a clear semantic difference between

the two forms:
To sit in the second row CHAeTh Bo BTop6:.1 PHAY
In a series of experiments B pHAe 6nb1TOB
To stand in the comer CTOHTh B yrAy
In a right angle there are 90° B npliMOM yrAe goo
To give private lessons 4aBiTh ypOKH Ha ,ll;OMy
A number on a house H6Mep na AOMe

(iii) The -y (-ro) ending is found with a few masculine nouns

(including nouns not listed above) in stock expressions, mainly
with an adverbial sense of time, place, or means of action:
At what time? B KOT6poM 'lacy?
In one's lifetime Ha cBoeM BeKy
In flight, in motion, while running Ha AeTy, Ha xoAy, Ha 6ery
An article in great demand ToBap B 6oAblll6111 xoAy
In bloom (of flowers) B QBeTy
Compare the figurative:
At the height of one's powers B(o) QBcre cn"
 THE CASES
(iv) While these expressions arc invariable, there is some con-
fusion between -e and -y (-ro) in the case of a few of the above
mentioned nouns when used after Band na. Thus one finds both
s npyAe and B npyAy in the pond, and B 6mycKe and B omycKy
on leave. Generally speaking when this confusion exists, the
-y (-ro) form is the more colloquial (and in some cases profes-
sional jargon), the -e form is the more literary.
DIMINUTIVES
62. (i) Broadly speaking there are two functions of the diminu-
tive noun: to indicate size and to indicate shades of emotion.
In the second case one has to consider not simply the mood of
the speaker, whether one of approbation or of contempt, but
also, and this is very important, the type of audience addressed.
Among one's family and intimate friends and relations, one's
language is more emotionally charged; affection, annoyance,
and playfulness are more readily shown than among casual
friends and acquaintances. In Russian too the situation and
the company must be considered-to a greater extent than in
English-and in conversation within the family circle, a wide
range of diminutive forms may be used. This is especially true
of conversation among children or between adults and children,
as for example a doctor addressing a child: noKaJKn .H3LiqoK let
me see your tongue. In a wider context, the 'emotional' diminutive
may be used to convey politeness in making a request: neT Ali
y Bac oroHLKa? have you a light? (cf. the English have you such a
thing as a light?).
(ii) Obviously there will be confusion between shades of size
and shades of emotion, since to say that a thing is small can be
to imply that it is dainty and therefore attractive. Pushkin uses
n6JKKu to mean pretty little feet, where the feet are pretty simply
because they are little. The distinction between size and affec-
tionate regard (and here we ignore the other shades of emotion
such as contempt which can be expressed by diminutives) is at
best an ill-defined one. There are few diminutives where the
suffix conveys size alone and not emotion. Nor are there many
like c6AHbiiUKO from c6Anye, the use of which is purely emo-
tional and has nothing to do with size. But there are very many
52 THE NOUN
where both size and emotion are suggested by the same word
in different contexts. The difficulty is to know when to use a
diminutive form simply to indicate smallness, without the over-
tones of familiarity. Take for example AOM and AOMHK in the
following sentences:
(a) They live in a small house OHH: *"BYT B MaAeHhKoM A6Me
near London B6AH3II or A6HAOHa
(b) They have a cottage near Y HHX eCTb AOMIIK B6AH3H OT
London A6HAOHa
(c) When I am sixty I shall buy Kor4a MHe 6yAeT 6o Aer, .11 KynAro
a little house in the country (MaAeHbKnii) AOMIIK B AepeBHe
(d) What a nice little house, KaK6ii MI1AeHhKnii AOMHK, MaMa
mummy
(e) The children were building a ,LI,enr crp6HAH KaproqHhiM AOMHK
house of cards
Example (a) is a simple factual statement: the house is small.
In (b) AOMIIK stands for a special type of small house-a cottage
or villa. ,ll;oMnK suggests in (c) that the house will not only be
small but will be pleasant to look forward to; in (d) the lan-
guage of a child; in (e) a special, technical meaning which, as
we shall see below, is often associated with diminutives.
Or take the pair ropoA, ropOAOK:
(a) He lives in a little provincial OH mnBer B npoBHHCII<iAhHOM
town on the Volga ropOAKC (B MaAeHhKOM npOBUH-
ynaAbHOM r6po4e) Ha B6Are
(b) Oh, little town of Samara! Ax, Ca~1l1pa, ropOAOK (Russian
song)

In (a) ropoAOK has no emotional association and may be readily

replaced by MaA.eHhKni:f ropoA. In (b) there is a definite note of
endearment in the exclamation.
(iii) No definite rules can be formulated here, and observa-
tion of Russian usage is the only real aid; but (for the purposes
of Russian prose composition) the following general principles
may be useful:
(a) Many diminutives in Russian are highly colloquial
and therefore outside the scope of narrative prose.
(b) Many diminutives common in the literary language are
 DIMINUTIVES 53
met with in writing mainly in dialogue passages, and are
used of and by members of the family or close friends.
(c) A diminutive with no emotional overtones may just as
well be replaced by its original noun, qualified by an
adjective like M<iAeHLKnii or He6o,u,m6fr. (These adjec-
tives, incidentally, will often be met with diminutive
forms in what are apparently tautological combina-
tions, e.g. He6o,u,mo:H ropoAOK, He6o,u,man KapTIIHKa.)
(d) The diminutive forms which are most necessary to the
student are those which have an additional, specialized
meaning such as the ones given in the following para-
graph, and which, in that meaning, have no corre-
sponding non-diminutive forms.
63.
Noun Diminutive Diminutive meaning
Hand PYKa Py'lKa Handle (e.g. door-handle);
pen (as opposed to nib)
Leg Hora Hoa<~<a Leg (offurniture)
Back Cmma CmiuKa Chair back, back of a gar-
ment
Head fOAOBa foAOBKa Head of a match, nail or
screw; in plural, uppers
of a shoe
Hair BoAOc BoAocoK Thread, hair spring ofwatch,
filammt of lamp
Nose Hoc HocoK Toe of shoe or stocking
HocnK Spout of jug or pot
Eye fAaa fAa30K Spy-hole, bud
Ear Yxo YIIIKO Eye of needle, tab, tag
Lip ry6a fy6Ka Sponge
Throat fopAO fopAbllllKO Neck of a bottle
Dish EAIDAO EAIDAge Saucer
Bowl, chalice l.{aiiia l.{aiiiKa Cup
Cauldron, boiler KoTi:A KoTeAoK Kettle, pot, bowler-hat
Pitclifork B1i.hhl BiiAKa Fork
Spade, shovel AoniTa AonaTKa Trowel, shoulder-blade
Book KH1ira Kmla<Ka Card or book, of official
documents, e.g. savings
book c6eperaTeAbHall
K!Ufa<Ka
8lf>634 c
54 THE NOUN
Noun Diminutive Diminutive meani11g
Paper ByMara Note (paper money)
Recording 3anHcb Note
Signature 116AnHCb IlOAllHCKa Subscription, signed statement
Census IlepenHcb IlepenncKa Correspondence, copying
Line (of CTpoKa CTp6~Ka Stitch
writing)
Road ,ll;op6ra ,ll;opo)KKa Path, sports track, strip of
carpet
Hole (in road, ,lJ;bipa Hole in garment
etc.)
Flagstone, Bar of chocolate, small stove,
kitchen stove hotplate, etc.
Roof Kpb'nua Kpb'mrKa Lid, cover
Board ,ll;ocKa AoiJJe'IKa Name-plate
Ward, chamber IlaA:ha IlaAaTKa Tent
Door ,li;Bepb ,li;BepQa Vehicle or cupboard door
Window 0KH6 0KOIIIKO Cash desk window
Table CTOJ\ Or6AIIK Restaurant table
Bridge MocT M6cTIIK Bridge on a ship
Curtain (e.g. 3aHasec 3aHaBecKa Window curtain
stage)
Bag (e.g. Handbag
shopping)
Star 3seMa 3Be3AO~Ka Asterisk
Circle Kpyr Kpy*6K Group, stuqy group
Fire Or6ub OroHeK Flair; apTHCTH'IeCKMii oro-
HeK flair for art
Pipe Tpy6a Telephone receiver, tobacco-
pipe
Horn (of Por Horn (musical instrument)
animal)
Machine Maun!Ha MamrhiKa Typewriter, sewing machine
Needle HrAa 11r6AKa Needle for sewing only
Thread (fig.) HnTh HriTKa Thread of cotton, etc.
Stick IlaJ\Ka IlaAo'IKa Baton
Arrow CTpeAa CTpeJ\Ka Pointer, hand of watch,
needle of compass
Hammer M6AOT MoAoT6K Household hammer
Bell (e.g. K6AOK0)1. KoAoKoJ\b~HK Hand bell
church)
 DIMINUTIVES 55
Noun Diminutive Diminutive meaning
Peal, chime 3BOH 3BOHOK Door bell
Bubble Ilyab'rpb IIyabrpeK Phial
Foam, lather IleHa IleHKa Scum, skin (on milk, etc.)
Horse KoHh KoHeK Hobby (cf. hobby-horse)
Area, square IlA6J!!aAh IlAOJ!!aAKa Court (tennis), pla_yground
End KoHey KoHqnK Tip
Part qacn. qacTIIya Particle

64. Diminutive forms will be commonly found in idioms, popu-

lar sayings, and proverbs:
To make eyes ,Ll;eAaTb TAa3KH
I am all ears Y Memi: YIIIKU Ha MaK"YIIIKe
A drowning man clutches at a YTonaiDJ!!nti: xBaTaeTcll aa co)I.6-
straw MHHKY
65. A word of warning should be given about the numerous
diminutive forms that some Russian nouns have acquired, and
which would not be considered marks of a good prose style.
For example, peKa, besides peqKa, also has peqeH~>Ka and peqym-
Ka, both common to popular poetry and folk-song, and also
peqoHKa and pettYn-rKa, both implying contempt (a wretched little
stream). These latter pejorative diminutives (N.B. also AomaAeH-
Ka a miserable little horse) are invariably colloquial in use and,
like the few nouns in Russian with an augmentative suffix (e.g.
AOI\111:I}!e huge house), need not concern the student here.

SOME COMMON NOUNS AND THEIR

TRANSLATION
66. Accident, Chance. CAyqali means incident, occurrence, oppor-
tuniry. CAyq<h'i:HOCTh is chance: mere chance nycTaH cAyqaiiHocTL;
by chance, by accident cAyqaii:Ho. Accident in the loose sense of
mishap is HecqacTHhni CA~aii: : accident insurance cTpaxomiHHe oT
HecqacTHhiX cA~aeB. A specific accident involving a motor
vehicle, ship, train, aircraft, etc., is aBapHH, and more catastro-
phically Kpymemfe or KaTaCTpo<Pa.
67. Advantage. IlpenMjl}!ecTBo normally suggests advantage
over, superiority: noAyqHTh npeH..'\I)'I}!eCTBO HaA KeM-Hn6yAL to
 THE NOUN
gain an advantage over someone. B:brroAa need imply no comparison:
:hoT IIJ\aH AaeT Mm:Sro BbiTOA this plan has many advantages, i.e.
has much to be said for it. Ilo.i\I>3a is used in the same sense of
something advantageous, but only in the singular: JI3B.i\e'li>
ITO.i\L3Y II3 qer6-Hn6yAI> to derive advantage, benefitfrom something;
o6paniTL B cBo!O ITO.i\I>3Y to turn to one's own advantage.
68. Afternoon. In the afternoon is most commonly rendered by
rroc.i\e o6eAa (after dinner), rroc.i\e ITOAYAHH (rrono.i\yAHn), or BO
BTopo:H no.i\oBilHe AHH. There is, however, no single noun for
afternoon, despite Pisemsky's KaiK,li;Oe noc.i\e-o6eAa every afternoon.
Thus a sentence such as the afternoon is the most pleasant part of the
day will usually be expressed by llOC.i\eo6eAeHHOe BpeMH CaMaH
npn.H:THaH qacn AHH. N .B. A common rendering of L' apres-midi
d'unfaune is q>aBH rroc.i\e IIO.i\YAHH.
6g. Age. What age, how old is he? CKO.i\l>KO eMy .i\eT? This ex-
pects a definite answer in years. BoapacT is a stage in one's life.
KaKoro OH B03pacTa? would not expect a definite answer in
years, but a general statement, e.g. oH cpeAHero BoapaCTa he is
middle-aged. BeK is the usual word for a prehistoric or historical
period; the Stone Age KaMeHHI>IM BeK; the A1iddle Ages cp~Hne
BeKa (or cpe,li;HeBeKOBI>e). IlepiloA is usual for geological
periods; the Ice Age .i\eAHHKOBLIM rreprio,ll;.
They had not seen each other for 0HM He BJI,ll;aAHCL yeA)'lO Be'IJ-
ages and ages HOCTL
Wltm lte came of age Kor,ll;a oH AOCni:r coBepmeHHo-
AeTH.II
70. Attack. In the widest sense HarraAeHne. HaCTYIIJ\eHne is
commonly used in a military context to mean offensive. Harra,li;KH
(singular rare) are critical attacks, accusations. ATaKa is often used
of a military or aerial attack. Ha6er is a raid, BbiAaaKa a sortie.
IlpnmiAoK is a sudden attack of an illness; a fit: heart attack cep-
Ae'lHI>IM npnrraAOK. IlpriCTyn has the meaning both of a military
attack (a TaKa) and an attack of an illness (npnmiAoK).
71. Breadth, Latitude. As a concrete measurement of dis-
tance, opposed to length, mnpnHa. IllnpOTa is used in an abstract
sense, e.g. breadth of view, outlook. It is also the geographical
 SOME COMMON NOUNS 57
term for latitude. IJlnpi> (fern., no plural) is sometimes used of
wide open spaces and in the expression BO BCIO IIIHf>I>: H<lAO
pa3BepnY'r~> pa66ry BO BCIO umpi> work must be developed to the
utmost extent.

72. Building. The most general word for a building is 3AaHHe.

IlO!~-Iei,geHne refers to the inside of a building, a room, premises,
etc. IIocTp6i!Ka may be a building site, a building under con-
struction, or a building which has been completed. CoopyJKeHJie
suggests a vast or imposing construction. CTpoeHJJe corresponds
most nearly to structure.
The act of building is noCTp6i1Ka or CTpo{ITeAI>CTBo. Often
CTf>OlheAbCTBO is used in a wide sense (liiKOAbHOe CTf>OliTeAbCTBO
building of schools); noCTpoiiKa in a narrower sense (nocTp6:ii:Ka
,ll;OMa building a house).
In the modern language, especially colloquially, CTp6iiKa has
come to be used as a synonym of noCTpOfiKa in all the above
meanings.
In the less tangible sense of the construction of a sentence,
proposition, or theorem noCTpocmie is used. It can be used, too,
of the building of a political system: noCTpoenHe coQHaAibMa
the building of socialism, in which meaning, however, CTpo{ITeAI>-
CTBO is also commonly used.

73· Change, Exchange. There are numerous nouns formed

from the -MeH root. I13MenenHe means change in the sense of
alteration, making different (not to be confused with I13Mena
infidelity, treason). IIepeMena means c!zange in the sense of replac-
ing one thing by another similar thing, e.g. change of residence,
occupation, climate, etc.
Pa3MCH and o6!\teu are closely allied in the meaning of ex-
cllange. 06Men is the more versatile, and often corresponds to
interchange: o6Men 6mtTO!\r interchange of experience; o6!\ICH Mneunii
interchange of opinions. Both the genitive and instrumental case
are used after 06!\iCH, e.g. o6!\tCH IL'\CHHI>IX, o6MeH nACHHhiMll
exchange ofprisoners. Pa3Men is used primarily of changing money.
CMena is most commonly used to mean a replacement, a shift:
CMena KapayAa changing of the guard; Y'Tpeuu.IIJI cMena the morning
sB THE NOUN

shift. 3aMeHa means substitution. Notice the idiom: MeHa- He

rpa6eiK exchange is no robbery.
In a monetary sense CAaqa is the change received from a
larger sum (e.g. change from a pound note); Me.I\Ollh is small
change.
For a change ,4NI pa3Hoo6pa3Iur
74· Character. 66pa3, nm, nepcoHaiK, and rep6:ii are all com-
monly used of characters in a novel or play: Dostoyevsky' s
women characters iKeHCKMe ninLI (66pa3LI) y ,lJ,ocToencxoro. The
dramatis personae are Ae:iicTBYIDIQMe .1\HQa.
XapaxTep is used of a person's moral character, and also
means character in the sense of characteristic, nature, property. Hpan
is disposition. A character in the colloquial sense of a person is
qeAonex, not xapaxTep: he's an interesting character OH MHTepec-
HLm qeAoBeK. (A queer character qyAax.)
75· Collection. Co6upaHne, co6pamre, xo.l\.l\eKQMH, c6op,
c6opHIIK.
Co6upa1-me is the act of collecting: co6npaHne Mapox stamp-
collecting. Co6paHue and I<O.I\.I\eKQHH both refer to a collection
of similar objects: co6paHMe (KO.I\.I\eKQIIH) MMHMaTiop, MOHeT a
collection of miniatures, coins; but only co6paHne is used of the
collected works, poems, etc., of an author: n6AHoe co6paHne
coquHeHn:ii ToAcT6ro tlze complete works of Tolstoy.
C6op may be used both of the act of collecting and of the
thing collected: c6op qaH tea picking; rep60BLIH c6op stamp duty.
It can also mean a collection of people belonging to a particular
organization, a rally, or muster: IUionepcxu:ii c6op pioneer rally.
C66pnnx is used of a collection of articles in book form:
c66pHIIK CTaTe:if.
76. Colour. Notice that MaCTL (fern.) and not QBeT is used for
the colour of animals (especially horses). It also means a suit
of cards (to follow suit XOAHTL B MaCTL). Couleur locale is MeCTHLm
KOAOpHT.
77· Communication. Compare o6J!!enne and coo6J!!eHne.
llyn{ coo6J!!eHnH are means of communication in the sense of rivers,
 SOME COMMON NOUNS 59
roads, railways, etc.; in the phrase .!13hiK- cpe,li;CTBO o61J!eHHH
(language is a means of communication), o61J!eHIIH means social
intercourse.
78. Competition. KoHKypc means a competition in the fields
of literature and the arts, music, and the professions. KoHKypc
Ha noCT)'TIAeHHe B ymmepCineT a competition for admission to a
universiry (i.e. universiry entrance examination); KOHKypc Ha 3aMe-
JI!eHHe naKaHTHLL'\: ,li;ONKHOCTefr a competition to fill t•acant posts.
N.B. 6o.!\Lllloil: KOnKypc keen competition.
CopenHoBanne is used of the act or process of competition,
which may be vver a long period: MII.(lHOe copenHonamre peaceful
competition; copenHonaH:ne Ha Ky6oK 1\nipa the World Cup compe-
tition. Notice the usual distinction between coyuaAncn'r'lecKoe
copenHol\auue socialist competition and KamiTaAUCTH'lecKaH KOH-
KypeHQHH capitalist competition. KoHKypenynH is often found in
a trade context: KOHKypeHQnH 1\le;KAy npe,ll;npmhnHl\m business
competition; cno6o,li;HaH KOHKypeHIJI1H free competition.
CocTH3aHt1e as well as copenHonaHIIc is frequently used in a
sporting context; notice the prepositions associated with it-B
6ere, B nAanamm running, swimming; but no aT.!\crnKc, no
6acKeT6oA y athletics, basketball.
ConepHn'lcCTBO suggests rivalry·, in a bad as well as a good
sense.
79· Country, Land. CTpmi<i is one of the countries of the
world. The use of CTopoHa (side, part, localiry) in the above sense
has a poetical or popular flavour. Native country is po,li;Jma
(motherland). 0Ttnbna (fatherland) is archaic. Ore'lecTBo (father-
land), however, is used, often in a patriotic context, to impart
dignity and glory. The two greatest Russian struggles for sur-
vival in 1812 and 1941-5 have been honoured with the names
0Te'leCTBeHHaH BOHHa and BeAiiKaH OreqecTBeHHa.!l BOIIHa .
.P6AJma conjures up thoughts of hearth and home; oTe'lecTBo
of honour and glory.
Besides its use to denote an administrative territory in the
U.S.S.R., KpaH: is quite commonly found as a rather patriotic
or sentimental alternative to crpaHa: Ham coBeTcKnii Kpai'i our
Sovut land; KpaH: po,li;Hoil: native land.
6o THE NOUN

3eMAfl in the sense of cTpami is now archaic (but figuratively

o6eromiHHaH 3eMJ\H the Promised Land (bib!.). It signifies the earth
(the planet), the land as opposed to the sea, land in the
sense of the soil, the ground, the land belonging to a man.
Cyma means specifically dry land. To travel by land nyrernecrno-
BaTb cyxliM nyreM.
Country as opposed to town is AepeBHH. To drive into the country
(for a day's excursion, etc.) exaTI> 3a ropoA (lit. out of town).
Broken country (terrain) rrepeceqeHHaH MecrHocn. Mainland, con-
tinent MaTepliK.
8o. Course. University course Kypc; also year: CTYACHT Ha rrep-
BOM Kypce first-year student. B Kypce Ab.a au courant.
Course of events XoA co6h'nnii:
In the course of B Tetienne
In due course B AO!VKHoe speMH
81. Difference. Pa3HHQa is used in the singular and means
quantitative difference, dissimilarity, disparity. Pa3HHQa BO Bpe-
MeHH M6i<Ay TalllKeHTOM n MocKBoii ABa 'tfaca the difference in
time between Tashkent and Moscow is two hours; pa3HHQa B Bo3pacre
He rroMern<iAa HM 6hlT:b xopornnMn APY3l>liMH the difference in age
between them did not prevent them being goodfriends.
Pa3AH'tfHe is more common in the plural than in the smgular
and means qualitative difference, distinctive feature, the point
at which things differ. HaunoH<iAI>Hhle pa3AH'IHH He MernaroT
AIDAHM rroHnMaTb Apyr Apfra national differences do not prevent
people understanding one another; HaiiHlllHTe o pa3AH'IHHX Me.;KAy
Harneii n Barnefi cHcreMofi o6ytieHnH write about the differences
between our system of teaching and yours.
Pa3HorAacne (pacxo.;KAeHne BO B3rNl:Aax) is a difference of
opinion(s): pa3HorAacnH y Hac Ha :hor cqeT He MO:lKeT 6nrTI> there
can be no difference between us on that account.
8!:l. Dream. Meqra has no genitive plural. MeqTaHnfi, geni-
tive plural of MelJTaHne, is used instead.
Meqra is a dqy-dream or dream in the sense of something de-
sired; coH is a dream one has when asleep. The poetic rpe3a is
used in the phrase uapcrno rpe3 land of dreams.
 SOME COMMON NOUNS 6I
83. Education. In the general sense o6.pa3oBaHJte: public edu-
cation Hap6,zr;Hoe o6pa3oBaHne. With o6.pa3oBaHIIe the emphasis
is generally on the education, given and received, rather than
on the actual process of imparting or imbibing knowledge, i.e.
instruction. 06.yqeHIIe is instruction or education in the narrower
sense of teaching or imparting knowledge, tuition: compare
co-education coBMeCTHoe o6.yqeHne, where the actual process of
teaching and learning, not the academic or cultural content of
the education, is envisaged.
BocrnnaHHe is breeding or upbringing. BocrnnheALHLrli poMaH
Bildungsroman. <I>u3Ii'lecKoe BocrnrTaHJie (not o6pa3oBaHue) is
physical education (and cf. the Soviet term !pH3KYAoTypa).
llpocBeJ!!eHne is wider than o6pa3oBaHne, embracing culture
as well as scholarship: arr6xa llpocBeJ!!eHIUI the Age of Enlighten-
ment.
84. End. KoHey and oKOH'I:iHue are often interchangeable,
with OKOH'IaHue having the more literary flavour-ending, con-
clusion: OKOH'IaHne c,\e,l(yeT to be concluded. But the use of OKOH-
'IaHIIe instead of KoHey may have verbal force. Compare:
KoHCIJ ACTa The end of the summer
tho Bbl co6npaeTecL ,zr;e,\aTb no What are you going to do when you
OKOH'IaHHn ymmepcnTeTa? have finished at the University?

Similarly, notice the shade of difference between

OH He ,zr;ocu,zr;eA ,zr;o Komja He did not wait till the end of the play
cneKTaKAH
Ou ymeA, ue ,zr;oiK,il;anumcL He went off without waiting for the
OKOH'IaHIUI CIIeKTaKNI play to end
Kpafi is the edge or outer limit of a thing and sometimes
corresponds to English end, e.g. Ha Kpa!O CB<ha at the end of the
world; Tpenrfi c Kpa!O third from the end.
End in the sense of goal is yeAh. The end justifies the means yeAh
orrpaB,l(bmaeT cpeAcrna.
On end = in succession: rro,l(p.li,zr;.
85. Enemy. Bpar is the strongest word, used of the enemy in
war (when it has a more literary flavour than HerrpnkreM-cf.
 THE NOUN

English foe), and of a class or ideological enemy (KAaccoBLm

Bpar). Both Herrpmi:TeJ\L and rrponnmHK are also used of the
enemy in war (in the singular that is the only meaning of
HenpmrreJ\L) and, indeed, HenpnkreJ\LCKHe BoiicKa is the usual
expression for the enemy forces. But generally speaking Herrpna-
TeJ\JI are merely people inimically disposed towards one, but not
likely to do physical harm. IlpoT:HBHH.K has the general meaning
of an adversary or opponent in games and sports, habits, and
ideas.
86. Fall. IlaAeHJie is generally used of a drastic or irreparable
event, the fall of a city or a government; noHmKemre of a con-
trolled reduction. Compare rraAeHJie QeHfall in prices, naAeHne
HpaBoB decline in morals, and rroHJIJKCHJie uen reduction in prices,
nOHHJKemre roJ\oca lowering of the voice.
The usual translation of The History of the Decline and Fall of
the Roman Empire is HCTopmr yrr:iAKa H pa3pyrneHJIH PilMcKoii
HMrrepnn. The Fall in the Biblical sense is rpexorraAeHHe. A
heavy fall of rain rrpOJ\HBHOH AOJKAL, J\HBCHL.
87. Farm. <I>epMa in Russia now is a specialized farm or branch
of farming: dairy-farm MOJ\OqHaH cpepMa. With reference to
foreign countries, however, it means any farm. In Russia,Jarm
will usually be KOJ\X03 (collective farm) unless reference is speci-
fically made to a state farm (coBxo3). X)hop is mainly confined
to the south of Russia (but notice the title of a recent Russian
translation of Orwell's Animal Farm-<<CKOTCKHH x)hop1>).
88. Feeling, Sense. Most widely translated by q"YBcTBo, e.g.
qYBCTBO OTBCTCTBeHHOCTH, JKaJ\OCTH feeling of responsibility, pity;
q"9BcTBo roMopa, AOAra sense of humour, duty. IlHTb qYBcTB the five
senses.
Ol!!YIJJCHJie is feeling in the more vivid meaning of sensation:
Ol!!YIJJCHJIC cqaCTb.ll feeling of happiness; 3pHTeJ\bHOe OIJJYIJJCHHe
visual sensation.
Co3HaHJie is feeling in the meaning of awareness or consciousness:
C03HaHHe OITaCHOCTHfeeling of danger.
With feeling C :m6yueti, c BOAHemieM
Feelings ran high CTpacTH pa3ropeAnch
 SOME COMMON NOUNS 63
8g. Fire. OroHL is the fire in the grate (as well as gunfire).
KaMIIH is the fire in the sense of the grate or stove itself. To light
the fire TOmiTL ne'IL.
IIo.lKap is an outbreak of fire. /Kap is the heat of the fire.
(N.B . .lKap-rrnf.ua fire-bird.) /Kapa is sultry heat, of the weather.
KocTep means camp fire, bonfire, stake.
go. Friend. The degree of intimacy (greatest to least) is ,~~;pyr,
npn.lheAL, 3HaKoMLrn in that order. Ilo,~~;p-yra is a female friend
of a woman. Girl friend in the popular sense, one's girl, cannot be
translated by no,~~;p-yra, nor by BOMro6AeHHaH or HeBecTa which
are too strong. ,LI,eBywKa would be the popular translation (cf.
my girl); npuheALHHJJa a more formal rendering.
Bosom friend 3aKa,ll;hlqHLiil ,~~;pyr

gx. Gift. Gift= jlresent is no,~~;apoK (in this sense ,~~;ap is rather
grandiloquent). Gift= talent is ,~~;ap and ,~~;apoBaHne.
92. Girl. ,LI,eBO'IKa is a young girl (i.e. before the age of
puberty). ,LI,eByiiiKa is an unmatTied girl of mature years, a girl
in her 'teens. ,LI,eBa is archaic and poetical for ,~~;eBywKa (cf.
maiden and girl) but has also a derogatory meaning, as has
,~~;eBO'IKa when applied to a woman (prostitute). ,LI,eBa in the sense
of ,~~;eBywKa is poetical, but old maid is always translated CTapaJI
,~~;eBa.

93· Government. IIpaBiheALCTBO is the government in the

sense of the supreme executive body of a country.
IlpaBAeHIIe and ynpaBAemte share the meaning of the gov-
erning body of an organization or institution, the board, the ad-
ministration but not the government of a country: npaBAeHne
.lKeAeaHoii ,~~;opom the railway board; ueHTpiALHoe cTamcn't-
qecKoe ynpaBAeHHe the central board of statistics.
They also share the meaning of the act of governing: ,~~;ypHoe
ynpaMeHire maladministration; caMo,~~;ep.lKiBHoe npaBAerme auto-
cratic rule, but ynpaBAeHue is more commonly used and more
versatile.
94· Harvest. Ypo.lKaa is the actual yield, the crops grown,
without reference to the harvesting processes: last ;·ear's harvest
 THE NOUN

ypoJKafi rrpolliAOro ro,ZJ;a; harvestjestival rrpa3AHI1K ypoJKa.ll. )KciT-

Ba suggests the operation of the verb JKaTb (cJKaTb), the cutting
down or harvesting; it also means the harvest itself before it is
gathered in: JKaTBa co3p6Aa the harvest is ripe. Y66pKa is the last
operation in the cycle, the garnering. C6op may be used of
picking fruit: c6op MaHAapH:HoB picking tangerines; in the expres-
sion c6op ypoJKa.ll aaKOH"'IeH harvesting is finished, it implies that
every stage including the y66pKa, or gathering in of the crops,
has been completed.
To reap a harvest of praise IlmKIIHaTL (rro"'aTL) cAaBy
95· Heart. ,LI;yllla (soul) is used instead of, or as well as, cep,ZJ;ye
in some colloquial expressions where heart is used in English:
with all my heart OT BCefi AYlliH (also OT BCero cep,ZJ;ya); a heart to
heart talk paaroBop rro AYlllaM; in one's heart of hearts B rAy6HHe
AYlliH.
By heart Half3YCTb
The heart of the matter CyTL ,~~;eAa
To take heart Co6IIpaTbC.II (co6paTbC.11) c AYXOM
To lose heart Ila.z.taTh (rracTL) AYxOM
96. Height. BbrCoTa is much more commonly used than Bbilllu-
Ha. BoaBhiilleHHOCTb means high place or elevation. For the height
of a person or animal, poeT must be used.
The height offolly Bepx rAyrrocm
The gale was at its height llhopM 6MA B pa3rape
97· Holiday. 11pa3AHHK is a day specially set apart as a state
or religious festival, a public holiday. 6mycK is the regular
annual holiday or leave. Kami:KYAbi (Pl.) is confined to school
and university holidays. BhlXOAHOfi ,ZJ;eHb means day off: it's my
day off today y MeH.sl cero,ZJ;H.II BbiXOAHOti: (colloq.), and more
recently even .11 cero,ZJ;H.II BbiXOAHOI1. 6TAbiX is leisure time,
rest from one's normal job.
98. Law. ITpaBo is the law in the sense of the aggregate of indi-
vidual laws, rules, and regulations: international law MeJKAYHa-
.POAHOe rrpaBo; public law rocy,i1apcTBeHHoe rrpaBo; to stutfy law
113yticlTb npaBO.
 SOME COMMON NOUNS
3aKOH is usually a specific law. In the singular, in the sense of
a body oflaws (11y,~~;eiicKn:ii 3aKoH the Jewish Law) it is archaic or
has a religious flavour, e.g. 3aKoH 66.amii: scripture. But CBOA
aaKOHOB code of laws, statute book. IIpaBHAO means rule, regulation.
Law and order ITpasonopll:,~~;oK
Martial law BoeHHoe noAo)KeHne
To go to law Haqnmhr. (HaqaTh), Boa6y*AaTh
(soa6y,~~;H:Tr.) cy,~~;e6Hr.rii: npo-
J;!ecc
99· Length, Longitude. As a concrete measurement of dis-
tance, opposed to breadth, AAliHa. ,4AnHHOTa, in the singular,
is more colloquial and less common. In the plural it has a
literary flavour and means tedious, prolix passages. Longitude is
,II;OArOTa.
Length of time, duration, is npoAOMKifTCAhHOCTL, and less com-
monly, AAifTCAhHOCTL. Notice too cpoK: the length of the course in
all universities is 5 )'COTS cpOK OOytJCHIUI BO BCCX ymmepCIITCTaX -
5 ACT.
100. Life. iKuTn:e in the sense of .a<H3Hh is now archaic. Its use
is largely confined to the life of a saint, i.e. an account of his
life. iKxur.e for .a<H3HL is colloquial.
Br.rT is a way of life, everyday life. Br.rTHe is archaic in the sense
of life, but is used to mean existence. Br.nr.e for 6r.IT is archaic.
The colloquial )l(nTLe-6r.rTLe (life, way of life) is still used.
101. Light, Lights. CBeT translates light in almost every sense.
Lights (of a ship, etc.) are ornli; headlights (of a car) q>apr.r;
trqffic-lights cBeToq>op (N.B. singular).
A light (i.e. something burning and giving light) is oro Hr.: a
light in the window oroHh B OKHax. Give me a light (colloq.) ,~~;aii:Te
aaKyplin.
102. Line. CTpoKa of a number of words arranged in a line:
drop me a few lines tiepKmiTe MHe HCCKOAhKO CTpoK. CTirxli are
lines of verse. Aximm can be used in virtually all other cases: e.g.
air-line Boa,~~;yiiiHaH AIIHnH; party line napnlii:HaH AiiHHH. qepTa is
a narrow or fine line on some surface, a boundary line, a feature
or line on the face. (N .B. B tiepTe ropo,~~;a within the city boundaries.)
66 THE NOUN
103. Manner. MaHepa in the singular usually means the
habitual manner of doing a thing: MaHepa roBopiln. manner of
speaking; MaHepa ,ZJ;ep/Id.n. ce6Jl: carriage, bearing. In the plural-
manners: xop6nme, IIAoxile Manep.or good, bad manners.
Mauep is archaic in the sense ofMauepa in the above meaning,
but it is used as a less common alternative to 66pa3 in such
expressions as KaKIIM MaHepoM? TaKIIM MaHepoM in what wtry?
in this wtry.
104. Marriage, Wedding. iKeHI1:n.6a is the act of marrying
from the man's point of view, cmi,ZJ;L6a the wedding ceremony.
After his marriage to Li;:;a rr6c.11.e er6 /Kem1T.o6M Ha AII3e; silver
wedding (i.e. anniversary of ceremony) cepe6pxHax cBa,ZJ;L6a.
BeHqasHe is the church expression for the ceremony. EpaK is
the state of married life, marriage: marriages are made in heaven
6paKH aaK.II.roqaroTcx B He6ecax (cf. 6e36paqHe celibacy). Other,
somewhat archaic, words for married life are cyrrpy/KecTBo,
cynpy/KecKax /KH3HL. 3aMy/KeCTBO means marriage only from the
woman's point of view.
Wedding ring o6pyqa.11.Luoe KO.II.Ly6; wedding dress Beuqci.II.Luoe
IT.II.aTLe.
105. Meeting, Conference, Congress. In order of size and
importance (least to greatest): naprnH:Hoe co6pauHe party meet-
ing; rrapTIIiiuax Kompepeuynx party conference; C'Le3,ll; napniu con-
gress of the Party.
Milnmr as cf. co6pamre is frequently used of an unofficial or
spontaneous meeting or rally. CoBeJ,gauMe as cf. Kou<!JepeuyMH
is commonly met in the meaning of a conference within a factory
or place of work, often for the joint discussion of methods, plan-
ning, etc. Kourpecc as cf. c"Le3,ZJ; usually, but not always, refers
to a non-Soviet or international congress.
3ace,ZJ;aHMe is a meeting or session of a congress, conference or
official body.
106. Name.HMH is the Christian name; 6necTBO the patronymic;
<!JaMll.II.M.!I the surname.
What is his name? KaK er6 30BYT? where the reply will generally
be a Christian name; KaK er6 <!JaMII.II.M.H? where a surname is
 SOME COMMON NOUNS
required. Where no specific reference is made to either Chris-
tian name or surname, Hlll.ll will be used, e.g. your name was given
me by Ivanov Bame HMJI JI yanaA oT liBanoBa.
The name of an object as opposed to a person is uaaBanue.
The verb uaa:&IBaTL (uaaBan) may be used of persons as well as
things: he goes by various names ero uaa:&IBaiOT no-paaHOMY·
IIpoaBIIJ'!!e is a nickname. KAiltJKa is the name of an animal,
a pet, as well as a nickname.
By name no HMeHu. In name on?J, nominal()' TOli.:&KO no JIMeHJI.
In the name of . .. OT I1MeHn. Named after (in honour of) I'iMeHn:
the Lenin Library EII6AnoTeKa I'iMeHII Aemma.
107. News. With uaBecnm the emphasis is on tidings, com-
munications, information; with HOBOCTII on the new, the recent
or the unexpected. )KAan, noAyqJ'in, npiicAaTL are commonly
found with naBeCTiiH; anaTL, yanan, coo6mirr:&, paccKaaan
with HOBOCT:&. H6nocT:& in the singular is a piece of news.
Been (and the plural Becm) means a piece of news, tidings, as
in the proverb XYALie neCTII ne Ae.adT Ha MCCTe bad news travels
fast; but it is seldom found except in set expressions, e.g. npo-
naCTb 6e3 BeCTII to go missing; BeCTL paaHeCll.aCb WOrd spread.
What news? 'ITO n6Boro?, a colloquial greeting.
to8. Night. The distinction between evening and night is more
rigid than in English. I am going to the pictures tonigllt must be
translated by cer6AHsr Bet~epoM sr HAY B KIIHO. Ho'ILIO would
mean during the night.
109. Noise, Sound. 3ByK denotes a single or abrupt sound,
very often the noise of a single action or instrument: the sound of
a trumpet 3BYK Tpy6LI; the sound of a kiss 3BYK noy;CA ys.
illYM is a steady noise, the sound of rain falling continuously
or of water generally, the hubbub of a town or crowded place.
Compare 3BYK r6.11.oca the sound of a voice with lllYM roAoc6B the
noise of voices.
fp6xoT is stronger than lii)'l>f, the noise or rumble of gunfire;
ryA is used of a remote noise, hum, or rumble; asou-of a bell,
a peal, metallic sound, tinkle; yAap, pacKaT-ofa clap, peal of
thunder, CTYK-a knock at the door, rap; TpccK-a sharp,
68 THE NOUN

snapping sound, the crackle oftwigs, or of a wood fire; TOIIOT-

the clatter or stamping of hooves or feet; BH3r-a shrill, piercing,
high-pitched often unpleasant sound, the squeal of a saw; CBHCT
-the whistle of the wind; ru6pox and .11.erreT-the rustle of
leaves, etc.; JKy)ioKaHbe-hum or buzz; JKyptiaHue-the babble
of a brook; .II.H3r and 6pHg;aHbe-the clang or clanking of metallic
objects, chains.
no. Note. 3amicKH and 3aMeTKH are both written notes, lecture
notes, etc. A note in the sense of a comment or footnote is rrpHMetiaHHe
or CHOCKa. 3aMetiaHHe is a remark, observation, or critical comment.
H6Ta is used both of a musical note and of a diplomatic note
(in the plural it also means music: to set to music K.ll.aCTb Ha
HOTbi).
III. Number. Ko.11.ntiecrno is quantity; a considerable number of
people 3Hal:IHTe.ll.bHOe KO.II.HlleCTBO .1\.IO,ll;eil. qHC.I\.0 can have the
same meaning of quantity, as well as number as a grammatical
concept or mathematical expression (whole number). lJ:H<Ppa is
a numeral, the figures in a given number. H6Mep is a copy of a
magazine or newspaper: back number CTapbiil HOMep. Also a tele-
phone number: what's your number? KaKoil y Bac HOMep?; the
number of a house and a numbered room, i.e. a hotel room.
112. Organ. Notice the difference between opraH, a musical
instrument, and 6praH, an organ in all other senses.
n3. Part. qacn. is part of a whole. CTopOHbi may be parts in
the sense of a district: do you know those parts? 3HaeTe Bbi Te
cT6poHbl? Also Kpa.H in the same sense: in our part of the world
B HalliHX Kpa.Hx.
TiapTHH is used musically of a solo part for voice or instru-
ment: the bass part rrapTHJI 6aca.
For my part qTo KacaeTCH MeHH:
To play a part MrpaTb poAb
To take part in IlpHHnMaTb (npHHHTb) yt~acme B
II4· Party. Party in the political sense is rrapTHJI; 9KCKypcuJI
is an outing, sporting or recreational party; BetiepilHKa a social
party; cTopoHa a party to a suit, marriage, etc.
 SOME COMMON NOUNS 6g

II5· Payment. YJV\:iTa and OIL'I.:ha both denote the action of

paying. YIL'I.<iTa is commonly used of paying a debt or an ac-
count, settling up, repaying, reimbursing, etc.: payment of a debt
yJV\:iTa AO-'\ra. 0Ivl.aTa is commonly used in the sense of paying
for some service, for labour, for a journey, etc.-tlze fare for the
journey is five copecks OIL'I.:iTa npoe3Aa nHTh xoneex-and in the
general sense of remuneration cf. a well-paid job xopow6 OJV\a-
qJmaeMaH pa66Ta. lliaTa means the fee itself-entrance fee BXOA-
HaH IL'I.:iTa-or the salary paid.
3apiVI.aTa ( = 3apa6oTHaH IL'I.:iTa) is a new term meaning pay-
ment for work, i.e. wages. 3aiL'I.aTa means a patch and NOT payment.
n6. People. Hap6A may be regarded as applying to particular
groups-the people-whether vast such as the nation, or smaller
racial or social groups. Thus it may mean the nation, the entire
population of a country, or it may mean the lower orders of
society.
AK>An means people at large, without reference to groups or
units. Compare our friends are interesting people HawH APY3hH-
nHTepecHhie AIOAH; the Russians are an interesting people p)·ccKHC -
UHTepeCHhD"i HapOA .
.Many people ~IH6ro AIDAel"i or ).IH6ro n:apoAy. Sometimes HapoA
has a colloquial flavour as in MeWHHe ypoJKeHy;hi- x1hphlil
HapoA the natives here are a crafty lot.
In the genitive plural, AIOAeH: is used after quantitative ex-
pressions, a few, a lot, etc.; tJ:e.'I.OBeK after numerals (above four).
Few people Mho AIDAei1; ten people Aecxn qeAOBeK.
People say . . . foBopkr ...
n7. Person. 'lleAOBeK is a person, without any qualifying attri-
butes. AHy;o also means a person, but often in a particular
capacity, an official. A ~·ery important person o'leHh BaJKHoe (3Ha-
tJ:ilTeAhHOe) AHy;o; displaced persons nepeMel!!CHHhle ,uiya. Oco6a
personage also suggests an exalted status, but is rather archaic.
IIepcoHa, too, is used in a rather pompous sense as a personage
of some note .
•iui'IHOCTh generally is persona/it;·, individuality. Freedom of the
person (i.e. of the individual) CBo66Aa AH'IHOCTH; the cult of the
individual KY.!\hT AH'IHOCTH.
 THE NOUN

118. Performance. Of a play npe;tcTaBJI.eHue, noCTaHOBKa;

of a work of music ucnoJI.HCHHe.
ng. Piece. Notice that a piece of is often not translated in
Russian: Me6eJI.I> a piece offurniture; y,ztaqa a piece (stroke) of luck;
HOBOCTI> a piece (item) of news.
120. Power. B11.acn means authority, especially political
authority: in power of a government y BJI.aCTu; BJI.aCTII npe;tep-
.IKclJ,l!IIe the powers that be. CHJI.a generally means physical power,
strength; also force, validity, influence. The power of the printed word
cM:11.a neq<iTHoro c11.6Ba; to come into force BXO,ztMTI> (BoiiTM:) B cHJI.y;
eight horse-power BoceMI> JI.OIIIa~MHI>Lx CHJI..
3Heprnll often has a technical sense: t~JI.eKTpnqecKali :meprnll
electric power. ,ll.ep.IKaBa is a power, i.e. a country or state: Be11.M:Kne
,ll.ep.IKaBI>I the Great Powers. ·
Powers = capabilities are cnoc66Hocm, CMJI.l>I: it is beyond his
powers :ho eMy He no cM:11.aM. The power to express one's thoughts
cnoc66Hocn BI>Ipa.IKaTI> CBOM MhlCJI.H. But power = property (of an
inanimate object) is CBoiicTBo: this ring has the power to make you
invisible y :horo KOli.I>IJa ecTI> CBoiicTBo ~eJI.aTI> Bac HeBMAIIMbiM.
121. Progress. Usually nporpecc. ,ll,e11.aTI> ycnexu is used of
scholastic progress. Similarly ycneBaeMOCTL, a Soviet word, in-
dicates the progress made or degree of success attained in one's
studies.
Preparations are in progress
122. Scene. Ileii3a.>K is landscape, scenery. CgeHa is a scene in a
play or novel. 3pe11.IIJ,l!e is a sight or spectacle.
The scene is laid in London ,LJ;eii:cTBHe npoHcx6AHT B A6H-
AOHe
Behind the scenes 3a Kyli.McaMn
The scene of the crime MecTO npecTyl1.1\eHHH
To make a scene YcTpaHBaTb (ycTpOHTb) cueny,
cKanAaA

123. School.
We were at school together Mbl BMecTe yqM:AIIch
What school did you go to? f ,ll;C Bbl y<n1.11.IICh?
 SOME COMMON NOUNS
124. Service. In the widest sense cA)'.lK6a, including military
service and church service. Service =favour is ycAyra which is
used, too, in the plural, of municipal services, gas, electricity,
etc., provided for the householder. CAy.lKeHiie is the act of
serving: cAy.lKezme ;:r.eAy 1\nlpa the service of the cause of peace.
06cA)'.lKIIBamre is service in a hotel, restaurant, etc. Cf. caMo-
o6cA)'.lKIIBaHire self-service.
125. Ship, Boat. Tiapoxo;:r. is the usual word for a passenger
vessel, lit. steamship. Kopa6AL, originally a sailing vessel (mipyc-
Hoe cy;:r.Ho), may also be applied to a large ocean-going steamer,
like napox6;:r., and specifically to a naval vessel.
Ao;:r.Ka denotes a small boat, rowing-boat, or, when qualified
by an adjective, submarine no;:r.no;:r.HaH AO;:r,Ka or lifeboat cnaca-
TeAbHaH Ao;:r,Ka. Cy;:r.Ho is a vessel, a bottom, and is usually quali-
fied by an adjective, napycHoe (sailing-), naponoe (steam-), etc.
KaTep is used of a launch or pleasure boat.
To burn one's boats Cn<e'IL cnmi 1mpa6A1i
126. Shop. AanKa commonly denotes a stall, or an open-air
stand: bookstall KI-Ui.lKnaH AanKa; but it may also mean a small,
covered shop. Tlze Old Curiosity Shop is commonly translated into
Russian as AanKa ;:r.penHocTeii. KnocK is used of enclosed book-
stalls, flower stalls, or sweet and tobacco kiosks. YHimepMar
( = yHimepd.AbHbiH Mara3{m) is a department store.
To go shopping H;:r.ni (n01inl) no l\tara3JiuaM (3a
noKym:al\m)
127. Side, Inside, Outside. Side generally is cTOpomi, but 6oK
is used for the side of the body. BopT is the side of a ship. Inside,
interior is BHYTPCHHOCTb: the inside or reverse side of a garment is·
o6op6TnaH cTOpomi, or n3nanKa. (N.B. H3minKa .lKII3Hn the seamy
side of life.) Outside, exterior is napy.lKHocn or nHeiiiHOCTb; the
outside or right side of a garment is AnuenaH CTopona.
128. Sight (see View). 3peHHe is the physical property of sight,
vision. B3r.Ul;:r, may be used of a quick glance: at first sight na
nepBbiH B3rAHA, c nepnoro B3rNI.zta. Bu;:r. is used to express being
in, coming into or going out of the field of vision: to disappear out
 THE NOUN

of sight cKpLmancx (cKpbiTLca) H3 BHAy; in sight of all Ha BHAY y

BCeX.
CneKTaKAL is used only of a play, film, or other visual enter-
tainment. 3peAHI,Ue is a sight, spectacle (something worth looking
at). The sights ,ZJ;OCTonpnMeq<iTeALHOCTH.
To know by sight 3HaTL B AII!JO
To play at sight (of music) MrpaTL c AHcTa
Out of sight, out of mind c rAa3 ,li;OAOH, H3 cep,ll;ya BOH

129. Sorrow, Grief, Pain. lle"CJ:<lA:& is the primary word for

unqualified sorrow, i.e. without reference to the intensity of the
emotion. fope is stronger and suggests profound sorrow. Ee,ZJ;a
often means misfortune, and is common in colloquial and prover-
bial usage. fpycT:& and r6pecn belong to poetic diction. TocKa
is a weariness of the spirit which may be boredom or may be a
nostalgic longing. EoAL is used primarily of physical pain.
CKop6:& means grief.

130. Step. Basically rnar. CTmra in the sense of rnar is archaic

or poetic, but is used in the idiom HATH (no:ih:H) no CTorraM
Koro-Hn6y,ZJ;L to follow in someone' s footsteps. To march in step with
HATH (no:ih:H) B nary c+instrumental.
llocryrr:& and rroxo,ZJ;Ka both denote a way of walking, gait,
tread: noxo,ZJ;Ka is the normal word, noCTyn:& the more poetic.
KpMALQo is a flight of steps (e.g. in front of a house).
Steps: npnCTaBHax ACCTHHJla is a ladder; cKAa,ZJ;nax AeCTHny;a
or CTpeMfiHKa a pair of steps. CryneHLKa is used of the step (stair)
of a staircase; nepeKAa,ZJ;Ima of the rung of a ladder. llo,ZJ;HoJKKa
is the steps of a vehicle, the footboard.
ITa is a dance step.

131. Student. CTy,ZJ;eHT (CTy,ZJ;eHTKa) is the general word. Byao-

Bey; (BY30BKa) is a popular Soviet coinage meaning a student
at a higher educational institution (BLicrnee y-qe6uoe aaBe,ZJ;eHne),
i.e. technical college, training college, university. YtieHMK often
means pupil, disciple. Y'<IaJ!!nec.ll is frequently used in the plural
to denote the student body, a collective term for both sexes. A
student of Roman law n3yqaroJ!!ni1 pnMCKoe npaBo.
 SOME COMMON NOUNS 73
132. Task, Problem. 3Maqa is often a more difficult task
than 3ap;aHHe and is usually set not by a single individual, but
by some force external to man, e.g. nature, environment, his-
torical circumstances, etc., or by a body (e.g. a ministry). There
always remains an element of doubt whether a 3ap;aqa can be
solved or fulfilled.
3ap;aHne is usually a task of lesser magnitude than aap;aqa,
often quite straightforward, even mundane, and does not sug-
gest something which has to be solved so much as something
which has to be carried out.
133· Thought. While there is overlapping between the words,
a general distinction can be made between pa3MblllL/\emie, Mbllll-
;\emre, and llfLICAh. .PaaAlbllliAeHHe is the process of thought,
deliberation, reflection; MblllVI.emre is the ability to think, the
property of thought; MbiC.\b is the result of the thought process,
a thought. Compare:
On second thoughts (i.e. after
mature reflection)
Thought (i.e. thinking) is the l\-lbliW\CHHe- rArumax ~YHKYII.Il
chieffwzction of the brai1z M03ra
To collect one's thoughts Co6uph~>cx (co6paTLcx) c M'hz-
C\.IlMli

AYMa is now archaic or poetic as a synonym for thought.

134. Time. What is the time? KOTOphlii qac? l.Jac is confined to
time by the clock; colloquially BpeMH may be substituted:
cKO,\bKo Bpe111emr? = KoTopbrli qac?
Bpe11rn can mean time, period, age, season (also tense gramma-
tically). BpeMeHa rop;a the seasons of the )'ear; AeTHee BpeMx summer
time, the summer season. Cea6H is used of a theatre season or a
social season; the London season AOHAOHCKnii ce36H, as well as of
the appropriate time for carrying out an action. It's time to is
+
nopa the infinitive. Tiopa as a noun in the same sense as BpeMH
is archaic, but still occurs in such combinations as c Tex nop
since; p;o c11x nop up to now; B T)' n6py then.
At my time of life B MOll ro,J.LI
It will last our time (lifetime) Ehoro Ha Haw seK xsaniT
74 THE NOUN

Time meaning occasion is paa: time after time paa aa pa3oM. Nine
times out of ten B Aemrru CJ\)fqamc H3 ,~~;ecJITli:.
CpoK often is the date on which something has to be com-
pleted or fulfilled; the date for payment cpoK nMTe)l{a. Also a
definite, limited interval of time, a term of office: twenty years
is a long time ABa,~~;y;an. .1\eT - 6oMIIIoii cpoK.
That was before my time
135· Today, Tomorrow, Yesterday. Both cerO,Il;HH and aaB-
Tpa can be used as indeclinable nouns: until tomorrow AO aaBTpa.
This is not the case with Bl!epa: since yesterday co Btiepanmero
AH.!I and not co Btiepa.
136. Tree. Most names of trees are identical with the names of
their fruits; a few trees have their own form. Among the com-
monest of the former are:
Pear and pear tree rpyiiia
Plum and plum tree cJUiBa
Cherry and cherry tree BHIIIHH
of the latter:
Apple tree H6J\OHH; apple H6J\OKO
Orange tree arreMCHHHoe ,~~;epeBo; orange arreMCHH.
137. Trouble, Difficulty. 3a66n.t and XJ\Orron.r: trouble in the
sense of worries, anxieties, cares, fuss, bother, making a special
effort: He CTOHT XJ\OIIOT it's not worth the trouble.
BecrroK6iicTBo: trouble in the sense of inconvenience: rrpocTHTe
aa 6ecrroK6iicTBo sorry to trouble you.
BeAa: trouble in the sense of misfortune: 6biTb B 6eAe, rrorraCTh
B 6e,~~;y to be in, to get into trouble.
HerrpHHTHOCTH: trouble in the sense of unpleasantness: ycT-
p6HTL HeiipHHTHOCTH to make trouble; HarrpOCHTLC.!I Ha HerrpHHTHO-
CTH to ask for trouble.
Tpy,~~;Hocn. is difficulty: TPYAHOCTL aa,~~;atiH tlze difficulty of the
task, and effort: c 6oMIIIOH TPYAHOCTbiO witlz great difficulty. In
the latter meaning TPYA is also used (c 6oJ\LIIIHM TPYAOM).
3aTpy,~~;H6me is basically an obstacle or difficulty to be sur-
mounted, obstruction, embarrassment, awkward situation: 6hiTL B
 SOME COMMON NOUNS 75
3aTPYAHeHim to be in difficulty; AeHe)KHLie 3aTPYAHeHmr..financial
difficulties (straits). TpyAHocm in the plural frequently corres-
ponds to 3aTPYAHeHim in this sense.
138. Truth. IIpaBAa and licnma are identical in this meaning,
but licnma survives in certain set expressions and certain legal
and religious formulae (cf. nCTeg plaintiff; no {rcTHHY veri~).
Common uses of 1knma are r6AaH Iicnma the naked truth (and
cf. qucTaH npinAa); CTapaH licTnHa an old truth; r6pbKaH 1lcnma
a home truth; cnnaH JicTHHa gospel truth.
The somewhat solemn flavour of the English verity is con-
tained in licnma; compare also the translation of in vino urilas
JfcTIIHa B BliHe.
I39· Turn. Connected with the nopoT root arc: o6op6T which
means a complete turn, the revolution of a wheel, a turn of
speech, the reverse side of an object. IIonop6T means a move-
ment to one side, a change in direction, a bend in a road. Notice
nonop6T K A'0JIIIeMy a change (turn) for the better (nonop6T is the
usual word for turn, change in fortunes, opinion, policies, etc.)
but o6op6T in the idiom things took a bad turn AeAa np{m.fL\U
AYPHOH o6op6T. IIepenop6T is an overturn, a sudden transfor-
mation, a revolution in a political sense. Ornop6T is something
that turns over on a coat, etc., lapel. H3nop6T,\HBOCTb means
quickness at turning and hence resourcefulness.
To wait one's turn /K.ztaTh cnoe1'i: otiepeAu
At every tum Ha KfuKAm.1 wary
Tum of mind CKAaA yMa
One good turn desen·es another ,LI;oAr nAaTeiKoM Kpacen

140. View (see Sight). There are many nouns associated with
the roots BifA-CTb, 3p-eTb (to see); cuoTp-eTb, B3rNI'A-bmaTb (to
look). BHA has the widest range of meanings and is the usual
word for view: a house with a view of the sea AOM c BlfAOM a a Mope;
to have in view HM:eTb B BHAy; picture-postcard OTKfJLITKa c ni'IAOM.
3peHHe usually corresponds to vision, but N.B. TOqKa 3penuH
point of view. 0636p means survry or precis.
View = opinion is B3TAHA, which generally means the manner
of looking at a thing, gaze, glance.
 THE NOUN

Connected with cMoTp-en. are ocM<hp inspection of luggage,

examination of a patient; npocM<hp viewing of a film, perusal of a
document; CMOTP a military review, parade, inspection of people.
View in the sense of a careful watch or observation is trans-
lated by Ha6AIOACHHe (c£ the archaic verb 6AIOCTH = watch,
preserve). Viewpoint, observation point is Ha6AroA<heAI.HniH rryHKT.
HaA36p means surveillance, supervision.

141. Village. ,LJ;epesHH is smaller than ceA6, which in pre-

revolutionary Russia signified a village with a church. CeJ\eHMe
is poetic and archaic. Ilod~J\OK, primarily a small settlement, is
now used very widely to mean any place where people live, a
village, or even a town which has recently sprung up.

142· Visit. To pay a visit: MATH (nORTH) B roCTM, always has a

pleasant connotation; noceJ,gan. (noceTlhn) and noceJ,geHMe not
necessarily so. HaseJ,gan. (Hasecrun.) to pay a visit is colloquial
and implies dropping in for a brief call, as does 3aXOAHTI. (3aiiTli)
K, 3a6eraT1> (3a6e.IKan) K. BM3IIT suggests an official, ceremonial,
or professional visit. Visiting card BM3HTHaH KapTO'lKa.

143· Way, Road, Route. ,LJ;op6ra and nyn are in mar1y con-
texts interchangeable. Both have the meaning ofjourney as well
as road or way (figuratively): bon voyage! cqacTJ\HBI.IH nYTn!
(cqacTJ\HBOro nyTJi) or cqacTJ\HBoii AOpom! Only nyn is used
in such metaphorical expressions as nyn K KOMMYHH3MY the road
to communism; CJ\aBHMH rryTn a glorious path; nyn. MIIpHoro cocy-
J,geCTBOBaHMH the path oj peaceful coexistence; nyn K cepAUY the
way to one's heart. ,LJ;op6ra is used figuratively in the expressions
nanm AOporn: pa30IIIJ\HCI. our paths diverged; MATH csoeii AOporoii
to go one's own way; cTan nonepeK Aop6ry KOMY-HM6yAn to cross
one's path, to get in one's way. But path in a concrete sense is
AOPO.IKKa (TponHHKa), and road in a concrete sense Aop6ra. The
high road is 6oAniiiaH AOp6ra.
Illocce is a main, trunk road; Marn:CTpaAn a main line, main route
(rail, river, etc.); aMeH avenue; YAMQa, nepeyAoK street, side-street.
MapiiipyT means route, itinerary.
 SOME COMMON NOUNS 77
Way = means cpe,21;crno, = method crr6co6.
To my way of thinking Ilo-M6eMy; Ha MOti B3rAJIA
To get one's own way ,LJ;o6liTbCJI csoer6; HaCTOHTb Ha

By the way = incidentally

I44· Work. Both TPYA and pa66Ta can denote mental and
physical work, with TPYA the more literary word stylistically,
pa66Ta the more colloquial.
Tpy.zt suggests labour, conscientious endeavour, industry,
always implying expenditure of effort. Pa66Ta extends to a
man's daily occupation which may or may not be laborious.
It also means working in the sense of functioning. CAy:lK6a is
the work of an official or professional man. 3aHhue, an occupa-
tion, often means academic studies in the plural: we start work
at tlze university in October 3aml:nu1: B ynnsepCJneTc Ha'IIHHaiOTCH n
OKTH6pe.
,LJ,bo is a job of work, business: on business rro ,zteAaM; he's got
some work (a job) on OH 3aHHT ,zteAO~t; a moment's work .zteAo OAHOH
MUHYTbi·
An author's works may be rrpoH3Be,zteHHH, CO'III.fHCHHH, pa66n1,
or, collectively in the singular, rnop"'ecrno. Tsop"'ecrno is crea-
tive power or creative work as a whole. Tpy.zt may also mean an
author's work-ocHOBHOf.i TPYA K. MapKca - <<KamiT<iA>>
'Capital' is A1arx's main work-and HaytJHbiii TPYA and Ha'YtJHbie
TPYALI are both found in the meaning of scientific work (works).
145· Worker. Pa66tJnii is primarily a manual labourer, but
in the Soviet period it is used in an appreciatory sense of all
industrial and agricultural workers as distinct from professional
people and intellectuals. Of the latter pa66mnK is used, especi-
ally of scientific and technical specialists and research workers
in any field.
Tpy.ztHI!!necH refers indiscriminately to people actively em-
ployed.
The working class Pa66•mi'i K.\acc
A hard worker Tpy*eintK, pa6oTlira and (slang)
pa6oTJiiJ!Hfi
Office worker, white-collar worker CAy*aiJ!Hfi
~ THENOUN
146. World. MHp is more abstract (the universe, life, civiliza-
tion), CBCT more concrete (the earth with its animal and veget-
able life). M»r nocTpOHM HOBI>Iii MMP we shall build a new world
(i.e. civilization); x )KMBY B HoBoM CBeTe I live in the New World
(i.e. America). The ancient world (implying a culture and a
civilization, not a geographical area) aHTif'IHDIM MHp.
The world of animals, sounds, colours, etc., is MHp. The
world as the aggregate of countries and oceans is CBCT. A journey
round the world nYTernccrnne BoKpyr CBeTa (KpyrocBenme nyTe-
rnccrnue).
CBeT is also used of high society: The fashionable set MOAH»rii
cBeT. A man cif the world CBCTCKM1i <rCAOBCK.
In this world; in the next world Ha !hOM CB&fe; Ha TOM CBeTC
To get on in the world B:brihH B AIO,II;H

147. Writing. I1MC»MO is the ability to write: reading and writinf!

'ITCHMe II nMc»Mo; the art cif writing McKyccrno nMC»Ma. I1McaHMe
is the act of writing: he was busy writing his memoirs on: 6»IA aan:xT
nMcaHneM cBo1fx MeMyapoB. HanMcan:Me translates the act of
writing in a perfective context. In a religious context nMcaHMe
means scripture: CBHIQCHIIOe nMcan:ne holy writ, the scriptures.
fpaMoTa is the ability to read and write, i.e. literacy.
fioqepK means st;•le.cif writing, handwriting, hand.
148. Year. AcT and not roAOB is used as the genitive plural
after the cardinal numerals five and upwards, and quantitative
adverbs. foAOB is used with ordinal numbers signifying decades:
before the thirties AO TPIIAQ<iTDix rOAC>B (see also para. 750).
Aeni (B AcTa) are poetic or archaic for r6ADI (B rOADI) in such
expressions as B Banm AeTa at your time cif life, B Aenl. Moeii x6Hocnr
in the years cif my youth and the plural of roA would normally be
used in both these cases. But B AeTax is still used in speech as
well as B roAax to mean getting on in years.
Leap year BucoKOCHhiH ro,11;

149· Yesterday, see Today, Tomorrow.

150. Youth. The period of youth is MOAOAOCT» and (more
literary) rouocn. But ron:ocn is confined to the 'teens, while
 SOME COMMON NOUNS 79
MOJI.O,li;OCTL may refer to the 30s and 40s, up to middle age in
fact, and is also used in the expression BTopax MO.I\O,li;OCTL.
IbHoma is a youth; MO.I\O,ll;e.)f{b the youth (collectively). Mo.II.O-
,~~;eu! is a colloquial exclamation meaningfinefellow!, well done!,
nice work!
 II · The Adjective

LONG AND SHORT FORMS

151. As a general statement, if an adjective has both long and
short forms, the long form will be found most commonly in the
attributive position, while the short form will be found only in
the predicative. The use of the short form attributively is con-
fined to a very few set expressions, e.g.
In broad daylight Cpe,a;h 6CAa ,a;uH
Everyone regardless of age OT MaAa ,a;o aeAiiKa
On one's barefeet Ha 6ocy n6ry
N.B. not barefoot (ooCHKOM), but with no socks or stockings on: B
KaA6wax Ha oocy Hory (L. N. Tolstoy) wearing galoshes on his
bare feet.

152. (i) Pa,zt is the only adjective in common literary use

which exists only in the short form (cf. the attributive use of
pa,ztOCTHbiM).
(ii) There arc a considerable number of relative and posses-
sive adjectives, adjectives derived from verbs, and ordinal num-
bers which exist only in the long form. All adjectives in -Cimti: have
the long form only, except when the -c forms part of the root
and not of the -cK- sufflx, e.g. B(!C-Knli weighty which gives aecoK,
etc. The same is true of the vast majority in -mrli (e.g. ACTHHii;
N.B. the short forms of cnuHfl and ,a;peauiili are very rarely
used), -IliHHM (e.g. ,ltOMclUIHHii), -.IIHhrii, -.IIHHbiM, -aHbiM, -aHHblll
(e.g. ,ztepeaxHHbiM, KOJKaHbiti) to mention only the most com-
mon.
(iii) Some adjectives in -HqecKHti which have no short forms
have synonyms in -nquwfr which provide short forms. Common
examples are TparnqecKHti, Tpar{rqubiti tragic; KOMJi:qecKnli, Ko-
 LONG AND SHORT FORMS 81
MIItJHLiii comic; THrrHtJeCKHii, THm{'IHLrit typical; ApaManit~eCKUH,
ApaMaTHtJHLIH dramatic.
(iv) Bo.u.IIIoii and M<iAeHLKHii: have as their short forms BeJlliK
and Mal\ respectively (see para. 179).

153· When an adjective has two forms morphologically, there

are certain contexts in which only the one form or the other is
admissible as a predicative adjective.
(i) Sometimes the two forms have acquired different mean-
ings, e.g. xop6IInrll: good and xopoiii co66:H handsome; AYPHOH bad
and AypeH co66it ug{y; IIAox6ii bad and IIAOX weak, ill. In the
meaning of handsome, ug{y, or ill only the respective short forms
may be used predicatively. Notice also oH npaB, HenpaB he is
right, wrong, but oH npaBLrn he is right-wing; AeBO'IKa 6'1eHL
JKHBaH the girl is very live{y, but AeBO'IKa ewe JKuBa the girl is still
alive, co6LITU.!I BTOpoil: MHpOBOH BOHHI;I ewe IKllBLI B naMHTU BCex
the events of the Second World War are still vivid{y remembered by all
(are alive in everyone's memory).
There are some adjectives which in their literal meaning
have both long and short forms, but when used metaphorically
have only the long form. Note especially rA)'XOH which in the
literal meaning of deaf has both forms, but when used with the
following meanings has only the long form: blank wall rAyxaH
cTeHa;false window rAyxoe OKHO; remote province, backwater rxyxaH
npoBHHIJHH; voiceless consonant rAyxoH: cori\aCHLni. It is impossible
to say :hoT corAaCHLn1 r.\yx this consonant is voiceless.
(ii) Only the short form is used with a few adjectives to
denote that the characteristic of the adjective is possessed m
too great a degree:
This hat is too small
Other common adjectives used in this way are A.-u'meu too long,
KopoToK too short, BeAIIK too big, MOAOA too young, IIIHpoK too wide,
Y30K too na"ow.
(iii) Only the short form is used with adjectives which are
delimited by an infinitive, a clause introduced by tJTo6Lr, a noun
or pronoun governed by a preposition, or a noun or pronoun
in an oblique case:
82 THE ADJECTIVE
(a) followed by an infinitive:
Free to BoAeH, cBo66AeH
e.g. You are free to go where you BDI cBo66,llnLr n,llni KyAa yr6AHo
like
Ready to fOTOB
Bound to ,Zl;oNKeH
Intending to HaMepen
Capable of Cnoc66en
Agreeable to CorAacen
Inclined to CKAoHen

(b) followed by tJT66Lr:

He is too weak to work OH CAHIIIKOM CAa6, •n66Lr pa66-
TaTL

(c) followed by a preposition:

Guilty before BHHOBaT nepe,ll
Far from ,Zl;aACK OT
Similar, dissimilar to Iloxom, nenox6m Ha
Inclined to CKAoHen K
Deaf to fAyx K
Indifferent to PaBHOAyweH K
Agree with (agree to) CorAaceH c (Ha)
N .B. I agree with you R corAaCeH c BaMH
I agree to your conditions R corAaceH na nawH ycAoBnH
Ready for foTOB K and Ha
N.B. He is ready for the exams. On roTOB K aKaaMenaM
(i.e. he has made all the ne-
cessary preparations)
He is ready for anything (i.e. he is On rOT6n Ha nce
reckless, foolhardy)

(d) followed by an oblique case of a noun or pronoun:

Worthy (unworthy) of ,ZJ;oCTOHII (He,llOCTOHH) +genitive
Satiified (dissatiified) with ,ZJ;on6Aen (He,llOBOAeH) + instru-
mental
Rich in EoraT + instrumental
e.g. The Russia11 language is rich PyccKHH aab'rK 6oraT noCAoBn-
in proverbs yaMn
 LONG AND SHORT FORl\IS
It will be noticed that an adjective in the short form followed
by a preposition, or governing a noun or pronoun in an oblique
case, may be identical in meaning with a verb formed from the
same root:
I agree with him R corAacen c nuM = .11 corAa-
maiOCL C HHl\.1
He is angry with me On cepAIIT Ha l\ICllli = OH cep-
AIITC.II na MCHH
(iv) (a) In some idioms and fixed expressions in Russian only
the short predicative adjective is used:
A,.(y conscience is clear CoBecTb Mo.H: 11ncTa
He is more dead than alh•e On nn amB nu MepTB
(b) Conversely some idioms allow of only the long predi-
cative adjective:
He was a lucky fellow Pyxa y nero 6LI,\a J\CffiaH
(Turgenev)
(v) Only the long form exists of several adjectives denoting
colour, especially when derived from the name of a substance,
e.g. KOpit'IHeBhni brown (like cinnamon); IIIOKOAUAHbiH chocolate-
coloured; KpeMOBbii'l cream; q>no,\CTOBhlii violet; KoiJ>el'illbn1: coffee-
coloured; roAy66H pale blue.
154· Whereas the examples in para. 153 illustrate circum-
stances in which either one form or the other must be used,
there are certain contexts besides in which one or other form is
markedly predominant. The short form predominates:
(i) In generalized statements or definitions:
The earth is big and beautiful 3e~ru Be,,nKa n npeKpacua
(Chekhov)
The soul, it is said, is immortal foBopfl:T, 'ITO Ayma 6ecc11u~pTHa
(L. N. Tolstoy)
(ii) When the degree of the quality expressed by the adjective
is indicated, emphasized, or compared:
This 'blind man' is not as blind as 3TOT «CAenoih HC TaK C.\en, KaK
I think :t.me K{DKCTC.II (Lermontov)
 THE ADJECTIVE
She thought that she was no longer EM: Ka3aAoch, 'ITo oua yjKe ue-
young enough for me AOcTaTotiuo MOAOAa AAH MeHH
(Chekhov)
(iii) The short form also tends to predominate when the sub-
ject is a part of the body and is accompanied by the personal
pronouns ero, ee, HX:
Her face is pale .l\nu6 ee 6ACAHO (Krymov)
Their eyes are bright and their fAa3a ux ncnLr, u AIIQa cBeTAbr ...
faces shining. ... Their hearts CepAua ux Mfu-Ku, KaK A66paH
are as soft as good soil n6tiBa (Korolenko)
(iv) The short form is usual when a predicative adjective pre-
cedes the subject:
Petersburg at the end of 1917 was CTpaweu 6LIA IleTep6ypr BKonue
terrible ceMnaAuaToro r6Aa
(A. N. Tolstoy)
(v) (a) The long form predominates in a context where in
English the repetition of the noun in the subject as an indicator
word is understood, or when the pronoun one (ones) is under-
stood. This commonly occurs in English when the noun is par-
ticularized by the use of the definite article, a demonstrative
adjective, a possessive pronoun, or an adverbial phrase:
Judging by all the rules the picture CyAH no BCeM npaBHAaM Kapnlna
is a bad one nAoxaH (Press)
The part is an awful one PoAb yjKacnaH
His servants are old CAyru y uer6 cTapbie
The play last night was wonderful B11epawnu:i1: BetiepnuM: cneKTaKAb
6hiA 3aMe'laTCAbllbiM
(b) Contrast the predominant use of the short form,
when the adjective is followed by a complement, or when it is
qualified by an adverb of degree, or a comparative word:
He . . . is handsome in the old Ou ... KpaciiB cTapiinnoM: pyccKoii:
fashioned Russian style KpacoTou (Fadeyev)
This part is not important enough Eha poAb ue AOCTaTO'lHo 3Ha'lri-
for her TeAbHa AJ\H uee
The snow was as clean and smooth Cuer 6hiA tincT n rAaAOK, KaK
as a table-cloth cKaTepn, (Korolenko)
 LONG AND SHORT FORMS as
(vi) The long form predominates in many expressions to do
with the weather:
The days were warm ,Ll,HH 6biAH TellAhie
The weather is fine Ilor6Aa npe~<pacHax

ISS· (i) In considering the above uses of the short and long
forms of the adjective, it should be remembered that historically
their functions were respectively defining and particularizing.
The short form designated a quality without reference to any
definite person or thing to which it belonged, whereas the long
form attributed the quality to a definite person or thing. It is
this emphasis of the short form upon the quality itself rather
than identification of the quality with a definite person or thing
that determines its use meaning too (big, small, etc.) and its use
with adverbs of degree and comparison. Again the short form
is used in such a generalization as the soul is immortal precisely
because the sense is generalized-if the noun is particularized,
the long form becomes possible:
. . the soul of this comely, ... Ayma y fnoii CTpoif:HOM li CTp6-
stern woman is tender and true roii ;~<eHJ.{!HHhi He;KHM U
npHMall (Kazakevich)

(cf. para. 154 (i) and (iv)). Such words as earth denote objects
of which only one exists and therefore particularization is im-
possible (cf. the impossibility of saying in English the earth is a
big one).
(ii) Although generally speaking the identification of the long
form with particularizing constructions is clear, this does not
mean that the short form is not also possible in Russian in par-
ticularized contexts, so long as the quality referred to is not a
permanent one.
A~ sister's plaid is brand new CecTpnH nAeA cosepmeHno nos
(nosLiii)

There is no semantic difference between the use of the short and

the long form in this sentence; the only difference is that the
short form theoretically stresses the quality of newness, whereas
815634 D
86 THE ADJECTIVE
the long form theoretically identifies the quality of newness
with my sister's plaid [my sister's plaid is (a) new (one)]. With
certain adjectives, however, this theoretical difference becomes
a practical difference and makes the replacement of one form
by the other impossible. Compare:
Her mother is an invalid Ee MaTh 6oAbi-nia
Her mother is always ill Ee MaTh Bcer,.11;a 6oAbHa

Here the complete identification of the adjective bO.I\l>Hax with

her mother is expressed in English by the use of the noun invalid
in the predicate, whereas the short form t5oAI.Ha simply states
that proneness to illness is a fundamental characteristic of her
mother without identifying the two. Vinogradov states: 'long
adjectives ... denote that a characteristic is present permanently
in an object, that the existence of this characteristic covers the
whole period of the existence of the object. Short adjectives on
the other hand express the fact that a characteristic is not per-
manent in an object, but only the temporary condition of that
object.' This is another way of saying that the long adjective
identifies a quality completely with an object or person, whereas
the short adjective expresses only the quality without identifica-
tion. The long adjective will not therefore normally be used in
explicitly temporary contexts (e.g. her mother was ill at the time);
the short adjective is never found where the characteristic
covers the whole period of existence of a particularized object,
but is used to refer to permanent characteristics (aeMAfr- BeJ\11-
Ka) when its function is defining and not identifying.

156. While the preceding paragraphs present as accurate a

statement as possible of current usage, it should be noted that
there is a strong consensus of opinion among grammarians that
the tendency is growing in the spoken language for the long form
to replace the short (except where the one or the other is obli-
gatory for reasons given above), and that this tendency is
bound to affect the written language also. Nevertheless, the
student is recommended to follow the guiding principles laid
down and to note for himself what appear to be significant
exceptions to them.
 LONG AND SHORT FORMS
I57· Predicative adjectives in Russian are used in the instru-
mental case, as well as in the short form and the nominative
long form. The basic meaning of the instrumental form is a
quality which is manifest at a given moment or for a given time.
In meaning, therefore, it is similar to the short form. The only
context in which it may not be used is when there is no verbal
link between subject and predicate. (See para. 24: a noun predi-
cate can be used in the instrumental case with no verbal link.)
It is, for example, impossible to say ee Man 6o.li.Lncu1 her mother
is ill, but possible, and indeed usual, to say, for example, mirna
KoncntryUHH JIBMeTC.H nan66.11.ee ~eMoKparnqecKoii B ~nipe
(Stalin) our constitution is the most democratic in the world.
Except in sentences where there is no verbal link, or except
in sentences where the long or short nominative forms are for
other grammatical or semantic reasons obligatory, the instru-
mental form is now widespread in modern Russian. In this
respect there is a marked difference between nineteenth and
twentieth century usage. The instrumental case is today almost
invariable after a verb in the present tense, and nineteenth cen-
tury constructions such as Tenepr. anrycT, neqepa CTanonHTCH
c:brpLr (Goncharov) it is now August, the evenings are getting damp
would not nowadays be used.
158. The spelling of the short forms of certain adjectives and
participles ending in -ennLn'i (-annLu'f, -HHHLn'i) gives consider-
able difficulty to students. Three separate cases can be con-
sidered:
(i) Adjectives in -ennLn':'l not derived from participles, and
having two or more consonants preceding the ending, e.g.
6e3~eHCTBeHHl>IH, 6e3HpaBCTBeHHLIH, 6eCCMLIC.ll.eHHLii'f1 Be.li.Ii-
qecTBeHHl>J:ii:, e~lffiCTBeHHLil'f, eCTeCTBeHHLII'f, HCK)'CCTBeHHLn'i,
MeMenmn'i, MnoroqJ'ic.ll.ennLu'f, oTBeTcTBennLrn, cnoikTBennLr:ii:,
TOp)l{ecTBennLr:ii:, and others. In the past the short forms of these
non-participial adjectives have tended to vacillate between -en
and -eueu and until recently it was believed that the form in
-enen was gaining ground. This belief has now been rejected
by the leading Soviet authorities and they recommend the use
of the short form in -en, e.g. ecTecTBen NOT eCTecTBenen.
88 THE ADJECTIVE
(ii) Adjectives in -eHHbl:ii (-aHHbiii, -.HHHbiii) derived from past
participles passive. Some coincide with the short form of the
participle in the masculine gender, but double the -H- in other
genders when used adjectivally: e.g. orpaHHt:IeH having been
restricted (part.), limited (adj.); o6pa36BaH having been formed
(part.), educated (adj.) ; pacce.HH having been scattered (part.),
absent-minded (adj.). Thus OH pacce.HH he is absent-minded, oHa
pacce.HHHa she is absent-minded. Compare the following uses of
pacce.HHHl>lii in the short form as participle and adjective:
Bpa.lKeCI<ne Boil:ci<a 6hiAH pac- Tlte enemy forces were dispersed
CeHHbl (part.)
YtJaignecH 6hiAn pacceHHHhl The students were inattentive
(adj.)
Others, however, show a divergence between -eH for the short
form of the participle and -eHeH for that of the adjective.
Common examples are npe3peH and npe3peHeH, B03BbmieH
and B03BblliiCHeH, HeCAbiXaH and HeC.i\biXaHeH, onpe,ll;e.i\CH
and onpe,ll;e.i\eHeH, not:ITeH and not:ITeHeH, npimy)K..'J;CH and
npi-IHY)KACHeH. Compare:
OH 6hiA B03BhnneH B o6IgecT- He was exalted in the popular
BeHHOM MHeHHH (part.) esteem
CTUAb ero pe'IH B03BhiiiieneH His style of speech is elevated (he has
(adj.) an elevated style of speech)
OH 6hlA noqTeH 3a cBml: yeA)lrn He was honoured for his services
(part.)
Er6 n6..'J;Bnr noqTeHeH (adj.) His heroic exploit is worthy of honour
TIAaH 6biA onpe,ll;eAeH (part.) The plan was drawn up
Ero oTBeT 6hiA onpeAeAeHeH His answer was quite clear
(adj.)
Note the spelling of the short forms of the adjective: orrpe,ll;e-
.i\eHeH, onpe,ll;e.i\eHHa, onpe,ll;e.i\eHHO and the short forms of the
participle: onpe,ll;e.i\eH, onpe,ll;e.i\emi, onpe,ll;e.i\eH6.
(iii) Adjectives in -eHHbrn (-aHHbiii, -.HHHbi:ii) which have lost
all connection with the verbs from which they once derived:
e.g. OTKpOBeHHbii':i:, 06biKHOBeHHblM, HenpHKOCHOBeHHbiM, COKpO-
BCHHbiM, Ha,li;MCHHbiii, noCTOHHHl>lii, and others. These adjec-
tives have their short form in -eHeH (-aHeH, -.HHeH).
 (8g)

COMPARISON
159· Comparatives used predicatively
(i) These may be of two kinds: (a) where two persons or
objects are expressly compared ('this is bigger than that'), and
(b) where no object is mentioned as a standard of comparison.
In both cases the simple form in -ee (-eii, -e) when it exists is
much more common than the compound form 66Aee plus the
adjective in the positive degree, which is largely confined to
official and scientific language. The comparative form in -eii:
as opposed to that in -ee, is a feature of the colloquial language
and of poetry, when one syllable is required instead of two.
He is far taller than his brother On rop:bAo Bhime 6pha (t~eM
6paT)
Our friendship became stronger Hama Apy~~<6a CT<iAa Kpenqe n
and more intimate 6.,I:i:JKe
The compound form, however, is commonly used with words
of several syllables, although it cannot be said in Russian, as it
can in English, that adjectives of three or more syllables take
the compound and not the simple form of the comparative (e.g.
more difficult, not dijficulter).
(ii) With some adjectives only the compound form is possible,
e.g. adjectives which have no short form (see para. 152 (ii) ),
adjectives with the suffix -oB- (-eB-), e.g. MaccoBhnl, ncpeAoB6ii:,
and adjectives with a final r, x, K, A, or T before the ending.
Since all adjectives may take the compound form, while some
may not take the simple, it will be advisable when in doubt to
use the compound form even at the risk of bookishness and in
spite of the known preference for the simple form when it exists.
(iii) The adjectives in -uqecKuii referred to in para. 152 (iii)
which have synonyms in -uqubrii: form predicative compara-
tives from these synonyms (e.g. TpanlqecKnii, Tpan'ltJilhtil, com-
parative Tpanit~Hee).

160. Comparatives used attributively

Here the simple form in -ee (-e1I, -e) cannot be used:
The country is a healthier place ,LI.epcBHJI 66.,ee 3AOp6Boe MCCTo,
tha11 the town tiC:\1 ropoA
go THE ADJECTIVE
But note that an English attributive comparative may be trans-
lated in Russian, especially colloquially, by a predicative com-
parative, often with the prefix no-:
Show me some cheaper frocks fioKamiiTC MIIC llJ\aTDli llOACllH~B­
J\C
I have seen worse houses in A1os- B MocKBe .11 miAeA AOMihnKn
cow noxyme (Erenburg)
161. (i) Where two forms exist for the comparative as with
66AI>rne, 66Aee; Mem>rne, MeHee; AMbme, A<iAee; AOAbrne, AOJ\ee;
it is the first form which is considered 'neutral' in modern Rus-
sian when, as is usually the case, both are gramatically admis-
sible, the second form being classified as bookish. But only 66Aee
and MeHec may be used to make compound comparative adjec-
tives; and 66Abiiie and MeHbiiie cannot be substituted in the
stock expression 66Aee 11An MeHee more or less.
(ii) In the case of xyAMi:, the two comparatives xy*e and
xyAee are semantically different: xy*e means worse, xyAee
thinner.
(iii) In the case ofMoAOAOH both MOAO)Ke and MJ\aArne trans-
late younger of age; only MAaArne has the meaning of junior in
status.
162. Superlatives
.(i) The compound form, caMbiH plus the positive form of the
adjective, is by far the most common way of expressing the
superlative in Russian, whether attributively or predicatively.
(ii) The suffix -e'HIIIHH (-a'Hrnnfr} is much less common. Rela-
tively few adjectives can form their superlatives with it, and
when it is used (in preference to the compound form with
caMbiil}, it may sound bookish. It is found quite often in acade-
mic articles and in leaders in the Soviet press, although, of
course, its use is largely a matter of individual taste. The follow-
ing examples are taken from the same paragraph of a newspaper
article:
The most careful check-up is re- TyT neo6xoAihm TIJ!aTcALneii-
quired here maH nposepKa
The matter requires the most care- ,li,CJ\0 Tpe6ycT caMOrO TI,UclTeJ\h•
ful investigation noro paccAeAOBanml
 COMPARISON 91
(iii) The -eiiumfi (-aiium:H:) suffix will regularly be found in
certain stereotyped formulas where linguistic convention has
sanctioned it:
Down to the smallest details ,LJ,o llleAb'laihunx noAp66HocTei1
There's not the slightest doubt HeT Hn MaAeiiiiiero coMHeHIUI
Sheer nonsense l.JncTeiiiiim1: B3AOP
With the greatest of pleasure C BeAII'I:li:iiiinM YAOBO..\bCTanel\1
His worst enemy Er6 aAeiiwnii npar
The prime duty Ilepneiliiinii ADM
In the shortest possible time B KpaT'Iafiiiinii cpoK
These examples are all examples of true superlatives, but the
suffix is also used to form intensifying adjectives indicating a
high, but not necessarily the highest degree of the quality ex-
pressed, e.g. ueHHefirnee Ka<recrno a most valuable quality.
(iv) It may be noted that the use of -eiirnuft (-m'iumii) in a
comparative sense, which is found in nineteenth-century litera-
ture, is now virtually obsolete. (But N.B. AaAbHeiirnm'l further,
no3,li;Heihuuii subsequent.)
(v) The coupling of caMhiH and a -eftrnun (-aihunii) suffix
(e.g. caMbrn 6xnx<iiirnnii DYTb tlze nearest way) is much less com-
mon today than in the nineteenth century.
(vi) Russian, like English, uses a comparative plus the words
than anyone (ncex), than anything (Bcero) to express a superlative
meaning:
They were all rich, but lvaJ:ov was Omi nee 6bl..\ll 6oran1:-.m, no
the richest of all (lit. richer than l1aaH6a 6hL\ 6oraqc ncex
all)
(vii) The combination of the prefix uan- with the adjectival
form in -eJ'iliit1il, -aJ'irmn'i:, -rnm'i: in a superlative meaning is
generally considered bookish. Probably the most common ex-
amples in current use are Hau.\}''lliiHH best, HaJ160ALliiiil l greatest,
0

UalUICHbliiliii [east:
With very best wishes from . . . C HallAY'~IIIIIMU no)KeAamillMH
OT ...
The same literary flavour attaches to the combination of
Hau6oAee and the simple adjectival form (uau6o.,ee BaiKHLiii
most important).
 THE ADJECTIVE
163. Comparatives/Superlatives in -nmii:
There are a few pairs of adjectives which seem to hesitate
between the comparative and superlative degrees. These pairs
are (in the positive) in English: big, small; good, bad; high, low;
young, old.
(i) 66AbliiHH, MCHbliiMH:
These are used only as comparatives meaning greater, lesser.
Notice with 66AbliiHii that in some cases (i.e. instrumental sin-
gular and all cases in the plural) the form of the positive and the
form in -liiHii are spelt the same but have different stresses.
With a great (greater) effort C 6oAbiin1M (66AbiiiiiM) ycH:AneM
(ii) J\.yqnmii, xy,ztliiHii:
These may be both comparatives and superlatives ofxop61IIHH
and xy,zt6ii (rrAox6ii), i.e. better or best; worse or worst:
The critic is not a better, but a Kp1hnK He "Y'~IIIHH, a XYAIIIHH
worse philosopher than the artist cpnA6cocp, 'leM xyA6JKHHK
At best, at worst B A~IIIeM cAyqae, B xyAIIIeM
cAytJae

(iii) B:brcliiHii, mr31IIHH :

These are primarily superlatives, their use as compa!'atives
being already archaic:
In the highest degree B Bh'Iciiieli: cTeneHn
The lowest temperature of the HI1:3IIIaH Tel\mepaTypa Mecxua
month
It will be frequently noticed, however, that BhiCliiHII and (to a
lesser extent) mialiiHii are used in contexts where a superlative
is not used in English. Common examples are:
High comma11d Bb'Iciiiee KoMaiiAoaaniie
High sociery Bb'tciiiee 66!,!.!eCTBO

Here BbiCliiHii is no longer the superlative of BhiCOKHii (one

cannot speak of a BbiCOKoe KO:MaHAOBaHHe). It has acquired a
special meaning. The fact that this meaning may correspond to
a comparative or superlative form in English docs not mean that
 COMPARISON 93
s:brcumii expresses degree of comparison in Russian, any more than
higher would, in the same context, in English. B:brciiiee o6pa3o-
BaHne means higher education, which cannot be compared to the
impossible BLICOKoe o6pa3osaHue or high education.
(iv) MAaArnm'i, cTaprnm1:
These too are virtually superlatives meaning first born (cTap-
IIIHii) and last born (MAaAIIIm'i). However, when used in rela-
tion to two people only, they correspond to English elder and
younger:
Afy youngest brother (of many) Moii MAaAmm'i 6paT
.My younger brother (of two)
They also correspond to Englishjunior and senior:
Junior ojjicer MAa,llllUH oclJHJJep
Senior assistant CTa pmmi noMOJ.!!HHK
All the above adjectives in -IIInii may be combined with
calllbiif in a strong superlative sense. Hence BbiCIIIHll, itself a
superlative, means highest; caMLrli BLICIIIni'l highest or very highest.
But the combination of caMLni with 66ALIIII1ll and MeHLIIIHH is
virtually confined to the adverbial expressions caMOe 60ALIIIee
at most, ca!lwe MeHLIIIee at least.
The above adjectives-with the notable exception of cTapiiiHI'i
-may not be combined with 66Aee.

POSSESSION
164. The English apostrophes denoting possession is most com-
monly translated by the genitive case of the noun in Russian:
The policeman's hoots Canoni !IIIIAJIJJIIOHepa
However, as some Russian nouns form their own possessive
adjectives, we shall attempt here to classify them and note the
range and limitations of their use.

165. Adjectives in -os (-es) and -HH (the latter especially from
nouns in -a and -x). These may:
94 THE ADJECTIVE
(i) Denote possession by one individual specified by name:
John MsaH John's house MsaHos ~oM
Jack (dim.) BaHn Jack's house Bamm ~oM
Barbara Bapsapa Barbara's cat Bapsaprma KomKa

Not all Christian names have these possessive adjectival forms

and they are in any case most commonly associated with
diminutives or nicknames: Ha,n;HH from Ha.zv1, diminutive of
Ha,n;e)l(,lJ;a; TaHHH from TaRn (TaTI>IDia). The form in -oB has
obviously been instrumental in creating surnames, e.g. John's
son llBaHoB com has given llBaHoB (Johnson).
Such adjectives are generally speaking affectionate and used
within the family circle. Exceptions are set expressions such as:
Adam's apple a~aMoso 116.1\oKo
Noah's ark Hoes KOBt~er
Achilles' heel axiiMecosa nHTa

Note that possessive adjectives in -oB (-eB) and -HH derived

from Christian names, when used in these metaphorical expressions,
are written with a small initial letter, which is not the case when
they are used in a strictly possessive sense.
(ii) Denote possession by one individual, not specified by name,
but by relationship within the family:
The most common examples are:
1l1other's MaMnH, MllTCpHH Sister's CeCTpUH
Father's naniiH, OTUOB Brother's 6paTHHH
Wife's )KeHIIH Uncle's ~H~IIH
Husband's Mj)KHIIH Aunt's TeTIIH

These adjectives are essentially colloquial.

Observations: these -os and -HH adjectives, which we can call
'specifYing', may always be replaced by a noun in the genitive
(except in set expressions such as the ones above). It is indeed
felt nowadays that these adjectives, which are still used in the
spoken language, are dying out in all branches of literature
except fiction. With fiction, it is very much a question of indi-
vidual style (many examples of possessive adjectives could be
quoted, say, from Sholokhov). For the purposes of narrative
prose composition, the student will have little need of them.
 POSSESSION 95
166. (i) Possessive adjectives in -nH and -os are commonly
lengthened by the addition of -CKIIii, e.g. oTu6scrmii, MaTep{m-
cKuii, cecTpnHCKIIii: (but 6piTcKuii). Their meaning may in this
way be extended and some may cease to be possessive adjectives
at all. HHKOAaescKax llluHe,,L does not mean Nicholas's great-
coat, but a greatcoat of the time of Nicholas I. MaTep{rHcKax
AI066BL is not the love of one mother, but motherly or maternal
love. EpiTcKHii: npnseT means fraternal greetings. f:HTAeposcKaH
fepMaHnH, the Russian for Hitler(ite) German;·, does not suggest
that Germany was Hitler's own property, and the adjective may
be called classifying as opposed to specifying.
(ii) It would, however, be \\Tong to think that a line can be
drawn between -os and -uH as referring specifically to one
individual, and -OBCKUI1 and -nHcKml as referring to a whole
community or genus. The latter endings are taking the place
of the former as 'specifying' suffixes (OTUOBCKuii AOM is certainly
more common than OTUOB ,ll.OM), although the former endings
cannot be applied to 'classifying' adjectives (materna/love cannot
be translated by MiTepnHa AI066sb).
(iii) To form adjectives from surnames the suffix -cKnfi (not
-OBCKHii:, -nHCKm1) is used when the name already ends in -os
or -uH, e.g. cTi.umcKm1, KpbL\OBCKnii, nylliKHHCKm'f. These
adjectives do not denote personal possession by Stalin, Krylov,
Pushkin. (Stalin's car would be MalliiiHa CT<iAHHa, not cT<iAnn-
cKax MalliiiHa.) They suggest that the object they describe is
similar to, modelled after, named after, Stalin, Krylov, Pushkin.
ITylliKHHCKuii: ,ll.m.t is not Pushkin's house but Pushkin House. CTa-
AHHCKaH :;moxa is the Stalin age. They may also express the fact
that the object is "Titten, created, or initiated, by the person
concerned. Thus KpbL\OBCKue 6acnu K T)'lov' s fables, CTa\IIHCKaH
KOHCnn)·IJUH the Stalin Constitution.
Note that possessive adjectives derived from surnames by
means of the suffi:'(es -ImcK- and -oscK- are written with a small
initial letter, except when they begin a sentence. Contrast this
with the spelling of possessive adjectives derived from Christian
names in para. 165 (with the exception of those used in stock
expressions).
g6 THE ADJECTIVE
167. There is quite a numerous group of possessive adjectives
ending in -uii and -nHhiM, formed from the names of animals
with or without a consonant change in the stem. These are im-
portant for the student, for while one can avoid the use of, say,
OTQOB and OTQOBCKHM, one can only translate the idiom a dog's
life by co6a'lbH JKH3Hb. The fact that several such adjectives
occur among the s,ooo or so most common Russian words con-
firms their importance. The following are common examples:

(i) Adjectives in -Hii, -bH, -be:

Noun Adjective
Cow Kop6Ba Kop6Bnii Cow's milk KopoB&e Mol\oKo
Sheep OBua 0Be<JIIH Wolf in sheep's BOI\K B oBe<Jbeii
clothing IIIKype
Ram EapaH Eapamn'i Sheepskin cap EapaHbs manKa
Wolf Bol\K B6Nmii Wolf's den B6"<~&e 1\oroBo
Bear MeABeAb MeAB6KHii Bear's paw MeAB6K&s /\ana
Fox Anca A1l:cnii Fox's fur Mcnii Mex
Bird Ihliua Ihll<Jnii Bird's nest IITHtn.e rne3,~~;6
Peacock IIaBl\HH IIaBl\HHni't Peacock's feathers IlaBl\HH&u nep&s
Fish P:b16a P:b16nii Fish's tail P:b16nn XBOCT
Cat KoWKa Komhnit Gat's eyes Koma'l&n rl\a3a

With young animals the possessive adjective is formed from the

plural root, e.g. TeAeHOK calf; plural TCAHTa; possessive adjective
TeJ\H'!Hll.

(ii) Adjectives in -IIHbiM, -nHaH, -mme:

Noun Adjective
Horse A6ma.zt& Aoma,itHH&Iii: Horse power Aoma,~~;ilHall cyiJI.a
Lion AeB A&BHHbiH Lion's share A&BHHall AOM
Swan Ae6e.zt& Ae6eAHHhlil Swan song Ae6e.zti1Hall neCHJI
Hen Kypaua Kypii:II&Ii't Chicken broth KypilHblll 6yl\bOH
(dialect
Kypa)
Eagle OpCA. Opl\HHb!ll Aquiline nose Opl\IiH&n'i HOC

It will be seen that these adjectives, besides denoting possession,

may also show the property or characteristics of a species, origin
(KOpODbe MOJ\OKO), or comparison (opAifllbiM HOC).
 POSSESSION 97
168. Another useful group of possessive adjectives with the
suffix -nfi derives from the names of people engaged in some
profession or occupation:
Noun Adjective
Shepherd Ilacl)'X Ilacryumif Shepherd's hom IlacTyumH: por
Fisherman P1>I6aK P1>I6a•mfr Fishing smack Pbr6a'lbll "6-"Ka
Landowner Ilm.rCJ!!l"IK IloMCIJ!H'IUH Landowner's IlOMC@I'lbll
estate ycaAI>6a

169. The English apostrophes denoting possession may some-

times be rendered in Russian by a dative case, under the direct
influence of a verb:
To cut off a person's head 0Tpy6hh (oTpy6I-iTh) rO.I\OBY
KOMj-Hn6y.zth
Thisfact must not blind the Amen- fhoT cpaKT He AO.MKeH 3aKphmaTh
cam to the real state of affairs a:><~epuKangaM rAa3a Ha HaCTo.H-
(lit. shut the Americam' o•es) IJ!ee noAO;Kenue .zte.\ (Press)

RUSSIAN ADJECTIVE FOR ENGLISH NOUN

IN THE GENITIVE
170. Attention may be drawn to some common examples of
a Russian adjective translating an English noun in the genitive
case:
(i) with titles. Where in English, to express royal titles or
names of institutions, we say, for example, 'the Emperor of
China' or 'the Bank of England', Russian uses an adjective
derived from the place-name:
The University of Li<•erpool AnaepnyAhCKnii yHnaepcuTeT
The King of England EpnTaHcr-:~u'i Kop6Ah

In these examples the Russian adjective precedes the noun.

But with titles of the nobility, the adjective follows the noun:
The Duke of Edinburgh fepgor 9.ztim6yprcKni1
The Count of Paris fpacp Ilapr'I;KCKHI1
(ii) with some expressions of time:
After a moment's silence Il6cAe ceKyH~Horo MO.I\'I<lHiiH
An hour's lecture 'lJacoaaH .1\eKtJnH
A week's holiday He.zte.l\hHI>Iii 6mycK
g8 THE ADJECTIVE
ADJECTIVAL NOUNS
171. (i) Common examples such as CTOA6Ba» dining-room, BoeH-
Hbm soldier, which the student meets at an early stage, give no
difficulty. It is important, however, to distinguish between
(a) words which can still be both adjectives and nouns, e.g.
CTOJI.OBa» dining-room; CTOJI.OBaH J\.O)KKa table-spoon; and (b) words
which are now only nouns, e.g. nopTH6fi tailor.
(ii) Sometimes an adjective is used as a noun, when a noun
from the same root and with the same meaning already exists;
e.g. 6or:inrfi a rich man (6ora.q); 6e,zJ;Hbrfi a poor man (6e,zJ;Hffi<);
CMJI.bHbiH a strong man (cHJI.aq). A distinction can be made be-
tween the two by saying that the adjective (e.g. cliAbHbrfi) sug-
gests an abstract individual or a collective body (the strong),
while the noun (e.g. cHJI.aq) often denotes a concrete individual,
a real person:
The rich man sometimes forgets the EoriThlii HHOrAa 3a6bmaeT 6eA-
poor Horo
Stroganov is a rich man CTp6raHoB - 6oraq
The base and the weak hold sway H HaA cM.,u,HbiM BAacTByeT n6A-
even over the strong Abrii H CAa6~>rii (Pasternak)

PARTICIPLES USED AS NOUNS

172. Many of these are identical in spelling and in stress
whether used as participles or as nouns: e.g. ,zJ;aHHbre data;
yqai!!HfrcH student; o6BHHfreMorii the accused; HaqrmaiOIJ!HR a be-
ginner; HCKonaeMbre minerals. But notice paHeHbrfi a W(lunded man,
but paHeHHorli having been wounded; and yqeHom a scholar (no past
participle passive).

PARTICIPLES USED AS ADJECTIVES

With no change in spelling or in stress
173. (i) There are many common examples of all the parti-
cipial forms being used as adjectives. There is no change in
spelling, but the adjective often acquires a wider, metaphorical
meaning and becomes in effect a new word:
 PARTICLES USED AS ADJECTIVES 99
Present participle active:
BbiaLmaroJ,YHH (part.) Challenging
BblaLmaroi,Yee nose,o.eHue Provocative behaviour
(adj.)
BAeCTHJ,Ynfi (part.) Shining
BAeCTHJ,YHH ytiemiK (adj.) A brilliant pupil
Past participle active:
Ilpome,o.mnii (part.) Having gone by
Ilpome,o.mee speMH (adj.) Past tense
B:brsmuit (part.) Having been
B:b!sumit YtJHTCAL (adj.) A former schoolteacher
Present participle passive: (when used as an adjective, this is nearly
always combined with the negative He-or with an adverb):
BbiHocriMblil (part.) Being tolerated
HesblnocriMoe ocKop6AeHne An intolerable insult
(adj.)
Past participle passive:
PacceliHHLI:ii (part.) Having been scattered
PacceliHHLiii BHA (adj.) A distracted air
OTKpLITLIIi (part.) Having been opened
0TKpLITLIH B3fl\li,D. (adj.) A frank look
(ii) There are a few examples of participles in -c.a (present
and past) serving as adjectives, e.g.
Bbi,o.ar6r.!!HHCll YtJCHLili An outstanding scholar
BbrOJ,YHCCll BOl\OCbl Curly hair
OnycTiismniicll ttCAOBei' A man gone to seed
CTpOlll!!lrlkll ,D.OM A house under construction
and with a negative prefix:
Hey,o.asmniic.II aBTOp An unsuccessful author
He6LrOJ,YllCCll 11rpymKn Unbreakable lo)'S

With change of spelling or stress

I74· (i) There are a few adjectives of participial origin which
closely resemble present participles active derived from the
same root, e.g.
100 THE A'DJECTIVE
Xo,zpiquii (cf. xo,zvi:I,Yuii) Mobile, current
Xo,~~;siqee Bhlpa)KeHue A current expression
Epo,zpiquii (cf. 6po,~~;sii,gHif) Wandering, nomadic, stray
Epo,~~;siquif CIO)KeT A migrant theme (folk-lore)
Aeryquii (cf. AeTsii,guif) Flying, transitory, shifting
AeTjqaa Mbiiiib A bat
IIoAsyquii (cf. noA3YIJ.!Hii) Crawling
IIoAsyque pacTeHua Creepers
CTosiquii (cf. CTOHI,YHii) In a standing position, stagnant
CTosiqaa BO,ll;a Stagnant water
Ae)Kaquii (cf. Ae)Kai,gHil) In a lying position, recumbent
Ae)Kaqee noAO)KeHue A recumbent posture
Cu,~~;siquii (cf. CH,li;HI,YHii) In a sitting position, sedentary
CH,li;H'Iuii 66pas )KihHH A sedentary way of life
Bucsiqnii (cf. BHClh.!;];uti:) Hanging
Bucsiquii MOCT A suspension bridge
IIa,~~;yquii (cf. na,~~;yi,guii) Falling
IIa,~~;yqaa 6oAesHL Epilepsy
Other useful examples are: KunY'JHii intensive, feverish (e.g. of
work, activity), ropwqHii combustible, JKryqHii burning (e.g. JKry-
qHii Bonp6c), JKHBY'JHii tenacious of life, viable (oH JKnBY'J, KaK
KornKa he has as many lives as a cat). Both TeKY'JHii and TeKyiJ!Hii
are used adjectivally. TeKY'Jnii means liquid, mobile, fluctuating
(TeKY'JHe TeAa liquid bodies; TeKY'Jan pa66qaJI ciiAa fluctuating
manpower). TeKyJMHH means current, present (B TeKyiJ!eM ro,~~;y in
the current year; TeKYIJ!HH cqeT current account).
(ii) Some adjectives of participial origin derived from imper-
fective verbs have a -Hhlii suffix while their related participles
end in -HHLIH:
Pbi6a, BapeHHaa B KacTproAe Fish boiled in a pan
(part.)
BapeHaa pbi6a (adj.) Boiledfish
CoA,ll;aT, paHeHHbiH B p9J<y A soldier, wounded in the arm
(part.)
PaHeHLii% COA,ll;:iT (adj.) A wounded soldier
N.B. the verb paHHTL is both imperfective and perfective.
Compare also :
napeHHLIH (part.) and napeHLIH (adj.) steamed
COAeHHbiH (part.) and COAeHLIH (adj.) salted
 PARTICLES USED AS ADJECTIVES 101

rpy.lKeHHhn1 (part.) and rpy.lKeHhiH (adj.) laden

cyllleHHhiH (part.) and cyllleHnrii: (adj.) dried
30J\OtiCHHbiH (part.) and 30.1\0tiCHblii: (adj.) gilded
In practice these participial forms are unlikely to be met often,
since past participles passive are rarely formed from imperfec-
tive verbs in modern Russian. For a fuller list of those still used
in literary Russian see W. Harrison, The Expression of the Passive
Voice, C.U.P. rg67, pp. 27-30.
(iii) Some adjectives of participial origin derived from per-
fective verbs differ in spelling from their past participles passive
in the short form feminine and neuter genders. See para. 158 (ii).
(iv) Occasionally there is a difference of stress, but no differ-
ence in spelling, between related adjectives and participles in
-HHhrfr. Such differences were observed in the nineteenth cen-
tury, but seldom are today. One still distinguishes between
npn6AII.lKeHHnn"i (part.) having been brought near and npn6AH.lKeH-
HhiH (adj.) approximate; and between coBepllleHHhiH (part.) hav-
ing been completed and coBepllleHHhn1 (adj.) complete, perfect. But
ym!.lKeHHbifr (part.) having been humiliated is now also used as an
adjective, as well as YHH.lKCHHbiH (adj.) humiliated; and 3acAy-
.lKeHHbrii honoured is now used both as adjective and participle
to the exclusion of 3aCJ\y.lKeHHnrii (archaic).

(v) Some adjectives of participial origin ending in -nul show

a change of stress as compared with participles of the same
spelling (stressed -hili becoming -Oi'r). Thus:
CmiTbiii but cHJrroe MOAOK6 Skimmed milk
3aHliTbiH but 3aHHTOil 'ICAOBCK Busy man
B1iTbiii but BiiTaH AecTnuu;a Spiral staircase

RUSSIAN ADVERB FOR ENGLISH

ADJECTIVE
I75· The presence of a predicative adjective in English will in
certain contexts be the cue to use an adverb in Russian. Such
adverbs are used with 6niTb or a similar verb to describe the
102 THE ADJECTIVE
state in which an object happens to be at a given time, or to
denote a person's mental or physical condition:
The sky was dull Ha ne6e 6b'IAO nacMypHo
The river is calm Ha peKe cnm<6iiHo
The bus was stuffy B aBT66yce 6b'IAO Aymno
He entered the room. It was noisy OH BomeA BKOMHaTy. B neii 6b'IAo
lliYMHO
She became sad Eit cTaAo rpycTHo
The poor boy grew happier at Ha Ayme 6e,11;noro MaAb'IHKa
heart cTaAo BeceAee
His mouth was dry Bo PTY er6 6b!Ao cyxo

It will be noticed in all cases that the state is a temporary one

and not necessarily characteristic of the person or object. Some
grammarians, indeed, postulate a special 'category of state' to
include adverbs of this sort.

SIMILAR OR RELATED ADJECTIVES

BeKoB6it Ancient, very old: BeKoB6ii BH3 age-old

elm
BeliHblit Etemal: Be'lHax .lKII3Hb eternai life
Bepx: BcpXHHfr Upper (from Bepx top): Bepxunit
3Ta.lK upper story
BepxoB6ii Riding (from Bepx6M on horseback):
BepxoBaH A6ma,ll;b saddle-horse
Bepx6BHbifi Supreme: Bepx6BHbifi GoneT Supreme
Soviet
BeTep: BeTpeHblit Windy, and in a figurative sense
empty-headed, flighty
Operated by the wind: BeTpaHasr MeAb-
HHya windmill
Pertaining to taste, flavour: BKycoB6e
OI£YI£eHHe sense of taste
BKyCHbiH Tasty: BKYCHbiH cyn nice soup
B6,11;Hblli: Applied to an expanse of water: BO,li;Hbl:ii
nyTL waterway, BO,Il,HOe npocTpaH-
CTBO stretch of water
 SIMILAR OR RELATED ADJECTIVES 103

Used of things growing or living in

water: ao,z.vmfur .1\ll.I\HH watcr-liry;
BOAHH6ii *YK water-beetle; and of
things operated by water BOAH-
nfur MCAbHHUa water-mill
Watery, applied to things lacking in
substance: BOAJIHHCTbm CTH.I\b
vapid style
,L(a.l\eKm':i Both words share the common
,ll;fl.l\bllllfl meanings of situated at a distance,
remote in time, distant of sounds,
etc.: Aa.l\eKne, AWHne .1\eca dis-
tant woods; ,1\a.J\eKoe, ,1\ci.I\LHee
npolli.I\oe the distant past. Only
AWHnii is used in the following
expressions: ,~~;ci.I\LHHii BOCTOK Far
East; n6e3,11; ,~~;mnero c.l\e,ll;oaa-
rmx long-distance train; aBnaJ;JiiH
,~~;a.I\LHero ,~~;eikTBnll long-range air-
craft. A distant relative is normally
,li;WHliH pO,li;CTBeHHIIK but ,ll;a.l\e-
KIIIi is also found in this combina-
tion
Wooden: ,~~;epeBHHHblH no./\ wooden
floor
Pertaining to trees: ,~~;peaeCHblH yro.I\L
charcoal
,.lpyr: Harmonious, unanimous, zn unison:
APY*HaH ceMb.R unitedfamiry
,L(py*eCKHH These two adjectives overlap in the
,L(py*eCTBeHHbrl'! meaning ofjriendry, amicable, but
APY*eCTBeHHLiil: is more com-
monly used in official and politi-
cal contexts-ofpeoples, countries
and the relationships between
them: APY*ecTBennax ,~~;ep*:iBa
friendry power
,L(yx: ,L(yxoBHbill: Spiritual: ,~~;yx6anaH MyaLIKa sacred
music
Operated by wind: ,~~;yxoa6ii opKecTp
brass band
104 THE ADJECTIVE
jJ;hiM: jJ;hiMHhlll Filled with smoke, smoky: ,ll;hiMHall
KOMHaTa smoky room
Smoke-: AhiMOBall Tpy6a smoke-stack
chimney, funnel; AhiMOBall aaBeca
smoke-screen
3Aop6Bhe: 3,zJ;op6Bhiii: Healthy
3ApaBhiH Has now lost this meaning, and is
used only of mental processes, in
combination with MhiC.I\h, CMhiC.I\,
yM, etc. : a,zJ;paBhlii: CMI>IC.I\ common
sense
3eMNI: 3eMH6ii: Terrestrial, of the planet earth: aeMnal!
OCh the earth's axis
3el\1.7\JU-r6ii: Earthen, to do with earth in the sense
of soil: aeM.I\liHLie pa66Thi excava-
tion; aeMNin6ii: tiepBh earthworm
Pertaining to the land,property: aeMe.l\h-
HaH pe<f>6pMa land reform
3ei\I.I\McThrii: Earth-coloured, of a complexion
3eMCKHH Pertaining to the aeMCTBO
36AOTO: 3oAOTOH Made of gold, golden-coloured: N.B.
30.1\0Tall cepe,zJ;uHa (figurative) the
golden mean
3o.I\OTilcThiH Golden-coloured (hair, corn, etc.), like
gold, but not made of gold (3o.l\o-
T6t:i)
Gilded, covered with gold
KaMeHh: KaMeHHhlii: Made of stone, like stone: xaMeHI-roe
3,ll;aHne stone building
KaMeHMCThiH Stony, abounding in stone: KaMemiCThiH
6eper stony shore
Note that the suffix -HCThl:ii: often has the sense of being
rich in, having a lot oj, which may be expressed in English
by the suffix -y: .1\ecucThr:ii: (as cf. .1\eCI-Ihlli:) woody; ropu-
CThili: (as cf. r6pHhlii:) hilly
KAacc KAaccHhrli: From K.l\acc meaning school class,
classroom: K.l\accHaH ,zJ;ocxa black-
board. Also means first class in a
sporting context: xAaccrrhrli: yAap
good shot
 SIMILAR OR RELATED ADJECTIVES 105

K.Aacconbill From Kll.acc meaning a social group:

KAacconall 6opL6a the class struggle
K6)Ka: JV!ade of leather: Ko)KaHhlil: nopTcf>eAL
leather briefcase
Relating to leather and its manufacture:
KO)KeaeHHLni aan6A tannery
Kpyr: Devious, roundabout: xpy)KHLIM nyreM
by a detour
Kpyroa6fi Circular: xpyroa6e ABlf)KeHHe circular
motion
Afendacious, lying: .1\)KtmhiH: <~eAonex
liar
False, incorrect: .1\0)KHM Tpea6rafalse
alarm
From r.mp meaning peace: ~nipaaa
)KU3HL peaceful life
MHpon6J':i ~mpon61l cyALifjustice of the peace
MHpOBOt! From ~mp meaning world: MKponill
aofiaa world war
Secular, worldly as opposed to clois-
tered: ~rnpcKill cyeTa worldly vaniry
ZvloAoK6: :MoAO'IIIbiH Milky, made of milk, like milk
~L\et~HhiH Used only in the special sense of re-
sembling milk, of the sap of cer-
tain plants and of the Milky Way
l\1.1\et~uLifi nyrL
Ordinary in the sense of habitual, as
usual,frequently encountered: co6pa-
HHe W.I\O camU.t o6b'It~HbiM nopiA-
KOM the meeting followed its usual
pattern
06b!KHOBeHIILIH Ordinary in the sense of simple, com-
monplace, average, nothing remark-
able : 06hiKHOBeHHbiii 'leAOBeK the
man in the street
Cf. aa HeM 6Ll.l\ o6b'AHhiH xocmM he
was wearing his usual suit (i.e. he
normally wore the same one) ; Ha
HeM 6hl.l\ o6LIKHOBeHHhiH KOCTIOM
he was wearing an ordinary suit (i.e.
he hadn't dressed up for the occa-
sion)
Io6 THE ADJECTIVE
Or6Hb: 6rHeHHbiH Both mean.fiery in a figurative sense,
and e.g. of words, eyes. 6meHHblii:
OmeB6ii: generally refers to the quality of
fire, orHeB6ll: to the action of fire:
compare 6rHeHHbie .ll3biKH tongues
of.fire; OrHeB:iH cywKa IIAO,II;OB dry-
ing fruit by fire. OmeB6ll: is com-
monly used in technical and
military contexts: omeB6e npH-
Kph'ITHe covering fire
flAO,II;: ilAO,II;OBbiH (IIAO- Bearing fruit: nAOAOBbie ,~~;epeBb.ll
,II;OBOH) fruit trees
ilAO,II;OBHTbiH Fruitful, bearing much fruit, e.g. of
trees; prolific of an author
ilAO,II;OpO,II;HbiH Fruitful,jertile of the land, soil
ilAO,II;OTBopHbiM Fruitful, favourable, auspicious, benefi-
cial: llAO,II;OTBOpHoe Ha<n'!HaHHe
auspicious undertaking
llyx: llyxoBbiM Made from down: nyx6Ba.ll no,~~;ywKa
feather cushion
TiywM:cTblll: Covered with down, fluffy: nywlicTbifi
KOTeHOK fluffy kitten
Cepe6p6: Cepe6p.11Hblll: Only cepe6p.11Hbill: means made of sil-
and ver. Both cepe6pHHbiM and cepe-
Cepe6pM:cTbiH 6pM:cTbiH are used metaphorically
of melodious sounds. Cepe6pM:-
CTbiH especially denotes silvery,
silver-coloured: cepe6piicTbiH To-
noAh silver poplar

SOME COMMON ADJECTIVES AND THEIR

TRANSLATION
I77· All, Whole. Becb =all or the whole; QCAbiH = whole or a
whole. Compare: IJCAI.IM l!ac a whole hour, BCIO JKH3Hb all one's life;
rro IJCAI.IM AHHM.for whole days, Becb /I,eHb the whole day.
178. Bad. llAoxon and AYPHOI'i are often interchangeable,
although AypHon is the stronger in the sense of foul (AypHoi:t
3arrax afoul smell), wicked (,~~;ypwiH JKeH~.!!HHa an immoral woman)
or ug{y. ,ll;ypHon rather than rrAOxoii is often used in opposition
 SOME COMMON ADJECTIVES 107

to xop6nm:li especially with reference to moral behaviour: er6

AYPH:bie :u xoponm:e np:uB:biqK:u his good and bad habits.
Bad headache, bad cough
Kclliie.I\L
Bad leg :SoAI>Ha.ll Hora
Bad wound T.IIIKeAa.ll paHa
Bad mistake fpy6a.~~ omi16Ka
Bad egg TjxAoe Hiiu6
Bad apple fHHA6e li6AoKo
Bad name ,LJ;ypHci.ll penyraun.11
Beer is bad for you Ili1Bo BaM BpCAHO

179· Big (Great) and Small. (i) DOJI.LIIJ6ii and BeAMKuii. In

attributive position 6oAI>III6ii is the more versatile, BCAMKMii more
restricted and specialized in use. BeJI.MKnii often suggests great
or grand in solemn, laudatory, or rhetorical contexts:
The Great Patriotic War (i.e. Be.~~.IIKa.ll OTC<Iecrneuua.ll BOI'iua
1 94 1 -5)
The Great Stalin BeAiiKnii CTciJI.HH
They knew all those simple but OHii 3HaAH Bee Te npocTb're, HO
great truths . . . BCAilKIIC IicnUILl • .,

It will translate Grand in formal tides such as Grand Duke, Grand

Inquisitor, etc.
It will not correspond to great in the majority of cases, where
great simply means considerable of time, size, standing, etc.:
They were great friends OHH: 6b'IAII 6oALmrhm APY3LHMII
A girl of great promise ,Lf;eBymKa IIO,D;aKll",(!a.ll 60AhiiiiiC
Ha,~~;e~~<Abi

In the prcdicative position (short form) the adjective BeJI.IIKnii

may be accented either BeJI.ltK, BeJI.uKa, BeAnKo (meaning big,
too big), or BeJI.JIK, BeJI.nKa, BCJI.HKO (meaning outstanding, brilliant).
Compare:
This hat is too big for me 3Ta mJI.Jina :~.me Be.l\nKa
As a writer she is indisputably KaK mtcareALI-mua, oHa 6eccn6p-
great HO BC.'\llKa
(ii) MiJI.enLKHli and MiALiii. The normal translation of small
is MiAeHLKHii (predicative MaJI.). But MiAhlii is used in a few
108 THE ADJECTIVE
special expressions, notably in the sense of lesser as opposed to
greater with proper names and titles: M:i.Anrii Tehp (cf. EoAn-
rn6I'i: Te<hp) in Moscow; M:i.Amr CoBeTcKan 9HQHKJ\OIIe.ztnn (cf.
EoALrnan CoBhcKan 9HQHKAOIIe,ztmr) the Small Soviet Encyclo-
paedia; M:i.Aan Me,ztBe.ztnQa the Little Bear (Ursa Minor); and
with the names of plants and animals where in English we say
lesser.
(iii) KpyiiHDiii: and MeAKHii:. These words are common in the
general sense of big and small, but are more expressive than
6oAnrn6ii: and MaAeHLKnii::
(a) coarsef.fine:
Coarse sand (made up of big Kpynuhlii nec6K
lumps)
Fine rain Mbumii ,n;mK,ZJ;b
N.B. the opposite is CMJ\nHDiii: .ztO.iK.ztb heavy rain.
Berries, small fruit, eggs, precious stones, and substances con-
sisting of grains are commonly qualified by MeAKHii: and Kpyii-
HDiil::
These berries, though small, are 3m .Hro,n;bi, xoT.H Me.I\Kne, HO
mce BKYCHbie
(b) large-scale/small-scale
Used in this meaning of farms, undertakings, production, etc.,
Large-scale agriculture Kpynuoe ct!AbCKoe xoJ.Hi:i:cTBO
(c) important/trivial, petty, shallow:
Major writer Kpynubrti nnc:heAb
Major defects Kpynubre ue,n;ocTaTKH
Petty larceny MeAKall Kpa)Ka
Minor problems MeAKHe npo6AeMbl
Petty officialdom MeAKoe 'IHHOBHH'IecTBO
Shallow water MeAKall Bo,n;a
(d) with CKOT, llOl!epK, ,ztemrn:
Cattle KpynHbiH CKOT
He writes a small hand (of hand- Y uer6 MeAKnti n6'1epK
writing)
Small change MeAKHe ,n;eabrH
 SOME COMMON ADJECTIVES 109

Idiomatically :r.u!AKax pLrt5a or the somewhat archaic MeAKax

c6wKa is the equivalent of small fry (cf. 6o..u.rmiH wiiwKa big
shot).
(iv) CIIALHLIH may correspond to big, very big:
A bigfire
(v) Big (capital) and small letters of the alphabet are nponnc-
nax OY'J<Ba and CTpO•IHaH OyKBa respectively.
(vi) Tall and small of stature are often rendered by a genitive
construction-qf tall height, not qf tall height, etc. :
Thereupon a small sunburnt TYT Bomi!JI. B Kch.mary ueBLrc6-
peasant mtered the room Koro p6CTa aarop~hlii MYJIUIK

x8o. Brave. There are numerous near synonyms in Russian

as in English. Compare xpa6pLrii, cMeALrii brave; ,11,cpaKnil: bold,
daring; t5eccTpawnLm fearless; nep66Kn:H intrepid; MyJKecTBeHHLrii
man()', courageous and the rather elevated oTB<iii<HLiii undaunted.
181. Bright and Clear. Both JipKu:H and Jicn1>r:H mean light-
giving, but JipKnil: emphasizes that the light is bright and shining,
Jicmlii that it is clear and steady. In a figurative sense JipKmi can
mean outstanding of ability, or shining of example; HCHl>Iii may
mean comprehensible, lucid, harmonious, fair. Clear in the sense of
obvious, patent is usually HBHl>Irl (JiBnax ,\OJKL a barefaced lie).
Notice that npoapa'!Hl>ril (transparent) may ha\·e the applied
meanings of JicnLn':'• (npoapa'lHLni cnuL a lucid s~yle) and HBHLril
( npoapaqnLrii naMeK an obvious hint). Brilliant: 6.\eCTHI!!HI'I is
much more common than the somewhat archaic and poetic
OAHcTaTe..u.nMii.

182. Busy. Of persons, aaHHTOii. Also aanHTOi-i ,IJ,enh a busy day

(i.e. one in which there is no time left for leisure-the basic
meaning of aaHHTMi). But not aanHToli of, say, a busy street
(oa.nB.,eunaH y AHIJa).

183. Different. PaanLni and paa.ui'lmn'i are synonymous in

the meanings of differing (y nac paanLre [paa.ui:'lnLre] :r.~nenHx
our opinions differ) and of different kinds (cTohn t5xK>,IJ,a c paam.Thm
[pa3.'\JI'lHLnm] nHporaMu there were dishes containing different kinds
110 THE ADJECTIVE
of tarts). In both these cases there is a clear sense of difference. But
if the meaning is one of multiplicity without difference, only
paaHbiii: can be used (OH1i .IKHBYr B p:bHbiX AOMax they live in
different houses-but one house might be exactly the same as the
other).
Because of their meaning (differing, of differing kinds, various),
paaHbiH and pa3J\JrqHbiii must apply to more than one person
or thing-i.e. must have plural sense. But paaH»Iii is used in the
singular in some common expressions which, despite their
grammatical number, have plural meaning, e.g. paaHoe BpeMn
at different times, paaHoro p6Aa of different kinds.
When different is applied to one person or object-i.e. has
singular sense ('not the same') it will normally be translated by
Apyr6if, or its more literary equivalent MHoii: :ho- Apyr6e
,zJ;eAo that's a different matter; n6cAe BOHHhi OH cTaA Apyr6ii after
the war he became a different person.
Different from is Henoxo.IKHH Ha or OTAIIqHbli'I oT:
They are quite different from each Om& coseprneHHo Henoxo)KH Apyr
other Ha Apyra
A different situation has been CAo)KHAac» HHan, oTAH•IHall oT
created, distinct from the pre- npe:~KHeti:, cHTyaynll (Press)
vious one
In some contexts no-paaHoMy will be a useful word to trans-
late a different one each:
Everyone gave him a different Bee oTseqa.i\n eMy no-paaHoMy
answer

184. Familiar, Well-lmown. 3nai<OMbiH is familiar to one,

acquainted; Hanecnlblii is well-known to everybody. Compare: aHa-
KoMan necHn a song I know; H3BeCTJian necnn a song everybody
knows.
185. Foreign. llHOCTpaHHbiH is used in official contexts
especially and in treaties and documents: MmmcTepcTBo nHo-
CTpaHHDIX ACA Foreign Office; HHocTpaHHan Aep.IKaBa a foreign
power. Notice, too, nnoCTpanHbiC .H3hn<ii foreign languages.
llHoaeMHhiii is an archaic synonym.
 SOME COMMON ADJECTIVES Ill

3arpam{qubtii: is perhaps the most common translation of

foreign and is widely applied to things produced, manufactured,
or published abroad, and also to travel abroad generally: 3arpa-
HiiqHl>rii nacnopT forrign passport. 3apy66Km,n1: in the same sense
is a more literary word. BHeWHHl1: means extenuJl, relating to or
having dealings with foreign countries, especially commercial
and political: BHeiiiHmt: TO pr6B.'\a foreign (external) trade; BHe-
IIIHIDI no.ulmKa (also HHocrpaHHaJI no.'\HnrKa) forrign polic)··
qyJKOfi means belonging to somebody else, another's, aforeigner's;
er6 Hora HirKorAa ne crymi.'l.a Ha qy.iK)<o 3e~Luo his foot had never
trodden onforrign soil; and also (with the dative or A-'\JI and the
genitive)forrign to, alien to. q}.~I>rii also has the latter meaning,
but is now archaic in the former sense.

x86. Good. 466p~>rn generally means kind, generous, noble-

hearted, honourable. Xop6IIIHii means nice, fine, proper, as it should
be. 466pbrlt is used in polite requests: 6yAbTe Ao6pLJ: be so good;
and in polite greetings: A66pbtii AeHb good day. It is also used
colloquially to mean a good ... in the sense of at least: 3aiuJcr
AOOpl>IX ABa qaca it u·ill take a good two hours. Good of food is often
BK)·cm.rlt (tasry).

They had a good time Oml: xopow6 (nptuimo) npose.ui

It's a goodjobJ'Oil slaJ•td at home
Good luck
Capt of Good Hope
He is good at sports (games)
Applu are good for one's htalth
A good man for ...
speMll
Xopow6 (Bbl xopow6 c~C.'I.a.\n),
'ITO sbl ocraAHc& :toMa
B :t66p&tii qac!
:\fbiC A66potl: HaAC~I
OH cnoc66eH K cn6pry
R6.\oKn no.\6Hbl ,~t.\X 3AOpOBbX
qe.\OBCK, nOAXO.tii!!liH it.\X •.•

187. Hard and Soft. In a physical, tangible sense rnep~biH

and MirKHH. In a mental or intangible sense TIDKC.'\biH and m~.:K·
Ht.rli. But notice:
Hard (2nd class) carriage /Kecnadt sar6H
Soft (rst class) carriage Mirxm'i sar6H
Hard wain )KeCTKax so:ta
Soft Wflttr l\·lma.11 BOAa
112 THE ADJECTIVE
Hard-boiled egg Kpyroe mt,Jo (niiy6 BKpyryro)
Soft-boiled egg Jliiy6 BCM>ITKY
Hard blow Cn.M.nbrii y,~~;ap
Hard master CTp6rnii X03imu
Hard worker Ycep,II;HbiH (npiiAea<HbiM pa66T-
IIIIK
Hard and fast rules TBep,~~;bre npaBnAa
Hard labour Khop.lKnbre pa66Tbi (note plural)
Hard climate Cyp6BbiH K.I\IIMaT
Hard (stale) bread qepCTBbiH X.l\e6

x88. Heavy and Light. In the widest senses Tli)I{CAI.Iii and Aer-
KMii (N.B. light reading Aemoe qTenue). But notice:
Heavy losses EoAbiiine noTepu
Heavy rain CHAbHbiH ,II;O.lK,II;b
Heavy cold Cn.l\bHbrii uacMopK
Heavy sea Eypnoe Mope
Light sleep qjTKIIH (uerAy6oKMii) COH
Light rain Me.I\Knfi ,~~;o.lK,II;b

x8g. Hot . ./KapKn:ii is commonly applied to intangible objects,

a day, the weather, the climate, etc.; ropaquii to tangible ob-
jects, food, drink, and solid substances. But there is a wide
margin in which both words are equally applicable, e.g. in the
figurative sense of heated qualifying pa3roB6p (conversation), cnop
(quarrel), etc., and in emotional contexts. Both words are used
of the sun. fopaqmi can also mean intensive, at a rapid tempo;
ropxqan: pa66Ta high-pressure work.
xgo. Human and Humane. l.JeAoBeqecKnii and more collo-
quially qeAOBequii mean human; qeAoBequi.Iii humane.
191. Last. TiocAe.ztnn:ii generally means ultimate, final; npo-
III.I\I.Ifi the last one before the present :
December 31st is the last day of 3 I ,ll;eKa6pJi - fiOCAC,II;Hldi ,ll;eHb
the year ro,~~;a
Last time we were talking about B np6mAh1fr pa3 Mhl roBopiiAn o
Tolstoy ToAcT6M
But nocAe.ztnnti is also used in the above sense of rrpornAI.Ifi.
 SOME COMMON ADJECTIVES II3
Notice, too, the idiom 3a nocAe.ztaee Bpe!.ur very recently, i.e. during
the time immediately before the present.
Last but one Tio3anp6w.u.n'![, i.e. the one before
the previous one
Pmultimate Tipe.ztnoCAe.ztHHii, i.e. the one be-
fore the final one
You're the last person I expected to BoT Kor6 MeHhWe Beer<) .11 0:-KH.zt;i,'
see BifAeTb

192. Latest. Tioo,e.ztatlit last may correspond to latest as in

latest news nocACAHHe HOBOCTH; latest fashion noc.\CAHAA MO.zta.
This is the latest thing in hats 9Ta w.'JI:na - llOCAe.ztUHH KpUK
MOAhi (cf. demier cri)

I93· Long . .Ll,6Amii refers almost always to time, and is hardly

ever found in a purely spatial sense except in dialect use, and
the popular saying: BOAOC .zt6Aor .zta p1 KopoToK, e.g. of an
empty-headed woman .
.Ll,AM:aablli: which is generally associated with space (A-u'IHHLie
BOAOCLI long hair, MMHHble p)'KI-I long arms) may also be used in
the temporal sense oflasting a long time, e.g. A.-uiHHLni paccKaa
a long story, where space and time cannot be separated. In the
same way, .zto.\mH is used of journeys, where both space and
time are involved, but obviously not of hair or arms. Notice
.zt6,\rHH rAaCHLni long vowel; nO.\Hall !f>opMa long form (of an
adjective).
N.B. 6o.u.m6ii in the sense of long:
The journey• from London to New llyn OT A6H.ztOHa .zto Hhlo-fl6pKa
York is a long one 6o.u.w6i1

A long time-see para. 477·

194. Mad. Of dogs 6emeaLDi. 1\1ad about B BOCTopre oT, 6e3

mi.J.umi oT, in the sense of delighted, overjoyed. }.fad with in the
sense of beside oneself with: BHe ce6i OT: e.g. mad with anger BHe
ce6.!1: OT rHCBa.
114 THE ADJECTIVE
195· New. In some common expressions where English uses
new Russian has)'oung (MOAOA6:it):
New moon MoAO,ll;6ii: MeCl!U
New potatoes MoAO,ll;OH KapT6q>eAh
New wine MoAo,ll;6e BHn6

196. Next. Of time, both CACAYIOI!!MM and 6yAyJ,!!nM are used

in reference to what has not yet taken place: next week Ha 6yAy-
I,gei1: (cACAYIOl!!ei1:) He,Z~;eAe. Only CACAYIOI!!MM is used retrospec-
tively:
I was born in 1917, and the next R po,Z~;H./\Cll B I g I 7 r. n B C./\e,Z~;yio­
year the war ended IQeM roAy Boii:m1 KOHtiii./\ac&
The next day Ha ,Z~;pyr6M (c,,eAYIOIJJnii:) AeH&

Of space, distance, only CACAYIOJ,!!MM is used: next stop CACAYIO-

I,gall OCTaHOBKa. Next = a4jacent: both coceAHMM and CMC)KHLIM
concretely, but only CMC)KHLIM figuratively: adJacent fields of know-
ledge CMC)KHLre 66Aacni 3HllHHll.

197· Old. Of the various words for old, A.PCBHnM takes one
back farthest into antiquity. It translates ancient, meaning
belonging to the remote past:
Ancient Greece .ZJ;peBHllll fpe{!IIll
Ancient monument .ZJ;peBI-IIIH llClMliTHIIK

CTapLrM and CTa.PHHHLIM overlap to some extent. But N.B.

(i) only cTapLii1: is used of animate nouns to mean having
reached old age, (ii) CTapwHHLii'l is used of things, especially
customs, manners, obJets d'art, to mean going back a long way
in time. Compare CTapHHHLri1: •I<ii1:HHK an antique teapot; CTapLii'l
'IaiiHMK an old (i.e. much-used) teapot. BeTxnii generally means
dilapidated, tumbledown. But N.B. BeTXH:it 3aBeT Old Testament;
BeTXni1: AAaM the Old Adam.
Old boy (of a school) EJ{IBumii: yqemii•
On the old side (getting on inyears) IlmKnA6rl, B AeTax (or B ro,Z~;ax)
It's as old as the hills 9To CTap6 KaK MHp

198. Real. While Aei1:cTBHTeALHLI:it and HaCTOHJ,!!IIM are very

close synonyms in the meaning of real, it will be found that
 SOME COMMON ADJECTIVES 115

AeiicTBJhe.u.HbiH often corresponds to English real = actual, and

uacToffi]Jnti to real = true, genuine, not artificial: AeHCTBihe.M.Hbnl
~aKT real (actual) fact; uacTOHIJJHH Apyr real (true) friend.

199. Short. KopoTKm'i is commonly applied to both space and

time. KpaTKml is rarer in either sense and has a bookish or tech-
nical flavour: thus KpaTKa.ll ~opMa short fonn of an adjective;
KpaTKirn rA.ac8brH a short vowel; KpaTKHH Kypc concise course.
Stylistically KpaTKHii often seems to correspond to brief: uecKo.M.-
KO KpaTKHX cA.oB a few brief words; KpaTKoe o61>.11cuemre a brief
explanation.
200. Sore. As an adjective applied to parts of the body, it is
translated in Russian by a verb: I ha~·e a sore finger y MeH.Ii 6oAih
ni.hey. In this construction the noun commonly follows the
verb.

201. Strong. CtL\bHbiH =powerful, fierce, intense, violent; Kpen-

Knii =firm, sturdy, tough, concentrated. G\a6bn":i: is used as the
antonym to both words: cH:Abuax BO,\JI strong will, cAa6aH BO,\JI
weak will; KpenKHH qa:H strong tea, cAa6hn1 qafi weak tea.
Strong cheese Ocrpbiii cb!p
Strong supporter TsepAbll'"i crop6HHHK

202. Thick (Fat) and Thin (Lean). Ofpeople:fat is TOAcnxH:,

T)'qHbm or, more polite, noAHbiH (stout); thin is TOHKHH (slim) or
xyA6ii, TOIJJHH (skinny).
Of solid substances, material, etc., thick is TOAcnrfi; thin TOH-
Kmi. Of liquids, rycro:H: and itd!AKHii are used; of population
IL\OTilbiH and peAKHii (dense and sparse). /KJ!pHbiH and noCTHbiii
mean fat and lean of edible substances. 'lJacnxi'r ,\ec is a thick
(dense) wood (i.e. withfrequent trees).
203. Wrong. Notice the use ofne TOT, ue T)'Aa, etc., to trans-
late wrong:
Tou have got the wrong number Bbi He TYA a nona;\11
He began at the wrong end OH HaqaA ne c Tor6 Konya
The letter went to the wrong non:i.ho He no aApecy
I1I1CbMO
address
116 THE ADJECTIVE
204. The following expressions involving adjectives derived
from the names of countries may be of interest:
Indian ink KnTail:cKaa TYIIJb
India paper KnTail:cKaa 6yMara
Indian summer Ea6be .M~To
Double Dutch Krnail:cKaa rpaMoTa
If he's a professor, I'm a Dutch- Ou TaK6il: :1Ke npo<J>eccop, KaK a
man KHTaMCKHM HMnepaTOp
Safety pin AurAll:il:cKaa 6yAaBKa
Rickets AurAll:il:cKaa 6oAc3Hb
Working to rule I1TaAbHHCKaa 3a6aCTOBKa

There is no corresponding Russian idiom for French leave.

Sometimes the French equivalent (filer a l' anglaise) is trans-
lated literally and explained: ,Ll;Mihpnii CTemiuoBnq yrneA rro-
aurA:HiicKn- ue npoiJJaacb (A. N. Tolstoy).
 III · The Verb

ASPECT
Aspect and tense
205. The English verbal system is dominated by tense, the
Russian by aspect. Broadly speaking the imperfective aspect of
a Russian verb describes an action in progress, or one which is
frequentative or habitual, without reference to its completion
or to its result. The perfective aspect, on the other hand, ex-
presses the fact of its completion and may also draw attention
to its result. Aspectival form and temporal meaning are very
closely linked in Russian. The expression of temporal concepts is,
however, only one of the functions of Russian aspectival forms. 1
Simple present
206. The English continuous present tense, expressing an action
in progress at the moment of speaking, is rendered in Russian
by the imperfective present:
I am washin: the dishes

The English continuous present, expressing an action projected

in the near future, is also rendered by the imperfective present:
The ship is sailing this evming Kopa6Ab OTIIAbiBlleT cero,~tHH Be-
qepm.l
Tomorrow I am taking 77ry nephew 3aBTpa H Be3Y IIAel'oHIHHIIKa B
to London Aon.ztoH
207. (i) The English simple present tense, describing actions
There is a tendency nowadays to define only the perfective aspect, e.g.
'it expresses an action considered as a single whole' (l\laslov); 'it expresses
the action as a total event summed up \\ith reference to a single juncture'
(Forsyth), and to describe the imperfective as that which does not have per-
fective meaning.
118 THE VERB

which are frequentative or habitual, is normally rendered in

Russian by the imperfective present:
But I sleep fiifully, every half-hour Ho con Moii ue KpenoK, qepe3
or hour I wake up KaJK,~~;hle no.l\tJ:aca. Ir.l\n qac x
npochlnarocb (Morozov)

(ii) Some actions which occur habitually, but not invariably,

and which typify the general behaviour of the subject of the
sentence-and which for this reason may be regarded as belong-
ing to present time-may be expressed by a future tense both
in English and in Russian:
The marabou will keep watch :Qe.l\biH ,~~;ellb Mapa6y 6y,~~;eT ,~~;eJKy­
(keeps watch) all day near the puTb y 66ihm, qT66bl nOAYtJ:HTb
slaughter-house hoping to get a KycoK Maca (Peskov)
piece of meat
This always happms with K ry- BoT TaK Beer,~~;a c Kpbl.l\oBbiM:
lov: he will tum everything (he nepeBepHeT BCC BBepx HOTClMH,
turns everything) upside down, paccTaBHT llO-CBOeMy, pa3,11;pa3-
arrange (arranges) things his HHT II llOlll.l\a CXBaTKa
own wtry, irritate (irritates) (Granin)
everyone-and then a fight
breaks out
The matchmakers will come (come) Ilpu,11;jT CBaTbl B Ka6aK, BblllbiOT
to the pub, drink strong vodka, ropliAKu, cHAyT Ky,~~;a-nu6y,~~;b B
seat themselves somewhere in a yro.I\OK, ,~~;a TaK U CH,IVIT Mo.l\qa,
corner, and just sit there in Toqno npurmi6AeHHhle
silence, as if utterly dejected (Mamin-Sibiryak)

The action described in these examples by the future tenses

is completed, typical, and habitual. The imperfective future is
used in the first example because emphasis is placed upon the
length of the duration of the action. In the other examples, with
the perfective future, the actions described are short, and follow
each other in quick succession. Notice the striking use in the
second example of the perfective past in a frequentative con-
struction, and compare it with the use of the perfective past
with future meaning illustrated in para. 225: in this example
the author could equally well have written noil:;~h, but his use
 ASPECT
of the perfective past emphasizes the fact that the fight breaks
out suddenly, without warning.
Note also that verbs in the present tense may occur in such
contexts either preceding or following the future tense forms:
But sometimes death will make Ho cMepn nHorAli oiiiH6aeTCJI:
(makes) a mistake: from time HeT-HeT ,~~;a H 3ar,ui:HeT B na-
to time it will look in at a rich AaTbi 6ora'la (Shishkin)
man's mansion
rou will recall (recall) in the Bcn6MHJUUb cpeAri 3Io.ad, KaK
middle of the winter how the Bbep KatiaeT qepeMyXy u TaKax
wind sways the cherry-tree, and no,J;h[)(aeTcll TocKa! He Bfuep-
arouses such longing,you cannot neTL (Paustovsky)
bear it!
(iii) In subordinate clauses the perfective future is often used
to describe habitual or frequentative actions which in the Eng-
lish translation are introduced by such conjunctions as whenel!er,
as soon as, after, and which are envisaged as completed before
the actions described by the imperfective present in the main
clause begin:
••• whenet'<r Germans or English- ... KorAa coilA}'TCll HeMUbl 1iMt
men get together, they talk about aHrAn'laHe, TO roBopfi o yeHax
wool prices . . . Ha wepcTb... (Chekhov)
EYnJ! such attention occasioned Bc:HKoe TaK6e BHHMauue npHBo-
1\ofaslennikov the same delight as ,.vi-.o MaCAeHHHKOBa B TaK6it
an affectionate dogfeels when its ~e BOCTOpr, B KOTOpLIM npH-
master strokes it, ruffles its hair, XOAIIT AacKosaH co6aKa n6CAe
tickles it behind the ears TOrO, KaK X03HIIH norAaAHT,
llOTpeiL'.eT, llO'leWeT ee 3a
ymaMit (L. N. Tolstoy)
The reason for the use of the perfective future in such contexts
is that, if both clauses contained an imperfective verb, the
required meaning of one action being completed before the
other begins would be obscured, since the fundamental function
of the imperfective aspect, in clauses of relative time, is to
describe one action occurring simultaneously with another:
In the morning, when the first grey YTpo:t.l, '~YTL Ha'IHHaeT cepbb,
light begins to show, we set off ompasAlieMCJI AOMOH
home (Kuprin)
120 THE VERB
When the verb in the subordinate clause describes a completed
process, the perfective future must be used to avoid ambiguity:
In spring, when the earth thaws BecH6fi, Kor,~~;a 3eMNi oTTaeT,
out, people also seem to become .1\.ID,li;H KaK 6y,~~;To TO*e cTaH6-
softer BllTCH Mfrrqe (Gor'ky)
If oTTaeT were here replaced by OTT<iirsaeT, the primary mean-
ing of the clause would be when the earth is thawing out. The sense
of one action following another is well illustrated in:
Spring, when size has completed her BecHa, Kor,~~;a oHa coaepwliT
transformation, tarries a while, nepe.11.6M, 3a,~~;ep*naaeTCH Ha
pauses to savour her victory KaKOe-TO BpeMH, npHOCTaHaB-
.I\HBaeTC~qTo6blflOqyacTBOBaTh
caoro no6e,~~;y (Chukhovsky)
The sense of the perfective verb in these constructions is often
that of an English perfect tense (resultative present):
Once a man is dead (i.e. has qe.I\OBeK yMpeT, TaK H ,li;OM Ha,li;O
died), his house should be burned 6hi c*e% (Sologub)
(KaK TO.II.hKO is understood)

Historic present
208. Historic present constructions are much more common in
Russian than in English. In such constructions Russian may
use either the imperfective present or the perfective future.

209. Contrary to their normal usage, Russian verbs in the im-

perfective present, used as an historic present, may express single
completed actions. This occurs:
(i) As in English, when the whole story is told in the present
tense:
The tramp bares his head . . . Epo,zvira o6Ha*aeT r6.11.oay ... no,~~;­
raises his ~es to heaven and HnMaeT KBepxy r.11.a3a n ocemieT
crosses himself twice ce6Ji ,li.BaX<,ll;bi KpeCTHbiM 3Ha-
MeiiiieM (Chekhov)
(ii) When the narrative is placed in past time by the presence,
in the same passage, of verbs in the perfective past. Because of
 ASPECT 121

their more stricdy temporal meaning, English verb-forms are

not normally mixed in this manner:
The sisters bent over her and asked CecTpbi HarnyAHCb K Hefi, cnpa-
her what was wrong wimaroT: 'ITO c To66i'l
(Turgenev)
(He) comes up briskly, as if to (0H] llO,lO!:OAliT 'lCTKHM warot.I,
make a report, straightens him- TO'lHO Ha AOK:\aA, nopoBHMCll,
self up, clicks his heels, and I,!!CAKHYA B Ka6AYKII, B3JL\ llOA
salutes K03&IpeK (Furmanov)
Chuzhak said 11othing, hung his lfy.lKaK MO.\'lllT, rOAOBY CBeClL\ C
head over the edge of the bed and KpoBaTu u cMoTpuT Ha Hero
looked at him (Sholokhov)
The two perfective verbs HarnyAucr, and cBecnA have resultative
meaning-they describe the postures the sisters and Chuzhak
have adopted before they perform the other actions described
in the sentence. The imperfective verb noAXOAHT, followed by
the adverbial expression, emphasizes the manner in which the
soldier approached, i.e. the nature of the action.
(iii) When the narrative is placed in past time by the pre-
sence, in the same passage, of verbs in the imperfective past.
The action described by these verbs (often determinate verbs
of motion) is interrupted by the action depicted by the verbs
in the imperfective present:
We were trao•elling through the ExaAH ).'.(bl no Aecy, C.\blWHM-
wood when we heard something Tpeqph 'ITO-TO
crackle
210. The imperfective present, used as an historic present, may
express, as well as single completed actions, frequentative or
habitual actions which are shown in progress in the past:
I remember, when my mother was floMHIO, KOrAa MaTh CIJ!C 6&L\a
still stro11g, she would work in 3AOpOBall, - OHa pa6oTaCT Ha
the melon-fold while I just lay 6aWTaHe a ll - Ae.lKy ce6e na
there, on my back, looking at the cmiHe 11 rAH.lKY B&IcoKo
sky (Fadeyev)
Note that when the imperfective present is used in this way, the
passage is often placed in past time through the use of the
parenthetic word 6&IBaAo (past neuter form of the iterative verb
6t.man. to be):
122 THE VERB
I would sit like this alone with her E~>m<iho, ll OAmi c ueti aTaK cmKy
in her bedroom . . . Bee cmiAhHe (Turgenev)
211. Whereas the historic imperfective present describes
habitual or frequentative actions in progress in the past, the his-
toric perfective future depicts habitual or frequentative actions,
each one of which was complete. This occurs:
(i) when the passage refers to a single occasion, upon which
the same action was repeated several times, perhaps alternating
with another:
He was clearly ill at ease. He
would speak, fall silent, speak IIOMOJ\'IIIT, OllliTh CKameT
again (Maximov)
It was a wonderful, quiet night, Holl:L 6LrJ\a THXall, CJ\aBHaJI, ca-
absolutely perfectfor riding. One Mall yA66nall A./\ll e3Ahi. BeTep
moment the wind would rustle the To rrporneAecTHT B KycTax, 3a-
bushes and sway the branches of Ka'laeT BeTKH, TO COBCeM 3a-
the trees, the next it would die MpeT (L. N. Tolstoy)
away altogether
(ii) When the passage refers to repeated occasions, upon each
one of which the same action or actions were performed:
... quite often she herself spent ... uepeAKO H caMa omi Ho'leB<i.ll.a
the night in the garden, she B CaAy, rrpmieceT OXaiiKY Cella,
would bring an armful of hay, pa36pocaeT er6 OKOJ\O Moer6
spread it near my bed, lie .1\0ma, NimeT... (Gor'ky)
down ...
ELma./\O is often used in such passages, with the same function
as when used with the imperfective present (see para. 210).
The following passage illustrates well the different uses of the
imperfective present and perfective future with 6Lmho; the
imperfective verbs describe habitual durative actions, e.g. sit-
ting, or habitual states, e.g. anger, while the perfective verbs
denote habitual, instantaneous actions:
He would sit ... gazing at Irina E~>maAo, CHAlh ... H cM6TpHT na
... and she would seem angry or l1p:Huy... a oua KaK 6yATO
bored, would get up, walk about cepAIITCll, KaK 6yATO cKy'laeT,
the room, throw him a cold BCTaHeT, rrpofiAeTCll no ROM-
glance, shrug her shoulders HaTe, x6AOAHO rrocM6TpnT ua
uer6, rromMeT rrAe'IOM
(Turgenev)
 ASPECT 123

212. As well as frequentative or habitual instantaneous actions,

the historic perfective future may depict single, instantaneous
actions as the climax or turning-point of a protracted action.
The latter may be described by an imperfective past or imper-
fective present form, which is often repeated to express more
clearly the protracted nature of the action:
He feels an irresistible urge: he EeceHoK TaK u nOAMhiBaeT enS:
fights it back,fights it back, but OH KpemiTcH, KpemiTcH, naKo-
finally can restrain himself no Hell He BI:hepnHT
Longer (Goncharov)
The swz gradually Lights up one C6AHue noHel\.mory ocBel!!aeT
bush, then another, a roof, and OAIIH Kycr, Apyr6if, Kp6BAIO H
suddenly floods the whole Land- BApyr o60,\beT CBeTOM ueAhlli
scape with Light nen3a* (Goncharov)
As can be seen the final result may either run counter to (first
example) or complete (second example) the preceding process.
The perfective future, in such contexts, may be preceded by
.zta KaK or .zta B.ztypr, to express the suddenness of the action it
depicts:
Gerasim Looked and Looked, and fepaCHM fAH,lteA, fAH,ltC.\, ,lta KaK
suddenly Laughed 3aCMeeTCH BApyr (Turgenev)
Imperfect and past definite
213. Aspectival distinction in Russian is most clearly expressed
in past tense forms. This is because the writer, looking back,
can see an action in every facet of its fulfilment, and is aware of
all the circumstances which attended it. Possessing this informa-
tion, he makes his choice of aspect according to clearly defined
criteria which arc associated with each aspect.
(i) The continuous imperfect tense expressing an action
in progress in the past is rendered in Russian by the imperfec-
tive past:
The town was becoming more and fopOA CTaHOBIL\CH BCe 66Aee ne-
more unfamiliar and mistrustful 3HaKOMbiM, llO,lt03pllTeAbHbiM
(Katayev)
(ii) The continuous imperfective past is often the best way
of translating English constructions with take and expressions
of time:
124 THE VERB
This collection took Alexei Maxi- ~hy I<OAAeKUMio AAeKceil MaKcii-
movich many years to assemble MOBM'l C06MpaA ,lJ;OAriie ro,lJ;hl
(Nikulin)
Notice:
They took two hours to find us Omi Hac ,n;Ba 'laca He Haxo,n;xl..ui
The use of HCKaAH here, instead of He HaXOAHAH, would mean
simply looked for without necessarily finding; the use of the
negative imperfective past gives the required meaning of the
state of not.finding lasting for only two hours (for negative expres-
sions in general see para. 232).
(iii) The imperfective past is also used to describe actions
which are projected in the immediate future (cf. similar use of
the imperfective present in para. 206):
He worked all day Sunday, since OH 3aHMMaAcll Bee BocKpecem.e,
he was to take an examination TaK KaK B noHe,n;eALHUK OH c,n;a-
on the Monday BliA sKaaMeH
The train was due to leave in four TI6ea,n; OTXO,ZJ;HA 'lepea 'leTh'Ipe
hours' time; we had a chance to 'laca, MO)KHO 6h'IAo ocMoTpeTb
look round the town r6po,n;
The next day he was to travel to Ha ,n;pyr6il ,n;eHb OH exaA B
Moscow. He would have pre- MocKBy. OH npe,n;no'lnTaA 6LI
ferred to stay at home ocTaTLCll ,n;6Ma
Each of these actions is assumed by the writer to be certain of
fulfilment. In the third example, therefore, the determinate verb
is used because the function of such verbs is predominantly to
describe specific journeys which occur at a definite moment in
time. The indeterminate verbs of motion can never refer to pro-
jected journeys.
214. (i) The imperfect tense describing actions which were fre-
quentative or habitual in the past is normally also expressed in
Russian by the imperfective past:
•.. when, however, he read novels, ••• KOr,n;a )Ke OH 'IHTaA poMaHbi,
told scabrous stories, went to paCCKa3biBaA CKa6pe3Hhle aHeK-
see comic sketches at the French ,lJ;OThl, e3,li;MA BO <J>paHg;y3CKIIM
theatre ... everyone praised and TeaTp Ha CMeWHbie BO,ZJ;eBHAH ..•
encouraged him BCe XBaAHAII II noo~,gpfl:AH ero
(L. N. Tolstoy)
(ii) Note, however, that the perfective future may replace the
imperfective past in frequentative constructions, in the same
 ASPECT 125

circumstances in which it replaces the imperfective present

(para. 207 (iii)) :
As soon as Peredonov awoke in YJKe c yrpa, Ka.K TO.I\LKo npoc-
the morning, he would think neTcll, IIepeAOHOB c TOCKOIO
anxiously of Volodin BCnOMHnci./\ Bo.I\OAHHa
(Sologub)
It is the fact that Russian perfective verb forms have no exclu-
sive temporal meaning that makes possible this, to English ears,
strange combination of tenses.
215. (i) The English past definite tense, depicting completed
actions succeeding each other in narrative, is normally expressed
by the Russian perfective past:
Mitrofan Il'ich threw himself to l.\-hHpo4Jan 11N.Ioi'l 6p6cH.I\CH na
his knees and, with a trembling KO.I\enn, ApoJKa!,!!eH: p)'K6ii
hand, seized the glistening ob- cXBani./\ cBepKaJOI,!!Uii npe,llMeT
ject (Polevoy)
(ii) But a sequence of completed actions may all appear in
the imperfective past if each action is of some duration and the
writer emphasizes the progress of each and not their succession:
resterday I got up early. I washed Bllepa 1l BCTci./\a pano. R CTIIpa.l\a
my linen and then rehearsed the OC./\Le, a 3aTeM noBTop.HAa
material I had prepared. bz the np6ii,lleHnbn':i MaTepuci./\. Belle-
evening I wrote an essay and poM .11 nncci./\a CO'lHnenue n
learned a poem Y'~Iba cn1xoTBopenne
(quoted by Spagis)
(iii) The aspectival forms in a narrative passage in the past
may be mixed, according to the manner in which the writer
views each action:
Nikita ran round the whole ;•ard, HnKiiTa o6eJKci./\ BeCb ABOp, pa3-
cast his eyes ever;·where, went
down to the stream, shouted and K llOTOKy, KpH'IaA, CBIICTciJ\ II B
whistled, and at twilight re- cy~repKu BepHYACll K onycreB-
turned to the deserted hut, sat mef1 caKAe, ceA y nop6ra na
down on a log by the threshold, 6peBHO II CHAb HellOABIDKHO,
and sat motionless until the noKyAa na,ll o<repTaHHRMH rop
big stars appeared over the out- ne npocrymiAn 6oALmloie 3Be3-
lines of the hills ... Ahi... (A. N. Tolstoy)
 THE VERB

The perfective verbs in this example depict short, completed

actions which advance the action step by step. The imperfec-
tive verbs describe durative, descriptive actions which bring the
whole scene before the eyes of the reader. It is sometimes pos-
sible to communicate this difference in translation (e.g. sat
down and sat), but often the Russian effect is stylistic and un-
translatable.
Notice the pictorial effect of the imperfective verb in the
following sentence and its English rendering:
Hardly had she begun to walk EABa oHa oTOIUAa OT na6b'r, I<ai<
away from the cabin when y.lKe I< Heii HaBCTpeqy 6e.lKaAn
Lyubochka, Vata, and Nata Al66otiKa, BaTa n HaTa
came running up towards her (Chekhov)
In narrative the use of an imperfective verb might be reinforced
by an appropriate adverb:
Then she went up to the stream, IIoToM oHa no,zr;oiUJ\a I< PY"bro,
took a long drink and washed at HamiAacb n ,zr;6Aro YMhlBaAacb
leisure (Chekhov)
(iv) Contrast the use of the past perfectives and the past im-
perfectives in the following passages:
The Ossets crowded noisily around OceniHbiiUYMHO o6cTymiAn Memi
me and clamoured for monty 11 Tpe6oBaAM Ha Bo,zr;Ky
for vodka (Lermontov)
Everyone crowded around her, con- Bee o~<py;KIIAH ee, noa,zr;paB.rillAn,
gratulated her, expressed amaze- nayM.rillAMCb, YBepJiAM, 'ITO ,zr;aB-
ment and assured her that it was HO y.lKe He CJ\LIIUaJ\u Tai<6ii
a long time since thty had heard Mf3biKH ( Chekhov)
such music
The first verbs in each sentence are perfective and express a
state resulting from the action-the central figure is surrounded
by people; the imperfectives describe what the people did after
they surrounded the central figures, the actions lasting for some
time. In using the imperfectives the writer halts the action and
conjures up before the readers' eyes the scene which took place.
Vinogradov sums up the use of the imperfective verb in such
contexts by saying: 'The imperfective past does not move events.
It is descriptive and pictorial.' In the words of the Czech gram-
 ASPECT 127

marian Poldauf: 'the imperfective films the action and the per-
fective photographs it.'
216. In the light of the remarks upon the use of the imperfec-
tive and perfective past made in the foregoing paragraphs,
notice the use of both in:
••. my grandmother would not, at .•. 6a6ywxa cHa"laAa He corAa-
.first, agree to their marriage, but w<l.l\ac:& Ha me: CBaA:&6y, a no-
later gave her consent TOM corAaciD.ac:& (S. Aksakov)
The consent was, at first, asked for and refused many times;
finally, it was given only once. Notice English would not trans-
lating the Russian negative imperfective past. Notice also the
same construction used not in a frequentative but in a durative
sense:
He was asking Nesterov to let him On npociiA, "'T66:&r HecTepon
have this object. Nesterov, for ycTymiA eMy 9Ty new:&. HecTe-
some reason, would not agree pon no-To ue corAawaACll
(Korin)
217. (i) If an action occurs several times and the number of
times is definitely stated, the verb may appear either in the
imperfective or in the perfective past according to the nature of
the action. The perfective is the more common:
Only twice did we succeed in 0TOMCTllTL eMy 3a BCC M)"'Cffilll II
avenging ourselves upon himfor cTpaxu HaM yAaA6c:& TOA:&xo
all the torment and fear he had ABa pa3a (Paustovsky)
caused us
But the imperfective is used:
(a) with verbs which denote the beginning of an action,
several times repeated:
She began her letter five times but Oua nliTL pa3 HaqnH<iAa nuc:&M6,
decided.finally not to write at all JIO peWII.I\a Ha:KOHCU He llHCaT:&
The fact that she began her letter five times shows that she was
uncertain what she wanted to say, and her repeated efforts to
begin are therefore regarded as a protracted and, in the end,
unsuccessful action.
(b) with the verbs referred to in para. 218 (i) and (ii).
(c) with isolated verbs which resemble those referred to in (b)
 THE VERB
because the action they describe brings about a temporary state
which is reversed by a subsequent event:
The clock stopped two or three Paaa ,~tBa tJ:aCLI ocTaHaBAMBa,UICL
times (Kazakov)
Having stopped, the clock started again.
(d) with indeterminate verbs of motion when they describe
a journey to a destination and back again to the point of depar-
ture (see para. 318 (i)):
She went three times to ask for a 0Ha TPHa<ALI xo~nAa npocliTL
meeting with Pavel CBM~aHHH c IIasAoM (Gor'ky)

(e) with verbs which describe habitual actions:

Ten times a day it would start ITo ~eomi paa Ha ~eHb HatJ:uH<iA.o
ratmng ~O)KAHTL (Sholokhov)
(f) when the meaning is descriptive:
The lynx's tracks twice crossed his ,ll;sa paaa er6 nyTL nepeceKaA
path CAC~ pbiCM (Kazakov)
(ii) The less precise enumerative expressions HeCKOJ\hKO paa
(several times) and MHoro paa (many times) are also followed more
commonly by the perfective past; the speaker or writer thinks
of each individual action as complete in itself, but representa-
tive of the series as a whole:
Val'ko repeated Oleg's address BaAhKo m~cKoAhKo paa nosTopliA
several times until he had it by a~pec 0Aera, llOKa HC 3aTBep-
heart ~llA (Fadeyev)
Where appropriate these expressions may also be accompanied
by semelfactive verbs (see para. 273):
Then he turned round, looked at IToT6M OH ooepHyAc.!l, nOCMOTp6A
her, and sniffed several times in Ha Hee, UeCKOAbKO pa3 <J>brpK·
order to clear his nose nyA, 'I:JTOObi npOtiHCTHTb HOC
(Kazakov)
But the imperfective past is used:
(a) if each action, although completed, is not regarded as
representative of a series as a whole but rather as a single, indi-
 ASPECT
vidual action forming a unit in a sequence of similar actions
(i.e. emphasis is placed upon the fact of repetition, and not upon
typicality):
Several times I came face to face HeCKOAbKO paa H cTciAKI:IBaAcH c
with her, just for a second; HCH MUMOAeTHO, UHOf,lJ;a yaHa-
sometimes we recognized each BllAu Apyr APYra, UHOr,D;a He
other, sometimes we did not ... yaHaBfuut (Katayev)
. . . that feeling of compassion and •.. TO 'ljBCTBO COCTpa,ll;aHUH U
of horror, which several times Y"'aca, KoT6poe HeCKOAbKO paa
had fought for expression, broke npOCHAOCb Hapy)Ky, npopBa-
through and took possession of AOCb U aaxBaTIIAO ee ...
her • •. (L. N. Tolstoy)
(b) with verbs of beginning:
Several times he set about perform- HecKOAbKO paa on npnHnMaAcH
ing his tricks Bbl,lJ;eAbiBaTb CBOil lf>6KyCbl
(Kazakov)

(c) with verbs which describe actions which are subsequendy

reversed (see para. 218):
He awoke several times during the H6t~biO oH HeCKOAbKO paa npochl-
n~t nb~

The subject of the sentence awakens several times, then goes to

sleep again.
The wind, having risen and fallen BeTep, uecKO.I\bKo paa aaAyBaB-
several times in the course of the nmti AHeM, BeqepoM yAercH
day, dropped altogether in the COBCeM (Kazakov)
evening
The Russian meaning here can be communicated m transla-
tion having risen and fallen.
(iii) With expressions like TO n At!Ao (every now and then), ue
paa (time and again), BpeMH OT BpeMeHn (from time to time), KaJK-
ALiil AeHb (every day), the meaning of which is always frequenta-
tive, the imperfective past is used:
•.. the side-horse in my troika ••• npHCTH)KHllH B MOen TpofiKe .••
. • . broke repeatedly into a He paa nonpLrrHBaAa Hep6BHbiM
sharp uneven trot raA6nyeM (L. N. Tolstoy)
 THE VERB
Every now and then the convict To u ,11,eAo apecniHT no,11,6npaA
gathered it (the cassock) up ee (pJ!:cy) X<eCTOM CBHJ,!!eHHHKa
with the same motion as a (Katayev)
priest

218. There are two groups of verbs of which the imperfective

past may be used to describe a single completed action because,
in Foote's words, 'the action has taken place, but its effect has
been cancelled by a subsequent undoing'.
(i) The first of these groups consists of verbs of motion pre-
fixed for the most part with 3a-, rrpu-, OT-, and rro,zh which
express 'a stay of short duration and subsequent departure'.
(Forbes.) Such verbs are 3ae3X<aTb (3aexaTJ>), rrpue3X<<iTb (rrpu-
exaTb), OTHOCHTb (oTHecn1:), IJO,llXO,IJ,HTb (rro,IJ,oi:ITM:), rrpHB03HTb
(rrpHBe3TH) :
Wells came [to Russia] for the B nepBbiH pa3 Y3AAC npue3JKaA B
first time in I920 1920 ro,11,y (Pavlenko)
A comrade dropped in on me just KaK pa3 nepe,ll, T066ii KO MHe
before you 3aXO,ll;lfA O,IJ,HH TOBapHJ,!!
(Ignatov)
... a lackey had already twice come ... AaKeR yJKe ,IJ,Ba pa3a IJO,IJ,XO,IJ,HA
up to Pechorin to report that K IIell6pnHy c ,IJ,OKAa,IJ,oM, "'TO
everything was ready . . . Bee roT6Bo... (Lermontov)

In these examples the action of going to the place in question is,

as it were, reversed because the person did not stay there long,
but quickly left again. He may have fulfilled the purpose for
which he went to his destination, but the decisive factor in the
choice of aspect here is the relatively short duration of the visit.
In the following example the speaker arrived at the library and
left again without achieving his object. Thus the use of the im-
perfective aspect of these verbs describing a single completed
action may draw attention to one of two factors: the short-
ness of the visit, or possibly the non-fulfilment of its purpose:
Yesterday I took the book back to Bllepa H oTHocilA KH!rry B 6n6Auo-
the library, but it was closed for TeKy, HO 6LIACaHHTapHbiH,IJ,eHb
cleaning (quoted by Muravyova)
 ASPECT
The perfective aspect of these verbs is used when the speaker
has uppermost in his mind a journey in one direction only, and
the purpose for which it is made:
On the Tuesday a police ifficer of Bo BT6pnnK K HaT:iALe 1-IBauonue
her acquaintance drove round to aaexaA 3HaK6MhiH CTanon6ii
see Natalya Ivanovna (L. N. Tolstoy)

We learn why the officer comes-he wishes to tell Natalya

Ivanovna that an executioner for her husband's murderer can-
not be found-and the context later emphasises what he has to
say on arrival, not how short or long his stay is, or where he
goes to afterwards.
The difference between the imperfective and the perfective
verbs in this group is clearly illustrated in questions:
Wiry have ;·ou come to the depart- 3at~eM BLI npnxOAIIAn ua Ka-
ment? <f>eAPY ?

In using the imperfective the speaker shows that he expects that

the person addressed will leave at once, or very soon. If he had
used the perfective (npmiiAH) he would have implied that he
did not know how long the other person would stay, or that he
knew that he would stay for a long time.
(ii) The second group is similar to the first in that, although
they arc not stricdy speaking verbs of motion, the verbs in this
group involve moving, sending, changing position. Like jour-
neys, such actions are reversible by means of movement in the
opposite direction. Such verbs in common usc are OTKp~>rmiTb
(OTKphiTb), BCTaBaTb (BCTaTb), 6paTb (B3liTb), BKJ\IO'IaTb (BKAIO-
'IHTL) CBeT:
I am very tired, I was up three R 6t~eHL YTOMAen, HO'ILIO » Tpli
times during the night paaa ncranaA

The speaker went back to bed again each time. Compare the
use of the perfective verb in:
Danilov could not sleep. He got up. He cnaA6cL. ,Ll;amiAOB BCTaA.
He drew back the curtain and OTBepHyA aauanecKy n ony-
Let down the window cTii., oKu6 (Panova)
132 THE VERB
Again:
Why is this book so dirty? Who Ilo'leMy {na 1mH:ra TaKaH rpH:a-
borrowed it? HaH? KTo 6paA ee?
The book has been returned.
Who opened the window, the room KTo OTKpbiBaA OKH6, 6'1eHb x6-
is very cold? AO,li,HO B KOMHaTe?
The window is now closed again. Compare:
Who has opened the window? KTo OTKphiA OKH6? 3aKp6i1Te er6
Close it at once cpaay
The result of the perfective action is still in force-the window
is open.
219. Aspectival distinction in general in the past tense is clearly
illustrated in the following snatches of conversation quoted by
0. P. Rassudova:
Who bought this reader? To whom KTO noKynaA sTy xpecToManuo?
should I give the money for it? KoMy H ,IJ,OA:lKeH oT,11,an ACHb-
nt?
Who solved this problem? Is it KTO pernaA iny aa,IJ,a'ly? TpyAHaH
difficult or not? All OHa 11:1\U HeT ?
Who bought this reader? I would KTo KynH:A sTy xpecToManno? R
like to borrow it for afew days XO'Iy nonpOC¥ITb ee Ha He-
CKOAbKO ,IJ,Hefi
Who solved this problem? I should KTo pernH:A sTy aa,IJ,a'ly? R xoqy
like to see his working nocMoTpeTb er6 pememre
In each of these examples it is the second sentence which
reveals the questioner's attitude towards the action and this
attitude determines his choice of aspect in the first sentence.
When his interest lies primarily in the action itself, i.e. in the
actual circumstances surrounding its performance, as in the
first two examples, he chooses the imperfective aspect. The
replies to his question will similarly contain an imperfective
verb. When, as in the third and fourth examples, his interest
extends beyond the course of the action snd he wants to make
use of the result, i.e. the book has been bought and can now be
borrowed, or the problem has been solved and the solution can
be utilised, he chooses a verb in the perfective aspect.
 i
ASPEGT 133
In the questions:
Who built this house? KTo crp611.11. aTOT AOM?
Who had this house built? KTo nocTp6u.ll. aToT AOM?

the different aspects express different meanings. The first in-

quirer wishes to know the name of the builder, the second wishes
to know who commissioned the building and probably now
occupies the house.
220(i). Verbs denoting meals arc often imperfective where one
might expect a perfective:
Shirokikh had luncheon alone. He 06eAaA Illnp6KHx B oAnH6tJe-
ate a bowl of porridge and a CTBe. OH coCA Mllcxy xaiJJH H
double portion of beef stroganov ABOtiHyro n6punro 6elf>cTp6ra-
HOB (Dikovsky)
This example does not stress that Shirokikh began and finished
his meal but merely states that he took the meal alone; the per-
fective verb is followed by a direct object which states what food
he ate in order to achieve the result of satisfYing his hunger.
The verbs rrnTL and ecTL have no perfective forms. If a special
meaning is added to the simple facts of eating and drinking,
prefixed perfective verbs are used, e.g. BLimmaTL (BhiiiHTL) to
drink up, coeCTL (no imperfective), to eat up.
(ii) The verbs BIIAeTL and C.I\LIIJJaTL are commonly used in the
imperfective past to describe completed actions because their
perfective forms ysliAeTL and yc,'-LIIJJaTL have marked inceptive
meaning-to begin to see (catch sight of), to begin to hear (catch the
sound of). Compare:
I saw a fine film last night Btiepa BetiepoM ll BHAe.l\ npeKpac-
HLIH lf>li.II.LM
Straight in front of him, at the IlpHMO nepeA co66ii, y OKHa, OH
window, he saw a family so un- ys11AeA ceMeficrBo, HacT6A&Ko
like the people around them that Henox6JKee Ha oKpyJKaiOI,ijnx
he could not take his eyes off J\IOAefi, 'ITO OH yJKe He MOr
them OTOpBaTb OT Hero B3r.I\HAa
(Fedin)
(iii) The verbs rrHcarL (HarrucaTL) and 'IHTaTL (rrpoqnTaTL,
npoqecTL} are also commonly found in the imperfective past
134 THE VERB
describing completed actions when the emphasis in the sentence
is not on the results of writing and reading, but on the attendant
circumstances. Compare:
... aware that his days were num- ... 311llH, "'TO ero MHII}lTbl COtJ:TeHhi,
bered, Mozart in 1778 wrote to ~ouapT nHcaA oTyy B 1778
his father ro,~~;y (Ogonyok)
He wrote three novels in six years On uanHcaA Tpn poMaHa 3a
IIIeCTb AeT
Just as rmcaTD is commonly found, as above, in the imperfective
past, so verbs describing the contents of what is written may
appear in the imperfective form although they refer to one
document written at one time. This is also true of the verbs of
oral communication: ronopH:n., oTBeqan, and rrepe,~~;anan. (to
broadcast) :
Foma Fomich sent a note to Mar- <l>oMa <l>OMH"' npHCAaA llHCbMe)JO
tin Lukyanich, in which he noti- ~apTH:Hy AyK&HHbltJ:y, B KOT6-
fied him that the preliminary in- poM H3BerJJ<iA, 'ITO npe,li;Bap:ll-
vestigation was complete TeA&Hoe ,11;03HaHHe 3aKOH'l:eHO
(Ertel')
Note that the perfective forms of the verbs mentioned in this
section must always be followed by a direct object, or by a
clause introduced by •no; with the imperfective form, such an
object is not obligatory.
Future
22 I. The clearest indication of the predominance of aspect over
tense in the Russian verbal system is furnished by the fact that,
because the perfective aspect describes an action as completed,
its present tense form cannot refer to an action in progress and
cannot, therefore, have present meaning. The perfective present
form has acquired future meaning, because the completion of
an action in progress can only occur in the future. To express
an action in progress in the future, or one which is habitual,
Russian employs a compound future, consisting of the future
tense of 6hiTh and the imperfective infinitive of the verb con-
cerned.
222. (i) The imperfective future is used, in general, to express
the same kind of actions in future time as the imperfective past
 ASPECT 135
expresses in past time: the perfective future similarly corre-
sponds to the perfective past. Since, however, actions in future
time are only potential, their nature is not always as clear as
those in past time. The difference between the imperfective and
perfective future comes out most clearly when they are used in
the same sentence:
Masha: Imagine, I am already IlpeACTclBbTe, H y.lKe naqnnaro
beginning to forget her face. aa6biBaTb ee JI.HQO. TaK H 0 Hac
People will not remember us ne 6yAyT nOMHUTb ... aa6yAyr
either •.. we shall be forgotten (Chekhov)

The imperfective future here describes a state which will em-

brace the whole future: the meaning of the perfective future is
resultative.
The difference would be more marked in the past :1
... people did not remember us. . . . .. o nac ne n6MHI1JI.ll ..• aa6bi.11.n
we were forgotten
(ii) The imperfective future is used, like the imperfective
past, to describe actions increasing in intensity with the passage
of time:
Olga loves you and will love you 6.>~.~>ra Te6.R .>~.ro6nT u c Ka~~<A~>IM
more and more every day AHeM 6yAeT Aro61fTb CIIJI.bHCe
(Azhayev)
223. Both the imperfective and the perfective future may be
used in Russian to translate an English future disguised as a
present: ·
Do you think I shall snivel or say .LJ;yMaCWb, H 6yAy XHhiKaTb lf/\11
nothing when they are beating MOJI.qaTb, KOrAa MeHH 6yAyr
me? 6nTb (Fadeyev)
I should like to meet you when you R xon:.~~. 6bl scTpernT~>CH c saMn,
return to Moscow as an honoured KOrAa Bbl sepneTec~> s MocKsy
citizen 3aCJI.y.lKeHHbL\1 qeAOBCKOM
(Trifonov)

KorAa, followed by the imperfective present, has frequentative,

not future, meaning, ... KOrAa Menn 6~>roT every time thry beat me.
1 But note that the result produced by the positive perfective is synony-

mous with the state described by the negative imperfective verb.

 THE VERB
224. With verbs of motion, it is, of course, the indeterminate
form (see para. 315) which is used in the imperfective future,
with frequentative meaning:
Along these streets streamlined ITo aTHM yAnyaM 6yAyr XOAiiTL
buses will pass aBT66ychl o6TeKaeMofi ~6pMLI
(Panova)
Referring to the actual course (not the resultant destination) of
a single journey, the imperfective determinate verb is used:
I shall drive fast andyou will catch R 6yAy exaTb 6h'IcTpo M Bbl DOC-
the train neeTe K DOC3AY
225. In conversational Russian the past perfective may be used
with immediate future meaning referring to a single completed
action. This usage is particularly common with verbs of motion:
I'm off, I'll soon be back R nomeA, BepnycL CK6po
I'm off to the station to get the R noexaA Ha BOK3aA 3a 6HAeTaMH,
tickets, you come just before the a Thl npneAClliL K oTX6Ay
train goes n6e3Aa
This construction may occur with verbs other than verbs of
motion:
If we don't get help, we're done EcM'l naM ne noM6ryr, MLI npo-
for naAII

The speaker throws his mind forward in time and sees the
action he is about to undertake as already completed. For this
reason he is often thinking of this action as demanding urgent
fulfilment; or, as in the last example, he is thinking of something
unpleasant which may happen to him very soon in particularly
emphatic terms.
226. Notice that the compound future tense expresses actions
which belong in their entirety to future time, i.e. they cannot
already have begun at the moment of speech. Perfective future
verbs, although they look forward to the completion of the
action in the future, may describe actions which have already
begun. Compare:
I'll get dressed when father returns R 6yAy OAeBaTLCH, KOrAa oTey
home BepneTCH AOMo:H:
 ASPECT 137
You won't have to wait long, I'll BaM npn.z:teTCH HeAOMO .iK,llaTL, H
soon be dressed cK6po o.z:teHyc&
Similarly, actions described by the imperfective past belong
entirely to past time, and no trace of their effect survives into
the present. Compare:
As a child I liked fairy tales, but B .z:teTCTBe MHe oqeH& HpaBHMICb
I don't read them any more B0Allle6H&Ie CKa3Klf, HO ll liX
66Aee He qHT£no (Gor'ky)
. . he appealed to me as a very •.. OH MHe nonpaBHACll KaK oqeH&
agreeable epmpaniotl . . • npnkm&n'i co6ece.z:tHHK ...
(Boborykin)
The writer of the second example at the moment of writing still
likes the other person as a companion.
Perfect, pluperfect, future perfect
227. (i) These tenses arc taken together because they are rela-
tive tenses and the Russian verb has no specific tense forms to
express relative time. The perfect and pluperfect tenses, when
they emphasize completion or result, arc normally expressed in
Russian by the perfective past, in relation to the context or with
the help of the adverbs yJKe and eiJ.!e; the future perfect, often
disguised in English as a perfect, is normally expressed by the
perfective future, also in relation to the context or with the help
of the same adverbs :
You've read me like a book, Alj'tn- T&I MeiDl rAy6oK6 pacno3naAa,
ka, he replied AceH&Ka, oTBeTIIA on (Fedin)
When the sound of his horse's Kor.z:ta 3aTJix yJKe T6noT er6 A6-
hooves had died away, I went llla.z:tn, ll nOIIIAa Kpyr0!\.1 Ha Tep-
round on to the terrace and again pacy II OnllTb CTaAa CMOTpeTb B
began to look into the garde11 ca.z:t (L. N. Tolstoy)
You will understand that when you Bhl ino noiiMcre, Kor.z:ta npoJKn-
have lived here a while longer BeTe 3,ll;eCb el!!e HeCKOAbKO Bpe-
MeHII (Pushkin)
The inclusion of yJKe is essential in the second example to give
clear pluperfect sense to the verb 3aTIIx, which might otherwise
mean simply died away. For this reason yJKe is often found in
Russian where English, with its greater variety of temporal
verb-forms, docs not need to use already.
 THE VERB
(ii) When two clauses in a complex sentence describe one
state in relation to another, the Russian perfective past in rela-
tion to the present tense acquires perfect meaning, and in rela-
tion to the past tense, pluperfect meaning:
The sun has (had) just set and a Co.I\HQe TO.I\bKO "<ITO CC.I\0 H a.l\biH
crimson light lies (lay) on the cBeT .1\e.lKHT (Ae.lKaA) aa aeAe-
green vines HbiX .11.6aax
228. (i) When the English perfect and pluperfect tenses cover
a certain period of time, they are normally translated by imper-
fective verbs:
Since poets have written and C Tex nop, KaK nosTbi nHW)'T H
women have read them-how .lKeHJMHHbi Hx <IHTaiOT, - HX
many times have they been called CKO.I\bKO paa Ha3b1Ba.I\H aHI'e.l\a-
angels? MH? (Lermontov)
I have lived in this house for thirty BoT y.lKe TpH,ZJ;UaTb .1\eT, KaK .11
years .lKHBY B aTOM ,ZJ;oMe ( Chekhov)
The past tense HaabiBciAH has frequentative meaning. The
present tenses rr:H:rnyr, •mniroT, and )l<liBY mean that the actions
are still going on at the moment of speech. In corresponding
pluperfect constructions, the imperfective past is used:
He had been living there two years Oa .lKH.I\ TaM y.lKe ,ZJ;Ba ro,ZJ;a,
when his father died Kor,ZJ;a yMep er6 oTey
Note in the following sentence how the author uses a perfec-
tive past to describe an action which was completed before the
moment reached in the narrative, and follows it with an imper-
fective verb to show that the state resulting from that action
was still in effect:
Vasiry had left the countryside BaciiAHii y.lKe TPCTHii ro,ZJ; ywe.11.
more than two years before, and 1'13 ,ZJ;epeBHH II .)KJI.I\ B ropO,ll;C
since then had been living in the (L. N. Tolstoy)
town
In negative sentences both perfect and pluperfect are translated
by the imperfective past:
'Dmitri Korneyevich', said Tosya «,LI,MiiTpnii KopuceBll'n>, cKaaa.11.a
quietry, 'I haven't seen him for Toc.ll THXO, (<.II er6 "<ICTbipe ro.l(a
four years' He Bltll;e.l\a~ (Panova)
 ASPECT 139
Almazova had not been to work for AM.la3oBa yiKe rufn.Ii! AeH& He
four days BbiXo;ui\a Ha pa66ry (Panova)

(ii) The indefiniteness of an English question in the perfect

tense often calls for the use of the imperfective past. The verbs
BfiAen., Cl\hnnan., and qHnin. (to see, to hear, to read) are particu-
larly common in such questions and the answer with these verbs
is also normally given in the imperfective past:
Have you not read in the news- B&I He qHT<iAH B raa6-ax o6 oq>u-
papers about the officers' duel? uepcKOM noe.zuhn:e?
No, but I have heard about it HeT, He qxrrci.A. Ho CAhllli<L\
(Kuprin)

229. As well as by the temporal adverbs y;Ke and elJ!e, relative

time may, in certain contexts in Russian, be expressed by the
use of the particle 6LL\O. This particle is used almost exclusively
with the perfective past and expresses the fact that the result
which might naturally have been expected from a completed
perfective action was frustrated. The action may actually have
been begun or simply projected (English relative tenses had
begun to, was about to) when it was interrupted by another action:

I on the point of recot•ery and JI 6hiAO nonpasHACJI U TO.\CTen

UHZS
had begun to put on weight yiKe CT<L\, Aa BApyr ...
when suddenly . . . (A. Ostrovsky)
Tarant' ev had gone out into the 1lapaHT&eB YlliCA 6&L'o B nepeA-
hall but suddenly came back HJOJO, HO BAPYr BoponiAcx
oruiT& (Goncharov)

In this example Tarant'ev had actually completed the action

of going out into the hall but since he then returned, the logical
outcome of his action-leaving the house-was frustrated.
Similarly in:
She wrote Dasha a note but tore it HanHcaAa 6hiAO ,il,allie Kop6TeH&-
up a1 once Koe nnc&Mo no ceittl:ac iKe no-
pBMa (A. :\. 1lolstoy)

the note was "Titten but the logical result of it having been
written-its dispatch and receipt-was frustrated.
140 THE VERB
230. To express clearly the meaning that the action in the
main clause was not even begun, the expression coBCeM 6:biAo
may be used:
He also took hold of the spoon and OH Ton<e B3HACR aa Aon<xy n yn<e
was about to dip it in the soup, coBceM 6LL\O norpyanA B cyn,
but straight away put it back on Ho ceiiqac n<e onRTh noAon<nA
the table Ha CTOl\ (Shchedrin)
231. The English pluperfect expressions (I) had meant to, (I) had
intended to, are often best translated into Russian by xOTeA 6:biAo.
Of the very few imperfective verbs which can be used with
6:biAo, xon!Tb is the most common:
I had meant to tell you something JI xoTeA 6h1Ao paccxaaaT& BaM
romantic concerning myself but HetJTO poMaHTntJecxoe MeHJI
you, after all, are a geographer xacaroJ,!!eeCH, HO BeA&, Bhi -
re6rpacp (Chekhov)
Also found with 6:brAO is the imperfective verb co6HpaTI>CJI,
which is used almost exclusively with reference to long journeys:
I had intended this summer to go to JI co6npaACH 6LL\O noexaT& 8TnM
the sea-side, but circumstances AeToM Ha Mope, HO o6cToJheA&-
prevented me CTBa noMemaAH
XOTeA and co6HpaAcJI are followed predominantly by perfective
infinitives, but semantic factors may occasion the use of an im-
perfective:
The choice of a high school was Bhr6op riiMHaarm cocTOHAC.II He
not made at once. They talked cpaay. MeHJI XOTeAH 6hL\0 OT-
for some time of entering me for AaBclTh B KaAeT&I (Boborykin)
the cadets
The imperfective infinitive here gives the sense of uncertainty
and discussion. The perfective infinitive in the first example
expresses an intention which was clear-cut from the beginning.
Notice also the phrase tJYTI> He or tJYTI> 6:brAo He which means
almost:
I almost.fell JI tJYTh ( 6hiAO) TIC ynaA
Compare 'IYTb J\n He which means I think; if I am not mistaken:
He died, I think, last year On yMep 'lYTh All He B np6mAoM
roAy
 ASPECT

Negative constructions
232. (i) In negative sentences in the past Russian shmvs a
strong tendency to use the imperfective form of the verb be-
cause, very often, negation means a protracted omission to per-
form an action rather than momentary non-performance. The
imperfective verb is particularly common in contexts where
the actual period of non-performance of the action is mentioned:
The story of the three cards did not AHeKAOT o Tpex r:apTax yb.yro
leave his mind all night HO'Ib He BbiXOAIIA H3 er6 roAOBhi
(Pushkin)
That night I did not sleep and B 3ry HO'Ib ll He cnaA ll He paMe-
did not undress aci.Acx (Pushkin)

A negated imperfective verb is often used in Russian when an

action has not yet occurred but will certainly take place even-
tually:
The next morning I was awake, Ha Apyr6e )hpo ll y"'e npocHyAcll,
but had not J'et got up . . . Ho el,!!e He acTaBa\ (Turgenev)

Not uncommonly a negated imperfective verb is used to indi-

cate that a certain action did not take place for some time, but
it is then followed by the corresponding perfective verb to ex-
press the fact that it finally occurred:
He came to the wide-open door of OH npnwe.., K pacKph'ITOJi ~epH
the drawing-room and stopped. rocTiiHofl n ocTaHOBliACll. HnK-
.No one appeared, only the sound TO He liBAxJ\cll, J\Hmb a coceA-
of whispering could be heard in ueii KOMHaTe cAb'Jwa\Cll m6noT.
the next room. Then a laugh 3aTel\l pa3A:i.\Cll CMeX H nO!IBil-
rang out and a girl of about AaCb AeB)'IUKa AeT ~aAyaTII
twenry three appeared Tpex (Grin)

Such constructions often imply a feeling of impatience in the

mind of the person waiting-how long will it be before some-
thing happens, he seems to be asking himself.
Sometimes a repeated action is expressed by the perfective
past (see para. 217 (ii)) because ofits instantaneous nature-to
be followed by an imperfective past indicating that the opposite
action to the first did not occur at all:
 THE VERB
The soldiers were straggling CoMaTLI 6pe;ui no MepTBLIM 3a-
through the dead, sun-bleached 6eAeBIIIUM paBHIJHaM. KTo
plains. If one of them fell, he ynaA- He noAHnMaAcll
did not get up again (A. N. Tolstoy)
Almost invariably a question expressed in the perfective aspect
invokes an imperfective reply if the answer is negative:
Who has taken my scissors? 2"ou? KTo B3ll.7\ MOM HO)KHHQLI? TLr?
No, I haven't HeT, H ne 6paA
A negated verb in the past tense is not, of course, invariably
imperfective:
... F. A. Snetkova, to whom two ... <1>. A. CHeTKOBa, KOT6poii B
rivals in our troupe proposed, Tpynne ABa COnepHIIKa Ac!Aa./\M
and she accepted neither of npeAAO)KeHHe, H OHa HH 3a
them ... OAHOrO H3 HHX He llOIIIAa ...
(Boborykin)
The negated verb here refers to a specific action in specific cir-
cumstances, no sense of protracted non-performance is present.
The sense of the two verbs in the following sentence is negation
of result:
... he is a lawyer, already thirty ... on 10prkT, n Y*e TPHAQaTL AeT,
years of age, but he has achieved a HH'Ier6 oc66eHHoro He coBep-
nothing of note, has invented IIIIIA, nuqer6 He n3o6pi!A
nothing (Kazakov)
When the verb describes a process, the perfective and the imper-
fective forms have different temporal meanings:
The sun had not yet warmed the CoAny;e er_ue ue corpeAo 3eMAJO,
earth when . . . KorAa. .. (Furmanov)
The imperfective form corpeBaJ\o here would mean was not yet
warming . •..
With verbs of which the meaning is primarily resultative, a
negated imperfective past indicates that the action was never
undertaken; a negated perfective past that it was begun or
attempted, but not completed:
The mother did not awaken the MaTL He 6yAiiAa pe6enKa, noTo-
child becaure he had gone to bed 1\Jf qTo on n6MHO ,,er cnaTL
Late
 ASPECT '43
The sound of the alarm clock did 3BOHOK 6yAHAbHUKa He paa6yAifA
not awaken him, so deeply was er6, TaK KpenKo OH cnaA
he asleep
In his paper he was not setting out B CBOel\f AOKAaAe OH He AOKa3bi·
to prove this BaA STOrO
However hard he tried, he could On He AOKaac\A cBoro TO'lKY ape-
not prove his point nux, KaK HII CTapaACH

(ii) Negation in future time is not so strongly linked with the

imperfective aspect as in the past. Looking into the future a
speaker often tends to regard a negated action in terms of the
frustration of its result, and for this reason he uses a perfective
verb:
It makes no difference now ... it TenepL Bee paBn6 ... Bee paBH6
makes no difference, no one will Te6e Hi'IKTO He noBepnT, 'ITO Tbl
believe that you saw me BiiAeA MeHli (Grin)
I'm back, but I won't come in, he JI BepuyACH, HO He BOfiAy, 6biCTp0
said quickly CKaaiA OH (Grin)

But even in the future, if the negation applies not to the result
of the action, but to the course of the action itself, the imperfec-
tive is used:
We shall not dwell upon this ques- Mbl JAech ne 6yAeM ocTauasAu-
tion here saTLCH Ha aTOl\1 BOnp6ce
I have changed my mind, I shall .H. nepeAyMaA . .H. ne 6yAy aaxo-
not be looking irz on you tonight Aihh K BaM cer6AHJJ, AY'liiJe H
after all. Better tomorrow aaJ'iAy aaBTpa

In the second example the speaker is looking at himself not

turning up at his friend's house and he is even suggesting a
certain attitude to his behaviour-the statement contains a
note of unwillingness and apology.
In the past a speaker uses the imperfective aspect if he wishes
to state that an action which had taken place repeatedly then
ceased to occur:

I visited him every week for two .H. ABa r6Aa nocei,gaA er6 Ka.lKAYJO
years, but when he recovered I HeAc!Aro, Ho KorAa on nonpa-
stopped going BHAcx, H 66AhWe He XOAHA
144 THE VERB
The same applies to the future:
I have been visiting him every week R ,IUia ro,IJ;a noceJ,!!aA er6 .KaiKAYIO
for two years, but I will never He,IJ;eAIO, HO H 60Abiiie .K HeMj
do so again He 6yAy XO,IJ;HTb
In such contexts past, present, and future time are all linked in
one long temporal perspective.
In the future a perfective verb is used to express the fact that
an action cannot be achieved in a stated period of time:
He'll take more than three months Ou aa TPH Mecxya ue npotiTeT
to read Anna Karenina <<Auuy KapeHHHYl>
This usage may be compared with the modal use of the perfec-
tive future to express the impossibility of performing an action
for any reason whatsoever (sec para. 297).

Tenses in indirect speech

233· In reported statements or questions in Russian, in which
the main verb is in the past tense, the verb in the subordinate
clause appears in the tense in which the statement was made
or the question asked:
He said that he would go Ou cKaaaA, 'ITO noii,IJ;eT
I asked him if he was reading f{ cnpoCHA ero, tiHTaeT .\H OH
War and Peace <<Bouuy II MHpl>
The same is not, however, always true of verbs which report
not what was asked or said, but what was known, thought or
felt. With verbs of knowing, thinking, believing or remember-
ing the subordinate verb appears predominantly in the tense in
which the original thought occurred:
Prince Andrey not onry knew that Kmrah AnApeii ue ToAh.KO anaA,
he would die, but he felt that he 'ITO yMpcr, HO OH llO'IjBCTBO-
was dying, that he was already Ba,\, 'ITO yl\mpaeT II 'ITO OH y~~<e
halfway along the road to death jMep uanoAOBii:uy
(L. N. Tolstoy)
But, as Costello points out, after such verbs the past tense may
be used if the verb in the subordinate clause is 6biA-because of
a writer's reluctance to construct a clause without a verb:
 ASPECT
She felt how agitated he was 0Ha 'l'YBCTBOBaAa, KaK OH 6biA
B3BOAH6BaH (Aldanov)
He could hardly believe that behind Er.cy He BepnAoch, 'ITo noaa;vi
him lay three )'tars ofpenury 6hiAO Tpn rOAa HlU,YeTbl
(Katayev)
Again, if the writer wishes to distinguish a 'real' fact from an
'unreal' one, he may use the past tense to describe the 'real' and
the present tense to describe the 'unreal' fact:
She was earnestly praying . ... He 0Ha ycepAno MoAiiAacb... OH
felt that she was prayingfor him, 'IYBCTBOBaA, 'ITO OHa MOAJIAaCb
too II aa nero (Turgenev)
Pasha pictured to herself small llama Boo6pa3IiAa MaAeHbKnx
children standing in the street AeTei'i, KoT6pLie cTo.li:T Ha yAnue
crying from hunger, and she n nAa'lyT oT r6AoAa, II caMa
herself sobbed pbrAaAa (Chekhov)
By placing the subordinate verb in the past tense, the writer
emphasises the fact that the thought or feeling of the person
concerned were reflections of surrounding reality and not sub-
jective impressions.
With verbs of seeing and hearing also, 'real' facts often appear
in the past tense (more often, as Costello points out, after KaK
than after 'ITO) :
At supper I did nothing but watch 3a y)KnHoM x TOAbKo cMoTpcA,
the others eat KaK eAli Apynie (Kushchevsky)
It was evident that he was not Eb'rAo BllAHO, 'ITO oH He 6o.li:AC.II
afraid of cold water xoAOAHOii BOAhl (Fadeyev)
This is a strong tendency, but not invariable:
Bidenko ... saw that the boy was EuAemw ... yairAeA, tJTo MaAb'IHK
asleep cmrT (Katayev)
'Unreal' facts frequently appear in the present tense:
From behind it seemed to rury lOpnii AHApeeBH'I BIIAeA C3aA11:,
Andreyevich that he was grow- KaK oH yMeHbmaeTcx
~m~ (~~~

The present tense is evocative and contains an element of sub-

jectivity; the past simply reports.
146 THE VERB
When a person's thoughts or feelings occur in the future
tense, they are always reported in the future. This may happen
when no main verb is expressed, but only implied:
Some of the fishermen were fisher- lJaCTb pbi6aKOB 3aHIIMaAaCb pbl•
men willy-nilly, waiting for 60AOBCTBOM noneBOAe, nOKa He
work at the factory to tum up . •• HaH,ll;eTCH pa66Ta Ha 3aBO,ll;e ...
(Azhayev)

Aspects in the non-temporal forms of the verb

Imperative
234· An imperfective command, in general, names the type
of action to be performed whereas a perfective command re-
quires its completion and often looks to its result. This difference
may make the perfective command more peremptory than the
imperfective which is often rather a request or an invitation
than an order. Isachenko points the difference as follows:
A schoolmaster may say to boys: Boii:,~~;Ihe, pa3,~~;enhTeCh n CHAhTe
Ha MecTa, come in, take offyour things and sit down: but a host may
say to guests: Bxo,~~;1he, pa3,~~;enaii:Tech n ca,~~;liTech

The perfective verb cecn fonns the imperatives C.IIAL, c.IIALTe;

the singular form of both the imperfective and the perfective
verbs naturally carries a certain tone of familiarity. In general
CHAL is more familiar in tone than ca,z.trkL and C.RAL is often
used when the speaker feels some sense of superiority to the
person addressed:
Sit as though you were working the Tbr CH,ll;b, KaK 6y,~~;To secAa 3aH6-
oars CHlllb (Garshin)

This is said by an artist to his model. A person who wishes to

address politely another person to whom he feels himself
superior would be inclined to use the more formal cHALTe:
'Be seated', he said in a voice Cx,~~;bTe,- nporosoprl:A on n,~~;pyr
which suddenly became quiet nepeMeml:nmnMcn THXHM H
and affectionate AaCKOBblM TOAOCOM
(Dostoyevsky)
 ASPECT '47
Both C.ll,ll,b and cH,ll,bTe are often used to indicate the posture in
which the speaker wishes the person addressed to seat himself.
With the example from Garshin above compare:
Just look at the way he's sitting! IlorNI,ll;IiTe, KaK 01-1 CHAih! Paase
Well brought up children just TaK cn,n,liT socmiTaHHbre ,~~;eTn.
don't sit like that. Sit properly! CHAb xopowenbKO!
(Chekhov, quoted by Spagis)
Notice that although the imperfective verb is normal in invita-
tions, it is also often found in military commands.
Get up,;•ou scum, get up! BCTasaii, KanaAbH, scTasaii
(Garshin)
(said by an officer to a soldier who has collapsed on a forced
march); and in terms of abuse, especially in the familiar second
person singular, e.g. y6npaiicJI BOH clear off.
In military life a second person singular imperfective impera-
tive is sometimes used by an officer who is addressing a group of
men. Such commands are extremely forceful:
Go and cany out the order H,~~;ti BbmOAH.sl:ii npuKaaaHife
(Sholokhov)
Notice that when two imperatives stand together they are
almost always of the same aspect. But an imperfective deter-
minate verb of motion may be followed by the perfective form
of the second verb:'
Go and cha11ge your boots H,~~;1i nepeo6y1iCH (Dudintsev)
235 (i). We have shown that imperfective imperatives may both
express courteous invitations and be used in brusque military
commands-the social occasion and the military situation share
the same assumption that the request or command will be ob-
served. The conventional command (often quite polite) is nor-
mally expressed by a perfective imperative. It often happens
that such a command does not elicit ready compliance and then
the speaker will use an imperfective in a rude tone of voice to
show that he requires immediate obedience:
Turn out your pockets! Look BbiBepHI-ITe KapMaHbi. /Ktiso! qTo
lively! Are ;•ou deaf? Turn H rosop16! Bbmopa'lnBaiiTe
them out! (Sholokhov)
1 N.B. Russian in general shows a strong tendency to use the imperfective
imperative with \"erbs of motion.
148 THE VERB
(ii) The perfective command may be considerably softened
by the addition to the imperative of some expression such as
no.lK<iAyiicTa or the particle -Ka:
Please bring some wood llpimecM:Te-Ka Apoa
Isachenko compares the function of Russian -Ka in such con-
texts with that of mal in German- 'schreib mal' do write.
236. An imperfective imperative is often found with clear dura-
rive sense followed by noKa (until) :
Drink ... till you go black in the lleii ... noKa not~epm~eiiih
face (Sholokhov)

It may also express the speaker's desire that the listener con-
tinue to do what he is doing: cn,zvhe, don't get up; paccKa3bi·
naH:Te, get on with your story. It will also, of course, express repeti-
tion; and it is commonly used when the emphasis is on how an
action is to be performed.
237· The perfective imperative forms nocAyumH:(Te), nocToH:-
(Te), and rroro,ZJ;li(Te) lose their basic meaning when the speaker
uses them as a form of direct address.
IIocAyrnaH: means listen carefully or listen to me:
'Listen to me,' said Grushnitsky, lloCAyiiiaif, cKaaaA fpyiiiHHQ-
' ... don't mock at my love if KHii,... He IIO,I.\IIIYtiiJDaH: Ha,l.\
you wish to remain my friend' Moeli: AI066ahiO, ec.i\n x6<~eiiih
ocTaThCH MOHM npmiTeAeM
(Lermontov)
IIocToH: means wait a moment:
Wait a moment, what did you tell l1ocr6ii, nocr6i1:! A at~epa tiTO Thi
us yesterday? Have you for- HaM roaopM:A? 3a6LrA?
gotten?
Iloro,ZJ;H means just wait:
Just you wait, I'll give it you ITorO,I.\H, H Te6e ,1.\aM!
238. The two verbs cMoTpihe be careful and crymiH:Tc be off with
you have no corresponding perfective forms with the same mean-
 ASPECT 149
ing. ITocMoTplhe means take a look and nocrynaHTe means
behave (well or badly). The imperfective imperative Bl>I3AopaB-
AHBaiiTe has no corresponding perfective form and expresses a
wish rather than a command:
Get well quickly B&I3AopaBAnsaihe cKopee
ITpoJ!!aiiTe means goodbye, npocTihe is used as an introductory
word and carries a note of warning about what the person is
going to say, or of apology for it:
Excuse me, Ivan, your tie has IlpocniTe, MsaH, saw niACTYK
slipped coexaA
239· Negative commands in Russian, when they express pro-
hibitions, are almost invariably expressed by the imperfective
form. This is because a prohibition orders the listener to refrain
from doing the action for some time or for ever, even though it
may be inspired by a specific occasion:
Do not kill the dog He y6Hsiihe co6aKy
In para. 232 (ii) it was pointed out that the negative imperfec-
tive future is used to indicate that the speaker will refrain in the
future from actions which he has performed habitually in the
past and is still performing in the present. Similarly, a negative
imperfective imperative is used in commands which are injunc-
tions to the person addressed not to act in the future as he has
done in the past:
In future, don't be late for lee- B 6yAyr,geM, ne ona3,ll;biBaihe Ha
tures AeKJllllt
When, however, the speaker uses an imperative as a form of
warning, and not as a prohibition, he will normally use the
perfective. This is because a warning is usually inspired by a
specific situation existing at a given moment (cf. the use of the
negative perfective past, para. 232 (i)) :
Be careful, it's slippery, don't fall CMoTpii, He ynaAII, CKoAL3KO
But even in these contexts the imperfective verb may be found:
Don't fall, be careful CMoTpii, He miAaii, 6yAb ocTo-
po;KeH
Don't be late for the lecture He ona3,ll;biBaiiTe Ha AeKJliiiO
815634 F
 THE VERB
The note of warning here is weaker. There is no particular
reason why the person addressed should fall, or be late.
240. The perfective verb aa6biTb (to forget, imperfective aa6LI-
BaTb) is particularly common in negative imperative construc-
tions. This is because the injunction do not forget, applied to a
specific occasion, usually carries a note of warning:
Do not forget to buy some apples He aa6yAI>Te Kym1TL .H6AoK, Kor,ll;a
when you go out Bhtii,IJ;eTe
Notice that in such contexts He aa6yALTe is followed by the per·
fective infinitive. When, however, do not forget is a request ap-
plied to a period of time, the imperfective imperative is used:
Do not forget me when you are He aa6hlsaihe MeH.H:, Kor,ll;a
abroad 6yAeTe aa-rpaHJigeii
Notice also the expression He B3,1l;fMaii: (Te) don't you dare: 1
Don't you dare make any more He B3AyMaii eiJJe HaaA6 eM)'
spiteful cracks at him myTKH myn1TL (Sholokhov)
241. First person imperatives are expressed either by the rst
person plural of the perfective future, or by 6y,ZJ;eM with the
imperfective infinitive:
Let us buy this book KynnM ;hy KHHry
Let us read EyAeM <nmin
The only imperfective verbs of which the rst person plural of
the present tense may be used as an imperative are the deter-
minate verbs of motion (see para. 315); the perfective future may,
of course, always be used as an alternative (but see para. 234):
Let us go to the theatre HAeM (noii,ll;eM) B TeaTp
When the command is addressed to more than one person, or
when it is desired to lend it the same note of politeness as is
possessed by the 2nd person plural of the present tense, the
ending -Te is added to the first person forms:
Let us go to tlte theatre
1 A few verbs, when used in the negative imperative and which express

the speaker's fear lest his wish or request be refused, occur more often in the
perfective than in the imperfective. Very common are OTKaaaTb and paccep·
,liHTbCll: be SO kind as to . .. He OTKaa<Ihe B .I\I06e3HOCTH ...
 ASPECT
An alternative form of the imperfective imperative, common in
spoken Russian, is the combination of the imperfective impera-
tive forms Aamiii, AaBaiiTe, with the imperfective infinitive only:
Let us read Pushkin today ,Ll;asaii(Te) •nmh& I1ylliKHHa ce-
r6AHH
Occasionally AaBaii, AaBaiiTe are found together with the future
indicative and in this construction both the imperfective and the
perfective future are admissible according to the context:
Let us read Pushkin today .LJ;asaii(Te) 6yAeM 'lMTiTh I1ylll-
KIIHa cerOAIIH
Let us sit down ,Ll;asaii (Te) cliAeM
242. The perfective imperative forms Aaii, AiiiTe, cannot be
used like AaBati, AaBaiiTe to form compound imperative forms.
Both Aati (-Ka) and AaBaii (-Ka) (not AMiTe, AaBaiiTe) may,
however, be used in constructions with the 1st person singular
where the speaker expresses an inclination to do something,
often translated into English by I think I'll ... :
I think I'll call in on my neighbour ,Ll;aii-Ka 3al'iAy K coce,~~;y B3rNI-
and see how he has settled down HYTh, KaK OH ycTp6uAcH Ha
in his new place HOBOM MecTe (Grin)
There is very little difference in meaning between Aaii and
Aan<iu in such constructions. ,ll,aii is more common.
243· Only the imperfective forms of 1st person imperatives are
used in the negative:
Let us not exaggerate
244· Third person imperatives are expressed by the combina-
tion of the particles nycn, nycKaii, with the 3rd person singular
and plural forms of the imperfective present or perfective
future: nycn:. and nycK:il'i are used indiscriminately, aspectival
differences being expressed by the following verb :
Let him have a good time if he ITycT& (nycKaii) pa3BAeKaeTC:x,
wants eCAl'l xo'leT
Let him read this book through TiycTh (nycKaii) on npo'lTeT 9ry
KHilry
 THE VERB
As with the 2nd person imperfective imperative (see para.
236), the imperfective present after nycn, or nycKaii: may be
used when the speaker wishes to see an action already in pro-
gress continued:
Let them go on reading and we will ITycT& OHii 'lnnimT, a Mhi 6y,~~;eM
work 3aHnMaT&Cll

Infinitive
245· The choice of the imperfective or perfective infinitive is
determined by the same general considerations as that of the
imperfective or perfective aspect in finite forms of the verb. An
imperfective infinitive states only the fact and possibly the
nature of the action. A perfective infinitive emphasizes its com-
pletion and possibly its result. Contrast the following:
It is late. Time we were going fl63,li;HO. flopa yxo,~~;IiT&
The patient is very tired. It is time BoJ..&Hoii otieH& YTOMJ..eH. flopa
we all left HaM BCeM yiin1
The first example is an expression of opinion rather than of in-
tention, the speaker's opinion being occasioned by the late hour
(i.e. the stress in the sentence lies upon nopa, not upon yxo,ZJ;HTL).
In the second example the speaker makes a decisive statement
of intention which he expects the others will comply with.
246. Certain verbs tend to be used in the imperfective infinitive
when the perfective might in theory be expected. Verbs describ-
ing meals have already been mentioned (para. 220 (i)). Other
common examples are AO.IKHTLcx, to go to bed, and BCTaBaTL, to
get up. Most basic verbs of motion and cognate verbs denoting
movement, e.g. 6pocaTLcxf6pocnTLcx, to rush, oTnpaBJ..krncxf
oTnpasnncx, to set off are followed by imperfective infinitives:
On the night of the 2rst/22nd of B HO'IL Ha 22-oe moHll, MLI peww-
June we decided to go to bed and J..n J..O.lKIITCLll 11 BCTaBaTL 6e3
get up without candles CBe'len (Simonov)
I am going to the station to meet Jl u,~~;y na BOK3aJ.. BCTpeti:h& er6
him
Dasha rushed to embrace Vera Aawa 6p6cnJ..ac& o6HHMaT& Bepy
(Nikolayeva)
 ASPECT 153
Another common use of the imperfective infinitive is to ex-
press a sense of urgency in the speaker's mind:
We must at once build the sort of Hy.lKHO HeMeMCHHO cTpouTb
life in which . . . no one will TaKyro .lKU3Hb, 'IT06bl HIIKTO
stand in anyone else's way HnKoM)l ne MermiA (Gor'ky)
The imperfective infinitive is also used when the speaker empha-
sizes the duration of an action by describing his own reaction to
it as it is going on. This is well illustrated in the following sen-
tence, which Mazon quotes as the words of someone suffering
from tuberculosis:
It is not death but the dying !fear MHe yMepeTh He cTpamHo, a
CTpamHO y:~mpaTb
247· Notice the change from the perfective future to the imper-
fective infinitive in:
'He will kill you .... Well, we'll ~Y6LeT ..•Hy 9To Mbl )'BHAHM.
see about that. What's that you KaK STO Tbl roaopiimL: y6LeT!
say . . . kill you! He has no Paane on 1meeT npano Te6ll
right to killyou,judgefor your- y6unaTh, nocy.1u'i: caMa»
self' (Turgenev)
The perfective future refers to the killing of one person on one
occasion: the imperfective infinitive expresses the killing of that
person as a matter of principle at any time and in any place.
Notice also:
JV!if should you go in ;•our 3at~eM liATI'i: aa:~r T&icH'IaM,
aa
thousands, thousands of miles, nkH'IIi nepcT, y:.mpaTh na
to die in foreign fields, when t~ya<1ix no;uix, KOrAa Moa<no
J'OU can die here, and die in yMepeTh 11 JAeCb, )'MCpeTh no-
peace? KOUHO (Garshin)
The speaker here uses the imperfective infinitive to express the
possibility in principle that any of the soldiers might die; he
uses the perfective to declare the certainty that each one will
die some time at home.
248. As with the imperfective aspect in general, the imperfec-
tive infinitive is used in negative constructions which emphasize
the duration of the non-performance of the action:
Once I happened not to take up my 0AHa.JKAbi CAyqihocL Mne ye,'I.Lrii
pistol for a whole month MeClllJ He 6paTb miCTOAeTa
(Pushkin)
154 THE VERB
249· (i) After certain verbs which, by their very meaning, refer
to the progress of an action-its beginning, continuation, or
final stages-only the imperfective infinitive may be used. The
simplest of these are:
To begin HaqJ-lHaTb (uaqaTb), nycKaTbCH
(nyCTHTbCH), CTaTb
To continue IIpoAOAiKaTb
To remain OcTaBaTbcH (ocTaTbcH)
To finish, to stop IIepecTaBaTh (nepecTaTL), Kou-
qaTb (KouquTL), 6pocaTb (6p6-
cuTb)
and all verbs of similar meaning:
The sailors who had remained MaTp6cLI, ocTaBIIIHCCH cn,ZJ;eTh B
sitting in the restaurant . . . pecTOpaue... (Bunin)
Also after the impersonal expressions noAHo, 6yAeT, AOBOJ\LHO
enough:
Stop crying
(ii) A number of verbs which refer in a broader sense than
the above to the progress of an action must also be followed by
the imperfective infinitive. Such are:
To forbid 3anpeiJ!aTb (aanpenhb)
To grow used to llpHBhiKaTb (npuBLIKHYTL)
To forget how to PaayqrmaTbCH (paayqnThCH)
To lose the habit of 0TBLIKaTb (oTBLIKHYTb)
To bore, to pall upon Ha,ZJ;oe,ZJ;aTb (ua,ZJ;oecTL)
To take a liking to I1oAro6MTb
To cease to care for PaaAro6IiTb
To avoid Ma6er:hh
(N.B. the perfective verb na6eJKaTL (to avoid) cannot be followed
by an infinitive, but only by a verbal noun.)
I have got out of the habit of com- ..H OTBLIK xo,ZJ;HTb B aToT pecTopau
ing to this restaurant
The imperfective verb J\ro6Iin can be followed either by an
imperfective or by a perfective infinitive. Particularly common
 ASPECT 155
after this verb are perfective infinitives prefixed with no-, mean-
ing to do a bit of:
I like to do a bit of swimming
(iii) The various verbs meaning to learn and the verb yMen.
to know how to are followed predominantly by imperfective
infinitives, but perfective infinitives are occasionally found. The
verbs meaning to learn are followed by a perfective infinitive
when the meaning is clearly resultative:
Learn and teach, you say? But can Yqt-ITbcn H yqtl:Tb, ronopnwb Tbi?
you learn to make people happy? A Tbl Mox<ewb HayqihbCJI c.z.te-
"'aTb AIO,l.tCH cqacTAifBbiMH?
(Gor'ky)

YMen. may be followed by a perfective infinitive to refer to

ability or inability in specific circumstances (contrast 'to know
how to' in general) :
Arkady might have acted as an in- ApK<i.ztnii Mor 6biHBnTbCH nocpeA-
termediary between his father HUKOM MeX<.z.tY oTy6M H Ea3a-
and Bazarov, but Arkady is in- ponbiM, HO ApK<iAIIii He yMeeT
capable of taking a single active C,l.tCAaTb HII O,l.tHOro aKTHBHOrO
step mara (Turgenev)

250. Except in frequentative and durative contexts, the perfec-

tive verb ycnen. to have time to must always be followed by the
perfective infinitive because it naturally refers to a completed
action:
Before I had time to look round. . • He ycncA H orAHtry"fbc.sr, Kate ..
The imperfective verb ycneB<iTb is usually followed by an imper-
fective infinitive, but rare examples will be found of a perfective
infini tivc also:
And in order to succeed in per- H AAH Tor6, qT66bi ycnenhb CAC-
forming the tasks which faced AaTb TO, 'ITO e:-.ry npe.z.tCTOHAO
him every day, he observed the KaX<AbiH .z.teHb, oH .z.tep:~~<ciAcH
strictest pullCtuality crpo:~~<aiiweii aKKyphHoCTH
(L. N. Tolstoy)
The perfective verb c.z.te.MTh here has a strong sense of success
achieved on every single day.
156 THE VERB
The verb 3a6LmaTL (3a6hm,) is normally followed by a per-
fective infinitive except when the meaning of the infinitive is
clearly frequentative or durative:
I forgot to drop in on you yester- JI aa6bi.I\ aaiini K Te6e Btiepa, no
day, but I will come tomorrow npn,11,y aaBTpa (Fedin)

251. The following general rules apply to the aspectival use of

the infinitive after verbs of permitting, requesting, commanding,
persuading, wishing, warning (i) and (ii); fearing (iii) and hop-
ing (iv):
(i) The aspect of the infinitive is determined by the general
meaning of the statement. If the infinitive refers to a single, or
to a strictly limited number of actions, the perfective is used:
The mother was allowed to spend M;hepn paaperuu.I\H npoBecni
one night with the sick child 6Ko.l\o 6o.I\LH6ro pe6eHKa o,11,uy
HO'IL

The perfective would also be used if two nights or several nights

were specified. But if the infinitive refers to a repeated action,
or to one which states a general principle, the imperfective is
used:
While the child was seriously ill lloKa pe6euoK 6bl.l\ TJDKe.l\6 66.1\eH,
its mother was allowed to spend MaTepn paaperua.l\u npoBO,II,HTb
the nights with it uoqu 6Ko.l\o uer6
It will be seen that the notions ofrepeated action and of general
principle may overlap-i.e. permission is given in principle to
the mother to spend each night with the child, and in accor-
dance with this principle she does so.
(ii) In general the imperfective infinitive is used with nega-
tion:
He ordered me not to leave Ou npnKaaciA 11me 11e yea.lKaTb
The same applies if it is the auxiliary verb which is negated:
I did not advise him to stay here Jl He COBeTOBa.l\ eMj OCTaBaTbCH
3,11,eCb

If, however, the auxiliary verb conveys a warning against the

 ASPECT 157
possibility of an accidental occurrence, then the perfective verb
is used:
I beg you not to let it out R npomy Te6a ne nporoBopiin.cH
(iii) In both positive and negative constructions the verb
6miTLCH to fear is always followed by a perfective infinitive when
it means 'to fear lest':
I'm qfraid of catching cold (lest I R 6m6cL npoCTyAihLcH
catch cold)
\Vhen the meaning is 'to be afraid of', however, an imperfective
is more common, although both aspects are possible:
Tayan was qfraid of venturing far HAni AaAeK6 B TYHAPY Taan
into the tundra: bears prowl 6oli,\CH: MeABeAH 6p6AHT Bo-
about there Kpyr (Gorbatov)
He was afraid of believing himself On 6oaACH Bepun. ce6e (Grin)
(iv) A negated infinitive after the verb naAeHTLC.Il to hope is
normally perfective:
I hope I will not find him at home ..R naAeJOCL ne aacniTL er6 A6Ma

Aspect and meaning

252. 'With certain verbs, the broad distinction between the
aspects (action in progress f completed action) becomes a general
contrast between an action attempted and an action carried
to a successful conclusion. This is one of the most expressive
functions of aspectival contrast based on the same verbal root.
English can only make the same distinction by using different
verbs or, sometimes, by the use of the verb try to translate the
imperfective verb:
ENGLISH RussiAN
Imperfective Perfectire Imperfective Perfective
To chase To catch AoBHTL llOIIMclTL
To search for To find 0TbiCKJmaTL 0TLICKclTb
To urge To persuade YroBapimaTL YroBOpliTL
To assure To convince YBepm YBepnTL
To entreat To prevail upon YnpamnBan. YnpociiTL
 THE VERB
To contend To prove ,LI,oKaai>man ,LI,oKaaan
To seek comfort in To find comfort YTewanca Yn~wHTI>CJI
tn (1IeM-HH6yAI>) (1IeM-HH6yAO)
To strive after To attain ,LI,o6~manca ,LI,o6nnca
To discuss To decide Pewan PewJin
To plead one's To vindicate OnpaBAI>man- OnpaBAaTI>CJI
cause oneself ca
To try to explain To make clear 06'bJICHm 06'bJICHHTb
Notice also aacAy)Kuaan (no perfective form in this sense) to
deserve and aacAy)KJhb (no imperfective form in this sense) to
earn, to win, to incur (praise, a reward, reproach).
253• Notice that whereas the perfective form of the above verbs
may only have the meaning given, the imperfective forms
(except aacAy)KnBaTL), in frequentative or general statements,
may acquire the meaning of the perfective form (for the con-
trast between the two Russian verbs is only aspectival and not
semantic):
He always achieved his purpose OH BcerAa Ao6~m3.Aca caoc!H geAH
254· The verbs given (and other less common verbs) are used
with greatest effect in the same sentence:
She began to sing the tune of a song 0Ha aanb.a MOTHB neCHl:l... KO-
... which she had been trying to Topbrii: OHa AOBHAa BCJO AOpory
remember the whole way and had l:l HaKOHeJ;! nOHMaAa
finally remembered (L. N. Tolstoy)
We discussed for a long time what M1>1 A6Aro pewaAn 'ITo AeAan,
to do andfinally decided to spend HaKoHeJl pewiiAH nepeHO'Ie-
the night with a forester we BaTI> y 3HaKOMOrO AeCHHKa
knew
Either form may, of course, be used alone:
She shook him by the shoulder, kept 0Ha TpxcAa er6 aa nAe'l6, ynpa-
at him, until he understood that wnaaAa, noKa on ne n6miA, 'ITO
he was wanted on the telephone er6 aoBjT K TeAeq>6Hy
(Mal'tsev)
Notice the interesting sentences:
She offered him tea but he refused it 0Ha yrmga.'l.a er6 qaeM, HO OH
OTKa3aACH (Sologub)
 ASPECT 159
I made constant efforts to detain R er6 Bee BpeMH ocTaBNiAa, a on
him, but he refused to stay, evi- oncaabiBa.ACJI, 6o.KAcH uaBepno
dently afraid of missing the ono3,D,aTb K n6e3,11,y (Fedin)
train
255· The perfective future, expressing successful completion,
contrasted with the imperfective present expressing endeavour,
is often used with present, not future meaning:
Sleep never comes easily to me . . . Mne HIIKor,~~,a ue crnh01... H
I doze . . • lie and lie, and 3acbmaro ... AeiKy, AeiKy, ,D,a u
finally drop off 3acuy (Turgenev)

Special perfective meanings

256. The case of Ab.an. (cAb.an.), an aspectival pair in which
the perfective is formed from the imperfective verb by the addi-
tion of a prefix without specific meaning, is a comparatively rare
one. Such prefixes, however, are sometimes added to imper-
fective verbs to form special perfective verbs related in meaning
to the original imperfective verb but not forming an aspectival
pair with it. The following paragraphs set out the commonest
of these special perfective verbs.
257. ITo, added to certain imperfective verbs, may form perfec-
tive verbs meaning to do for a while:
The sentry stood for a while, then tJacoB6ii nocro.!IA u OTOllli!A ...
went away. . • (A. N. Tolstoy)
Such verbs may correspond to the English to have a .•• , to take
a ... : nocmin. to take a nap. They may also be translated by
adding the phrase a hit:
His soft collar was a bit crumpled Er6 MHrKHii BopoTHHK 6bL\ nm.urr
(A. N. Tolstoy)
With verbs of motion no-, in this meaning, is attached to the
indeterminate verb (see para. 315): noAeTan. Ha a3pOIL'\aHe to do
a hit offlying. But notice to carry a bit may be noHecnl::
Let me carry ;•our bag a bit
160 THE VERB

IToHoCHTb means to wear for a bit as well as to carry for a bit:

Wear that coat a bit longer ... lloHOCIITe TO rraAbTO eJ,Qe He-
MHOro ...

258. ITo-, secondly, is added to certain determinate verbs of

motion to form perfective verbs meaning to start, to set off:
The horse set off at a walk A6ma.n;b IIOill.l\a maroM
It began to drizzle llomi!.l\ M<!AKHH .n;mKAb
Who will set the ball rolling? KTo rroKaniT map?
The rain began to get heavier ,lJ,mKAb IIOIIIe.l\ CH.I\bHee (Garshin)

Similarly noexaTb to set off (by car, etc.), no.ll.eTeTb to fly off no-
to sail ojJ, to set sail, to swim off.
II.II.hiTb
ITo- may also be prefixed to verbs of motion outside the deter-
minate/indeterminate pairs: rroM•HtThCH to rush off, nocKaKaTb to
gallop off. With trains, not no- but oT- is used when the train
leaves according to the timetable:
The train left at eight o'clock l16e3.n; oTomeA p6BHO B B6ceMh
exactry 11ac6B

A small number of verbs other than verbs of motion combine

with no- in this meaning:
A wind blew up ITo.n;yA BeTep
He fell in love with her OH IIOJ\I06IJ.I\ ee
His mouth began to water Y Hero CJ\IDHKH IIOTCKJ\M
259· 3a- prefixed to many imperfective verbs forms special per-
fective verbs with inchoative meaning. Many of these verbs
describe noises and English may use the simple verb, whereas
the Russian verb makes it clear that the beginning of the action
is meant:
The thunder roared f poM 3arpeMeJ\
The hooter sounded fy.n;6K 3ary.n;eA
The wolves howled B6AKH 3aBhiAn

Sometimes these verbs only indicate the fact that the action
began, at other times they may mean that it began and con-
tinued for a while:
 ASPECT
At table his wife addressed afew 3a CTOAOM .lKeHa 3aroBopitAa c
words to him, but his reply was HHM, HO 011 TaK 6ypKHYA cep-
so brusque and ill-tempered that AHTbn':f OTBeT, 'ITO oHa 3aMoA-
she lapsed into silence 'laAa (L. N. Tolstoy)
260. Referring to the beginning of a state, 3a-verbs may trans-
late to turn, to grow, to fall, to become, to go:
The rye has begun to turn yellow Po.lKb 3a.lKeATeAa
The horse suddenly went lame .l\6rna,ll;b BApyr 3axpoMaAa
He has grown idle 011 3aAeHilACH
Also 3aApeMaTL (to fall into a do;:;e), 3a6oAeTL (to fall ill).
261. 3a-verbs may also correspond to English verbs used with
adverbs such as up, down, out, off, in, away:
The wind quietened down BeTep 3anlx
The lilac has come out CnpeHb 3ayBeAa
They strode off to the public garden 0HI.f3arnaraAn KCKBepy (Panova)
The orchestra struck up a march OpKecTp 3anrpaA Mapm
Also 3aiL\aKaTL (to burst into tears), 3acMeHTLCH (to burst out laugh-
ing).
262. An idiomatic group of 3a-verbs are those formed from
verbs of colour in -eTL with the meaning of to show white, red,
green, etc. The prefix gives these verbs the perfective meaning of
to come into view:
Far ahead the red roofs of the ,LJ;aAeK6 BnepeAH 3aKpacllc!An
houses came into view Kpbllliii ,ll;OMOB
Before me spread the green su1!- ITepeAo MHm'f 3a3eAeHeAH 3aAii-
drmched forests Tbie c6AnyeM Aeca
If the colour expressed by the Russian verb is the natural colour
of the object concerned (blue sea), it may translate an English
construction with no mention of colour:
Ahead I caught sight of the sea ITepe,11;o 1>1Hoii 3acnlleAo Mope
263. 3a- with inchoative meaning makes special perfective
verbs of motion only with the indeterminate verbs. Such per-
fective verbs retain the original indeterminate meaning of the
 THE VERB
verb and are often translated with the help of the English
adverb about:
We let the bird out of the cage and Mbl Bhmycnr.J\H nni~Jy H3 K.J\CTKH
it began flying about the room n: oHa 3a.J\eTa.J\a no KOMHaTe
264. Note the meanings of saKypB:n. and sanHTL to take to
smoking, to take to drink:
After his wife's death he took to II6cAe CMepTn: .iKeHb!, oH 3amiA
drink
I've lived thirty eight years without TpH:AgaTL BoceMh .1\eT npo.iKH.J\-
yielding to temptation; I won't He co6Aa3HH.J\ca:; Tenepb Y.iK He
start smoking now 3aKypro (Panova)
3aKypl1TL may also mean to light up (a cigarette). Note the im-
perfective form saKypn:Ban., which is not used in the meaning
of 'to take up smoking':
• . . lighting one cigarette from an- ... 3aKypHBaa: OT OAH6ii nann:p6cbi
other, he said gaily ..• Apyryro, OH CKa3i.J\ BeCe./\0 ...
(Fedin)
265. The prefix sa- may also mean to do something to excess,
and in this meaning may be prefixed to either a simple or a
reflexive verb:
Ivan Mironov asked an excessive IIBaH Mn:p6HoB sanpocH.J\, cTa.J\
price, came down a bit and c6aBNiTh n: HaKoHeiJ 6TAa.J\ sa
finally obtained the price he was cBoro geHy (L. N. Tolstoy)
after
Note also the verbs saroBopHTLCH to let one's tongue run away with
one, saqJnaTLCH to become absorbed in one's reading.
266. The verb saB11:Aen. means to catch sight ojfrom a distance:
The sun, going to meet the moon, C6.J\H~Je HAeT HaBcTpeqy Meca:~Jy
does not see it and frowns; but n: He BHAHT er6, TaK H xMy-
as soon as it sees it at a distance, pnTca:, a Y.iK KaK 3aBHAHT
it beams H3Aa.J\H, TaK n: npocBeTAeeT
(Goncharov)
267. Ha- forms special perfective verbs meaning to do a lot of:
To tell a lot of lies HaAraTh
 ASPECT 1~

The object of transitive verbs of this kind is naturally almost

always a quantitative expression and appears, as such, in the
partitive genitive:
To litter the floor with paper Ha6pocaTD 6yl>u1ru na noAy
Notice, however, the use of the accusative of quantity with a
numeral complement after the verb HaAeT<iTh:
This pilot has flown a thousand 3ToT ACT"'HK na.>.eTaA TLkll'ly
hours tJacoB
N.B. Some of these perfective verbs with a Ha- prefix have
corresponding imperfective forms:
Put plenty ofjam on, it's nice HaKAa,l!;hiBaihe BapenhH, ono
BKycno (Dudintsev)
268. Ha- prefixed to certain reflexive verbs forms perfective
verbs meaning to do something to the limit of one's desires or powers:
I've worked myself out R uapa66TaACH
I've read all the novels I ever want R natJnTaAcH poManoB
to read
In the negative these verbs translate cannot enough:
And then he goes once more to the A noTOll.l omhh K oKny ... nocAe
window ... after prison he can- TIOphMbi·TO, He HarAH,l!;llTC.II
not see enough of the world (Korolenko)
The perfective future here expresses impossibility (see para.
297)·
269. OT- forms special perfective verbs which may translate
idiomatically to finish:
When we had finished supper Kor,l!;a l\Ihi oryJKHHaAH
The thunder of war has died away, Orrpe111e,,a Boiiua, IfACT K KOHQY
the first post-war year is almost nepBhll~l llOCAeBOeHHhlll fO,l!;
oz•er (Panova)
270. Whereas oT- may give the sense of an action carried
through to the end, the prefix npo- may be used meaning an
action carried on for some time:
You ... spent the whole war driv- Bhl... BCIO Bonny npoe3,ll;uAn B
ing about in an ambulance camnapuoM aBTOl\I06IIAe
(Panova)
Notice also npm<am.urTh BCIO HO'Ih to cough the whole night.
 THE VERB
271. Ma- forms perfective verbs denoting that the action or
state they describe covered the whole surface of an object or
was carried through to completion:
Over the churned-up leaden sea fly HaA nap'hiThiM CBMIII.JOBLlM M6peM
broken clouds AeniT pBaHble ryqn
(A. N. Tolstoy)
The men's tattered clothing l'I3opBaHHaH B K.l\0'1&.11 OAe)KAa
My)K'IHH (Tikhonov)
The house was in a state of com- ,li;OM li3BeTillcl.l\ COBCeM
plete dilapidation
272. The double prefix no~Bh'r- means a little: no~BblllHT& to
get a little drunk, no~Bh'rpacTn to grow a little.
Semelfactive verbs
273· These verbs form a subdivision of the perfective aspect
and, as their name implies, describe a single action once per-
formed. Their distinguishing mark is the suffix -Hy- and they
are prefix.less. They usually correspond to imperfective verbs
which describe not only a durative but also a complex or repe-
titive action which the semelfactive verbs reduce to unity, e.g.:
To blink (a number MopraT& To blink (once) Moprny-r&
of times)
To bite (a number KycciT& To take a bite Kycnyn
of times)
Semantically, the semelfactive verbs may be compared with
special perfectives formed with no- from the same imperfective
verbs but denoting that, although the action was completed, it
consisted of a number of small actions and lasted for a certain
time:
The coach lurched once or twice Baron noKa'la.I\C.II n cTa.l\ na MecTo
and stopped (A. N. Tolstoy)
The pendulum moved once and Ma.IITHIIK ABHHY.I\C.II n ocrano-
stopped BH.I\C.II (Katayev)
Notice the difference in meaning between TPOHYTL to touch once
and noTp6raTD to feel (i.e. to touch a few times):
He touched my arm OH Tp6ny.l\ MOIO PYKY
He smiled and felt my muscles OH yA&I6HyAc.ll, noTp6ra.l\ .MOI1:
Mhlilli.J&I (Serafimovich)
 ASPECT
Iterative verbs
274· These verbs form a subdivision of the imperfective aspect.
Semantically, they are the exact opposite of the semelfactive
verbs because they designate actions repeated many times with
no indication of completion. They are marked by the suffix
-hma- (-1ma-). It should be observed, however, that verbs con-
taining this suffix and prefi."{ed by any other prefix than no- or
npu-, although they may be used iteratively, are now used much
more commonly with normal imperfective durative meaning.
Verbs with the suffix -hma- (-liBa-) and the prefixes no- or npH-,
however, have exclusively iterative meaning and may translate
idiomatically certain English turns of speech:
The telephone kept up a persistent, TeAe!f>6n nacr6fi'IHBO no3B<'um-
intermittent ringing BaA Bf>eMJI OT Bf>eMeHU
(Kazakevich)
My head aches on and off foAoBa y Mens no6<iAHBaeT

Verbs prefixed with no- very often, and verbs prefixed with
npu- almost always, denote a frequently repeated action taking
place as the accompaniment to another action:
Nibbling his sparse beard, Akun- IToJ!!Iimmall peAKYJO 66po,~~;y,
din looked round the hall AKYHAHH orAliA!!A aaA
(A. N. Tolstoy)
He went hopping (limping) along On weA npHDAHCbiBaJI (npu-
xpaMbiBaJi)

VOICE
Passive
275· Passive actions which are durative or frequentative and
of which the subject is inanimate are expressed predominantly
by the reflexive forms of imperfective verbs followed, where
appropriate, by the instrumental of the agent:
The cliffs are washed by the sea YTechl oMbiBaiOTcJI MopeM
The house will be painted et•ery Am·• 6y,~~;eT KpacnTbcJI Kaa<Abii1
;•ear ro,~~;
J66 THE VERB
Animate subjects almost invariably give such verbs intransitive
or reflexive, but not passive meaning:
All books are returned from here to Bee KHII:rn: B03spaiQaroTex oTeK>Aa
the central library (Passive) B geHTpaAhHYJO 6H6AHOTeKy
The travellers are returning from IIyTeUieeTBeHHHKH Bo3BpaiQaroT-
abroad (Intransitive) eH H3·3a rpaHiiflbi
The dishes are washed by the ser- IIoeyAa MoeTex eAy.a<aHKoii
vant (Passive)
I wash in cold water (Reflexive)
No verb describing a physical action, with an animate subject,
can be used reflexively with passive meaning; such English con-
structions are normally rendered in Russian by an active con-
struction, with inverted subject and object:
The child is washed by the nurse Pe6eHKa MoeT HHI-IbKa
A very small number of verbs, however, describing non-physical
actions, may be used reflexively with passive meaning, even
though the subject is animate:
I am considered by everyone a R etJHTaroeh BeeMH IQeApbiM tJeAo-
generous man BeKoM
People are changed by events .i\K>Au H3MeunroTell eo6hiTHHMn

276. An English past participle passive, describing a durative

or frequentative action, in an adjectival or subordinate clause,
may sometimes be rendered in Russian by the present participle
passive:
The priest, preceded by the deacon, CBl!ij!eHHHK, n peAIIIeeTByeMblll
approached the church ,l\bllKOHOM, npn6AmKaAeJI K
gepKBn (Chekhov)
Everyone attends the dinners given Bee npneyTeTB)'lOT Ha o6eAax
by the governor AaBaeMbiX ry6epHaTOpOM
(Boborykin)
The present participle passive in such contexts always expresses
an action contemporaneous with the action described by the
main verb. Its use is severely restricted by the fact that it can
be formed from a comparatively small number of verbs only.
Where the verb concerned lacks the present participle passive,
a durative or frequentative action in a subordinate or adjectival
 VOICE 167
clause may sometimes be expressed by the reflexive form of the
imperfective present or past participle active:
The building under construction on 3,zr;aHne, cTp6Higeec.ll na {lTOM
this spot ~u!cre ...
The paper written by the student ,Ll;oKAa,zr;, nn:caBwnikH cry,zr;eHTOM
during the last month • • . B np6IUAOM MeCHQe ••.
Occasionally, also, recourse may be had to the present participle
passive formed from a synonymous prefixed verb:
The long-awaited day ,Ll;aBH6 oam,zr;aeMbm ,zr;eH&
The towns being burned by the ropo,zr;a camraeM&Ie Bpar6M
enemy (Fedin)
The criminal accused of murder IJpecrynHUK 06BIUcieMbrH B
y6MtcTBe (L. N. Tolstoy)
The prefixless verbs *AaTb, .~~<e'IL, and BUHIITb have no present
participles passive.
277· When the subject is a quantitative expression, passive
constructions may be rendered in Russian by the neuter short
form of the past participle passive:
Many letters have been received 3,zr;ec& cer6,zr;H.II noAy11eHo MH6ro
here today mlceM
1\fuch was eaten and drunk, mmry l\'lHOrO 6hiJ\0 BblllUTO II C"he,ll;eHO,
tears were shed, there was much MHOrO npOAIITO CAf!3, MHOro
singing and dancing cneTO H crwlcauo (Fedin)

278. Single, completed passive actions are normally expressed

in Russian by the past participle passive, combined with the
past or future forms of 6LrrL, or standing alone where the Eng-
lish meaning is perfect. The participle always appears in the
short form of the nominative case to make a.finite passive verb, and never
in the instrumental case:
A special stock-taking committee 06pa36BaHa oc66a.11 KOMHCCU.II
has been formed yqeTa (A. N. Tolstoy)
At a general meeting of the crew of Ha 66~geM co6paHim KOMaHA&I
the 'Derbent' the plan for the c,Ll;ep6eHTat, 6LIJ\ YTBep.~KAeH
first Stakhanovite run was ap- nAaH nepBOrO CTaxaHOBCKOro
proved penca (~ov)
This play will be performed in 3Ta OLeca 6y,zr;eT nocrciBAeHa B
London .l\6H,lloHe (Boborykin)
J68 THE VERB
Pluperfect meaning is expressed by the same construction as
past definite meaning, often strengthened by a temporal ad-
verb:
Very close to the town was the vil- Ilo,ll. caMbiM r6po,ll.oM 6hiAo ceA6
lage of Torguyevo. One half of Topryeso. 0,li.Ha noAOBltHa er6
it had been recently incorporated 6biAa He,ll.asuo npHcoe,li.HHeHa
in the town, the other half re- K r6poAy, ApyraH ocTaBaAacb
mained a village ceA6M ( Chekhov)
279· The past participle passive is formed almost exclusively
from perfective verbs. Note, however, that the three very com-
mon verbs nncaTI>, lJHTaTI>, and neTL, possess past participles
passive which express the fact that, although completed, the
action took some time to perform (see also para. 174 (ii)):
A picture painted by Rembrandt • • • KapniHa, m1caHHaH PeM6paH,li.-
TOM .••

280. The English passive of state (cf. German ist (state) and
ist +past participle+ worden (action)) may be expressed in
Russian by either the past participle passive or by the perfective
form of the reflexive verb:
The lost book has beenfound IloTepHHHaH KHHra HawAaCb
(Haii:,ll.eHa)
It should be noted that the English passive of action expressing
a single completed action in the past and naming the agent may
not be expressed in Russian by the perfective form of the re-
flexive verb. The most common rendering of the lost book has
been found by the librarian would be noTep.IIHHyro KHiiry Haw Ell.
6H6AHoTeKapi> (i.e. inversion). This might also translate the lost
book was found by the librarian, and in this meaning an alterna-
tive construction would be noTep.IIHHa.II KHiira 6LJAa Haii4eHa
6H6AHOTeKapeM. The use of the perfective reflexive in Russian
precludes the naming of the agent because the meaning of this
construction is either resultative or descriptive. Such construc-
tions as:
..• the edges of the (river) banks ••. KpaH 6eper6B llO,ll.epHyAHCb 30-
became covered with a golden- AOTOH c p6aosLIM KaeMKoii:
pink border (M. Prishvin)
 VOICE 169
are resultative and descriptive (note English with not by). When
Gor'ky wrote to a young writer:
... if you have anything written, ••• Y.lK eCA:u 'ITO-TO Hanuc<i.>\ocb,
send it here . • . npHCbiAliJ'iTe CIO,l!;a ...
he meant, literally, if anything has got itself written. The expression
nocALnnancn, often quoted as a passive to be heard, is not a true
passive since the agent is named in the dative and not the instru-
mental case:
. . . he heard the rattle of anchor ... e~r'f noCAhlwa.hCH rpoxoT
chains liKopuLIX geneii (Krymov)
When Leonov writes: 'UeALill ropOA BLICTpOHACH 3,ll;eCL aa OAHY
HO'IIL' he is saying that on this spot an entire town sprang up over-
night, emphasizing the result achieved in one night and not the
process of the building, nor the activity of the builders, nor their
identity.

281. Russian possesses a further idiomatic way of expressing,

in special contexts, single completed passive actions. The action
in this form of expression is always physical and the agent
always inanimate. The inanimate agent is regarded as the
instrument of the will of some external force. It is often a natural
phenomenon. The verb in these constructions is impersonal, thus
expressing the absence of active intention in the agent. The
noun naming the agent is placed in the instrumental case:
At dawn the land became enveloped Ha paccseTe ~IaHa!>m aaTomi.ho
in fog a6v\lo (Bubennov)
Kvashin' s corpse was carried awqy Tpyn Ksannma yuec.ho peKofi
by the river (A. N. Tolstoy)
I saw a soldier killed by a cannon- R BiiAe.h, KaK HApO!>I y61ho co.h-
ball AliTa (L. N. Tolstoy)
The idler-wheel was knocked off 0AHllM CHapHAOM y TaHKa Bbi6H-
the tank by one shell, the turret .h0 KO.heco-.heHiiBeg, ApyniM -
was wedged by another aaKAilHII.hO 6aWHIO
(Bubennov)
To express such actions actively (e.g. rpamiTa y611Aa 'lle,,oseJ<a
the grenade killed the man), while possible, is unusual in Russian.
 THE VERB
The construction described may also be used when the agent
is not named:
Chapaev was shot through the arm qam1.eBy npo6M:AO PYKY
(Furmanov)
On the second day of Tuletide the Ha BTop6ii ,~~;em, po.lK,~~;ecTBa BaAo-
ice broke up • • • MiAo Ae,~~;... (Sholokhov)

Transitive and intransitive verbs

282. English often uses the same verb to express both a transi-
tive and an intransitive action, Russian very seldom. One of
the main functions of the reflexive suffix -ex in Russian is to
form an intransitive from a transitive verb. The following are
among the commonest of these pairs:
Transitive and
Intransitive Transitive Intransitive
To spread PacnpocTpaHHTh PacnpocTpaHHTbCll
(-HHTh) (-HllTbCll)
To stop OcTaHaBAHBaTh OcTaHaBAMBaThcx
(OCTaHOBHTh) (OCTaHOBHTbCH)
To return BooBpa~,gaTh (-THTh) BoaBpa~,gaTbCH (-THTbCH)
To continue IIpo,li;OA.lK<!Th IIpo,~~;oA.lKaThcx
To dress O,~~;eBaTb (o,~~;eTh) O,~~;eBaThcx (o,~~;eTbcx)
To wash MbiTb (noML'rTb) MhiThCH (noMLIThcx)
There are many other such pairs, especially corresponding
to English verbs in -en:
Transitive and
Intransitive Transitive Intransitive
To weaken 0cAa6A.RTh (oCAa6uTh) 0cAa6A.IiThCll (-uTbCll)
To soften CMllr'IaTb (cMllr'IM:Th) CMllr'laTbCll (-'IIITbcll)
283. Certain transitive verbs in Russian correspond to intran-
sitive verbs formed from the same root. Common among such
pairs are:
Transitive and
Intransitive Transitive Intransitive
To hang BewaTb (noBecHTb) BuceTh
To weigh BasenmBaTh (B3BecnTb) BeenTh
 VOICE
To grow Bbip<h,g•maTL (Bb!pac- Pacrn (BbrpacTH)
TIITL) ( usenr)
0Tpar,guBaTL (OTpaC•
nlTL) (oopo,11;y)
To freeze 3aMopaiK~omaTL (3a111o- Mep3HyTL (3aMep3H)'TL)
po3lfTL)
To sink TomiTL (noTomiTL) ToHjrL (noTolijrL)
To drown TomiTL (yToml:n.) ToHyTL (yTOHYn)
(But OH )'TOHYA B KpecJ\e he sank into the armchair). Note also,
formed from different roots:
To burn iKetiL (CiKetiL) foprn (croprn)

Other uses of reflexive verbs

284. Reflexive verbs are used to describe certain actions which
are permanent characteristics of the subject:
This dog bites 3Ta co6aKa KycaeTcJI
This horse kicks 3Ta "6ma,~~;L AJiraeTCJI
This cat scratches 3Ta K6WKa tzapanaeTCJI
This wire bends 3Ta npoBO;\OKa rHCTCJI
This material will not tear 3Ta MaTepHJI He pBCTCJI
These cups do not break 3m: qamKlf He oLroTcJI
To describe an action with a specific object, however, the non-
reflexive form is used:
This dog does not bite children 3Ta cooaKa He KycaeT ,ll;eTeii
285. (i) Sometimes a reflexive and non-reflexive verb exist to-
gether to describe fundamentally the same action, but the
reflexive verb expresses a different attitude to the action on the
part of the doer:
To threaten fpo3IITL (npurp031m), rpo31ITLCJI
(norp03HTLCJI)
To ring 3BOHIITL (ll03BOHlfTL), 3BOHIITLCJI
(n03BOHIITLCJI)
To knock CTf'iaTL (nocT)"ian.), cTyqaTLcJI
(nocryqan.c.11)
The reflexive verb expresses the keen personal interest of the
 THE VERB
doer in the effect his action will produce. fpoa:HncH, for ex-
ample, may mean that a person is not serious in his threats but
is only using them to achieve his ends:
He won't do that, he is onry OH aToro He C,ll;eAaeT, TO.I\bKO
threatening rpo3HTC.!I

CTyq<I.TJ>CH and aBOHHTLCH mean that the knocker or ringer

hopes for an answer to his knocking or ringing, and in the con-
text of knocking or ringing at a door these reflexive verbs are
very widely used.
(ii) Notice also the verbs c.l\yruan (to listen) and rrpiiaHasaTI>
(npii3Han) (to acknowledge) which acquire different meanings
when used reflexively. C.l\yrnancH (noc.l\yrnaTLCH) means to
obey and npiiaHasancH (rrpiiaHaTLCH) to confess.

286. Certain reflexive verbs change in meaning when they lose

the reflexive suffix -cH and take the full reflexive pronoun ce611
as a direct object:
To feel better qYBCTBOBaTb (no-) ce6H Aytime

but ~crnyeTcH means is felt, one feels:

Liberal trends of thought were be- B 66IJJeCTBe qyBcTBoBa.II.O(;h Bee
coming more and more strongry ciiA&Hee AII6epaA&Hoe Te'leHne
felt in society (Boborykin)

To wonder (French se demander) cnpanmsan (crrpoci:~n) ce611,

but cnparnrmaeTcH means the question arises, one asks, one wonders:
If more students come to us, the EcAII K HaM npii,ll;eT 66A&me cTy-
question arises, where will they ,ll;eHTOB, To cnpamiiBaeTcH, r,.11;e
work? oHH 6yAYT aaHnMaTbcll?

To take one's own life .1\IIrnan (.1\IIIIIHTL) ce611 )I<H3HII, but

.1\HIII<iTLcH (.1\IIm:HncH) JKH3m:l means to lose one's life.
To maintain (keep) onself co,ll,epJKan cc611, but co,ll,epJKancH
means to be contained:
How much petrol does this can CKo.II.&Ko 6eHaHHa co,ll;ep)KuTcH B
contain? aTOM 6II,li,OHe?
 VOICE 173
To behave well Becni: ce6a xopow6, but BecnicL means to date
from:
This custom dotes from ancient STOT o6b'rqafl IicCTapu BeAeTCH
times
287. The dative reflexive pronoun ce6e may, in Russian, be
used to make perfectly clear the translation of such English
expressions as he is ha~·ing a house built. This may be translated
either on cTponT AOM or, more explicitly, oH cTpouT ce6e AOM.
Compare on mLi::T Chmy KOCTIOM he is hat•ing a suit made for his son.

MOOD
Subjunctive
288. The Russian subjunctive is the same in form as the con-
ditional (see para. 447). It has certain uses in common with the
subjunctive in Western European languages although it is not
used so widely as in those languages. For its usc in concessive
clauses see paras. 45o-1.
289. In main clauses the subjunctive is used to express the
desirability of an action. Desirability may be objective; i.e.
externally viewed, it is desirable that someone should do (should have
done), ought to do (ought to have done) something. Notice that the
subjunctive in such constructions may refer to past, present,
or future time:
You should have written to the B&I 6&1 nanncaAU BtJepa X03HIIHY
landlord yesterday
You should write to the landlord Bbl 6&1 nanncaAH cerOAHH (aaB-
today (tomorrow) Tpa) X03HIIIIY

The desirability may also be subjective; i.e. internally viewed,

I wish that, if only. Here the subjunctive may be accompanied
by CKOpee, llOCKOpcf1, XOTL:
I wish I could read a bit longer Jl llOtJIIT<iA 6bi eJ!!e He!IIHO;KKO
If only they would start calling us CKopee 6bl natJaAn BbxahmaTh
up (Krymov)
If only he would come XoTb 6bx on nocKopeil npnweA
174 THE VERB
In English and Russian such desires may sometimes be expressed
without a verb, but in Russian the particle 61>1 must not be
omitted:
Just one sunny day and everyone 0AHH Obi ACHb coAHQa, nceM
would cheer up BeceA.o oyAeT

290. Desirability, expressed by the subjunctive, may be strong

enough to take on mild imperative meaning:
Nina and I will unpack and you Mbi c HriHoii: oyAeM pacnaKOBhl-
show your father your present BaTbCH, a TLI noKa3aA Obi OTUY
no,ztapoK
Notice that the subjunctive constructions in this use (and when
they express only desirability) consist of the protasis of a condi-
tional sentence.

291. In subordinate clauses, the Russian subjunctive is used

after verbs of wishing or endeavouring. Such verbs are followed
by the conjunction 'ITO, and the subjunctive particle 61>1 is
joined to 'ITO, making one word 'IT06LI (1ITo6). Common verbs
of this kind are:
To want XoTeTb (3axoTeTb)
To demand TpeooBaTb (noTpe6oBaTL)
To try to bring it about (perf. to ,4oOHBaTLCll (.zt06IJTLCll)
bring it about)
To wait )KAaTL
To insist HacTaHBaTL (nacToliTL)
To see to it CMoTpeTb, CAe.ztz.iTb
All of these verbs are followed by the construction 'IT06hi KT6-
Hn6yAL C,ll;e.l\a.J\ 'ITO-HII6YAL (that someone do something) (see para.
428 for alternative constructions with *AaTL) :
On Sunday Lida insisted that B BOCKpecent.e .i\I'rAa uacTOliAa,
Pyrin take her with him into the '1To6hl IIL'IpHH B3liA ee c coo6Ii
town B ropo,zt (Popov)
292. Infinitive constructions after verbs of commanding, per-
suading, etc., are dealt with in para. 251. Note that subjunctive
 MOOD 175
constructions may be used as an alternative means of expressing
similar concepts with no change of meaning:
Yulrya Dmitrievna, the command- IOJ\IDI'4!1.niTpHeBHa, Ha'IWHHK
ing officer has ordered you not to BeA<!A, 'IT06bl Bbl HHKYAcl He
go away anywhere yxoAHAH (Panova)

Alternative construction: ... BaM BeAb HHKy.z.ti He yxo.z_tM:n.

293· Verbs offearing are followed either by qTo or KaK and the
negative subjunctive, or by qTo and the perfective future. (See
also para. 251 (iii)). Such verbs are:
To fear DORTbCX
To be uneasy BecnoKonT&cn ( o-)
To be apprehensive OnacaT&CH
To be frightened Ilyrch&cx (nc-)

I was afraid that he would come Jl 6oRACH, 'IT06bi ( KaK 6bl) 011 He
npHW~
Jl 6oJi:ACX, 'ITO OH npH,ll;eT
I am afraid that he will come R 6moc&, 'IT06bl (KaK 6&I) oH ne
npnweA
Jl 60IOCb, 'ITO OH npH,IJ.eT
Notice that the same construction is used whether the verb of
fearing is in the past or the present. Notice also that if the verb
of fearing in English is followed by a negative construction, the
negative perfective future (but not the subjunctive) is used in
Russian whether the verb of fearing is in the past or the present
tense:
I am afraid that he will not come .H 6oroc&, 'ITO on ne np11,11;eT
I was afraid that he would not 5I 6oli:Acx, 'ITO 011 ne npn,~~;eT
come
For the use of the perfective future in the second example see
para. 233·

294· Verbs of doubting used affirmatively and verbs of saying

or thinking used negatively, when they refer to the past or
176 THE VERB
present, are also followed in Russian by tJTO and the subjunc-
tive:
To doubt whether CoMneBaTLcH, qTo
Not to see that He BHAeTL ( )'BHAeTL), qTo
Not to say that He roBopnTL (cKaaaTL), 'ITO
Not to hear that He cdrrnaTL (yc.>.b'rrnaTL), qTo
Not to think that He ,a,yMaTL, qTo
Not to believe that He BcpnTL, 'ITO
Not to suppose that He npe,a,no.>.arhL (npe,a,no,,o-
)KHTL), 'ITO
Not to imagine that He npe,a,cTaBAHTL (npe,a,cTaBHTL)
ce6e, qTo
Not to remember that He n6MHIITL, qTo
He did not remember ever having On He n6MHHA, qT66Lr Kor,a,a-
been dispirited by failure Hn6y,a,L llOBCCH.I\ HOC H3·3a
Hey,a,aq (Fedin)
Never, not even when he again took HnKor,a,a, ,a,a)Ke BHOBL cofr,a,licL c
up with Aksinya, did he think AKCHHLeii, OH He ,a,yMaA, qT66Lr
that she would ever become a oHa Kor,a,a-Hn6y,a,L aaMeHilAa
second mother to his children MaTh er6 ,a,eTliM (Sholokhov)
When, however, such verbs refer to the future, they are followed
by the imperfective or perfective future, the choice being
governed by normal aspectival considerations:
I doubt whether he will be there R coMHeBaiOcL, 6y,a,eT An o;t TaM
(will come) (npn:,a,eT AH on)

295· The subjunctive is also used in Russian in subordinate

clauses following a negative antecedent. The effect of the nega-
tive in the main clause is to make the statement in the subor-
dinate clause contrary to fact. The subjunctive is used in the
subordinate clause whether the verb in the main clause is past,
present, or future:
I do not know a single actor who R ae ana10 Hn o,a,nor6 aKTepa,
found a part entrusted to him in KOTOpLrit TllrOTIIACll 6Lr nopy-
one of Gor'ky' splays irksome 'leHHOH eMy pOAbiO B r6pLKOB·
cKnx nLecax (Skorobogatov)
They met no other persons whom He BcTpeqa.>.ocL 66.>.ee AHQ, Ko-
Makar favoured with his special TopLrx MaKap y,a,ocT6nA 6Lr
attention CBOii!lf OC06eHHbiM BHilMaHHeM
(Korolenko)
 MOOD 177

This usage is paralleled in French and Spanish (cf. French 'Je

ne connais personne qui puisse vous r<5pondre', and Spanish
'No he visto jamas un hombre que tuviera mayor atractivo').

Perfective future
296. The perfective future has a certain limited range of modal
use. For the use of the perfective future in conditional and con-
cessive clauses see paras. 441 and 450 respectively.
297· In main clauses the perfective future is used to express
possibility or impossibility:
The horses will never be able to A6waAH nx ue none3yT
pull them (Azhayev)
I simply cannot find the time, BpeMeHn nnKaK ne nb'tKporo,
Aleksey Kuz'mich, honestly AAeKcefi K Y3bMit'l, qecn10e
cA6no (Andreyev)
rou cannot please everybody Ha ncex He yroAitwb
Just look at the weather. rou ,Ll,a BHWb KaKaH nor6Aa, KaK pa3
might lose your way altogether co6berubcH c Aopom (Pushkin)
I want to note down Mr. Rudi11's Xoqy 3anncaTb noT :hy noc.-.. eA-
last sentence. If it is not noted moro 4>pa3y rocnOAiina PyAn-
down, it might easily be for- ua. He 3anucan, no3a6yAeWb,
gotten qer6 A66poro (Turgenev)
Note the frequency with which the indefinite 2nd person singu-
lar, with general application, is used in these constructions.
Possibility may often mean capacity or ability to perform an
action:
He is a jack of all trades. He can OH Ha nee pyKn MacTep: u aAeK-
install electricity, mend clocks, Tpit'lecTBo nponeAeT, li qacb'I
knock furniture together nO'IliHIIT, U Me6eAb CMaCTepitT
(quoted by Spagis)

298. With enumerative expressions, the meaning of possibility

expressed by the perfective future approaches that of approxi-
mation:
With him you might make one C HHM CAeAaewb OAHY AeT:iAb, a
component, without him ten 6e3 Hero AeCHTb (Polevoy)
 THE VERB

299· The perfective future may be used to indicate complete

absence of action, either in the present or in the past:
The sun stands motionless overhead CoAHUe cToi!T HenoABMJKHo HaA
and burns the grass ... neither roAoB6i1: a JKJKeT Tpaay. •. Hn
tree nor water stirs; over the AepeBo, nn BOAa He IIIeAox-
village and the fields stillness njrcH, Ha,ll AepeBHeii: n nol\.eM
reigns supreme l\.eJKMT HeB03MYfMMaH TMIIIliHcl
(Goncharov)
Everything was quiet, not a wave Bee 6:bll\o Tnxo, BOAHa He no,~~;hr­
rose, not a leaf stirred MeTcH, l\.MCTOK He IIIel\.OXHeTCH
(S. Aksakov)
300. The perfective future may be used in a subordinate clause
after an indefinite antecedent, in the same way as the subjunc-
tive in Spanish (cf. Spanish 'No puedo confiar estas casas al
primero que llegue' I cannot entrust these things to the first person to
chance along). In Russian the perfective future may follow a
main verb either in the past or present (and of course, future) :
The thieves were breaking into the B6pb1 Bll.clMbiBal\liCb B ,II;OM, 6p:ill.u
house and taking whatever they Bee, 'ITO npnr.-.xneTcH
fancied (Fadeyev)
It is essential that a writer should Tpe6yeTcH, 'IT66Lr nMcaTel\.b Mao-
portray and not narrate what- 6paJKaA, a He paccKaabiBaA 'ITO
ever comes into his head B r6MBY eMy npn,~~;eT (Gor'ky)

Notice the indefinite English whatever.

Infinitive
301. The Russian infinitive has a very wide range of modal
use, in which it sometimes appears with the particle 6Lr, but
more often without. Like the subjunctive (para. 289), the infini-
tive with 6~:.r may express either objective desirability (it is desir-
able that), or subjective desirability (if on?J):
Toy ought to take some treatment BaM 6Lr noAe•niTLcH (Gor'ky)
Rather than watching plays, you BaM He llbCCbl CMOTpeTb, a CMOT·
should take a look at yourselves peTb 6bl notrar.!!e Ha caMilx
more often ce6B: (Chekhov)
 MOOD 179
I want to be a pilot CTaTb 6LI AhqnxoM!
Could we but see in time the beam ToMKO 6LI Bo-Bpell.m ycm!TL ysn-
in our own eye A:iTb 6peBHO B CBOCM rAa3y
(L. N. Tolstoy)
A desire expressed by the infinitive is, in general, stronger and
more emphatic than a desire expressed by the subjunctive.
In these constructions the infinitive is usually perfective, but
the imperfective is possible, as in the second example above, in
which the adverb noq;iJ!!e determines the use of the imperfec-
tive infinitive which it modifies.
In corresponding negative constructions the imperfective
infinitive is almost invariable:
.M"ay I net•er see or hear such things HuxorA:i 6LI He Bii,lleTb H He
CAbiWaTb {noro! (Fedin)
302. The negative infinitive with 6Lt expresses warning or
apprehension:
Be careful;•ou don't catch cold He npocry,llilTbCH 6hi BaM
The infinitive in such constructions is predominandy perfec-
tive; their modal tone is similar to that of verbs of fearing (see
para. 293).
303. (i) The infinitive without 6LI is also used to express desir-
ability. Desires so expressed are usually very strong:
You should be tied up and put in an CBHaaTL Te6x Aa B cYllmcwe,llwHii
asylum AOM (A. Ostrovsky)
(ii) Desirability expressed by the infinitive may, as in English,
amount to an imperative:'
Ever;•one to be in their places! BceM 6hrrh Ha MecT:ix! t{epea
Afeet here in an hour qac co6panCH3,lleCL (Trenev)
(iii) The infinitive is also used to express a downright com-
mand. Such commands are stronger than those expressed by
the imperative. In such constructions no dative complement is
possible with the infinitive:
Down oars! OnycniTh Bec.>.a !
Sit still! CnAeTb nixo !
1 As with the imperative proper, an imperfective infinitive is used when

the occasion is social or informal: ;•our move first (at chess), BaM Ha•nmaTL
(Katayev.)
180 THE VERB
As with the imperative, prohibitions expressed by the infinitive
are normally expressed by the imperfective form:
Do not walk on the grass! ITo TpaBe He xoAiiTL!
No talking in the ranks! B cTpoK> He pa3roBapiiBau!

304. The infinitive with or without 6Lr may express fitness,

English should, ought to:
. . it is not you that should be ... ne Te6e na M1irnKe e3,ll;MT~>, a
riding Mishka, but Mishka MiimKe na Te6c (Fadeyev)
that should be riding you ...
. . (Senya) at once began to . .. (CeH») cp<by H<i<mA coo6pa-
ponder how he should approach :iKaTL, ImK 6LI IIO,ll;OHTII eMy K
her . .. neii: (M. Prishvin)
305. The infinitive without 6Lr may express a subjective sense
of duty or obligation, English have to, must:
I have still to water the horse, Mne ei,IJe KOHH nOIITL, ry.I\Hii ce6e
amuse yourself (Fadeyev)
Such constructions may be negatived to express English not up
to, not my duty to:
So goodbye, Prince, it is not up to JthaK, npOI!!afiTe, KHH3h, He Mile
me to set you right Bac BLIBO,ll;HTL II3 3a6AY*AeHMH
(Lermontov)
306. (i) In interrogative constructions the infinitive without
6Lr may translate shall, should, will, are to:
'Should I pour you some?' she <cHaAiiTL Te6el>, npii6aBnAa oHa,
added, taking up the tea-pot B3HBIUHCb 3a 'laHHUK
(L. N. Tolstoy)
Wherever will my mother get so f.n;e MaTepn cnSALKo .n;ener B3HTL
much monry to pay for me? aa MeHH 3aii.I\aTHTb?
(L. N. Tolstoy)
'How are we to manage?' I asked <cKaK naM 6LITL ?l>, cnpocH.I\ x Ep-
Ermolay MO.I\aH (Turgenev)
With 6LI, such constructions usually have the meaning can:
'How can I get rid ofhim, without <cKaK 6LI OT,ll;C.I\aTLCH OT Hero, He
offence?', thought Nekhlyudov o61i.n;eB er6 ?l>, .n;fMaA HeXAID-
AOB (L. N. Tolstoy)
 MOOD
The infinitive in such constructions is predominantly perfec-
tive, even when the form is negative:
Should I not tell my comrades what He paccKaaaTh All ToBapm_yaM o
I have seen? TOM, qTo H BM,Il,eA? (Fadeyev)

(ii) Infinitive constructions with r,11,e or Ky,IJ,a may be used to

express incredulity or disinclination:
A fine actor he'll make! f ,11,e eM'j 6hiTh aKTepOM!
(Turgenev)
What do I want to burden myself Ky,11,a MHe o6peMeiD1ThCH *eH6ii,
with a wife and fuss over chil- HHH'lliThCH c ,IJ,eThMJi:?
drenfor? (Pushkin)

307. Like the perfective future (see para. 297) the infinitive
without 6bl may express impossibility:
All over his face was written: 'I Ha er6 AHUe 6hu\o HamicaHo:
cheat you on every purchase but •Be,IJ,h H *e Te6li Ha,IJ,ysaJO npii
you will never fool me' BCliKoii noKynKe, a Y* Te6e
MeiDi He npoBeCTII$ (Herzen)

In modal expressions in general a negated perfective infinitive

means that the action is impossible in any circumstances. But
a negated imperfective infinitive means that the action will not
take place because of some specific reason:
You will never be his wife, ;•ou /KeHOfx er6 Te6e He 6hiBaTh, TaK
might as well know it u 3Hafi (Sholokhov)

Note how in both the above examples the logical subject of the
modal clause appears in the dative case in Russian; in English
it is expressed by a subject pronoun.
Without the negative such constructions acquire the meaning
not of possibility but of inevitability:
Our countess was bound to marry R BOT Beer,11,a roBopliAa, Hawe1i
a general, I always said so rpapii:He 6hlTh 3a reHepaAoM
(Herzen)
There's trouble brewing, sir EhlTh 6e,11,e, 6apHH (Chekhov)
815634 G
 THE VERB
308. A special emphatic form of infinitive construction may be
used in Russian to express all right in such contexts as:
They spent the whole day firing IJb.blii AeHh na nyAeMeTa no
their machine gun at their Fuhrer cBoeMy <I>J6pepy CTpeNiAn,
and at night stole a scarecrow. a HO"'blO yKpaAn "~Y"~eAo.
They stole it all right but lost YKpacTL-To yKpaAH Ho Tpex
three men in the process tJeAOBeK Bce-TaKH noTepHA.u
(V. Nekrasov)
In the negative such constructions mean not exactry:
He would smile ... and say, 'I OH YAbt6HeTcH ... cKan<eT, «llo-
haven't exact{v lost it, but I can't TepiiTb He llOTepHA, a HaiiTII He
find it' MOI)h> (Azhayev)
Imperative
309. The 2nd person singular form of the imperative has a
certain limited range of modal use. For its use in conditional
sentences see para. 449·
310. A speaker or writer may use the second person singular
imperfective imperative to draw attention to an unjust situation
which has somehow arisen:
It's all right for them-he said HM HH"'er6 - cKaaaA oH n6cAe
after some reflection-they've HeKOToporo pa3,1l;yMbH - B3HAH
upped and qffed. But you have to n yw.Mi. A Tbi 3Aech r6AoBy
cudgel your brains to decide how AOMaii, KaK K H6BOH BAaCTII
to adapt yourself to the new npHAcln<HBaTbCll
powers that be (N. Ostrovsky)
The injustice may lie in the fact that someone is enjoying an
exceptionally easy life :
Life in the hut was very pleasant JKHaHb B maAawe 6h!Aa otJeHb
for Vasiry. All he had to do was npHHTHa BacuAblO . .i\ex•il ue-
to lie the whole day long on AbiH AeHb Ha cBen<eii naxyt~eii
fresh, sweet-smelling straw, keep coA6Me, norAil,ll;hmaii, He aa6pa-
his eyes open to watch for chil- AIIcb AH rAe pe6ha aa i16Ao-
dren breaking in for apples, KaMH, llOCBllCTbiBaH II pacne-
whistle to himself and sing a BaH neCHll (L. N. Tolstoy)
song or two
The imperfective is used because no specific event is referred to,
but only a general state of affairs.
 MOOD 1~

311. By using the imperative instead of the perfective past, a

speaker may emphasise the suddenness or unexpectedness of
an action which interrupts or frustrates another action:
He had hardly struck up the waltz EABa oH aanrpcih oaM>c xax A6n-
when-snap went a string HH CTPYHi

Sometimes the expression B03:&MH Aa is used in such construc-

tions to strengthen the sense of unexpectedness:
He should have thrown himself to E~rr6bi B cTopoHy 6p6cnThCSI, a
one side, but what did he do but OH B03bMI! Aa np.liMo n no6erli
run straight ahead (Turgenev)

312. A negative imperfective imperative may be used to show

the strong undesirability of an action from a certain person's
point of view, English woe betide:
His blood begins to boil-then woe ,il;a KpOBb·TO B HeM 3aXOAUT, TOI'·
betide anyo11e who happens along Ai yn.: HHKT6 He nonaAaiicH ua
rAaaa (Mamin-Sibiryak)

Somewhat similarly, it may correspond to that will teach (him)

not to:
If I were got•ernor, I would have Ka6w H 6biA ry6epHaTopoM, H 6hr
your son hanged. That would TBOer6 CbiHa nooeCHJ\. He c6H-
teach p~ople not to lead the Baii nap6A c ToAKy ... (Gor'ky)
masses astray . . •

313. An imperative may be used ironically to express Im-

possibility:
A man like him help you? Not IKAn OT Taxoro n6~IOJ..!!U!
Kax
likely! n.:e! (Zalygin)

314. The imperative singular form is used, finally, with a third

person subject to translate the English may with optative sense:
May the Lord help him! IloMoni e'M"f focn6Ab!
God forbid! He npnBeAII Eor!
 THE VERB

VERBS OF MOTION

Indeterminate and determinate verbs

315. There are fourteen verbs of motion which have two differ-
ent imperfective forms, one with indeterminate, the other with
determinate meaning. These verbs are:
lndetenninate Determinate
XoAIITb 1-bni To go, to walk
BO,ll;IITb Becni To lead
E3,ll;IITb ExaTD To travel
HocuTD HecTu To carry
EeraTn Ee)KclTb To run
I1AaBaTD ll.l\biTb To swim, to sail
AeTan. Acren. To fly
B03HTb BeJTJI To cart, to convry
Aa3HTb Ae3Tb To climb
EpO,ll;IITb Epecni To wander, to make one's way
foHHTb fHaTb To drive
KaTaTb KaTuTb To roll
I1oA3aTb IIO.I\3Tl1 To crawl
TacxaTD Ta~,gun. To drag

316. The indeterminate verbs express the simple fact of move-

ment without reference to time, purpose or direction. They are
used therefore to describe movement as a permanent charac-
teristic:
Fish swim

Their present participle active is used adjectivally:

Flying Fortress AeTaiDJ,gall xpenOCTb
Climbing plants AaJH~,giie pacTeHIIll

Compare the strictly verbal and temporal meaning of the

present participle active of the determinate verb AeTeTh in:
The aeroplane fi.l'ing over the town CaMo.l\eT, Aenhunii HaA r6po,ll;oM,
is Russian pyccxnii
 VERBS OF MOTION 185
317. The indeterminate verbs express movement as a physical
action:
I am a slow walker R xon<y MeMeHHO
He was faced with the prospect of OcTaToK n<IbHn e1-ry npeAcToliAo
walking on crutches for the rest XOAIITb Ha KOCTI>Luix (Panova)
of his life
The seriously wounded were fol- BCAeA aa Tlln<e.\o paHeHoiMn c
lowed immediately from the 6apn<H COW.I\0 AecHTKa nO.I\-
barge by about fifteen of those TOpa Tex, KTO MOT ei_ge XOAHTb
who could still walk (Simonov)
318. (i) A very characteristic function of the indeterminate
verbs (almost always in the past tense) is their use to express
return journeys or round trips. The determinate verbs would be
inappropriate in this use since they describe movement in one
direction only. Compare:
I lost my gloves when I went to the R noTepli.' nepqaTKu,
theatre XOAH-' B Te<i.Tp
(The gloves may have been lost at any time from the moment
the speaker left home to the moment of his return.)
I lost my gloves while I was on my R noTep.RA nep"'aTKn, KOrAa weA
way to the theatre B Te{lTp
(The speaker means he lost them between his home and the
theatre.)
An indeterminate verb may express a series of return jour-
neys:
The match-maker went back a11d HeAe.\U ,J.Be XOAiha cBaxa
forwardfor about two weeks (Pushkin)
(i.e. between the homes of the prospective bride and bride-
groom).
(ii) Perfective verbs with the meaning of making a return
journey are formed from the commonest of the indeterminate
verbs by the addition of the prefix c-, e.g. CXOAliTb, CBOAHTD,
c6eraTD, c'h6AuTo, cnoc:HTD:
What sort of trip did you hat•e? KaK Bbi C"beaAH.\11?
(now that you're back)
186 THE VERB
Compare KaK BLI ,zr.oexa.l\H? also meaning what sort of trip did you
have? but referring to the journey in one direction only. The
perfective verbs with c- should not be confused with imperfec-
tive verbs of motion often spelt in the same way but with differ-
ent meanings and possessing corresponding perfective forms.
Cxo,zr.:MTL (coiirn) means to come down, to alight (from a convey-
ance), to land (from a ship). CBo,zr.:MTL (cBecn'I) means to bring
down or to bring together. Notice, however, the different stress
in c6eraTL (imperfective) and c6eraTI> (perfective); notice also
c"LeamaTL (not c'Le3AMTL), an imperfective verb (perfective
form C'LexaTL) meaning to go down or to move house.
(iii) In the meaning of making a return journey the imper-
fective indeterminate verbs are often used where the perfective
form might seem more natural (see para. 218):
We went to France last year Mbr B np6m.11.oM ro,zr.y C3,lf.HAH BO
<l>paHUHIO
(iv) But the perfective verbs must be used in the following
circumstances:
(a) when the period offulfilment ofthe journey is mentioned:
During the summer he went on the 3a ACTO OH C1>C3,lf.Hl\ B SKCne,zr.Ii-
expedition, wrote up his material l,!HIO, o6pa60Ta.ll. MaTepMM H
and produced an article Hannc<i.ll. CTaTbro
(quoted by Muravyova)
(b) in a series of actions:
On that day Danilov sorted out his B TOT ,zr.eHb ,Ll;anliAOB pa3o6p<i.ll.
papers, wrote a letter to his CBorl: 6yMarn, HanncaA nnCbMO
father, went round to the post- oTrzy, cxo,zr.JI:.II. Ha noqTy H OT-
office and despatched some monry npaBn.ll. cTapnKy ,zr.ener
to the old man (Panova)
(c) to express mood-desire, intention, regret:
Has the exhibition closed down BwcTaBKa y)l(e 3aKph'rAacb? A Mbr
already? And to think we never TaK H He CXO,lf.ll.l\.11 ry.zr.a
went! (quoted by Muravyova)
(d) to express future meaning:
Then we shall visit the cinema, the 11oT6M B Krm6 MAli B Te<hp cx6-
theatre or the circus ,zr.nM, MAH B l.JliPK (Ketlinskaya)
 VERBS OF MOTION 187
319. (i) The fundamental meaning of the determinate verb
is well illustrated in the following examples:
The slightly wounded, in twos and .l\ern6 paneHHhle no ,ztBoe, no
threes, made their painful way Tp6e 6peJ\II no OTKpLITOH m:.'IJ\1>-
along the dusty open road noii ,ZJ;op6re (Kaverin)
Nok, keeping mechanically to one HoK, lliallUIHclJ\bHO npHACP)Kll-
direction, was wandering along, naJJCb o,ZJ;nor6 nanpanJ\emiJJ,
talking aloud to Gutan or to 6peJ\, paaronapnna!l ncAyx, TO c
Celli . . . f)'TaHoM, To c feJ\J\H ... (Grin)
Nok here is lost in a forest and it is essential that he keep to one
direction in order to find his way out of it.
Unlike the other indeterminate verbs of motion, 6po,ZI;HTb
cannot, even in a frequentative context, be used in the meaning
of to proceed towards a certain destination, real or potential
(i.e. one may say JI XO*Y B r6poA (e.g. J«i)K,ll;biM AeHb) but not
JI 6po*y B r6po,ZJ;). However, it is unjustified to argue (as does
lsachenko) that the verbs 6peCTuj6poA11Tb should, on this basis,
be excluded from the category of determinate/indeterminate
verbs of motion; 6po,ZJ;JITb is used, like all the indeterminate
verbs, with the meaning of movement in several directions at
once:
Completely worn out with illness, I Coneprnenno uanypeHHbiH 6oAea-
could hardly stagger about the HbiO, JJ eJ\e-eJ\e 6pO,Z1;IlJ\ no KOM-
room naTe (Kuprin)
(ii) Both the examples given with 6pecnl. in section (i) point
to the fundamental meaning of a determinate verb; the second
example states categorically in one direction and in both a sense
of purpose is implied if not specifically stated. Nok wishes to
get out of the wood, and the soldiers wander along hoping to
arrive at a place where they will find help. In other contexts
no sense of purpose may be present or implied but the reader
assumes that the walker is proceeding in a generally forward
direction:
We were walking along with our l\1bi IIIJ\11 co cnmh.m cynAyqKa!lln
boxes on our backs aa nAeqa11m (Gilyarovsky)
(iii) Whereas the determinate verb is used to describe move-
ment in a generally forward direction, the indeterminate verb
is found when the purpose of the writer is to express the notion
188 THE VERB
of movement in several directions at once, on the same occasion.
We often find a determinate and an indeterminate verb used
in the same sentence or paragraph, when the writer wishes to
indicate unidirectional movement as part of a complex multi-
directional movement:
The sentry patrols back and forth Ilo 6pycrnepy xooum 'laCoB6ti: ••.
along the breastwork of the OH MeAAeHHo ,~~;e11.aeT AecHTb
trench. . . . He takes ten slow mar6B, MeAAeHHO noBopa'lu-
steps, slowry turns about and BaeTcH, MeAJI.eHHO npox6,~~;uT
slowry walks back again. When Ha3a,ll;. Kor,ll;ll uoem B O,li;Hy CTO-
he is walking in one direction, poHy - cMyTHO npOCTYfilliOT
the dim outlines of the machine- O'lepTllHHH nyAeMeTa, KOr,ll;a B
gun show through, when he is ,11;pyry10 - 'ljBCTByeTCH CKaAH-
walking in the opposite direc- CTbiH o6pb'm, ,11;0 CllMbiX KpaeB
tion, he is aware ofa rocky cliff,
enveloped in darkness right up (Serafimovich)
to its edges
Notice that in this passage the movement of the sentry in each
direction is a repeated action; nevertheless the writer uses the
determinate verb to describe each ten-pace patrol; this illus-
trates the basic fact that the term determinate refers to unity of
direction and not to a single journey. True to their nature as
imperfective verbs, the determinate verbs of motion are com-
monly used, as here, with frequentative meaning.
The indeterminate verb XOAHT in the above extract describes
a repeated multidirectional action which took place on a speci-
fic occasion. The sentry patrolled back and forth as long as his
tour of duty lasted. Notice also that although indeterminate
verbs most often describe multidirectional movement which has
no specific purpose (as in the example from Kuprin in section (i)
above), they may also, as in the present example, describe
multidirectional movement which has a definite purpose.
320. (i) Determinate verbs used with frequentative meaning
are especially common in a description of a series of events:
I would help her to feed the cows
and calves and we would go TeNITaM K6PMY u Mbl WllU
home to have breakfast ,li;OM6ti 3llBTpaKaTh (Grin)
 VERBS OF MOTION 189
Foote apdy compares the determinate verb used to describe
a typical single action in a series of similar actions with the use
of the perfective future to describe habitual actions in both past
and present time; commonly the perfective future and the
determinate verbs are found in the same context:
A normal day for me goes like this: CBoii: o6L'Pim.rft ,ZJ;eHb x npoBOiKY
I get up at eight o'clock, dress TaKnM 66paao!-.l: BCTaHy B Bo-
quickly, have breakfast and go ce:Mh 'iaCoB, 6LICTf>O O,ZJ;eHyCb,
to my classes. I stud;_v until din- fi03clBTf>aKaiO 11 e,ZJ;y Ha 3aH.Il-
ner, thm hat•e dinner, take a TIIX. 3aHIIMcliOCb ,11;0 o6e,ZJ;a, no-
rest, and go to the library TOJ.I noo6e,~~;a10, oT,~~;oxH}' n IIAY
B 6n6AUOTeKy (Chekhov)

The perfective future verbs and the determinate verbs of motion

have in common the fact that both are specific in meaning-the
former specify the completion of an action, the latter the direc-
tion in which the movement proceeds. Nevertheless the deter-
minate verbs are true imperfective verbs because they always
describe an action in progress or one which is habitual.
(ii) Indeterminate verbs are used to designate repeated or
habitual actions when the writer wishes simply to state the fact
of habit or repetition, without in any way attempting to indi-
vidualise each separate action:
. • she had a sister who went ... y Hee 6biAa cecrpa xo,~~;IiBwM
charring Ha no,ZJ;eHHYIO pa66ry
(Chekhov)
. . . I settled down in the old fiat ... X fiOCeAlfACX Ha CTclf>Oli KBap-
where I lived in previous pars nipe, OTKy,ZJ;a B npeiKHlle ro,ZJ;bl
whm I attended the technical XO,ZJ;Ib. B pe:i.\bHOe Y'iHAiil,!!e
school (Gladkov)

Indeterminate verbs used in such contexts are often not pri-

marily verbs of motion at all. They designate rather a form of
activity which necessitated journeys, but the emphasis of the
sentence lies upon the activity rather than upon the travelling,
which is secondary. In the examples above the fundamental
facts are that the woman worked as a daily help and, in the
second example, that the writer studied at the technical school.
 THE VERB
321. In negative sentences the indeterminate verbs express
simply permanent absence of movement, the determinate verbs
express either absence of movement on a single occasion or, if
permanent, then for a definite reason. Compare:
In frosty weather the buses do not IIpn Mop63nofr nor6Ae aBT66ycbi
run He x6AHT

(this means that the authorities suspend the service)

In frosty weather the buses will not IIpn Mop63uoi1 nor6Ae aBT66ycbi
~ ~~~

(this means that the engine will not start). Ward points out
that in the second example the buses do not go forward, i.e. they
make no progress. Notice the modal use of the determinate verb,
expressed in English by will not:
If the weather is intolerable, the I1or6Aa HeCHOCHaH, AOpora CKBep-
road wretched, the coachman HaH, HMI.YHK ynpliMhlfi, Aoiiia-
stubborn and the horses will not AM He BC3YT a BliHOBaT
pull-it is the station master CMOTpHTCAb (Pushkin)
who is to blame
In a positive sentence the indeterminate verb would be used:
These horses pull well Snr AOIIIaAM B03.HT xopoiii6

322. Where, in negative sentences generally, Russian uses the

imperfective, in preference to the perfective verb (see paras. 232
and 239), with verbs of motion the indeterminate imperfective
form is used:
He rarely went to church, never On peAKo xoAH:"' B uepKoBb,
went hunting and uever attended BOBCe He e3AMA Ha ox6ry Ji
the opera IIMKOrAa He 6biBaA B Onepe
(L. N. Tolstoy)
Don't go to this restaurant any He XOAIITe 66ALIIIe B BTOT pecTo-
more pan

The indeterminate form is used to express negative commands

which are general prohibitions, but the determinate form is
 VERBS OF MOTION
used to express negative commands which are not prohibitions
but warnings (see para. 239), or which are prohibitions referring
to an action in progress at the moment of speech:
Don't take the boy to the cinema He Bo,zuire Mihl.'luKa aaBTpa B
tomorrow KHH6
Be careful not to walk among the CMoTpme, He n;vhe no Kpamme
nettles
Don't walk so fast. The children He UAH TaK 6h1cTpo. 4eTH ycT<iAH
are tired (Katayev)
323. When the meaning of a verb of motion is figurative and
the sense of actual physical movement is lost, the determinate
verb is used almost invariably:
Time flies BpeMH AeTHT (6eJK1h)
Negotiations are going on between MA'fr neperoB6phi MeJKAy ABYMli
the two ambassadors noCAaMn
He keeps a diary On BeAeT AHeBHI-iK
The determinate verb is used with figurative meaning even
when the meaning is clearly frequentative or habitual:
When boxers are having no luck, Kor,~J;a 6oKcepaM He Beai:!T, OHH
they take off weight and fight in cromiiOT Bee n BhicrynaroT B
another category Apyr6ii KaTer6pnu (Tikhonov)
A persistent rain began to fall, flowi:!A o6AOJKH6I'i AOJKAh, paD-
steady and quiet, su'h as goes on HOMepHhiH n nixuii, KaKiie
for a long time HAYr noA6Ary (Goncharov)
In all the above examples there is present a clear sense of some
object or event proceeding in a straight line or making progress.
He BeaeT means that providence does not bring good fortune
to the boxers.
A participial adjective, with figurative meaning, is formed
from the verb BecTn:
The leading organs of the press BeAy!J!ne 6praHhi neqam
(compare the adjectival use of the participles from indeterminate
verbs with literal meaning in para. 316).
324. Notice that the indeterminate verbs HOCII:TL and BOAHTL
may be used figuratively, without the sense of actual physical
movement, in the expressions HOCiiTL (not HecTu) HMH- xapaK-
Tep - cAeALI - oTneqaTOK to bear the name - the character-
192 THE VERB
traces-the mark, and BO,lVIT:& (as well as Becni) ,n;pyJK6y c to keep
up a friendship with. The expression BO,ll;HT:& aa HOC (not BeCTH)
means to make a fool of, to lead up the garden path.
But notice the following:
The train was heading for the II6ea,ll IIIt!A K <J>poHTY, KaK amiMJI
front, carrying its red crosses OH HeC CBOH KpaCHbie KpeCThi
like a banner (Panova)
Here emphasis is placed on the fact that the train carried red
crosses like a banner, and not on the fact that it was marked by
them.
325. Certain indeterminate verbs have meanings not shared by
the corresponding determinate verbs:
To wear (a blue hat) HocH:TD (cH:Himo III.Niny)
To look after (an invalid) Xo,llHTb (aa 6oALHbiM)
To mangle (linen) KaTaTD (6eALe)
To roll (dough) KaTaTL (TecTo)

326. Note the use of the verb exan (rroexan) meaning to slip
or to slip off:

I strike the snow determinedly with R peiiiHTeALHO y.zlap.!l:ro Ae,n;opy-

my ice-pick, dig my injured foot 6oM B CHer, CTclBAIO TBep,llO
firmly into the earth, but it is no 60ALHyro Hory, HO OHa 'ly.lKall,
longer mine, suddenly it begins B,llpyr C,ll;eT - llOCXaAa
to slip, then loses its hold alto- (Dudintsev)
gether
Notice also the expressions: his hat had slipped onto the back of his
head marrKa C':&exa.Aa Ha aan:IAoK; his spectacles had slipped down
onto the end of his nose o'IKH er6 c':&cxaAn Ha KOHeg Hoca. Here
involuntary motion is described, there is no question of the
objects moving under their own power.

XO,!J.HTL, H~TH I e3~HTL, exaTL

327. These pairs of verbs are best distinguished by saying that
xo,n;lin, HATH can never be used of any form of travel in a con-
veyance and ea,n;nn, exan can never be used of motion on foot.
Xo,n;lin, HATH are applied not only to motion on foot but to any
 VERBS OF MOTION 193
form of motion where the moving object proceeds under its own
power:
The train is travelling fast ll6ea,~~; u,~~;eT 6hlcTpo
The car is travelling along the road ManniHa n,ll;eT no ,~~;op6re
One day in earry spring we were O,~~;Ha)K,ll;bl paHHeii BecH6ii m..'\H
sailingfrom Port Said to Batum Mbl B EaryM na ITopT-Caii,~~;a
(Bunin)
Barks were sailing up and down ITo peKe xo,~~;Ji"" 6apKu
the river (Chekhov)

Of the passengers in these forms of transport, of course, e3AIITL,

exan. are used:
To travel by train ExaTL n6ea,~~;oM

Notice, however, that the verbs nAasan., nAbiTL (to sail) may be
used of both ship and passengers:
The ship sailed from London to Kopa6..'\L n..'\LIA na J\6H,~~;oHa B
Leningrad J\emmrpa,~~;
I sailed on that ship to Russia .H n..'\LIA Ha TOM Kopa6"e B .Poccu10
328. Notice, also, that although, as explained above, XOAHTL,
HATII are always correct when used of vehicles proceeding under
their own power, in present-day Russian e3AUTb and exan (and
especially their compounds) are sometimes found in this use
(cf. the English use of travel for both conveyance and passengers):
Three motorcycles travelling at Tpn MOTOJlllKAa, exaBlllHX Ha
great speed 60..'\Lm6ii cK6pocTu (Press)
A long column of vehicles goes M1iMo npoea*aeT MltHHall Ko-
past ... ..'\OHHa MamliH ... (V. Nekrasov)
A lorry drove up to the platform K nepp6Hy no,~~;·L«!xa..'\ rpyaoBiiK
(Press)

329. Xo,zuin, nATii are used of very short journeys when it is

not stated whether the person concerned went on foot or rode,
even if (as, for example, with journeys within a city) transport
is almost certainly used:
We shall arrive at ;•our house at Mbi npu,~~;eM K BaM B mecTL '1Jac6B
six o'clock
 '94 THE VERB
npMexaTb would only be used here if the speaker wished to
emphasize that he was not walking:
We will not walk but drive to your Mbr ne npu,.zr;eM K BaM nernK6M, a
house npm!,.zr;eM

330. Notice that with letters and goods, although these are
conveyed, npMXOAHTb (npMihll:) is used:
The letter arrived this moming IlMCbMO npMIII.l\0 cer6,li;H.II 'frpoM

IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS

There is, there are

331. English there is, there are, with indefinite quantities or num-
bers, are normally translated into Russian by the indefinite
expressions of quantity MHoro many, much, MaAo little, few, AO-
BOJ\bHO, AOCT<iTO'IHO enough, HeCKOAbKO several, CKOJ\bKo how many
(and others), or by the collective numerals ABoe, Tpoe, 'IeTBepo,
etc., with the complement in the genitive case:
There are few good books in the B 6n6AnoTeKe MaAo xop6rnnx
library KIUIT
There are three of us Englishmen Hac Tp6e anrAM'IaH a rocTii-HHQe
in the hotel
With expressions of quantity, the complement may stand first
for emphasis:
There are matry learned men but YqeHbrx Mn6ro, YMHbrx Mho
few wise ones
There is (are) not is translated by HeT with, of course, a genitive
complement:
There are no Russian books in the B 6n6AnoTeKe neT pyccKux KHHT
library
HeT may be strengthened by HH OAHOro (oAHoti:) or Hn eAll:Horo
(eAHHofi):
There is not a single theatre in the B r6po,.zr;e neT nn o,.zr;Hor6 ( e,.zr;ri-
town noro) TeaTpa
 IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS 195

The complement may precede HeT for emphasis:

There is no doubt at all that he is CoMHCHHll HeT, 'ITO OH yMep
dead
There was (were), there will be are, of course, translated by 6:biJ\o
and 6yAeT:
There were many good books in the B 6u6AHOTeKe 6:biAo MH6ro xop6-
library lliHX KHiil'

Notice that negative constructions with HeT, w! 6hiJ\O, He 6y.zteT

may correspond to English personal constructions with the
verbs to be, to have:
Gerasim was no longer in the fepacuMa Y*e He 6&IAo Ha ABope
courtyard (Turgenev)
He had not the energy to intercede Y Hero He 6&IAO CIIA 3aCTymh&Cll
for Khlebnikov 3a XAe6HnKoBa (Kuprin)

33!Z· (i) The English construction there is-was-will be someone

to do something is translated into Russian by a special construc-
tion consisting of eCTh- 6:biJ\o- 6y.zteT, accompanied by the
infinitive of the action to be performed and KoMy, the dative
form of the pronoun KTO :
There is someone to intercede for us EcT& KOMY 3acrymh&cll 3a Hac
Interrogative meaning may be expressed by KoMy? or KOMY·
HH6y.zt:r,?:
Is there anyone to intercede for us? Ecn AH KoMy(·HH6yA~>) 3acTy-
miT&Cll 3a Hac ?

Negative meaning by HeKoM}':

There was no one to intercede for us HeKOMY 6hiA.o 3acrymiT&Cll 3a Hac
(ii) If someone is not the subject but the object of the English
clause, it is translated by KTO, in the case required by the verb
or, if necessary, governed by a preposition:
There is someone for her to talk to Y Hec ecT& c KeM roBopitTI>
196 THE VERB
Negative constructions are rendered with HeKoro, in the appro-
priate case or with the appropriate preposition:
There will be no one, at least,for He Ha KOro, no KpafiHeM Mepe,
me to lament over MHe ll.l\aKaTbCSI 6yAeT
(A. Ostrovsky)

(iii) Who is there to ... ? is expressed by KoMy? and the infini-

tive:
For who is there to mourn her? ,lJ,a KOMY nAaKaT&-To o HeM?
(A. Ostrovsky)
If who? is the object of the verb, KTo is placed in the appropriate
case or governed by the appropriate preposition:
Whom can she ask permission of? Y Kor6 eM cnparnnBaTLCH?
(A. Ostrovsky)

333· If anything, something, or nothing is the object or complement

of the verb, it is translated by 'ITO, Heqero in the appropriate
case or with the appropriate preposition:
... she had something to relate ... efi 6h"r.11.o "'TO nopaccKa3aTb
(Lermontov)
You are probably hungry and we Bhl BepoliTHO r6AOAHhl, a y Hac
have something to give you to eat ecTL "'eM yrocnhL (Sholokhov)
In that hall there are all sorts of B TOM na.11.he MHoro Ao6pa n
goods and chattels, there is some- cKap6a BCHKoro, ecTL Ha "'eM
thing to sit on, something to sleep nOCIIACTL, llOCn<lTb, eCTb BO "'TO
on, something in which to array npHOACTLCH, eCTL BO "'TO no-
oneself, something in which to CMOTpeTbCSI (S. Aksakov)
look at oneself
There is nothing here for us to read HaM netiero 3AeCL tiHTaT&
I have nothing to say to him MHe ne"'ero cKa3aTL eMy
334· Russian has also special constructions for translating there
is somewhere (nowhere), there is reason (no reason), there is no time
followed by the infinitive:
There is somewhere for us to pitch HaM ecTL rAe pacnoAO:lKMTLCll
our camp .1\arepeM
There's not room to swing a cat HerAe Mec& »6.1\oKy ynacTL
(i.e. there is nowhere for an
apple to fall)
 IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS 197
We have somewhere (nowhere) to
go
~here was nowhere where Jroro- HeoTKy,~~;a Kopocret..esy 6hlt..o
stelyov could have got to know 3HaTL see sTo (Panova)
all that
~here was no reason for you to say
that
I fell silmt and I had good reason }f 3al\IO.hK II MHe 6biAO 3a'leM
to (Turgenev)
I have 110 time to see him l\1ue ueKor,~~;a er6 Bii,ll;eTL
Kor,~~;a is not used meaning there is time but ironically meaning
a lot of time :
A lot of time I have for reading! Mue ecTL Kor,~~;a 'IHTaTb!
335· Special Russian impersonal verbs translate there is in ex-
pressions of sufficiency and insufficiency, presence and absence.
These verbs are:
XBaTaTb (XBaTuTb) There is enough
,Lf,ocTaBaTb (AOCTaTL) , , ,
CTaTL (perfective) , , ,
(The imperfective cTaBaTL is now archaic.)
HeAOCTasaTL (ueAOCTaTb) There is lacking, missing
These verbs take a complement in the genitive case:
~he bread will last until the end XAe6a xsiTuT (,~~;ocraueT, cTalleT)
of the week (i.e. there will be ,11;0 KOHJJa He,ll;et..H
mough bread until ... )
.. whiskers, each one of which ... 6aKeu6ap,~~;bi, H3 KoTopbiX Kaa<-
would have made three beards ,~~;oH: cTaAo 6bi ua Tpu 6opo,~~;bi
(Goncharov)
~hat is the last straw (i.e. there :horo e~ge u ue,~~;ocrasi.ho
was only that lacking)
I cannot find words to express my l\1ue He,II;OCTaeT CAOB, 11T06bi Bbl-
gratitude pa3HTb cBoro 6Aaro,~~;apuocrb
We missed you HaM Bac ue,~~;ocTaBiAo
336. BH,zu10 and ct..'hrwuo are used in Russian meaning there is
visible and there is audible. They are followed by a direct object
which, if animate, follows the normal rules for animate objects.
 THE VERB

The negative forms He BHAHO, He CAhiiiiHO are followed by

objects in the genitive case:
The song was audible even above IleCHIO 6biAO CAhiiiiHO HeCMOTpH
the noise of the water na myM BO,ll,hi
Among the crowds ofpeople a clerk Me)l(_zty T6AnaMu nap6.zta BH.zt-
is also visible walking briskly Ho u KOHTOpiJJnKa, n,ztyl}Jero
along 66,ll,po... (N. Uspensky)
The train is not yet in sight II6e3,lta erue He BH,li,HO

The auxiliary verb cTaTL may be used with BliAHO and c..\brmHo
with the meaning to come into view, to become audible and, with the
negative forms, to disappear from view, to become inaudible:
Suddenly we heard the sound of the BApyr HaM cAh'mmo cTaAo myM
waterfall BO,ltOTia,zta
The fog thickened and the town Crycn-IAcH TyMan u r6po,zta cTaAo
was lost to view He Bii.ztno

BnAHO and CAhiiDHO may also mean one could see, one could hear:

Even from the road one could see ,ll,a,Ke c .ztop6rn 6L!Ao BH,li,Ho, KaK
the many-colouredpansies among B )I(IIUBLC necTpCAU aHIDTI-IHhl
the stubble rAaaKu (Bubennov)
• . one could hear the bombing ... 6hiAO CAhliiiHO, Kai< liiAa 60M·
near Vazuza 6e)I(Ka 6AH3 BaayaLI
(Bubennov)

Notice the idiomatic use ofBMAHO and c..\bmmo in:

He was not seen (heard of) for Er6 He 6LIAo BH,Il;Ho (o HeM He
a year 6urAo cAL!mno) y;eALiii ro,zt

Impersonal constructions expressing obligation,

possibility, fitness, chance
HaAo and Hy)I(HO It is necessary (French il faut)
llpmuSAIITCH (rrpnAeTcx) One has to, one has occasion to
CAeAyeT It is fitting
Bo3MOJKHo, MO)KHO It is possible
HeB03MOilmo, HeAL3H It is impossible
 IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS 199
337· (i) Ha,D;o (HyJ~mo) with a dative personal pronoun means
either one must or one needs to; in the sense of one must some form
of external necessity is implied:
I must go and see him this evening Mne m'iAo noiinl K HeM¥ cerOAHll
BeqepoM
You need to read many more books BaM HaAO 'IMTan. eiJJe MH6ro xmrr
about Tolstoy o ToAcT6M
Ha,D;o (HY>KHO) one must may be toned down in meaning by the
addition of 6LI to one ought to:
I ought to go and see him this Mne H<lAO 6bi notiTJi x neMy
evening cer6Anll BeqepoM
ELI added to HMO (Hy>KHo) in the sense of one needs to does not
change the meaning but simply reduces the force of the state-
ment:
You really ought to read more BaM miAO 6bi 'IUTaTL 66.1\Lwe
books about Tolstoy xnnr o ToACTOM
In the past tense HMO (Hyamo) 6hl.l\o means both one had to and
one ought to have (lit. one needed to):
I !lad to leave before si:~ o'clock Mne naAO 6&1.1\o yexan AO ween!:
'IaCOB
You ought to have changed at Afos- BaM m'iAo 6hll\o nepececTL B
cow MocxBe
ELI again simply reduces the force of the statement you really
ought to have •••
(ii) HMo (Hyamo) meaning is necessary may take a direct
object colloquially:
A good interpreter is needed HaAO xop6wero nepeBOA'IHKa
I need a Russian grammar MHe H)f>KHO pyccxyro rpaMMa-
THKY
(iii) I1pnx6AHTCH (npn,D;eTcH) may be synonymous with Ha,D;o
(Hyamo) in the sense of one must but has also the special meaning
of one has occasion to:
I frequently had occasion to see MHe qacTo npHXoA•iAoc~ BHAen.
Hitler in a fury fliTAepa B 6eweHcTBe
200 THE VERB
ITpnxo,z.tuTc.sr and npuxoAMAOCL are invariably followed by an
imperfective infinitive.
(iv) CAe,z.tyeT may be synonymous with H:i,ll;o (Hy)KHO) in the
sense of one needs to, one should, but has the additional meaning
of it is fitting that one should:
That was to be expected (i.e. one 9roro CACAOBaAo (HaAo 6I:ho)
should have ... ) O;KUA<iTL
You should not say such things BaM He CAeAyer raK rosopiiTL
In this sense of it is fitting cAe,z.tyeT is often the best translation of
English constructions with proper:
We applied to the proper quarter MLI o6paJ!!aAncL Ky,z.ta CACAO-
but received no reply saAo, HO He noAyqaAn oTBeTa
(v) Notice the expression saM cAe,z.tyeT 100 py6Aeif: this can
mean either you are owed 100 roubles or you owe 100 roubles, accord-
ing to which verb is understood (noAy<IMTL or aaTIAaTI1TL).
(vi) He wi,z.to and He HY*HO are almost always followed by an
imperfective infinitive.
338. The difference between B03MO)KHO and MO)KHO is that
MO)KHO may mean either it is possible, one can, or it is permitted,
one may, whereas B03MO)KHO may have only the first meaning,
it is possible, one can:
May one smoke here? Mo;KHO KypiiTL aAeCL?
In their common meaning MO)KHO and B03MO)KHO mean it is
within the bounds of possibiliry-both physically and mentally:
It is possible to drive from here to BoaMO;KHo ( MO)KHO) AOexaTL oT-
London in two hours croAa AO A6HAOHa aa ABa 'laca
His words can be understood in two Er6 cAosa soaMo;KHo ( MO;KHo)
ways nOHHTL ABOHKO
Only B03MO)KHO may mean it is possible in the sense of it may
happen:
He may not come BoaMO;KHO, qTo OH He npnAeT
339· The opposite ofso3MO)KHO is HeB03MO)KHO, and the opposite
ofMO)KHO is HeAL3H. As the opposite ofMO)KHO, HeAL3H may mean
either one cannot or one may not; it is, therefore, in certain mean-
ings, synonymous with HeB03MO)KHO:
 IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS 201

It is impossible to knock him outHeA&3H(HeB03MO)KHo) er6 HOKayT-

JiposaT&
This problem cannot be solved in ~hy 3aAa'ly HeA&3H (HeB03MO)KHO)
two hours pewiiTL B ADa 'l:aca
As the opposite of MO)KHO, HeAL3H may also have modal mean-
ing, unconnected with mental or physical impossibility-one
cannot, one must not:
.•. he is a flighty person on whom ... oH BeTpeH&Il'I 'leAoBeK Ha KoT6-
one cannot rely poro HeJ\h3H nOJ\O)KHThCll
We must not delay, not a day, not MeAAHT& HeJ\h3H, Hn oAHor6 AHll,
an hour HII OAHOrO 'laca
In the meaning of it is impossible HeAL3H is almost always followed
by a perfective infinitive. It will be followed by an imperfective
infinitive only if the action is clearly durative:
There is so much noise it is impos- TaK6ii wyM, 'ITO neA&3H t~nTaTL,
sible to read, write, or work nncaTL, pa66TaTL
In the sense of one cannot, one must not, HeAL3H is followed by an
imperfective infinitive, except in an interrogative expression:
f'Vhat, cannot I exchange a single qTO )Ke, HeA&3H ~>me H CAOBOM
word? nepeKHHYT&Ca? (Dudintsev)
340. Although not an impersonal verb ,.?J,oNKeH (AONKHa-6-Lx)
should be noticed as a means of translating one must, one ought
to, in certain contexts. Used with a personal subject, AOA)KeH
implies a sense of moral compulsion on the part of the speaker,
whereas HMO (HYJKHo) imply compulsion from outside:
I must write to my father this very JI AOA)KeH HanncaT& on. ry cera-
evening AHll )Ke BellepoM
With the same subjective sense, A6NKeH 61>1 and AOA)KeH 61>1A
61>1 mean one ought to and one ought to have respectively:
rou ought to have written to your BLI AOJ\)f{Hbl 6hlJ\11 6&1 nanncaTb
father earlier oTl.!'Y paH&llle
,LI;oA)KeH may also mean is due:
The train is due to arrive at six ll6e3A AOA;KeH npntl:nl B lllecT&
o'clock 'IaCOB
202 THE VERB
The parenthetic expression ,n;oNKHO 6LITh means must, must have,
very probably, in a conjectural sense:
I expect you know that he is dead BLI, ,n;oAam6 6Lrrh, 3HaeTe, 'liTO OH
yMep
He must have left two hours ago OH, ,li;OJ\.iim6 OhlTh, yexaA ,n;na
qaca Ha3a,n;
Note also olleBii,n;Ho and HaBepHoe:
He must be in the library at present Qqenl-i,n;Ho, on ceiillac n 6n6Ano-
TeKe
The expedition must now be reach- B nacTOHJ!!ee npeM.II sKcne,n;Mu;nH,
ing its objective HanepHoe, npn6Ana<aeTc.R K
u;eJ\.n

Impersonal constructions expressing the physical,

mental, or emotional state of human beings
341. Several common impersonal verbs referring to the health
or emotions are used in Russian with a direct object or with a
complement governed by a preposition:
I am feverish, I feel shivery MeHJ!: 3Ho611T
!feel sick MeHJ!: TOillHMT
He felt great relief Y Hero OTJ\.CI'J\.0 OT cep,n;u;a
342. Certain predicative adverbs may be used impersonally
with a dative complement to describe a mental, emotional, or
physical condition:
I enjoyed myself among you Mne neceAO ObiJ\.0 cpe,ll;ll nac
I am too lazy to move MHe AeHL c,n;nl-inyn.cH c MecTa
The predicative adverb .IKaAL has two meanings. Followed by
the accusative (or accusative/genitive) case it means to be sorry
for:
I am sorry for your sister
Followed by the genitive case it means to begrudge:
I begrudge the time I have wasted Mne a<aAL noTepHHHoro na,n; sTo:ii
on this problem npoO.'\Cli.!OH npeMeHH
 IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS 203

343· From almost all non-reflexive verbs, it is possible, by the

addition of the reflexive particle -cn: (-ci>), to form impersonal
verbs, taking a dative complement, which express predo-
minantly disinclination or incapacity to perform an action. In
this meaning such verbs are used only in the imperfective aspect
and, of course, in the negative. More rarely the same verbs are
used in the positive with the meaning of inclination towards the
action, or with adverbs describing the manner of the action:
Litvinov took up a book, but he J\nnniHOB B3HA I<HII:ry, Ho eMy
was somehow not in the mood "lTO·TO He "lUT:iAOCb
for reading (Turgenev)
I can hardly wait to see you MHe He TepnnTCH Bac yaiiAeTb
I went to bed early but could not J1 Aer paHO B llOCTeAb, HO MHe He
sleep CllaJ\OCb
Notice also MHe He cH,n;IiTcn (He Ae.lKiiTcn:) I cannot sit still (lie
still):
I shall write while I am in the JI 6yAy nncaTb, llOKa 1\nte mtWeT-
mood for writing Cll
/fell into that special kind ofsound JI aacnyA TeM oc66eHHhilii Kpen-
sleep into which one sinks in KHlll CHOM, I<OTOpbl:M CnJITCll B
moments of alarm MUH)'Tbi TpeBOnl
(L. N. Tolstoy)
He finds life tedious. Nothing in- EM)' JKUBhcH cK)"'lHo. Hutn6 er6
terests him He HHTepecyeT

Impersonal constructions expressing English

passives
344· A number of verbs of decision, command, or purpose
which, in active constructions, take an indirect object in the
dative case, are used impersonally in passive constructions.
Common among such verbs are:
BeAeTh, npHKa3aTb To order
He BeAeTb To forbid
On<aachh To refuse
TioaBOl\HTb To permit
TiopY"liin To entrust with the task
CKaaaTb To tell
CyAIITb To destine
 THE VERB

In the Russian impersonal construction the past participle

passive of these verbs, in the neuter short form, governs the
subject of the passive construction standing in the dative case.
(Since only the past participle passive of these verbs is relevant
to this construction, only the perfective forms are given above.)
No one, not even Lenin, was told Hm<oMy, ,~~;aiKe .i\eH•my, He 6LIAo
of the danger CKa3aHO 00 OllclCHOCTM
(Andreyeva)
He is not allowed to go out EMY HC ll03BO.II.CHO BLIXO,li;HTL
She, probably, as the best educated BepmiTHO, eH:, KaK caMOH o6pa36-
person in the household, was en- BaHHOH B ,li;OMe, 6LIAO nopy'ICHO
trusted with the task of meeting BCTpeTMTL II npumiTL ,li;OKTOpa
and entertaining the doctor (Chekhov)

Occasionally such verbs are used with a complement governed

by a preposition:
The appeal will be reJected B iKaAo6e 6y,~~;eT oTKaaaHo
(L. N. Tolstoy)
It is impossible to use this construction when an animate agent
is mentioned. If this occurs, then the passive construction must
be translated into Russian by an active construction:
He was ordered by his colonel to IloAKOBHMK npuKaaa./1. eM'f Bep-
return from leave HYTLCH H3 OTnycKa

If, however, as rarely happens, the agent is inanimate, the im-

personal construction is possible:
Here we are destined by nature to Ilpupo,~~;oH: 3AecL HaM cyiKAeHo,
open a window on Europe B EBpony npopy61iTL oKHO
(Pushkin)

345· English passive constructions, when the agent is not

named, may also be translated into Russian by the use of the
indefinite third person plural, similar, in this function, to inde-
finite on in French and man in German:
It was not until the spring of I 9 I 9 To.II.LKO BCCHOH 1919 ro,ll;a A•i-
that Dibich was detailed for 611'Ia Ha3Hcl'III.II.H K OTnpaBKC C
dispatch on a troop train ... 3WC.II.OHOM. •. (Fedin)
 IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS 205

Sometimes this construction may correspond to an English con-

struction with indefinite someone:
Someone pushed him in tlze Er6 TOAKHyAn B nAe'l6 6cTpbiiil
shoulder with the sharp edge of pe6p6M coAAaTcKoro nox6A-
a soldier's kit-box Horo cyHAY'IKa (Fedin)

PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS

346. The basic distinction between the participle (verbal adjec-
tive) and the gerund (verbal adverb) is that the former may be
replaced by a relative clause introduced by who, which, or that
while the latter may be replaced by an adverbial clause intro-
duced by when, while, if, since, because, etc. Cf.:
She was reading the newspaper CTOH nepeA Kal\lllHOM, OHa '111-
standing in front of the fire (i.e. TMa raJeTy
while standing ... )
The woman standing in front of IKeiiiQJiHa, CTOHBlliaH nepeA Ka-
the fire was reading the news- 1\U.fHo.M, 'llfTMa ra3ery
paper (i.e. who was stand-
ing . .. )
Feeling unwell, he decided to go Ilo"lyBCTBOBaB ce6.R HeJAOpOBbl!\1,
home (i.e. since he felt unwell) OH pemH;\ noifni AOMOii
All children feeling unwell must Bee ACTII, ~CTBYIOJ!!He ce6.R He-
go home (i.e. who feel unwell) 3AOp6BbiMH, AOA:ii<Hhi noirni
AOMOH

347· For participles used as adjectives see paras. 173 and 174.
For gerunds used as adverbs see paras. 409-n. For the use
of the present and past participles passive see under Passive
Voice paras. 276-8.

348. Present participles active can be formed only from imper-

fective verbs. When they replace relative clauses, they fulfil the
same function as the present tense proper, referring to the
moment of speech or making a general statement:
The man standing at the comer qeAoBeK, CTOHIQliH Ha yrAy, TOJib-
has just returned from France Ko 'ITO BepHyACH li3 <l>paHUllll
206 THE VERB
All soldiers who return to their Bee coMaTbr, so3spaJ,!!aiOIQHeCH
home-land after two years of Ha p6,z~rmy n6cAe .IUiyx AeT
captivity will receive a gratuity nAeHa, noAyqaT Harpa,~~;m:re B
of a hundred pounds CTO 4>YHTOB (Press)

349· Past participles active can be formed from both imper-

fective and perfective verbs. Those formed from imperfective
verbs are used in the translation of English relative clauses to
replace the imperfect tense:
The details of this incident, which Ilo,~~;p66nOCTH llTOM 3aHHMaBIUCM
engaged the attention of the sec» IleTep6ypr HCT6pnu cTep-
whole of St. Petersburg, have .1\HC» y MCHli B miMSTH
slipped from my memory (L. N. Tolstoy)
When the main verb is in the past tense, either the present or
past participle active may be used in Russian where English
uses a present participle:
Next to me was sitting a man f>H,II;OM co MHOM CH,II;CA tiCl\OBCK,
reading a Russian novel tiHTaBIUHH (qnTaiOlJ.!IIH) pyc-
CKHM poMaH

The past participle active, formed from a perfective verb, has

resultative sense and describes an action preceding that ex-
pressed by the verb in the main clause which may be past,
present, or future, indicating the participle's essential tenseless-
ness:
I shall give this book to the first R ,~~;aM {lTy KHury nepBoMy CTy-
student who asks me for it ,II;CHTy, cnpocliBIIIeMy ee y MenJi

350. Gerunds in -a (-»), from imperfective verbs, designate an

action coincident in time with the action described by the verb
in the main clause, past, present, or future:
... Maslennikov, shouting some- ... MaC.I\CHHHKOB, qTO-TO Kpuqa,
thing, again threw a grenade cH6sa 6p6cu.l\ rpaHaTy
(Simonov)

Many prefixless imperfective verbs lack the form of the gerund

in -a (-»).When this is so, it is sometimes possible to overcome
 PARTICLES AND GERUNDS 207

the deficiency by using the gerund from a related, prefixed

verb. Note:
To send c.11.aTL (no gerund) but use nocbl.ll.aH
To wait )I(AaTL , , OJKIJAaH
To tear pBaTL , , paapLmaH
To press )KaTL , , no)KnMaH
To bum )Ke'lL , , cJKirrax
To sing neTL , , pacneBiH
To drink nnTL , , BLIITHBa.H

351. Gerunds in -a (-H) may also be formed from certain

perfective verbs. Such gerunds designate a secondary action,
almost invariably preceding that described by the verb in the
main clause:
Noticing (having noticed) the car, 3aMeT.II ManniHy, OH nepe6e.lK<i.A
he ran across the street qepea yAuyy
The gerund -a (-H) from perfective verbs is, however, normally
secondary to the gerund in -IIIli or-B (-Binn). Perfective verbs
with the -a (-.11) form as the more frequent are comparatively
rare but include:
Having made a mistake 0mM6Hcb
Having gone past (gone m, IlpoW, BOHAJf, npnAJi
arriud)
Having carried past IlpoHeci
Having read ITpollTH
Having turned away OTBopoTlic& (oT)
Having seized CxnaTlic& (aa)
Perfective gerunds in -a (-H) are also found in a number of
common idioms:
To sit doing nothi11g Cu.~ten CJI.o.lKa pfl<tt
To run headlong Ee.lKaTb CJ\.0!\tR r6JI.OBY
To stand gawking CTom paa1iH.11 poT
To do in a slipshod manner ,ll;ban cnycrx pyxaBa

352. Gerunds in -IIIn, -B (-Blllli) may now only be formed,

with one or two exceptions, from perfective verbs. Gerunds
208 THE VERB
formed from imperfective verbs are found in nineteenth-century
authors, expressing simultaneity with the action described by the
main verb, but they could only be used when the latter was in
the past tense. Only eBinH and miBmH are now in common use.
353· The gerund 6yAyqn, from 6b1Tb to be, can mean both being
and having been:
Being unable to go, he sent his He 6yAyqn B cocTmhmn noihil,
assistant ou nocAaA noMOIJ!HHKa
But, once having been subdued, Ho, 6yAyqn paa noKopena, npu-
nature cannot be left uncoerced p6Aa He MO)KeT ocTaBaThC.II 6ea
by man qeAoBb>ecKoro BOJAeiicTBH.II
354· By far the commonest gerund forms from perfective verbs
are those ending in -B (-Bnm) and -mn. Of the alternative forms
in -Band -BmH, that in -B is much the more common in contem-
porary literary usage. These gerunds most often describe an
action preceding the action described by the main verb:
After passing his examinations, he CAaB CBOH aK3aMeHLI, on yexaA ...
left . . . (Gor'ky)
Like all perfective verb forms, they may have resultative mean-
ing and are often used, with such meaning, with verbs of move-
ment or state (especially XOAiiTL, CTOHTL, AC)I{aTL, and CHACTL)
to complete the picture drawn by the author:
Grigory was lying with his legs fpnropHH .1\e)Ka.l\ mnpoKo pacKH-
spread out wide nya nom (Sholokhov)
Dasha was sitting with her legs ,ll;ama CHAeAa BbiTHnya u6m, ypo-
stretched out and her hands rest- ulin pyKn na KoAemt
ing on her knees (A. N. Tolstoy)
He sat down, drawing up his legs On Ce.l\ no,vKaB norH
beneath him
Notice that, although a perfective form, the gerund in -B may
be used with frequentative or durative meaning:
When I had.finished delivering the 1{6wnm paauociiTL 6yAKU, .11 Ao-
buns, I would go to bed )KHAC.II cnaTb (Gor'ky)
Lena would sit at the piano for Aena ueAbtMH 'llacaMn CHAeAa y
hours on end with her arms pofl:A.II onycTHB p'YKn
dangling by her sides (Fadeyev)
355· Perfective gerund forms in -B may sometimes describe
 PARTICLES AND GERUNDS 209

actions which do not precede but form one whole with the
action described by the main verb:
Aleksey approached Baimanova A.ll.excefi o6paTtiAc.R K Eafi.MaHo-
with the proposal that- she sell non, npeAAOA>:nB en npo,~~;aTh
him her house eMj AOM (Gor'ky)
The action described by the gerund may also be found to follow
that described by the main verb, or to describe the result of the
latter (i.e. tense plays no part in the system of gerunds, which do
not denote time in relation to the moment of speech):
He threw his cigarette to the ground OH 6p6cn.>. nannp6cxy Ha ael'ov..IO,
and crushed it with two exces- paCTOllTaB ee ABY!'uJ CAIIIUKOM
sivery violent blows of his foot CllAbHhlMII y,~~;apal'oOI HOrll
(Gor'ky)
The sad news flew round the regi- T.RA>:e.>.a.R necTI> o6.>.eTe.>.a noAKti,
ments and threw everyone into narmia na ncex ymdHHe
despondency (Furmanov)
356. The gerund normally refers to an action on the part of
the subject and should not be used in the following cases (quoted
from Rozen tal'):
(a) If the action expressed by the predicate and the action
expressed by the gerund relate to different subjects:
e.g. *B03BpaiJ.!aJICL ,li;OMOfl, MeHH 3acn{r AO;K,li;L.
(b) If an impersonal construction has a logical subject:
e.g. •IToAXOA1i K Aecy, MHe CTa.Ao xoAOAHO.
(c) If there is a passive construction:
e.g. *IToAHHBlllliCL ssepx no B6Are, 6ap;Ka 6)·AeT sh1rpy;KeHa
Ha nputi<iA.ax K'YJ'iO»Illlesa u f6pLKoro (the subject of the action
of the verb to unload-although not expressed-is not the same
as the subject of the gerund).
Students of Russian literature, however, will have noticed
that these rules are not always observed, and that Tolstoy is a
conspicuous offender: e.g. 'C6H.an B'Iepa nopa3IL\a er6 [AesnHa]
CBOeli KpacOTOI'i. HLIH'le ysJ{AeB ee Mc!AbKOllf,OHaeMynoKaaiAacb
eJ,ge AY'tJllle ... ' Yesterday Sonya had already astounded him [Levin]
by her beauty. Having caught a glimpse of her today, she seemed to
him still more beautiful ...•
• Denotes incorrect usage.
 210 THE VERB

THE TRANSLATION OF THE VERB 'TO BE'

357· Russian uses various devices to compensate for the fact

that the present tense of the verb to be 6LITL is defective. The
simplest of all is, of course, the complete omission of the verb,
and the use of a dash:
Mercury is the nearest planet to Mepi<ypnti - OAM.:lKatiman I< c6A·
the sun "m' nAaneTa
I like Turgenev and Dostoyevsky, Mne npasnTcn TypreHes M ,LI,oc-
but my favourite Russian author Toesci<Mti, HO MOil J\IOOMMhiH
is Tolstoy pycci<UH asTOp- ToACTOH

358. (i) EcTL and (theoretically) cyTL may be used if the English
verb has a strong sense of definition. CyTL for all practical pur-
poses is now never used and ecTL is found, as a defining verb,
with both singular and plural subjects and for all three persons.
Even ecTL, however, is only obligatory when subject and com-
plement are identical:
An order's an order, I'm off I1pMI<a3 eCTh npni<a3- eAy
In other contexts, ecTL is only found with any degree of con-
sistency in scientific and philosophical writings:
Everything you have lived and live Bee To, 'ICM Thl .:lKHA u .:lKHBemL,
by is falsehood. • . ecTh AO:>Kh... (L. N. Tolstoy)
(ii) There are, however, other circumstances in which the
use of ecTL is desirable for stylistic reasons. EcTL is often found
in comparisons between what is and what was, or what is and
what should be :
We should love people as they are Hy:>KHo AI06IiT~> AIOAeli 1•ai< oHM
and not as they ought to be eCTh, a He I<ai< OHM AOA:>KHLI Obi
OhiTL
Ivanov was your friend-he is HsaH6B OhiA BaM Apyr - oH n
still your friend eCTh saM Apyr
Notice also Go as you are (i.e. do not change) HAM KaK ecTL. EcTL
may also be used after the expression sTO H (sTO H ecTL), con-
firming a statement just made or identifying a person who sud-
denly appears:
That's life for you! (That's life, 9To n ecTh :>KH3Hh!
that is!)
 TRANSLATION OF THE VERB 'TO BE' 211

There's the man you are speaking BoT 'leAoBeK, o KoT6poM Bbi rono-
about- pthe-
res, that's him, all right ,4a, 9To OH n ecTb

359· (i) There is, there are in the meaning of there exist(s) are
often translated by ecTL:
The earth is a large and splendid 3eMNi neAHKi n npeKp<icHa, ecTD
place, there are many wonderful Ha Heii r.m6ro '~YAeCHhlX AIOAeii
people on it
There is a God (God exists) Eor ecTD

Meaning there is, there are, ecTL is also commonly used with y
and the genitive case, translating to have, especially in interroga-
tive sentences:
Have you a7!JI apples?-res, we EcTb ( ecTb·AH) y nac i16AoKn? -
have EcTb
The same kind of question may be expressed more politely in
the negative form:
Have you any matches, please? HeT-AH y nac cmi'leK?
Notice also the reflexive verb HMeTLCJI which may translate there
is (are) meaning there exist(s):
There are books on all subjects in B 6n6AnoTeKe HMeiOTCH Km1rn Ha
the library nee TeMI>I
(ii) To be with frequentative or habitual meaning is normally
translated into Russian by 6LinaTL, a verb with a normal present
tense:
He is in London every Tuesday OH 6I>InaeT n A6HAOHe no nT6p-
HI1KaM
There is no smoke without fire Eea orHil ALIMa He 6blBaeT
I don't usually have time to do this 06LitiHO y MeHil ne 6biBaeT Bpe-
MeHn CAeAaTD 9To
(iii) Notice that 6LIBaTL is used in negative sentences with
indeterminate perfect or pluperfect meaning:
I seemed never in my life to have Kaa:iAocb, 6TpoAy He 61>m:iA H B
been in such desolate places TaKIIx nycrLIX Mecrax
(Turgenev)
212 THE VERB
Kalinych had once had a wife, Y Ka.ll.liHhl'la 6hiAa KorAli-To
whom he feared, but he had JKeHa, Kor6poi1 oH 6oliAcll, a
never had any children Aen!fi He 6hmaAo B6Bce
(Turgenev)
(iv) Notice the following idiomatic uses of 6:&maTI>:
Suddenly she remembered that the BApyr oHa Bcn6MHHAa, 'lTO Xpu-
Khripaches, as they took their naq:H, npOI.galiCh, He 3BaAH MX
leave, had not invited them to 6hlB::iTh y ce6Ji (Sologub)
visit them
It sometimes happens that books EhlBaeT, 'lTo KH:Hrn ne B03Bpa-
are not returned I.J!aiOTCll
Meetings are held twice a month 3aceAaHull 6hrBaiOT ABa pa3a B
MeCliU

360. (i) The English verb to be often defines position or situa-

tion. In such expressions Russian uses verbs which are not
merely substitutes for the missing parts of 6LITI>, but which
satisfy the general tendency of the language to define position
or situation concretely and precisely. When actual whereabouts
is stressed, Russian uses the verb HaXO,li;HTLCH (lit. to be found) in
the same way as French uses se trouver:
Where is the inquiry office? rAe HaxOAHTCll CnpaBO'lHOe
6rop6?
Haxo,zJ;MTLCH is also used in abstract contexts when the meaning
is literally to find oneself:
He is under suspicion of murder OH HaXOAHTCll noA noAo3penneM
B y6MHCTBC
(ii) Note also the occasional use of the past participle pacno-
AOiKCH meaning to be situated:
The house is situated near the river f];oM pacnoA6JKeH y peKri
361. Russian frequently uses the three verbs cTo.Hn, AeiKaT:&, and
cn,zJ;eTI>, to define position more exactly than English which
makes do with the indeterminate is and are:
(i) CTO.H:Th is used, in general, when the position of the object
is upright:
The piano is against the wall Po.RAh CTOMT y cTeH:bi
The books are on the shelf KmirH CTOHT na n6AKe
 TRANSLATION OF THE VERB 'TO BE' 213

It is used, also, of the position of ships at sea:

The ship is at anchor (is ving at Kopa6.1\b CTOih Ha HKOpe
anchor)
Near us lay a cruiser BAH3KO oT Hac CTOH.I\ Kpeticep

(Note English 'lie' but Russian CTOHTL (lit. stand))

CTo.lin, is common, also, in expressions describing weather con-
ditions:
The weather was settled Ilor6Aa cTo.ft:Aa xopowaH
The heat was unbearable IKapa cTo.ft:Aa HeB:biHOCiilllaH
There was a complete calm CTOH.I\ llO.I\HhiH IIITII.I\b
Winter was well set in 3IiMa CTOlL'\a AaBHO

Nate the common expressions:

He was kneeling On cTo.ft:A Ha KO.I\eHJoc
Prices are high ljem>I CTOHT B:biCOKne
There are four routine matters on Ha noBeCTKe AHJI CTOHT tiCTbipe
the agenda ot~epeAHhiX Bonpoca

(ii) Ae)KaTL is used, in general, when the object is laid flat:

The letter is on the table IlnCLMO .1\CIKIIT Ha CTO.I\e

Note that the same noun may be used with Ae)KaTL or CTOHTL
depending upon the position described:
The books are on the floor Knum .1\eJK{n Ha noAy (cf. CTOHT
Ha no.I\Ke)
The plates are in the cupboard Tap6AKn cTo.!l:T (Ae;~<aT) B IIIKacpy

But only:
The knives,Jorks, and spoons are HoJKii, Bii.I\Kn tl .1\0;KKif .1\eJK:iT B
in the sideboard 6ycpbe

Of a town either verb may be used:

Paris stands on the Seine Ilapn;~< ,\eJKih (cTmh) Ha Cene

Ae)KiTL is used with reference to illness:

He is in hospital OH AeJKnT B 6o.I\LHiiye
He is down with influenza OH .1\CIKIIT c rp1innoM

(iii) CnACTL IS used normally when the person or creature

SH>6S4 H
 THE VERB
concerned is in a place which he cannot leave or does not wish
to leave:
I was at home all day yesterday Bqepa H cnAeA AOMa QeALiti. ACHh
He is in prison OH CHAHT B TIOPLMe
The elephant is in its cage CAoH CHAHT B KJ\eTKC
362. The two verbs .HBARTLCH (.!!BJhLc.H) and npeACTaBMlTL
(rrpeACTaBnTL) co66it are frequently used meaning to be in
sentences where the complement defines the subject, in general
terms:
The 'New Tale' which has come <<HOBaH I16BeCTh)), AOllleAlllaH AO
down to us in one copy onry, and HaC B CAHHCTBCHHOM CIIHCKC H
which is an anonymous letter npeiJcmaellR101J!,aR co66-i1 nOAMeT-
written at the end of December uoe IIHCh:\10, HallHCaHHOC B KOH-
1610 or the beginning of Jan- Qe ACKa6pli 1610 r. HAll B HatJa-
uary 161 1 ••• is one of the most Ae HHBap.ff 1611 r .... RellftemcR
important works of the 'Time of OAHHM ua aHatJHTCALHeti.mmc
Troubles' npOH3BCAeHHM BpeMCHU <tCMy-
TbH) (Gudzy)
In many sentences .HBAHTLC.II, rrpeACTaBAH.TL co66if and the dash
are interchangeable:
The whale is a large mammal KuT - 6oALllloe MAeKonUTaro-
I,Yee (HBAHCTCH, npeACTaBAHCT
co66ti.)

363. The verb cocTOHTL is common in official language describ-

ing a person's occupation or position:
He is on the pay-roll Ou COCTOitT B cnncKe pa6oqux
He is a A1ember of Parliament OH cocTOHT qAeHoM napAaMeHTa
Notice also the reflexive verb cocTOnTLC.II (only perfective in
meaning) which means to be in the sense of to be held:
There will be a meeting on Friday 3aceAaHue cocTmhcx B n.HTmtuy

SOME COMMON VERBS AND THEIR

TRANSLATION
364. Act. IlocTyrraTL (rrocTynlin) means to act in the sense of
to behave: repOlltJeCKM IIOCTYIIHTL B MOMeHT 6oALWOH orraCHOCTU
 SOME COMMON VERBS 215

to act heroically in a moment of great danger. Becn1 ce6.H, ,~~;epiKaTL

ce6.H (or ,~~;epiKaTLcH), with no perfective forms, mean rather to
conduct oneself: oH ,~~;ep3Ko se,~~;h ce6.H he behaves impudently. ,l(eii:cT-
sosan is a more abstract word. Of armies, it means to be in
action, to operate: neXOTa ,ll;eliCTByeT CeBepHee peKll the infantry is
in action north of the river; of individuals to follow a course of action:
MLI APYiKHO ,~~;eii:crnosaAH we took concerted action. In these mean-
ings ,~~;eikrnosan has no perfective form but in the meaning to
act upon, to have an e.ffect on it has the perfective form no,~~;eii:crno­
san: OTALIX 6Aaronpu.HTHo no,~~;eii:crnosaA Ha er6 HepsLI rest had
a beneficial e.ffect upon his nerves.
I1rpan (CLirpan) means to act on the stage: CLzrpaTL poAL
MaK6eTa (or simply cLirpan MaK6cra) to act the part of Mac-
beth. To act a play may be either nrpaTL (c~>rrpaTL) or ,~~;asan
(,~~;an) nLecy.
of is usually best trans-
To act as meaning to carry out the duties
lated by cAyiKirn: CAYiKHTL nepeBO,II;'lHKOM to act as interpreter.
A more formal expression is ncnoAHHTL (Ircn6AHHTL) o6.H3aH-
HOCTH which, in signatures, is abbreviated ton. o: u. o. 3ase.z.tyro-
IJ!ero (ucnoAHmoi,gnii o6a3aHuocni) acting manager.
365. Ask. CnpaumsaTL (cnpociiTL) means, in general, to ask
for (information), npoCIITL (nonpoCII:n) means, in general, to
request (to do something). Compare cnpodrn Kor6-Hlz6y,~~;L o
'lelii-Hu6y,~~;L to ask someone about something; nonpocun Kor6-
Hn6y,~~;L o no!.IOI,gn to ask someone for help (i.e. to give help). Either
verb may be used when the meaning is to ask for something from
someone: cnpocun (or nonpoc1ITL) KapaHAam y Kor6-Hn6y,~~;L to
ask someone for a pencil (for the use of genitive or accusative after
these verbs see para. 38 (ii)). Only cnpamusan (cnpociiTL) may
be used in such expressions as npn,~~;IITe K HaM n cnpoCiiTe MeHa
come to our house and ask for me.
To ask for trouble is Hanp:iuumaTLCH (HanpociiTLcH) Ha He-
npuhHOCTn. To ask a very high price is 3anpamnsan (3anpoCI1n)
o•IeHL BLICOKYIO QeHy (3a- here used as a prefix meaning to do
to excess). To ask a question is 3a,~~;asan (3a,~~;an) sonp6c.
366. Beat. BnTL (no6IiTb) means primarily to drub: OH iKeCTOKO
no611A ee he beat her cruelly. Notice, however, that when 6nn
 THE VERB

means to hit (one blow) its perfective form is not no6HTh but
yAafliiTb.
EnTh (no6HTb) means also to beat (in a sporting contest) and
to beat (to break) a record.
EnThCH is used of the heart: er6 cepAue cAa6o 6heTcx his
heart is beating feebly.
0T6nnaTh (oT6IITh) means to beat off (aTaKy-an attack), also
to beat time (oT6nnaTh TaKT).
The verb KOA.OTIITb is somewhat colloquial in the meaning of
to drub but may be used in the sense of to beat upon: KOAOTHTb
KyAaKaMII no cToAy to beat the table with one's .fists.

367. Catch. The imperfective verb AOBllTb may mean simply

to chase, to hunt without necessarily meaning that the pursued
object is caught (see para. 252). AoniiTh pLr6y means to fish, to
angle (to catch only in a frequentative sense). To catch a fish is
noii:MaTb pLr6y. An alternative expression meaning to angle is
YAHTh pLr6y.
CxnanmaTb (cxnaTnn) may not be used of catching fish but
may be used as a synonym of AOBHTh (noii:MaTh) when its funda-
mental meaning of to seize, to grab is appropriate: cxBaTHTb (non-
MaTh) Myxy, 6erA.eua to catch a fly, a fugitive.
Both of the above verbs, together with a third verb yAaBAn-
aaTb (YAOBHTh), may translate to catch in various figurative
meanings. Iloii:MaTb (yAoBHTh) B3rAH,ll;, cxo,li;CTBo, cAY'Jaii:, to
catch a glance, a likeness, (to seize) an opportunity. Iloii:MaTb (yAo-
BHTh, cXBaTHTb) CMbiCA CAOBa to grasp the meaning of a word.
YAaBA.IIBaTh (yAoBHTb) may only be used figuratively.
3aXBaTbmaTh (3aXBaTnTh) or 3aCTIIraTb (3acTnrnyn) mean
to catch unawares, to surprise: MeH.R no ,21;op6re 3aXBaniAo AO.IK,ll;eM
I was caught by the rain on the way. To catch in the act is 3aCTnran
(3acTnrnyTh) or 3aCTaBaTb (3aCTaTb) Ha MecTe npecryiTAemm.
3acTaBaTb (3aCTaTb) Kor6-HII6YAh AOMa means to catch someone
zn.
To catch, to get caught, used of clothes, etc., is 3auenA.HTbCH
(3auem'rThcx) followed by 3a with the accusative case: er6
MaHTIIH 3auennAaCb 3a cnnHKY cryA.a his gown caught on the back
of the chair. The same verb is used with a personal subject in the
 SOME COMMON VERBS 217

meaning of to catch hold of: oH aayemi:ACJI aa Hee o6enMH pyK<hnr

he caught hold of her with both hands.
IIpnJMeM.\HTL (npnJMe!-rirn) is used of parts of the body getting
caught or jammed: oHa npnJMeMJiAa ce6e miAey .ztBepLro she
caught her finger in the door. Of larger objects, to catch = to get
stuck is aacTpenaTb (aaCTpm): the cart got stuck in the mud noa
aaCTp.!h B rpJI3I1. This verb may also be used figuratively, in the
expression CAOBa 3aCTpHAH y Hero B rop.\e the WOrds stuck in his
throat.
Notice the verb npnnuniTbcJI (npnBIITbCJI) meaning to catch
oil of a fashion: HoBaJI MOAa He cpaay npnBn.\acb the new fashion
did not catch Oil at once.
To catch a train llocneTb Ha noe3A
To catch cold n pocTyAHTbCH
He quickly caught up with me Ou 6LrCTpo .ztorni.\ Meml

368. Change. The simple verb MeHliTL, which has no perfec-

tive form, is used in a wide range of meanings: MeHJiTL AeH&m,
o.~teJKAy, MHeHiie, CAyJK6y to change money, clothing, an opinion, one's
occupation. The reflexive verb means to become different: noro.~ta
MeHJieTcJI the weather is changing; with an object in the instru-
mental case to exchange: MeHHTLCJI KHJ'rraMn c Kb.r-mr6yAb to
exchange books with someone.
There are several common compound verbs which, in special
meanings, may be used as alternatives of MeHJin or instead of
MeHhTL when the meaning is perfective. 06MeHnBaTbCH (o6Me-
HHTbCll) AOMaMH c KeM-HJr6yAL to exchange houses with someone,
paaMeHunan (paa!-reHJin) .~teHbm to change money (into smaller
units or into foreign currency): eMy )'A<l..\OCb paaMemiTh 1>YHTLI
Ha <I>paHu)·acKyro Ba..\Ibry he succeeded in changing pounds into French
currenq. Both H3MeHHTbCJI (naMeHJtTLCH) and nepe!-rewincH (ne-
peMemhhcH) may mean to become different: OH MeHhcH (HaMeHit,\-
cH, nepeMCHibc.H) B .\lrue his expression changed.
Certain verbs, not based on the root MeH-, may translate to
change in special meanings: nepeo.~te»<iThCJI (nepeo.~tenc.H) to
change one's clothes; pa3A~1an (no imperfective in this meaning)
to change one's mind (and do nothing); compare nepeA)~rbi­
BaTL (nepeA}"Man) to clzange one's mind (and do something else);
218 THE VERR
nepecaJKMBaTLcJI (nepececn) to change trains, buses, etc. Notice
also the use of the verb nepeXOAHTI> (nepeiiTH:) in the following
expressions: nepeiiTH: Ha Apyryro CTopoHy to change sides (e.g. in
an argument, in politics); nepeXOAHTL M3 PYK B p9Kn to change
hands.

369. Fall. In almost all meanings in which naAaTL has a per-

fective form, nacn may be used. TiacTL only and not ynacn
may be used in the following common meanings:
The fortress fell KpenocTh niha
He fell in battle OH naA B 6~1TBe
Ynacn, however, may be used as an alternative perfective
form in:
Suspicion fell on her I1oA03pemle yniho (miAo) Ha uee
Prices fell Ileubi ymiAu (naAn)
An alternative verb to translate fall of prices is noHMJKaTLCJI
(noHH3MTLCJI). Either ynacn or nacn may be used in the idiom
naAaTb (nacTh, ymtcTb) AyxoM to become discouraged, to lose
heart.
BLmaAaTL (BI:macTL) is commonly used meaning to fall of
snow or rain after some interval: nocAe AOAroii 3acyxu HaKoHeQ
B:bmaA AOJKAL after a long drought rain has fallen at last. Notice also
the idiom eMy BLmaAo Ha AOAIO it fell to his lot to . . . . More
literally, both BLinaAaTb and naAaTL may be used to mean to
fall out of hair, teeth.
CnaAaTL (cnacn) is used meaning to subside (of a river), to
abate (of heat) : cnaAa BOA a B peKe the river subsided.
PacnaAaTLcJI (pacnacTLcJI) means to fall to pieces, come apart,
disintegrate, split up: MOJI.eKyAa pacnaAaCL Ha hoMDI the molecule
split into atoms; ceMLII pacnaAiAacu ua rAa3ax y IlaHTeAeJI Ilpo-
KOq>LeBM'la (Sholokhov) the family was splitting up before Panteley
Prokofevich' s very eyes.
TionaAaTL (nonacn) is a very useful verb. The reflexive form
nonaAaTLCJI (nonacTLcJI) also exists and either the reflexive or the
non-reflexive form may be used in the expressions nonacTL (no-
nacTLCJI) B AOByrnKy tofa/l into a trap; TIOTiaCTL (uonaCTLCJI) Ha
 SOME COMMON VERBS 219

yAoqKy to fall for a bait; nonien (nonicnc.11) B IL'\eH to be taken

prisoner.
The non-reflexive verb nonaAaTb (nonien) often translates
English get: KaK nonien Ha BOK3:i.A how does one get to the station?
OH non:i.A B 6eAy he got into trouble. It is also the commonest trans-
lation of to hit of missiles: nYAH non:i.Aa eM}' B IIJ\eqo the bullet hit
him in the shoulder. Note also: Mbl He norraAeM we won't get in (of
theatre or cinema).

370. Feel. ti-yncTBoBaTb (rroq)fBcTBoBaTb) means tofcel an emo-

tion or a physical sensation: to feel joy-hunger q)'BCTBOBaTb
piAOCTb- ro.\.OA. It may also translatefeel meaning to be aware:
x $cTByro, qTo OH uac He AI66nT I feel that he does not like us, or
to appreciate: OH q-yncTByeT H3biK he has a feel for the language. For
the usage of q'YBcTBonaTbCH and q'YBcTBoBaTb ce6fi (cf. German
sichfiihlen) see para. 286.
Although OJID'I,!!in (ornyniTb) may, like q)'BCTnonaTb (rroq)'B-
CTBOBaTb), be used of both physical sensations and emotions, it
is used much less frequently of emotions than of sensations. The
verbal noun OI,YyJ!!eHIIe means, in fact, sensation and is used in
the terms CAyxonble- 3piiTe.\.bHble- OIQYJ!!eHim auditory-visual
-sensations. The adjective OJ;gynheAhHblii means perceptible,
palpable, appreciable: OJ!!yTiheAbHaH rroTepH an appreciable loss.
HcrrLITbiBaTb (ncrrbrrin), rrepeJKlmiTh (rrepeaaiTb) both mean
to experience, to undergo. HcrrLITbiBaTb is used of both pleasant and
unpleasant experiences: ucnhiTbiBaTb YAOBOAhCTBHC - piAOCTb
- AociAy to experience pleasure-joy-anger. IIepeJKliBaTb, how-
ever, is used only of unpleasant experiences, and contains the
idea of enduring or suffering: OH TffiKe.\.6 nepeaoi:A yTp<iTy
M<iTepH he felt the loss of his mother keen!)•. The verbal noun HCIIbi·
TaHne means trial, ordeal: npoxo~ItTb (rrpoiinl) TH;KKOe I1CnbiTa-
une to undergo a seure ordeal.
l!!ynaTh (noiQynaTb) means to feel, to touch inquiringly, with
the object of finding something out: ou J!!)Tia.\. KapMaHbi n rron-
cKax cmiqeK he felt in his pocket for matches; J!!)Tian rryAbC to feel
the pulse. Note the adverb OJ!!)'TibiO gropingly: .11 npo6Hp<i.AcH
Ol!!)'llbiO no KOPHAopy I was groping my way along the corridor.
Notice: ccTh y nac ox6Ta TaHIJOBan? do you feel like dancing?
220 THE VERB
371. Fight. EnThc.ll (no perfective form in this meaning) means
to fight in general, with fists or weapons (cf. French se battre). It
may also mean to struggle with (a problem): we struggledfor a long
time with this problem Mhi ,li;Oi\I"O 6IiAHCh HaA pa3perneH:neM :inofi
npo6ACMhl.
Eop6Tbca has the special meaning to wrestle. It may also be
used, abstractly, meaning to wrestle with, to struggle with, to strive
for: 6op6ThC.ll c 3aKopeHCAhiMH npe,D;paccy,D;KaMn to struggle with
deep-rooted prejudices; 6opoTbC.ll 3a 66Aee BhiCoKnH: ypoBeHh JKH3HH
to strive for a higher standard of living.
,ll;paThC.ll (no,D;paThcH) is often used of fisticuffs, to scrap. Notice
the cognate nouns ,D;pallyn and ,D;paKa: on 6oAhm6ii ApallyH he's
always ready for a scrap; AOXOAHTh (Aoitrn) AO ApaK:n to come to
blows. Notice also ApaThC.ll Ha AYBAR to fight a duel.
CpaJKaTbC.ll (cpa3HThCH) is a more bookish word than those
already given: on cpaiKaAc.ll KaK AeB he was fighting like a lion. The
cognate noun cpaiKeH:ne means battle, and the verb is used most
commonly of military operations: onn xpa6po cpaiKMHCh B
3aJMHTY p6AHHbi they fought valiantly in defence of their homeland.
Note also the verb aoeaaTb which means to wage war: lhaA:n.ll
TPH ro,D;a BOeBaJ\a Ha CTopone fepMaHHH Italy fought for three years
on Germany's side.
To fight shy of someone, something Jrla6enl.Th Kor6-nu6yAb, '<Ien)-
nn6yAh

372. Get. With noAyllaTh (noAYllHTh) there is usually no effort

implied on the part of the subject. It may govern both concrete
and abstract objects. With ,li;OCTaBaTh (AOCTaTh) there is a sug-
gestion of conscious effort, and often a certain amount of diffi-
culty. It is only used with concrete, tangible objects. ,ll;o6t!ThCH,
which is most commonly followed by abstract concepts, indi-
cates, even more than AOCTaTh, substantial effort on the part of
the subject.
We get (receive) Pravda every Mbl noAyqael\1 «llpas,ll;y>> Ka.lK,ll;blll
day ,li;CHb
This morning I managed to get Cero,li;HH yTpoM MHe yAaAOCb
(obtain) two tickets for Swan ,li;OCTaTb ,li;Ba 6nAeTa Ha ((Ae6e-
Lake ,li;HHOC oaepO>>
 SOME COMMON VERBS 221

Ultimately he got his own way B KOHt!e KOHt!OB OH ,ll;06JlACll

CBOero
Compare:
Our country recently received (got) Hama CTpami HeAaBHO noAyt~l-iAa
its independmce (statement of HeaaBMCJtMOCTh
fact)
Our country recently obtained Hama cTpaHa He,a,aBHO ,~~;o6J!Aach
(achieved) its independence neaaBJicUMOCTn
(after a struggle)

373· Have. When the sense is one of concrete possession, the

most natural Russian translation is y with the genitive case:
y Hero 6oAhiiiOii AOM he has a large house. liMeTL, however, may
be used, as well as the construction with y, when the object
possessed is abstract. He MOC ACAO. He mreto npnKaaaHnll (Ka-
tayev) It's not my business. I have 110 orders. When both subject and
object are abstract, only nMeTL may be used: CMepTh KopoA.sl:
IIMCAa OtJCHh Ba.IKHLie nocAeACTBHH the king' s death had very impor-
tant consequences; nLeca HMb,a 6oAI>IIIOii ycnex the play had a great
success. I1MeTL only is used when have in English is followed by
an infinitive construction: m.feTL M)'.IKeCTBO OTKaaaThCH to have
the courage to refuse.
06Aa.ll:<lTh may be used to translate to have, to possess, most
commonly of abstract personal qualities or characteristics: o6-
Aa,IJ;aTL Aapm.r- onhiTOM- xopoum.M r6AocoM to har·e (possess)
a gift-experience-a good voice. Less frequently it may be found
with a concrete object, usually on a grand scale: apa6cKne
CTpaHbl oGAa,ll;aiOT 6oAblllliMH aanaca:-m necpnt the Arab countries
have large reserves oj oil; but notice also: OH 06Aa,ll;aeT caMOii 60Ah·
IIIOii B 1\nipe KOAACKQJieii :-wneT he has the largest collection of coins
in the world.
374· Learn, Study, Teach. Y•uiTLCH (naYtJIIThCH) is to stut!JI in
the widest sense, to be a student: Balli 6paT pa66meT IIAn yquTCH?
does )'OUT brother work or is he a student? ·with a complcmen t in the
dative case it means to stut!JI a particular subject.
yq{rTL (BbiYtJUTL) is also used in the same sense as yqJiThC.!I and
the dative, but with a complement in the accusative case-to
stut!JI a particular subject. N.B. YtJlfTL (BbiYtJIITL) nat1aycTL to
222 THE VERB
learn by heart. However, it is more commonly found in the mean-
ing of to teach, when the person taught goes into the accusative,
and the subject taught into the dative case: yqJiTL ,zJ;eTeii rreHHIO
to teach children singing.
O()yqaTL (o6yqliTL) and HayqaTL (HayqliTL) both mean to
teach and are constructed like yqiiTb in this sense: omi OT,ll;aAa
BCIO ./Kli3Hb, qTQbbl o6'yqHTb ee q>paHQY3CKOMY .ll3biKY she devoted
all her life to teaching her French. Ilperro,zJ;aBaTL is a common syno-
nym, which may be used absolutely, or with a complement in
the accusative case.
lf3yqaTL (113yqJiTL) means to study a subject seriously, to study in
depth, and governs an accusative case.
3aHHMaTLC.ll plus the instrumental case also means to study
a subject, but it is frequently used absolutely where English
says to work, to practise (a musical instrument), to spend time at a
given occupation which requires study.
HayqliTLC.ll (perfective) is commonly used of learning to do
something not necessarily acadetnic, when it is followed by an
infinitive: HayqJiTLC.ll rrAasaTL to learn to swim. It may also govern
a dative case: OH MHoroMY HayqHAC.ll he learned a great deal. In this
meaning it is almost invariably found in the past tense-to have
acquired a considerable amount of knowledge.

375· Look. CMoTpeTL (rrocMoTpeTL) and rA.ll,li;CTL (rrorA.ll,ll;eTL),

followed by Ha and the accusative case, are generally synony-
mous in the meaning of to look at, but cMoTpcTL is a more
narrowly literary word, rA.ll,ll;eTL more expressive, a fresh word
(Bulakhovsky). CMoTpeTb is used without Ha in a number of
special meanings: cMoTpeTL p}'KorrHCL to glance at, to look through a
manuscript, CMOTpCTb ,li;OCTOIIpHMe'laTeAbHOCTH ropo,ll;a to view the
sights ofa town, CMOTpCTb CKaqKH to watch tlze races, CMOTpCTb mecy
to see a play.
B3rMI,li;LmaTL (B3TAHHYTL) Ha means to cast a glance at. Notice
yKpa,li;KOH B3rAHHYTL Ha Koro-HHbYAL to steal a look at someone.
To look after in the sense of to care for is yxa.>KHBaTL 3a: yxa.>Kn-
BaTL 3a 6oALHLIM, 3a pebeHKOM to look after an invalid, a child.
Notice also yxa.>KHBaTb 3a ca,li;OM to tend a garden. The verb rrpn:-
CMaTpHBaTb (rrpncMoTpcTL) 3a means to keep an ~ye on, to supervise:
 SOME COMMON VERBS 223

npncM<hpnBaTL 3a peOCHKOM B OTCYTCTBne poAHTCACii to look

after a child in the parents' absence; npncM<iTpnBaTL 3a pa66Toii to
supervise work. This verb may also mean to look out for in the
sense of to look for (colloq.) : npncMchpnBaeM AOM we are looking
out for a house. In this meaning, the perfective form means to
find.
To look like (to resemble) may be translated in various ways.
The verb BbiT.MIACTL (cf. German aussehen) is imperfective despite
the stress: AOM BbirAJIAHT COBCCM HOBLIM the house looks quite new.
As an alternative nMeTL BHA (cf. French avoir l' air) may be used:
AOM HMCCT COBCCM HOBLIH BHi.
To resemble is normally translated by noxo;J;IITL Ha or OLJTL
noxo;KnM Ha: tiepniMH Anya OH llOXO;J;HT (noxo.iK) Ha AMIO
facially he resembles his uncle. Notice the colloquial idioms: no-
xo.iKe Ha ;J;O.iK,ll;L (or llOXO.iKC, 'ITO 6y;J;CT AO.iKAL) it looks like rain
:ho Ha Hero noxo.iKe that's him all over!; ua 'ITO BLJ noxo.iKn what
a sight you are! (what on earth do )'Ou look like!).
To look on to, to overlook may be translated by CMOTpeTL,
rMI;J;eTL, BbLXOAiiTL, followed by the prepositions BorHa, accord-
ing to the substantive they govern: OKHa CMOTPHT Ha (B) ABOp
the windows overlook the yard; KOMHaTa BLIXOAUT OKHaMu Ha 10r the
room looks south; cn<iALHH rAH;J;Ih OKHaMn Ha yAHIJY the bedroom
overlooks the street; OKHO BLIXOAHT B caA the window opens on to the
garden.
To look forward to is often best translated by )KAaTL c HeTep-
nemieM (c YAOBOAbCTBiieM).
To look up (a word in a dictionary) is ncKaTL; if to look up im-
plies to find, then, of course, uaxo;J;HTL (Haiinl) is used: H HamcA
:ho CAOBO B CAoBape I looked up this word in a dictionary.
To look in on someone may be translated by any of the following
verbs: 3arAHALIBaTL (3arAHnyTL) I 3aXOAI'nh (3ai1nl) I 3aC3.iKclTL
(3aexan) K KoMy-Hnoy;J;L.

376. Lose. TepliTL (noTep.Hn>) can be used meaning both to

mislay and to be bereft of: H noTepfl:A CBOIO Kmlry I have lost my book;
ACBliTi't ACT, oH noTep.HA oTya at nine, he lost his father. An alterna-
tive verb meaning to be bereft of is AnmaTLCH (AIUIIHTLCH) tier6-
Hn6yAL: OH Aliiillf.-\CH 3pCHUH he lost lzis sight; OH AIIIIlllACH petiJI
224 THE VERB
he was strnck dumb. To lose consciousness may be either AHIIIaTLCJI
qyacrB or repnr~> coaHaHue.
Yrpa•mBan (yrparun) is often used with abstract qualities:
oH yrparuA HaAe)KAY he lost hope. It may also mean to forfeit:
Bbl yrparuAu npaBa Ha HaCAeACTBO you have forfeited your rights to
the inheritance. Notice that neither this verb nor AHrnancn (Au-
IIIHTI>cn) may be used in the meaning of to mislay.
The verb nponaAaTb (nponacn) means to be missing, to go
missing: KAIOtJH Bce nponaAaiOT keys are always getting lost. The
perfective form may mean to be lost in the sense of to be gone for
ever: BCe MOH AeHbrH nponiAH all my money is gone; ero HHTepec
K pyccKoii Aureparype nponiA all his interest in Russian literature
has gone.
Ilpowrp1>man (npon:rpar~>) means to lose of a sporting contest
or a lawsuit: OH npon:rpiA cyAe6HbiM npoyecc he lost the case.
This verb, as well as reparL (norepar~>), may also mean to lose
in the sense of to suffer: n~>eca MHoro npon:rpaAa (norepha) or
ITAoxoii nocraHOBKH the play lost a lot through bad presentation.

377· Make. 3acraBAHTb (aaCTaBn:T~>) means to make in the sense

of to oblige or to compel: AO)I(Ab aacraBn:A Hac ocrancJI AOMa we
were obliged by the rain to stay at home; orey aacraBHA ero npocu-
AeTL yeAI>Iii Bet~ep HaA aaAatJeii his father made him spend the whole
evening over the problem.
To make meaning to manufacture may be translated by <Pa6pn:-
KOBaTb (no perfective), although this verb is more commonly
used in the metaphorical sense of to fabricate (Ao)Kb, 6acHn, etc.).
In this meaning the perfective is c<Pa6pn:KoBaTL. Synonyms of
<Pa6pn:KoBan meaning to manufacture, with both imperfective and
perfective forms, are BLipa6aTLmaTb (sblpa6oran), BLJAeALIBaTL
(BhiAeAaTL), and uaroTOBAHTb (uaroTOBn:Tb). Notice the figura-
tive use of BLipa6aniBaTL in: er6 APY)K6a c fopLKHM Bhipa6oraAa
ua Hero npeKpacHoro nucareAJI his friendship with Gor' ky made a
splendid writer of him.
To make meaning to cook is roroBHTL or npnrOTOBAHTL (npnro-
TOBIITL): KTO roroBnT aaarpaK? who is making the breakfast? Of
liquids or liquid foods, however, BapHTL (caapihL) is used:
aapwTL Ko<Pe, cyn, to make coffee, soup. BapwTL may also be used
 SOME COMMON VERBS
as an alternative to roT6BnTL in the expression BapiiTL (roT6BnTL)
o6eA to make the dinner.
To make a speech is npmi3HOCHTh (npoH3HeCTii) petiL or BLICT)'-
miTL (BbrcrynnTL) c petiLIO. Notice also BLrcTyrraTL c npOTecToM
to make a protest.
Notice the expression: 113 Hee BbiHAeT xop6rnaJJ nuaHikTKa
she will make a good pianist.

378. Move. IloABimiTL (nOABIIHYTL) is followed by an object

in the accusative case when the meaning is to transfer from one
place to another: nOABHHLTe BTOT CT)'A, no.IKaAyJ':'rcTa move this chair,
please! If a movement in a definite direction is meant then ne-
peABIIraTb (nepeABI'myTL) is preferable: po.H..-.L HaAo nepeABJI-
HYTL n3 3TOii KOMHaTLI B coceAHIOIO the piano should be moved.from
this room into the next.
AHIIraTL (ABiiHYTL) is followed by an object in the instru-
mental case when the meaning is to stir, to make a movement with.
This construction is especially common with parts of the body:
OH ABHHYA Hor6ii he moved his leg. For the difference between
ABiiraTL Hory and ABiiraTL nor61'i see para. 55·
CABIIran (cABiiHYTL) may mean either to moufrom or to move
together. In the first meaning, it is often followed by the expres-
sion c MeCTa where English says simply move: BTOT CTOA TJJ.IKeA,
He CABitHernL c MeCTa this table is heavy,you'll never move it. Notice
the use of the reflexive verb in nonp6c He CABiiHyAcJJ c MecTa the
discussion made no headway. It is usually clear from the context
whether c~nuraTL (CABiiHYTL) means to move from or to move
together: CABHHLTe 3nt ABa cTo,-.a nocepeA{me Ko~mani move these
two tables together in the centre of the room. Notice CABman (CABII-
HYTL) 6p6Bn to knit the brows.
To move to anger, tears, laughter is usually best translated by
the verb Bbi3hmaTL (nbt3nan) followed by y and the genitive
case of the person concerned: U3MeHa Bbi3na-.a y Hero 6ernencTBo
the betraJ•al moved him to furious anger. An alternative expression
meaning to move to tears is Tp6raTL (TPOHYTL) Kor6-Hn6yAL AO
cAe3. Tp6ran (Tp6HYTL) may also mean simply to move: on 6LIA
rAy6oK6 TpOHYT aTL\OAHCMeHTa~m he was deeply moved by the
applause.
 THE VERB
To move ojJ, to draw out of a train is TporancH (T.POHYTLCH):
noe3A T.POHYACH the train started.
To move house is normally translated by nepee3JKaTL (nepeexan):
Mhl nepeexaAH Ha HoByro KBapnl:py we have moved into a new
flat.
To move in good sociery is Bpal!!hLcH B xop6rneM 66!!!eCTBe.
XoAiiTL/HATH (noi1TI1) are used of chessmen, followed by the
instrumental of the piece moved: OH no meA rrernKoii he moved
his pawn.

379· Pay. lliaTHTh (3aiJAaTHTL) is followed by the dative of

the person paid and aa and the accusative of the object paid for:
MLI 3aii.I\aTHAH MHCHHKY 3a MHco we have paid the butcher for the
meat. Notice II.I\aTHTL (3aii.I\aTI1n) no cqery to settle the account.
The verb oii.I\a'IHBaTL (OII.I\aTHTL) may be used transitively
meaning to pay for. Being a transitive verb, it is often very useful
in passive constructions: xoporno oii.I\atiHBaeMaH pa66Ta well-
paid work; OTKpiiTKa c onAatieHHLIM OTBCTOM a reply-paid postcard.
Notice also MLI OII.I\aTII.I\H y6b!TKH we made good the losses; KTO
oii.I\aTHT pacxOALI? who will meet the expenses?
OTII.I\atiHBaTL (OTII.I\aTHTL) means to pay back and is often used
figuratively with an instrumental complement: eMy oTII.I\aTH.I\H
TOM JKe MOHCTOH he was paid in his own coin; HYJKHO OTII.I\aTHTL
A06p6M 3a 3.1\0 one must return good for evil.
Bhlii.I\atJHBaTL (Birii.I\aTHTL) means to pay off debts. Notice also
Bhlii.I\atJHBaTL (BLmAaTHTL) B paccpotiKY to pay by instalments. To
pay off (to dismiss) workmen is pacctiHTLIBaTL (pacctJHThL) pa66-
'IHX. Notice also H HaKoHey pacctiHTMCH c HHM I have at last got
even with him.
YII.I\atJHBaTL (ynAaTHTL) may be used as a synonym of II.I\a-
THTL (3aii.I\aTiiTL) in the expression yii.I\atiHBaTL (YII.I\aTiiTL) no
c'leTy to settle the account; and as a synonym of Bhiii.I\atiHBaTL
(BLIII.I\aTHTL) in the expression yrrAatiHBaTL (YII.I\aTHTL) AOAr to
pay (discharge) a debt .
.Pacii.I\atiHBaTLCH (pacii.I\aTHTLCH) means to pay off, to settle up
with, and is followed by c and the instrumental of the person
paid. Like pacctiiiTLmaTLCH (pacctiHT<iTLcH) it is widely used in
the figurative meaning of to get even with, to be quits with.
 SOME COMMON VERBS 227

To pay meaning to be profitable is translated by OK)'IIiTbC.ll (oKy-

miTLca): npeCT)'IIACHHe He OK)'IIaeTca crime doesn't pay.
To pay attention to 06paJ'!!aTL (o6pani:TL) annManne
Ha (+ace.)
To pay someone a compliment ,LI;eAaTL (c,~~;eAaT&) KoMy-nu6y,~~;&
KO!\JIIA.lll'.U!HT

sao. Permit. Tio3BOAHTb (n03BOA11Tb) KO:M)"-HH6y.z.tb C.z.tb.an.

'1To-Hu6y.z.tb means to permit (to allow) someone to do something.
This verb has wider meanings than simply to give permission:
3,lt0p0Bbe He ll03BOAIL'\O eMy exaTL his health did not permit him to
go; HaCKOAbKO no3BOAHIDT o6cToheAbCTBa as far as circumstances
permit.
.Pa3pewaTL (pa3pew:Hn.) is more official in tone, to authorize, to
permit: He pa3pe11uhu nocTaHoBKll nheCbi the performance ofthe play
was not authorized; KypiiTL pa3pewaeTC.ll smoking permitted. Ao3-
BOAHTb (.z.to3BOAHTb) is also an official word: .z.t03BOAeHo yeH3ypoll
authorized by the censorship.
AonycKaTL (.ztonycniTL) means to admit, followed by .z.to and
the genitive, or K and the dative: MeHll He .z.tonycKa'\u .z.to BK3aMe-
HOB I was not admitted to the examinations. This verb may also mean
to tolerate: :thoro HeA&3li .z.tonycKaTL that cannot be tolerated.
381. Pull, Drag. AepraTL (.ztepH)'Tb) means to pull, to tug: on
.z.tepnyA ao.liOKu he tugged the reins; on AepnyA Menll 3a pyKaa he
tugged me by the sleeve. To pull a tooth is Bbipbman (abxpaaTb) 3y6.
TanyTh (noTmyT&) means to draw, to haul: on nmyA pe6enKa
3a p)'KaB K ABeplh.i he was drawing the child by the sleer:e to the door
(contrast oH .z.tcpnyA Menll 3a p)'KaB above). Tan)'T& (nonmyT&)
Ha 6)'KCiipe means to have in tow. Notice the impersonal con-
struction er6 THHeT AOMOii he is homesick.
TacKaTL (indeterminate verb of motion), and the determinate
form TaJ!!HTb (noTaJ!!IlTb) may mean to carry: KyAa Bbi TaJ!!t!Te
3nl Kmim? where are )'OU ca"J'ing these books?, but most often
means to drag, to lug along: AOllia.z.tn c TPYAOM Taij!HAH cann: the
horses had difficulty in dragging the sleigh; OH noTai,QIIA ae.z.tp6 c ao.z.t6H:
OT KOAO,ztya K ,ztOMY he lugged the bucket of water from the well to the
house. Notice on b.e TclJ!!HTC.ll he can hardly drag himself along.
BoAO'IIJTL means to drag along the ground, to trail, to draggle:
 THE VERB
BO.I\OTJUTI. MelllOK c KapT6<f>e.l\eM to drag a sack of potatoes. The re-
flexive form is used intransitively: AAUHHoe rr.l\ane y Hee no.l\o-
TJU.I\oc:& rr6 IIO.I\Y her long dress trailed along the .floor. Notice OH e.l\e
BO.I\OTJHT Hom he can hardly put one foot in front of the other.
To pull oneself together :Span. (n3liTL) ce6.H B pyKH
To pull down a building CHocnTL (cHecTn) 3AaHHe
382. Put, Place. IU.acn (no.I\O)KUTJ>) is used meaning to put
(to lay) in contexts where Ae)KaTJ> translates to be (to lie) (see
para. 361 (ii)) : IIO.I\O)KUTe IIHCJ>MO Ha CTO.I\ put the letter on the
table; IIOJ\O)KU.I\H 6o.I\:&H6ro B 6o.I\J>Huyy they put the sick man in
hospital (cf. 6oA:&H6ii .1\e)KUT B 6oA:&Huye). Notice also yK.I\aAJ>I-
Ban (yAO)KUT:&) B rrocTe.I\J> to put to bed.
KAaCT:& (noAO)KUT:&) is also used of putting articles into
drawers, suitcases: no.I\O)KUTe Mou py6amKH B HJ!!HK put my shirts
in the drawer. Also of adding flavourings to food or drink: He
K.l\a,li.UTe MHe caxapy BTJaii do not put any sugar in 11!)' tea. But notice,
when the substance added is a liquid: HaAeiiTe MHe MO.I\OKa B
TJaii, no*i.l\yiicTa put some milk in my tea, please.
KAacTJ> (rro.I\O)KUTJ>) is also used when the object is not placed
in any special position, upright or horizontal: rrO.I\O)KJhe .n.eH:&rH
B KapMaH put the money in your pocket.
Notice K.l\acn (rro.I\O)KUTJ>) KOHey TieMY-HH6y.n.~> to put ar. end
to something.
CTanHT:& (nocTanHT:&) is used to translate to put in contexts
where CTOHTI. translates to be (to stand) (see para. 361 (i)):
nocTan:&Te yneT:bi Bn6.n.y put theflowers in water; nocTan:&Te cTaKaHJ>I
Ha IIO,li.HOC put the glasses on the tray. Notice that like K.l\aCTJ> (rroAo-
)KUTL), this verb is almost always followed by the accusative of
motion although English often says to put in (not into). But con-
trast CT<iBHTb (IIOCTaBHTI>) CJ\OBO B BHHUTe.I\J>HOM IIa,ll.e)Ke to put
a word in the accusative case.
CTiBHTJ> (noCTciBHn) may translate to put in a wider range
of meaning than K.l\acn (no.I\O)KUTJ>):
To put on a play CTanHrL rrLecy
To put to the vote CranHTL Ha roAoconaHHe
To put up a record CranHTL peK6p.n.
To put in a telephone CrannTL reAe<Jl6H
 SOME COMMON VERBS 229

IloMe.IJ!aTL (noMecnh~>) translates to place an order or an

insertion in a newspaper: MM noMecnf.MI aaK<b y aarpaHiiqHoii
pH:pMLI we placed an order with a foreign firm; noMeCTHTe o6o.IIBAe-
HIIe B raaeTy put an advertisement in the newspaper.
Ca)KaTL (noca,ZJ;{ITL) has various special meanings:
To put in plants CaJKaTL pacTeHIIH
To put in prison CaJKaTL B TropLMj
To place under arrest CaJK<iTL no A a pecT

Compare CIIAeTL B nop~>Me to be in prison, CHAeTL no.z.t apecToM

to be under arrest: ca*:hL (motion) corresponds to cn,z.teTL (loca-
tion) as K/\aCTL to Ae*aTL and CTaBIITL to CTOHTL.
,ll,esaTL (.z.ten) means to put in the sense of to do with. It is
mainly used with the adverbs Ky,z.ta, HeKy,z.ta, ry,z.ta: Ky,z.ta a .z.teA
ry KHiiry where have I put that book?; Ky,z.ta 1-rne ,z.teTb 3m .z.teHI>rn?
what shall I do with this money?
Among the numerous expressions involving the verb to put in
English the following may be of particular use to the student
of Russian:
To put a question 3aAaBiTL (3aAaTL) Bonp6c
To put aside OTKAaAbiBaTb (oTAOJKHTL) B cT6-
poHy
To put forward a suggestion BLIABnraTL (BLIABI-IHYTL) npeAAo-
JKeHne
To put off (postpone) 0TKAaALlBa TL ( OTAOJKifTL)
To put on (clothes) HaAeBaTL (naAeTL)
To put the blame on BoaAar<iTL (B03AOJKJiTL) BnHy ua
(+ace.)
To put to flight 06paTifTL B 6erCTBO
To put to the test TioAsepraTL (noABepmyTL) nc-
nMTamrro
To put up the price TIOAHI!MaTL (noAHHTL) ueuy

383. Run. For 6eraTL, 6e*aTL (no6e*an), see para. 315. As

well as the physical action of running, 6e)l«iTL may mean to
escape, to take .flight (in this meaning 6e*aTL serves as both imper-
fective and perfective form): COJI.AaTM 6e.JK<iJI.n the soldiers took to
flight; on 6e*i," na TIOpbMbi he escaped from prison. Synonymous
with 6ciKaTL in this meaning is y6eraTL (y6e*aTL).
 THE VERB
l'b6eniTb (H36e)KaTb) may mean either to avoid (to escape) or
to shun: oH n36eraeT Bcex cTapLIX ,z~;py3eii: he shuns all his oldfriends;
KaK oH H36e)KaA HaKa3aHHH? how did he escape punishment? Notice
that this verb is followed by the genitive case.
CnacaTLCH (cnacnkt.) means to take refuge from (cf. French se
sauver) : MLI cnacAHCL oT ,ll;O)K,ll;H B aM6ape we took refuge from the
rain in a barn. Notice OH e,D;Ba cnaccH he had a narrow escape.
To run of a road is THH)'TLCH: ,z~;op6ra THHeTcH B,ll;OAL peK:H the
road runs along the river. To wind is H3BHBaTLCH: TponHHKa H3BH-
BaeTCH B ropy the path Winds up the hill.
CTpy-HTbCH means to run in streams: noT cTpy-HACH no er6 JMeKaM
perspiration mn in streams down his cheeks; ,ll;O)K,ll;L CTpy-HAcH no
CTeKAaM rain was streaming down the window-panes. Notice also
AHTbCH: BHHO AHAOCL peK6ii: wine ran like water.
Notice:
Our tea has run out Y Hac B:buueA qaii
The play ran for two years I1Lcca wAa ,li,Ba r6,~~;a
The novel ran into jive editions PoMaH B:br,11,ep*a" nHTb M3,1J;aHMii
Who runs the business? KTo Be,ll,eT ,z~;b..o?
I ran across him in the street R HaTOAKHYACH Ha Hero Ha yAnQe
To run into debt BAe3aTb (BAe3TL) a ,li,OAnr
Time is running out BpeMH MCTeKaeT
To run over (knock down) 3a,~~;aBHTb

384. Shine. BAeCTeTL (semelfactive 6AecHpt.) means to glitter

when the glitter is steady and sustained: He Bce TO 30AOTO, 'ITO
6Aecnh all that glitters is not gold; or to sparkle (of eyes, the lights
of a town). This verb may be used metaphorically and in such
contexts its present-tense form in -IQelllL, -JMeT, is the more
usual: oH 6AeJMeT ocTpo}'MHeM he is brilliantly witry. The semel-
factive verb may mean to flash: 6AecHyAa MOAHmr the lightning
flashed; used metaphorically, it refers to a single occasion: B
cBoeii pbm oH 6AecHyA KpaCHopet~HeM his speech was brilliantly
eloquent. It may have a pejorative meaning to show off: OH Aro6uT
6AecHph oCTpo~meM he likes to show o.lf his wit.
Notice the expressions: y Hero 6AecHyAa MLICAL an ideaflashed
across his mind. The present participle active of 6AecnhL trans-
lates the English adjective brilliant: 6AeCTHJMHH ycnex a brilliant
success.
 SOME COMMON VERBS
EAncniTL is used, almost exclusively, with metaphorical
meaning: 6AtiCTaTL MOAo~ocTLIO, KpacoToii to be radiant with
youth, beauty. It may be used as a synonym of 6Aecn!TL in the
meaning of to he brilliant, to stand out. Notice on 6AuCTaA CBmiM
oTc}'TcrnneM he was conspicuous by his absence.
CBeniTL and the reflexive form cBeniTLCH both mean to shine
steadily of a light-giving body (sun, moon, stars). CBeTHTLCH is
also used metaphorically of emotions expressed in the eyes:
rAaaa y nee CBeTHAHCL oT pa~ocTn her eyes shone with joy.
CBepKaTL (semelfactive cBepKH}'TL) means to glitter when the
glitter is intermittent (cf. 6AecTeTL above): 6pHAAnanTLI cBep-
Kihu the diamonds were glittering; to flash: Metl CBepKih B erO pyKe
the swordflashed in his hand; to sparkle (of water in the sunlight),
to twinkle (of bright stars). The semelfactive verb may be used,
like 6Aeci-ryTL, of lightning; cBepKHYAa MOAHliH the lightning
flashed. Notice also on cBepKHjA rAaaaM11 his eyes flashed fire.
CH.IiTL means to shine brightly (sun, moon, stars); notice the
verbal noun in coAHe'Inoe Cl1HHHe the sun's radiance. This verb
may also be used metaphorically: on CHAA OT pa~oCTli he was
beaming with delight.

385. Sit. Cu~eTL mean ;to be sitting (na cTyAe on the chair).
Ca~HTLCH (cecTL) means to sit down (na cryA on the chair; notice
the accusative of movement). CH~eTL is also used of clothes:
:ho naALTO nAoxo cn~1h Ha HeM that coat sits badly on him. Notice
the use of the impersonal reflexive verb cn~eTLCH in the follow-
ing expressions: e}.fj He cn~1iTCH Ha Mecre he can't sit still in one
place; nM He Cl1~HTCH ~6Ma they hate staying at home.
IIpuca)KUBaTLCH (npucecn) means to sit down for a moment:
oH noqjBcrnoBaA ycrihocTL n npnceA na Kpali cryAa he felt tired
and sat down for a moment on the edge of the chair. IIpHcecTL is also
the perfective form of npnce~arL which may mean either to
curtsy or (followed by na KOpTotiKn) to squat.
Y c~1maTLCH (ycecrLcH) means to sit down to, to settle down to:
oH ycbcH nHcaTL nHCLMa he settled down to write letters.
IIpocH)KnBaTL (npocH~en) means to sit for a length of time: MLI
npOCH~eAH ye.:,.yro HOlJL y nOCTeAH 60ALHOrO OTQa we sat up all
night with our sick father. Notice also the transitive meaning to
 THE VERB
wear out the seat: .K npoCH,ll;C.II. 6pK>Im I've worn the seat out of my
trousers.
BI>ICM.lKHBaTb (BbiCH,lJ;eTb) to sit through: MDI c TPYAOM BbiCH,ll;e.II.H
AO KOHQa KOHyepTa we had difficulty in sitting through the concert.
Notice the transitive meaning in Bl>ICM.lKnBaTb QI>InMh to hatch
out chicks.
To sit an examination is C,ll;aBaTb 3K3aMeH. The perfective c,lJ;aTb
means to pass (an examination). To pass an examination may also
be BLI,ll;ep.lKaTb 3K3aMeH.
ITpmiO,ll;HHMaTI>C.K (nponOAHHTbcx) B noCTe.ll.n translates to sit
up in bed.
386. Stand. CTOHTb means to be standing (B yr.ll."y in the corner).
Also to stand still:
Time does not stand still BpeMH He cTmh
The clock has stopped l.JacLI CTO.HT

To stand as a transitive verb meaning to place in an upright position

is cTaBnTI> (noCTaBnTb) (see para. 382).
CTaHOBMTI>C.K (CTaTb) means to place oneself in a standing posi-
tion: OH CTa.ll. Ha QblllOlJKII he stood on tiptoe: HaM npHIII.II.OCb CTaTL
B oqepeAL we had to stand in a queue (cf. the accusative here with
the prepositional after CTOHTb). Notice CTaTb Ha fiKopi> to rome to
anchor and compare CTOHTb Ha fiKope to be standing at anchor; also
CTaTL Ha KO.II.CHII to kneel down and CTOHTb Ha KO.II.CHHX to be kneel-
ing down. Sometimes the past tense of CTaTb with resultative
meaning, may be used as a synonym of the present tense of
CTOHTb:
The clock has stopped l.JaCbl CTaAH
Work is held up Pa66Ta cTaAa

BcTaBaTb (BcniTb) means to stand up, also to get up (i.e. to get

out of bed), often followed by c nocTe.ll.n. Notice also OH BCTa.ll.
H3-3a cTo.ll.a he got up from table. This verb may also mean to take
up a position somewhere, without necessarily meaning to stand up:
oH BCTa.ll. Ha 6pe3eHT he stood on the tarpaulin. Notice also the meta-
phorical use of the verb in OH HaKoHey BCTa.ll. Ha nyTb MCTHHHLrn
he at last began to follow his true path in life.
BcTaBaTb (BcTaTb) may also mean to rise of mountains,
 SOME COMMON VERBS 233
obstacles, problems: nepe.zt HaMH BCTclAH AeCIIcTbie rOpbl wooded
mountains rose before us; scT<iA sonp6c the question arose.
To stand meaning to endure may be translated by Bbi.ztep-'KH-
saTb (Bhi,ltep-'KaTb) or BbiHOCHTb (BbiHeCTII): ropo-'KaHe Bhi,ltep-
-'KaAH .zt6Aryro oc;i.zty .zto Toro, KaK c.zt<l.Tbc11 the townsfolk stood a
long siege before surrendering. Notice :hoT .ztOM Bhi.ztep-'KaA nposepKy
speMeHeM this house has stood the test of time; Kopa6Ab Bhi.ztep-'KaA
6yp10 the ship weathered the storm. BbiHOCHTb (BhiHecm) means
rather to endure in the sense of to bear or to tolerate: OH nAoxo
BbiHOCHT -'Kapy he does not stand the heat well; 11 He BbiHoruy Ange-
Mepos I cannot stand hypocrites. The verb TepneTb may also be
used to translate to stand in this sense.
To stand of a situation is o6cTom: KaK o6cTo.RT .zteAa Tenepb?
how do matters stand now?
Notice:
Not a stone was left standing Ka?<lHJI Ha KaMHe He ocT<iAocb
It stands to reason ( CaM6 co66ii) pa3}'MeeTcH
To stand out against the back- BbJAeNITbCJI Ha <P6ne
ground
To stand up for one's rights OTcra1maTb csoli npasa

387. Stop. 0cTamiBAnsaTbC11 (ocTaHOBihbcH) means to stop of

something in motion, to halt, to pull up: Marnima ocTaHOBIIAaCb
the car pulled up. Notice the metaphorical OH He ocTanoBHAC11
nepe.zt y6IiiicrnoM he did not stop at murder. This verb has certain
special meanings: Mbl oCTaHoBii.\UCb B AYqllleii rocT{muge we
put up at the best hotel (cf. French descendre): ne HY-'KHO oCTanaBAII-
BaTbC11 Ha TPY.ztHOCTHX it is unnecessary to dwell on the difficulties.
The non-reflexive verb means to bring to a stop: .zte~tOHCTpagHx
ocTaHOBIIAa YAHqHoe .ztBniKenue the demonstration brought trqffic to
a halt. Notice oH ocTaHOBtiA B3r,U,zt Ha cryAe s yrAy his gaze came
to rest on the chair in the comer.
IIpHOCTaHaBAnBaTbC11 (npiiOCTaHOBHTbC11) means to pause: ona
npnocTaHosiiAaCb y oKHa Mara3itHa she paused for a moment at the
shop window; .ztC.\o npuocTaHOBHAOCb the matter is temporarily at a
standstill. (C •. the meaning of the prefix npii- in npnca-'KnBaTbc.a
(npncecTb).) The non-reflexive verb has a number of special
meanings:
234 THE VERB
The censor held up the performance :QeHaop npuocTaHoBiiA llhecy
of the play
It was impossible to check the HeAb3H 6h'l.l\o npuocTaHOBHTb
spread of the epidemic pacnpocrpaHeHue anu,zr;eMun
They granted a stay of execution 0HH npnOCTaHOBHl\11 CMepTH)'IO

OcramiTbcH (ocrancH) means to stop in the sense of to stay,

to remain; MI>I yiii.I\:H Ha MaT'!, a oH ocTaACH ,zr;oMa we went off to
the match, but he stayed at home; ocTaBaTbCH Ha HO'II> (y Koro-HH6y,zr;I>)
to stop the night (at someone' s house).
DpeKpai,gancH (npeKpan!ncH) means to stop, to cease, in the
sense of to break off, to come to a sudden or unexpected stop: HX ,zr;pyJK6a
TYT JKe npeKpaTH.hacb their friendship ended then and there. The non-
reflexive verb means to break off in npeKpar,gaTb (npeKpaT:Hn)
CHOIIH~HHH to break off relations; npeKpar,geHHe BOeHHbiX ,zr;eil:CTBHH
means cessation of hostilities.
DcpecTaBan (nepecTan) also means to cease but without the
sense of suddenness or unexpectedness of the verb above. Com-
pare AOJKAI> BAPYr npeKpaTHACH the rain suddenly stopped with
AOX<Ab nepecT<iA the rain stopped (i.e. petered out). DepecTaBaTb
(nepecTaTI,) is the verb most commonly used before an infinitive
although npeKpar,gan (npeKpaT:Hn) is possible: oH nepecTaA
roBop:Hn he stopped talking.
To stop in the sense of to prevent is translated by Meman (no-
MemaTb): 3TO He MelliMO MHe HATH that did not stop me going.

388. Think. 4"YMan o may mean to think about (French pe1zser

a) or to think of (French penser de): H '!aCTo ,zr;yMalO 0 BaC I often
think ofyou, 'ITO Bbi .zr;"YMaeTe o HeM? what do you think of him? A
special perfective form of this verb exists, no.zr;"YMan, meaning
to think for a while: no.zr;"YMail:Te xopomeHbKO think well! Notice
also the now frequently used impersonal .zr;"YMaeTCH which is an
alternative to KaJKeTCH in the sense of I think, it seems to me: MHC
,zr;yMaeTCH, eMy He Bhl3AOpoBeTb I do not think he will recover.
The perfective verb B3,zr;'YMan means to take it into one's head:
'ITO Bbi B3AYMaAH cKa3aTb ino? what made you say that? The re-
flexive verb is used impersonally with the same meaning: eM"Y
B3AyMaAOCb 6eJKan he took it into his head to run away.
 SOME COMMON VERBS 235
06.ztYM&maTL (o6.zt'9MaTL) means to turn over in one's mind, to
ponder, e.g. IIAaH, pexm!HHe a plan, a decision.
llpu.zty,.n.man (npu.zt~lan) means to devise, to think up (s:hlxo.zt
H3 TPY.ztHoro noAoJKeHir.ll a way out of a difficult situation). Compare
BLI.ztjMLmaTL (shl.ztyMaTL) to think up in the sense of to invent, to
make up: OH AIDOHT BLI.zty:-.u,maTL pi3mxe cMelllHbie H He 611eHL
npas.ztono.ztOOHLie HCTOpHn he likes making up various amusing and
not very plausible stories.
MbiCAHTL means to think referring to the process of abstract
thought: .11 JKHTL xoqj, n66 MMCAJtTL u cTpa.ztaTL (Pushkin) I
wish to live in order to think and suffer. Pa3MLIIIIAkn. (pa3MbiCAJiTL-
rarely used) o qe:-.I-HHOY.ztL means to reflect upon something (notice
the preposition).
Cooopa~~<an (coo6pa3nTL) means to consider, to weigh up: .11
.zt6Aro coo6pa1KiA, exaTL Ali MHe JIAll HeT I considered for a long
time whether I should go or not. Notice no ceMei1mu.I cooopa~~<eHiiJIM
for family reasons (considerations). The perfective form of this verb
often means to grasp: oH cpi3y coo6pa31IA, B 11eM .ztbo he grasped
the point at once.
G'luTan (cqecTL) to consider may be followed either by the
instrumental case or by 3a and the accusative case: .11 He c'lnTaiO
er6 ~DDt "'leAoseKoM (3a ~oro "'leAOBeKa) I do not consider him
a clever man.
389. Try. In order of forcefulness, np66osan (nonp66osaTL)
and nLrrancH (nonLrraTLcn) suggest trying something out, having
a shot at, attempting something (cf. Latin tentare), often without
much hope of success and often followed by a clause introduced
by but; cTapiTLC.II suggests trying hard, endeavouring (cf. Latin
conari), and CTpeM{ITLC1I-striving earnestly.
390. Turn, Spin. BepTeTL means to spin when followed by the
accusative case: sepTeTL KOAec6 to spin a wheel. Followed by the
instrumental case to whirl, to twist: OH meA, sepT.Il TpocTLIO he
walked along, twirling his cane. Notice also: OHa sepTIIT HM, KaK
x6"'1eT she twists him round her little finger.
BpaiJ.!iTL means to revoh•e (transitive), to rotate: spar,!.!iTL KO-
Aec6 to rotate a wheel. The reflexive forms of both sepTeTL
and spaf!!iTL translate the English intransitive verbs: BOA"'IOK
236 THE VERB
BepTHTC.li the top is spinning; aeMAX Bpa!J!aeTC.li BOKpyr CBOefi OCJI
the earth rotates on its own axis.
Notice the figurative meanings of these verbs: paaroBop Bep-
Te.I\CH BoKpyr BOHHLI the conversation turned on the war; oH AeCHTb
AeT Bpa!J!iACH B 66rlJeCTBe npecTynHHKOB for ten years he moved
among criminals.
IIoBopaqrmaTb (rroBepHyTb), alternative imperfective form
rroBepTbmaTb, may mean to turn either transitively or intransi-
tively: oH noBepHyA KpaH- KAIOq B aaMKe he turned the tap-the
key in the lock; OH noBepHyA HanpiBo- aa yroA he turned right-
the corner. The reflexive verb may translate the English intran-
sitive verb in the sense of to turn oneself bodily: OH rroBepHyAcn
.1\HQOM KO MHe he turned to face me, but not in the sense of changing
direction in motion (this must be translated by the non-reflexive
form as above).
To turn inside out is BhmopaqnBaTb (BL'mopoTuTb) HanaHaHKy;
to turn upside down is nepeBopaliHBaTb (rrepeBepHYTb) BBepx AHOM.
IIepeBopa'tluBaTh (rrepeBepHyTb) also means to turn over in the
sense of to upset, as does orrpoKMAhmaTb (onpoKfmyTb). The
reflexive forms of these two verbs translate the English intransi-
tive verb to turn over. To turn up ( = to present itself) is rroABepTbr-
BaThCH (noABePHYnCH): TIO_l\BepHy.I\C.li C.l\~afi noexaTb B Poccnro
the chance to go to Russia turned up.
To turn on-the light, the engine is BKAIO'tJ:aTb (BKAroqnTb) cBeT -
MOTop; to turn off is BbJK.I\IOqaTb (BhiKAroqnTh). To turn on the tap
is oTKphmaTb (OTKPLITb) KpaH (cf. rroBepHyTb KpaH above, simply
to turn the tap). To turn off the tap is aaKpbrBaTb (aaKpLITb) KpaH.
To turn out may be oKaahmaThCH (oKaaaThCH): oKaaaAOCh, qTo
Mhi Yl:J:HAHCb B Tofi JKe nncoAe it turned out that we went to the same
school; or BhiXOAHTh (BbiHTH): TaKM:e _l\eTH qaCTO BhiXOAHT npe-
CTYTIHHKaMH such children often turn out criminals; or BhiAaBaThCH
(BLIAaThcn): rrocAe AOIK,ll;AHBoro yTpa, AeHb BLIAaAcH xopomnM
after a wet morning, it turned out a fine day.
Notice:
To tum a blind trye to something 3aKpLIBiTh (aaKpbiTb) rAaaa Ha
'ITO-Hll6y,llo
To tum down a proposal 0TBepraTD (oTBcprnyTD) npeA-
.1\0.lKeHne
 SOME COMMON VERBS 237
He is turned forfv E11cy 3a c6poK
To tum someone' s head BcKpyJKiiTL KoMy-Hu6y,zr.L r6Aosy

391. Use. There is a considerable overlap between the verb

n6AL3oBaTLOI (socno,\L30BaTLCH) + instrumental, and the tran-
sitive verbs ucn6AL30BaTL (both aspects), npuMeHHTL (npu-
MeHiiTL) and ynoTpe6,\HTL (ynoTpe6J'iTL). But nOAL30BaTLCH
frequently corresponds to enjD;_y (respect, aulhorit;•, reputation), take
advantage of (opportunity), use for one's own needs, and use a thingfor
tlze purpose for which it was intended. Hcn6AL30BaTL often has the
sense of make (good or bad) use of, use a thing for a purpose other than
for which it was intended, as well as use up. Compare: cry,li.CHTLI
qacTo n6AL3YIOTCH cAosapel\I students often use a dictionary and omi
HCIIO,\L30BaAH TH.lKC.\Lrli TOM aKa,ll.eMH'ICCKoro CAosapli KaK npecc
thC)• used a heavy volume of the A.cademJ• dictionary as a press; again oH
n6AL3yeTCH ,li.OBepneM KoAAer he enjoys the confidence of his colleagues
and OH I-!CIIOAL30BaA ,li.OBepne TOBapnJ!!eH B CBOHX liHTepecax he
used (exploited) the confidence of his friends in his own interests.
I1pHMeHliTL means basically to apply, to put into practice or opera-
tion, to employ: Ha 3TOM 3aB6Ae snepsble npnMeHIIAH HOBLI'H
crr6co6 AHTLH a new method of casting was first used at this factory.
YnoTpe6,\HTL can be used, theoretically, in almost all the
above meanings-i.e. there are cases where it can replace n6AL-
30BaTLcn, ucn6AL30BaTL, and npnMeHliTL, but linguistic usage
imposes certain limits in practice-especially as an alternative
to nO.\L30BaTLCH in the meanings of to enjD;_Y and to take adt•anlage
of-which can only be observed by careful reading.
392. Visit. IToceiJJaTL ( rroceniTL) is used of official visits by
delegations, politicians, diplomats, doctors, and other people
fulfilling their professional duties and obligations.
Notice the difference between rroceiJJaTL AeKyim to attmd lec-
tures (an official duty) and the informal 6LITL Ha AeKillllLX.
HaHOCIITh (HaHeCTii) BH3HT also has an official connotation,
but its usage is more restricted. It is common in a diplomatic
context. (B1131h, generally, is used of a courtesy call or a medical
visit.)
To visit a person in an unofficial capacity is HaBCJQaTL (Hase-
cniTL). Compare the use of noceJ!!aTL for a doctor visiting his
238 THE VERB
patients, with that of uaBelJ!aTb for a man visiting a sick friend.
A common alternative is simply 6LITb y (of a person) or 6biTb B
(of a place) : .11 6bl.i\ Bqepa y cBmix p6AcrneuunKOB I was visiting
my relations yesterday; Bbi 6biAR B KneBe Bo BpeM.H rroe3AKH? did
you visit Kiev during your trip?
I1o6bmaTL (perfective) means to visit either in the sense of to
do a lot of visiting, to visit many places (on rro6biB:iA Bo Bcex My3e.Hx
r6poAa he visited all the museums in the town), or to pay a call on-
3aXOAliTb (3aiiu{) KyAa-Im6yAb, KKOM)'-un6yAb: BaM CA~OBaAO
6bi rro6LIBaTL y Bpaqa, rrpoBepHTb cBoe 3Aop6Bhe you ought to pay
a visit to (call in and see) your doctor to check up on your health.
393· Walk. To take a walk is HATH (rroiiTn) ryAiiTb. Notice that
ryM1Tb may also mean simply to be out of doors, to take fresh air,
ryAllliTe 66Abiiie take more fresh air.
The reflexive verb rrporyAnBaTbC.ll (rrporyA.!hbc.H) may mean
to stroll about; OH IIOIIIeA rrporyAHTbC.ll IIO rrapKy he wentfor a stroll
in the park. The non-reflexive verb rrporjAHBaTb (rrporyA.!hb) may
mean to absent oneselffrom work, to play truant: MexaunK rrporjAH-
BaA y)Ke qernepTLiii AeHb the mechanic had not been at work for three
days.
The verb rrporjA»BaTb (without perfective form) means to
take for a walk: H cer6AHH yTpoM rrporyAwBaA ACTeii I took the chil-
dren for a walk this morning.
394· Work. Pa66TaTb and TPYAHTbC.ll are largely synonymous;
both may refer to mental and/or physical work: pa66TaTb (Tpy-
AHTbC.H) naA KHnroii to be working on a book. TpyAihbcH, however,
may be used stylistically to translate toil: MY)KHK, TPYAHCb, ne
AjMaeT, qm CHAM naAopBeT (Nekrasov) the peasant, as he toils,
does not think that he will overtax his strength. Pa66TaTL only may
mean to work of a machine, instrument, etc.: TeAeq>6n ne pa66-
TaeT the telephone is not working.
3anmlclTbC.ll may also mean to work especially with reference
to mental or artistic work: 3aHRMclTbC.ll MeAnunuoii to practise
medicine; cryAeHTbi ycepAHO 3annMaiOTC.H the students are working
hard.
06pa6aTLmaTL (o6pa66TaTL) means to work up, to develop, to
treat: on TPH neAeAn o6pa6<1,TLmaA cTaTbro he took three weeks to
 SOME COMMON VERBS 239
work up the article. Notice also o6pa6anman (o6pa6<han) CTJL\.b
to perfect one's style. This verb may also mean to work (the soil-
3eMAto), to process (material-MaTepmi;\).
Ilpopa6anman (npopa66Tan) means to work at, to study
thoroughly: npopa6anman Bonp6c to work at a problem. Tipopa66-
TaTL (no imperfective) means to spend the time working: on npo-
pa66Ta.;\ TaM ABa r6Aa he spent two years working there.
0Tpa6anman (oTpa66Tan) cBoi1 npoe3A means to work one's
passf1.ge.
Pa3pa6anman (pa3pa66Tan) PYAHiiK means to work a mine.
The perfective verb may mean to work out: PYAHHK pa3pa66Tan
the mine is worked out. Notice also pa3pa6anman IIAaHLI- Te6-
ptiiO to work out (draw up) plans-a theory. To work out ( = to
solve) a problem is pewan (pew11n) 3Ma'ly.
COTpyAnuqan c KeM-nn6yAb naA 'leM-nu6yAb means to colla-
borate with someone on something: COTPYAHH'laTL B )KypnaAe to
contribute to a magazine.
To work a miracle is rnoptin (cornopiin) '~YAO: ou cornoptiA
'~YAeca he worked wo11ders.
IV ·The Adverb; The Conjunction
THE FORMATION OF ADVERBS

Adverbs formed from adjectives and participles

395· The most numerous of Russian adverbs are those which
coincide in form with the short neuter adjective:
E6iiKo Smartly 113./\Hnme Excessively
He.muo Tenderly HeyKA!O.me Awkwardly
A6BKO Skilfully HcKpeuue (or Sincerely
ilcKpenno)
Note that the adverbs Kpatine (extremely) and cpe,z.tne (moderately)
have no corresponding adjectival neuter short forms.

396. Russian adverbs are also formed from past participles

passive and present participles active. These adverbs often
correspond to English adverbs in -edly and -ingly respectively:
BaBoAn6Bauuo Excitedly
Heaac./\ymenno Undeservedly
Heo.miiAanuo Unexpectedly
Yrpo.m<lioiQe Threateningly
TipeAOCTepeniJOIQC Warningly
0Ao6pHIOIQe Approvingly

397. Also numerous are the Russian adverbs in -u'IeCKII, -CKII,

and -QKH, formed from adjectives in -uqecKIIti, -CKIIti, and
-uKml:
AorilqecKn Logically
,LI,ypaQKn Foolishly
,LI,py.mecKu Amicably
It will be observed that the adverbs in -n'IeCKH, like the adjec-
tives from which they are formed, have predominantly qualita-
tive meaning: puTMH'IeCKH rhythmically (i.e. with the quality of
rhythm). The adverbs in -CKII and -QKH, on the other hand, like
 THE FORMATION OF ADVERBS
their corresponding adjectives, refer predominantly to persons:
6pfncKHjraternally (i.e.like a brother). This sense of comparison
may be strengthened in Russian by the addition of the prefix;
no-:
Like a boy, as a boy would do Tio-MaAb'IHwecKu
Like a fisherman, as a fisherman Tio-pbi6ayKH
would do
The choice of the form with or without no- will, most often, be
determined by stylistic rather than semantic factors, since there
is almost no difference in meaning, in Russian as in English,
between, e.g. AypaJJ.KHjoolishly and no-AypaJJ.KU like a fool. One
form or the other, in both languages, may seem preferable
according to the context.
398. Adverbs in -CKH, formed from adjectives of nationality,
are combined with the prefix no-, to mean in Russian (no-
pyccKu), in English (no-aHrAIIikKn), etc.:
He spoke in French On roBOpliA no-cf>panuyacKn
Notice that in Latin is no-.'l.aTI:nm. These adverbs may also mean
in the Russian (etc.) st)'le:
Sturgeon ti Ia russe OceTpiiHa no-pyccKn
Turkish coffee Kocf>e no-TypeyKn

399· Adverbs arc also formed witl1 the prefix no- (forming one
unhyphenated word) from adjectives denoting time, number,
or sequence-English b)':
iloAenno By the day iloo11epeAno By turns
iloMeCli'IHO By the month TiocMenno By shifts
He is paid monthly EMy nAaTJIT noMeCJI'IHO
400.Adverbs, with special meanings, are formed from various
(now otherwise defunct) case-forms of the short adjectives,
combined in a single word, with prepositions:
3a meaning while yet (short accusative form)
3:heMHo Before da)'break (i.e. while yet dark)
3acaeTAo Before dark (i.e. while yet light)
3aiKimo Alive (i.e. while yet alive)
Buried alive ilorpe6eHHbiH 3aiKUBO
 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
Notice also the adverbs 3aMeprno and 3anpocTo:
He fell as if dead OH ymiA aaMepTao
She dropped in on us unannounced 0Ha aalW\a K HaM aanpocTo
,LJ;o (short genitive form):
These adverbs in Russian often correspond to a simple Eng-
lish adjective, used adverbially, in such expressions as:
To wipe dry BbimpaTL (ah'ITepeTL) A6cyxa
To rub the skin red HaTHpaTL (HaTepeTL) KO.lKY AO-
xpacHa
To strip naked PaMeBaTL (paaAeTL) A<koAa
Red (white) hot ,46KpacHa (A66eAa) pacKaAeH-
HLiii

Note also
To eat one's fill HaeAaTLCll (HaecTLcH) AOCLITa
To clear one's plate 0Le,ll;aTL ( C'LCCTL) BCe ,ll;O'IHCTa

113 (short genitive form):

Useful are adverbs of colour which combine with adjectives
of colour to form such compound adjectives as:
I1:3JKeJ\Ta-KpaCHLie yaeThl reflowish-red flowers
I1:ccnH11-'lepHLie BOJ\OCLI Raven-black (i.e. blue-black) hair
I1:ccepa-roAy6a11 KpacKa Greyish-blue paint

Note also ixcKoca: cMoTpeTL (nocMoTpeTb) Ha Koro-Hn6yAL licKo-

ca to throw a side-long glance at somebody; and R3AaAeKa: ropoA
BM,ll;eH n3,ll;aJ\eKa the town is visible from a distance; Ha'mHaTL
(Ha'laTL) pa3roBop H3,ll;aJ\eKa to broach a subject cautiously.
C (short genitive form):
Many of these adverbs describe the reason or motive for an
action:
To act in a fit of passion (in the
heat of the moment)
To collide with the wall through HaTMKHBaTLCll (HaTOAKHYTLCH)
short-sightedne~·s Ha cTeHy cocAena
To lose one's way when drunk 3a6AyAMTLCll CllLliHa (no imper-
fective in this sense)
 THE FORMATION OF ADVERBS
To fall into a trap unawares IIonaAciTL (nomkTL) n 3anaAHIO
~
cnpocra
To act with a hidden design (dis- ,LI;eiicTBoBaTL necnpocTa
ingenuously)
The adverb cAema may translate slightly:
Slightly reddish hair C.11.erKa pLDKenaTLie s6.11.ocLI
With a slight smile C.11.erKa pLI6aHcL

or lightly:
To touch lightly upon a subject CAerKa KacciTLCH (Kocu-yn,cH)
TeMLI

ITo (short dative form):

To divide equally .Pa3AeAHTL (pa3AeAlfTL) n6posuy

401. (i) Russian adverbs may also be formed from a combina-

tion of prepositions and the case-forms of the long adjective.
The commonest of these are made up of no- and the form of the
dative singular masculine and translate the English in (such and
such) a way:
IIo-n6sollry In a new way
IIo-npeiKneMy As before
IIo-pa3noMy Differently
IIo-3IiMHeMy In the wiuter style
I1o-Apyr6My (no-nn6111y) Differently
To tum over a new leaf Ha•IHnaTL (uaqflTL) iKHTL no-
HOBOMY
Dressed in one's winter things 0AeTLn1 ll0·3IfMHe!'.l)'
Matters were turning out rather HecKOJ\LKO no-UHOliiY CKAaALI-
dijferently for the Germans BaJ\UCL AeAa C HeMgaMII
Everyone would give a different KaiKALIU OTBeqa)\ no-pa3IIOMY
answer
Ilo-paaHoMy and no-Apyr6M)' (no-JmoMy) are not interchange-
able; no-paaHOMY means each differently whereas no-Apyr6My
means literally otherwise, in a different way; compare the adjec-
tives paaHLn1: (p:bHoro p6Aa of different kinds) and Apyroii: (B
ApyroM ?.u!cre elsewhere).
(ii) These adverbs are often found in negative constructions
244 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION

comparisons:
.
which may translate idiomatically the English for in indirect
.
On a rainy morning, cold for sum- 4o~MHBbiM, He no-AeTHeMY xo-
mer ...
(iii) The dative singular of the 1st and 2nd person possessive
pronouns also combines with no- to form adverbs, no-MOeM)',
no-TBOeMy, no-millleMy, no-BallleMy (note the stress ofno-MoeM)',
no-TBoeMy). These adverbs have two meanings, firstly in my-our
-your opinion, secondly as !-we-you wish/think best:
In my opinion, that is not true Tio-M6eMy, {no ue rrpaBAa
I shall do as you wish R CAeAaiO no-BallleMy
Have it your own way EyAb (nycTb 6yAeT) no-BaweMy
Where appropriate, no-cBoeMy is used meaning as !-we-you
wish/ think best:
I shall do as I think best
IIo-CBOeMy may also mean in its own way:
Every unhappy family is unhappy Ka)K.ltall Hect~aCTAHBaH ceMbH
in its own way HeC'IaCT.I\HBa nO-CBOeMY
(L. N. Tolstoy)

402. Adverbs are also formed with no- and the nominative/ac-
cusative plural form of possessive adjectives in -Mil:: these adjec-
tives refer predominantly to animals: co6at~nii (a dog's . . . ),
BO.I\'IMH (a wolf's . .. ). The adverbs thus formed may be com-
pared with those in -cKn, which refer predominantly to persons
(para. 397). Adverbs in ·bM, however, may not be used without
no-:
He is as cunning as a fox OH n0-.1\liCbll AyKaB
When in Rome, do as the Romans C BO.I\Kcli\IH ~liTh, nO-BO.I\'IbH BblTb
do
A common adverb of this group which does not refer to an
animal is no-t~e.l\oBellhn, which is synonymous with no-lle.l\oBe-
-qecKn humanly, like a human being:
I see how superhumanly clever and BII)Ky, KaK6if 011 He no-1Ie.I\OBC1IbH
awesome he is yMHbiii 11 ~)TTKnf1 (Gor'ky)
 THE FORMATION OF ADVERBS 245
These adverbs will also be met in the dative singular form (no-
co6a:qhez.cy) but less commonly than in the form of the nomina-
tive plural.
403. Several useful adverbs are formed with the preposition B
and the feminine accusative form of the long adjective:
To scatter in all directions Ee*aTL spacchlllHyro
To deliver by hand ,z(ocTaBMTh (AOCTaBUTh) Bp)"'·
Hyro
To fight at close quarters (hand- EltTLCH Bp)'KonauiHyro
to-hand)
To play chess blindfold HrpaTb B waxMaTbl BCAenyro

Adverbs formed from nouns

404. Some adverbs are simply the instrumental singular forms
of nouns:
,zl;apoM Gratis Ph'! CLIO At a trot
PiAOM Side by side IIIaroM At a walk
33.1\noM At a gulp
Both pL!chiO and maroM, as nouns, may be combined with
adjectives:
To move at a smart trot HAnl (noKni) 66iiKofi pb!chlO
To walk at a leisurely pace 11Ani (nofrni) TlfXHM warOM
The adverb sometimes differs from the instrumental form
proper in stress:
Bepx instr. sepxoM but sepx6M On horseback
Eer , 6eroM , 6er6M At the double
Kpyr , KpyYOM , Kpyr6M Round about
An adverb Kp}ToM also exists but it is used in one expression
only:
(My) thoughts are in a whirl foAoBa (y MeHJi) HAeT KpyYoM
The noun corresponding to certain adverbs of this group no
longer exists:
YKpaAKoA Stealthily EocnK6M Bare-foot
iloA3KOM On allfours lleWKOM On foot
fycLKOM In Indian file dnpoMeTLlO Headlong
815034 I
 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
405. Certain adverbial expressions consist of a preposition and
the appropriate case-form of the noun:
~o neyanaBaeMocTH Beyond recognition
~0 HCB03MOJKHOCTH To the last degree
~0 66AH Painfully
Eea yAepa<y Unrestrainedly
Ha peAKOCTL Exceptionally
ITo oqepe,ll;H In tum
~o 6eayMnll To distraction
~0 HCBepOHTHOCTII Unbelievably
c AHWKOM Odd
B O,ll;HHOqKy Single-handed (alone)
He has changed beyond recognitio11 On naMeuH:Aca AO neyanaBae-
MOCTII
A girl of exceptional beauty Ha peAKOCTL I<pacnnall AeBywKa
Thirty odd TpnAuaTL c AnwKoM

406. Certain adverbs consist of preposition and noun combined

in one word:
B6poA
To ford a river IIepexoArhL (nepeihn) peKy
n6poA
BnAaBL* 1
To swim (across) a river IIepenpaBA»ncx (nepenpaBHTL-
cx) qepea peKy nnAaBL
BcAyx Aloud:
Reading aloud
BnonLIXax* (i) Hastily, (ii) in one's haste:
To do something hastily
BTIOIILIXaX
In my haste I left the book at home Bnon&rxax x ocTaBHA Knnry A6Ma
B3anepnl* In seclusion:
To live a secluded life IKiiTL B3anepni

1 Asterisk means that the component noun no longer exists.

 THE FORMATION OF ADVERBS 247

HaTOJ'!!aK* On an empty stomach:

To smoke on an empty stomach
HanpoAeT Through:
The whole night through
HanoBliA* Outright:
To kill outright
HanaHaHKY Inside out:
To turn a coat inside out BhiBopa'llmaTb (sb"mopontTb and
BbmepH)'Tb) naAbTO HaH3HclHKY
Mcno,a;mmKa* On the quiet:
To laugh up one's sleeve CMeli:TbcH ncrroATnwKa
IIonoAaM In equal quantities:
Half-wine, half-water
Ilo.a;MLimKo:li* Under the arm:
To carry under the arm
407. In the following expressions, English uses an adjective and
noun or, occasionally, a compound noun, where Russian uses
an adverb and noun:
Horse-riding E3Aa Bepx6M
Sweetened tea qaii BHaKJ\aAKY
A soft-boiled egg Jlib,JO BCMJincy
A hard-boiled egg flii{JO BKpyryro
Wholesale and retail trade Topr6BAH OIITOM n B p63HHUY
A daydream CoH HaHBy
Bulging eyes fAaaa HaBLIKaTe
Eternal friendship ,ll;pyiK6a HaseKH
408. Note cpo,a;HH and aal\I}"JKeM, which translate English pre-
dicative adjectives:
I am related to him .H et.cy cpoAHJI:
Her daughter is married Ee AO'lh 3aMYiKeM
Gerunds used as adverbs
409. Certain gerunds in -a, -H, may be used adverbially: myTH
iokingly, in jest (note x myTH Mor Obi c,a;c!AaTb :ho I could do that
in my sleep); He myTH in earnest; He enema in a leisurely manner:
We are now working in earnest Mbi Tent!pb He wyrli: pa66TaeM
248 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
Some of these gerunds have become part of adverbial expres-
sions:
To be up and doing He cH.ztcrL cAo.IKa pyKn
To run like mad Ee.IKaTL o"'epTx r6AoBy
To stand gawki11g CTOHTb pa3HHll poT

410. Certain gerunds, in becoming adverbs, change their

stress:
Gerund Adverb
MoA"'a not speaki11g MoA"'a silently
CTOH standing CTOll upright, on one's feet
He xoTx not wishing HexoTa reluctantly
Contrast:
The boy was repeating his lesson, MaAL'IHK OTBe"'aJI. yp6K, cTox y
standing at the blackboard AOCKH
He seemed to be asleep on his feet OH KaK 6y,ztTO cT6H cnaJI.

411. Few gerunds in -all, -.HH, may be used as adverbs, but the
following negative expressions are useful:
To spend monty recklessly
C"'JITall
To speak without reflection foBopHTb (cKa3aTb) He AyMall
To work like a fiend Pa66TaTL He noKAa,ztill PYK
Studies go on uninterruptedly 3aHHTHH HAYT He n pepLmaHCb
Note also the following adverbialized gerunds in -ytrH, -IOtrii:
Kpa.zty•mcL Stealthily (H.ztn1 Kpci.ztytrHCb to slink along)
IIpmieBaiOtrH Prosperously ()KHTh npnneBarotrn to be in clover)
YMero'ln Skilfully (o6paiJ!aTLCH c .zteHLraMn yMeiO'ln to handle
money skilfully)

THE COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

412. (i) The comparative forms of adverbs in -o, -e, are the
same as those of the corresponding predicative adjectives:
Ayllwe Better
My.ztpee More wisely
Rp"'e More brightly
 THE FORMATION OF ADVERBS !!49
As with adjectives, the addition of the prefix rro- to the com-
parative adverbs gives the sense rather (somewhat) more:
lloBLnue Somewhat higher
Certain common adverbs have dual comparative forms:
PaHeefpaHLwe Earlier
/l,fv.ee/Afv.Lwe Farther
IT6aJKe/noaAHee Later
IT6a*e and rro3,11;Hee are interchangeable . .Paaee and ,~~;.V..ee are
more bookish in tone than paHbiiie and ,~~;aAbiiie. For the alterna-
tives 66Aeef66Abiiie, MeaeefMeHbiiie, see para. 478.
(ii) The superlative degree of adverbs is formed by adding
Bcer6 or Bcex to the comparative form:
E6Mwe scer6 More than all things
B6Ahwe scex 1\fore than all people
I like skating best of all B6ALwe scer6 MHe HpaBHTCJI Ka-
TaThCJI Ha KOHbKaX
I lot•e him best of all R AI06AK> er6 66,\hwe Bcex
.l\jqiiie Bcer6 may also mean at one's best:
I work best in the morning R pa66TaiO Ayqwe Bcer6 }'TpoM

Notice the idiomatic meaning of MCHbiiie Bcer6 in:

rou're the last person I was ex- BoT Kor6 R OJKI-!Aa,\ MCIIbWe BCer6
peeling to see

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
As Time
413. (i) If the subjects of the main and subordinate clauses are
the same, and the action in the main clause interrupts that in
the subordinate clause introduced by as, as is usually best trans-
lated into Russian by the use of the present gerund:
When Peredonov arrived home, as KorAa ITepeA6HoB npnweA AO-
he was still taking off his coat, M6H. OH YCAbiWa.\, ef!!e CHIIMM
he heard sharp '1oises coming naAbTO, AOHOCiiBWifeCR 113 CTO-
from the dining-room ,\OBOfi pe3KIIe 3BYKII (Sologub)
 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
(ii) If, however, the subjects of the inain and subordinate
clauses are different, the above construction becomes impossible
and as is translated by KOrAa:
The line of carts stood the whole 0663 BeCL ,ll;eHL npOCTOHA y peKH
day at the riverside and moved H TpOHY.I\01 C MeCTa, KOr,ll;a
off as the sun was setting ca,~~;nAOCL c6AHUe (Chekhov)
414. If the actions in both main and subordinate clauses are
momentary and simultaneous, or almost simultaneous, KaK is
used more commonly than KorAli:
As I Looked upon the steppe where R KaK nocMoTp6Aa Ha CTenL, r ,~~;e
we had sung so many songs. . . Mbl CTO.I\LKO neceH cne.I\H ... e.l\e
I could hardly hold back my c.l\e3bi c,~~;epiKa.l\a (Fadeyev)
tears
415. When as means in proportion as (French a mesure que), it is
translated by no Mepe Toro, KaK. Usually, in such constructions,
the main and subordinate clauses express two processes, of
which one is the result of the other:
His breathing became deeper and Er6 ,~~;I>IXaHlfe cTaHoBnAocb Bee
easier as his body became rested rAy6iKe H cBo66,~~;Hee no Mepe
and cooler TOro, KaK OT,II;LIXci.l\0 H OX.I\aiK-
,II;a.I\OCL er6 T6Ao (Kuprin)
While
416. (i) While, designating either the interruption of one action
by another, or coincidence over the entire period of two actions,
is normally translated by noKa orB TO BpeM.!I, KaK. A comma is
placed after B To BpeM.!I:
While I was reading, it was snow- IloKa (B TO BpeM.!I, KaK) H'llfTa.l\,
ing me./\ CHer
While I was reading, it began to IloKa (B TO BpeMH, I<aK) H'liiTll.l\,
snow nom~ cHer

(ii) When the emphasis in the subordinate clause is not upon

the duration of the state, but the state is simply regarded as a
stage in time, while is most naturally translated by Kor.a;a:
The old man died while Matvey CTapnK yMep, Kor,~~;a MaTBeii 61>1.1\
was still a child el!!e pe6eHKOM (Korolenko)
 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 251

(iii) When while means for as long as, it is translated by rroKa

followed by an imperfective verb:
Petya kept up his fire at the enemy lleT.R 6JIA no uenpmheu.cKnM
lines for as long as his shells awCAcmaM AO Tex nop, noKa
lasted XBaTiho cuap.bos (Katayev)
417. While meaning whereas (French landis que) is also translated
by B TO BpeMH KaK, but usually in this meaning no comma is
placed after B To Bpe~UI :
While Shatsky's examinations be- B TO speMH KaK y IIIauKoro 3K-
gan on 10th Afarch, Karta- 3a!l.teHbl Ha'laAHC& c AeCJiToro
shov's were due to begin in Afay !'.lapTa, y KapTawesa ou1i AOA-
.iKKbi 6bl.l\ll Ha'laTbCH B Mae
(Garin)
One side would suddenly ... droop 0AHa cropoua BAPYr··· o6!'.uiK-
while the other would, as it HeT, B TO speMH KaK ApyraH
were, become filled with mys- CAOSHO Ha.l\b~CH .iKJISHTCAb-
terious, life-giz•ing sap HOH, Taii:HcTBenuoii B.l\aroi'r
(Furmanov)
Note that the subordinate clause introduced by B To Bpc~ur KaK
may either precede or follow the main clause. There exist two
other expressions meaning while (whereas), M6i<Ay TeM, KaK, and
TOrA:i KaK, but the subordinate clause which they introduce
must follow the main clause:
In a long barrel all the powder B MllHHOi'r CTBOAJ.fue n6pox soc-
ignites before the discharge of nAaMeulleTCH sec& AO sbL\eTa
the shot, whereas in a short Ap66n, TOr,ila KaK S KOpOTKOi'r
barrel it has not time to explode oune ycnesaeT sec& scnbiXHyn 1
(S. Aksakov)
Meif\.Ay Te:r.r, KaK (but not TOrAa KaK) may, however, like B TO
Dpb.IH, KaK be used with strictly temporal meaning and, when
it is so used, the clause it heads may stand before or after the
main clause.
When
418. (i) If the subjects of the main and subordinate clauses are
the same, when meaning {lfler is usually best translated by the
use of the past gerund:
1 See also para 250.
 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
When I have washed, I go down- YMbiBliiMC&, H MAY BHU3
stairs
(ii) If, however, the subjects are different the above construc-
tion becomes impossible and KOr,ll;a or llOCAe TOr<), KaK must be
used:
Darya cheered up completely when Aap&H OKOH'laTeA&Ho paaBeceAJi-
Dunyasha arrived from the field AaCb noCAe Tor6, KaK Ayrulrna
npHrnAa c noM (Sholokhov)
(iii) When when means by the time that, it may be translated by
either KOr,ll;a or noKa, followed by a perfective verb:
In the evening they had become so BeqepoM AO TaKo:H cTeneHn ua-
exhausted and worn out that MftinAuc& u ycTaAn, 'ITo, noKa
when (by the time that) they HaKoHeQ AO napox6Aa Aoexa-
reached the steamer, Pavlik was An, IlaBAMK aacuyA yme B
already asleep in the boat AOAKe (Katayev)

419. (i) For when meaning after, in certain subordinate clauses,

with frequentative meaning, see paras. 207 (iii) and 214 (ii).
(ii) When the action in the main clause is envisaged as fol-
lowing immediately that in the subordinate clause, KaK in
Russian usually translates English when implying as soon as:
When we have loaded, we will set KaK norpyanM, TaK u noe,ll;eM
off (Katayev)
I shall never get to the fortress, but MHe He AOHTH AO KpenocTn, Ho
when day breaks I shall lie down KaK paccBeTer, Axry B Aecy
in the wood (L. N. Tolstoy)
For when followed by present in English but future in Russian,
see para. 223.

420. When in English, introducing a subordinate clause, the

action of which interrupts the action in the main clause, is
normally translated by KOr,ll;a:
Markelov's guests were still asleep focTM MapKeAoBa eiJ!e cnciAu,
when a messenger arrived bring- KorAa K HeMf aBnAcn nocAaHeQ
ing him a letter from his sister C nUCbMOM OT ero CeCTpbi
(Turgenev)
 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 253
If, however, the action in the subordinate clause happens sud-
denly, or unexpectedly, KaK is used. KaK BApyr when suddenly is
almost a cliche in Russian:
They were turning to go back when 0HH llOBOpa"'HBa..UICb, "'T66hi
suddenly they heard, no longer HATii HaaaA, KaK BApyr ycAbi-
loud conversation but a shout xiAn y~e He rp6MKn:H r6Bop, a
(As they were turning ... they KpuK (L. N. Tolstoy)
suddenly heard • • .)

421. After certain types of main clause, when is translated by

Kat<, with or without BApyr.
(i) After negative clauses expressing a distance or a period of
time which is interrupted by the action in the subordinate
clause:
Nitikin had not even covered two He npomeA HuK1hnn n AByxcoT
hundred paces when the sound waroB, KaK H H3 Apyroro A6Ma,
of a piano was heard from the OOCAhlWaAHCb 3BYKU pOHNI
other house also (Chekhov)
It was less than half an hour since He npowAo " noAy"'aCa c era
his arrival, and he was already, npneaAa, KaK y~ OH, C ca-
with the most good-natured MOH A06pOAYWHOH OTKpOBeH-
frankness, telling us his life- HOCTbiO, paccKaaLIBaA cBoiO
story. (Not half an hour had ~U3Hb (Turgenev)
passed . .. )
He ycne;\, essentially an expression of time, is also followed by

I had not had time to answer when R ne ycneA oTBenrrL, KaK aaro-
my brother spoke up BopnA 6paT

(ii) After main clauses expressing a wish, order, or intention

which is frustrated by the action in the subordinate clause. The
main clause often contains the particle 6h'IAo or adverbs yJKe,
el!!e:
I was about to order the horses to R BeAeA 6h'IAo nocKopee aaKAaAhi-
be harnessed with all possible BaTb AOWaAei'i, KaK BApyr OOA-
speed when suddenly a fearful IIIIAaCb y~aCHaJI MeTeAb
snowstorm arose (Pushkin)
254 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
Seeing no one in the cabin, Nekh- He BH,lVI HHKor6 B Ha6e, HeXJ\w-
lyudov was about to leave when AOB xoTe.l\ y)Ke BhiihH, KaK
a long drawn-out, teaiful sigh nponi)KHLiii, B.I\IDKHMii B3,li;OX
betrayed the presence of the Hao6.1\Hqn.l\ xoanHHa
owner (L. N. Tolstoy)

422. Whenever, every time is normally translated into Russian by

Kci)KA~>rli (BdKuii) pa3, KOr.zti followed by an imperfective verb.
Ka)KAbiM (BdKHii) pa3, KaK is also occasionally found but, in
present-day Russian, much less frequently:
Whenever Istomin was seized by Ka)K.zt~>rii paa, Kor.zta I1cTOMHH~>IM
one of his familiar attacks of OB.I\a,lteBM 3HaKOMblii npncryn
fever AnxopaAKH (Kuprin)

For whenever with concessive sense (Kor.zti HH), see para. 450.
423. In statements in which the English when has no antecedent
defining a specific state or occasion, Kor.zti in Russian is preceded
by mr.zti:
rou did not do that even when it T~>r He c.zteAaAa 8Toro, .zta)Ke Tor.zta,
was not yet too late Kor.zta eJ,ge 6hrAo He n6a.ztHo
(Fadeyev)
A man is happy only when he is qe.I\OBCK cqaCT.I\lfB .1\lfiiib TOr.zta,
single Kor.zta O,ltliHOK

424. Since when is in Russian c KaKoro BpeMeHH or c KaKifx nop.

Until when is .zto KaKoro BpeMeHu, or .zto KaKHx nop:
Until when will you stay? Ao KaKnx nop B~>I ocTaHeTec~>?
Before
425. (i) Before, introducing a subordinate clause, may be trans-
lated by ,ltO TOrO, KaK, or npe)K,lte '!eM, or nepe.zt TeM, KaK. ,LJ;o
Tor6, KaK, and npeJK.zte qeM mean before in the sense of up to the
time of, by the time of, earlier than:
Many accidents happened here TipoHaoiiiAO a.ztec~> MH6ro He-
before they widened the road cqacTH~>IX C.l\'yqaeB ,ltO TOro,
KaK paCIIInpl1.1\lf ,ltOpOry
She will be ready before you arrive Ona 6y.zteT roT6Ba, npe)K.zte 'lr:M
Bbi npa.zteTe
 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 255
Wfv' then do you go to bed before 3aqeM )f(e Bbl AO)f(ihecb B nocTbb,
youjeel sleepy? npe)f(Ae qeM BaM CllaTb xoqeTCJI
(Turgenev)
ITepeA TeM, KaK means just before:
He rushed out of the house at the On BbiCKOtiiiA ll3 AOMa B caMbiH
very last moment before the roof nOCAeAHHH MOMeHT nepeA TeM,
fell in KaK o6py111nAaCb Kp:br111a
(Ilyonkov)
If the subjects of main and subordinate clauses are the same,
these conjunctions are normally followed by the infinitive:
Before leaving the house he put out ITpe)f(Ae qer.r BbiHTII ua AOMa, OH
the light BbiKAJOqUA CBeT
(ii) When before means not mere priority in time, but indi-
cates anticipation of some event, usually but not invariably
unpleasant, it is expressed in Russian by noKa He, followed by
the perfective past; as Costello points out, when an undesirable
event is involved this construction corresponds to the use in
Latin of antequam and priusquam with the subjunctive:
He went on, hurrying to say as On npoAOA)f(<\A, Topomicb cKa-
much as possible before they aaTb KaK MO)f(HO 66Abllle, noKa
stopped him er6 He ocTanoBilAH (Katayev)
Do not hurry before I have given Tbi ne Toponncb, noKa n Te6e ue
you permission to do so paape111rh Toponll:Tbcn
(Fadeyev)
In such constructions the speaker looks forward into future
time and envisages an action as possible of realisation; the
subordinate verb is in the past tense because the speaker is
thinking of a state of affairs which will only come about after
the action it describes has occurred. Often in such sentences
noKa He goes most naturally into English as unless rather than
before.
After
426. When the subjects of the main and subordinate clauses
are the same, after is often best translated by the use of the past
gerund:
After passing his examinations, he CAaB CBOJi 3KaaMeHbi, on yexaA ...
left . . . (Gor'ky)
256 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
If the subordinate follows the main clause, it may be strength-
ened with y)Ke:
He wrote that after receiving my OH Harmca.ll. 8To, y)Ke noAy"<~nB
letter MOe llHCbMO
If the subjects are different, after must be translated by n6cAe
Tor6, KaK:
He went out after I telephoned him OH Bhnne.ll. n6c.11.e TOr6, KaK H no-
3BOHH.II. eMy

Since
427. (i) Since, introducing a subordinate clause, is normally
translated by c Tex nop, KaK:
He had gone perceptibly grey since OH aaMeTHO noce,zJ;e.ll. c Tex nop,
we parted from him KaK Mbl paCCTC:l.I\HCb C HHM
(Turgenev)
(ii) Since then is c Tex nop or c Tor6 BpeMeHn:
A whole lifetime has passed since ]Je.11.aH )KH3Hb npom.11.a c Tex nop
then (Bunin)
(iii) Since the time that is translated by c, used as a preposition,
and KaK:
Since the moment when Samara C MoMeHTa, KaK CaMapa o"<~yTli­
found itself in Czech hands Aacb so a.11.acrn "<IexoB (Fedin)

Until
428. (i) Until should be translated by noKa He. It is colloquial
and sometimes incorrect to omit He:
I cannot undertake anything until ..R ne Mory npe,ll;npnHliTb Hn"<Ier6,
she answers me llOKa OHa He OTBeTHT MHe
(L. N. Tolstoy)
Notice, however, the difference between noKa He and KOr,ZJ;a in:
I waited until the door was opened
(period of waiting com-
pleted)
Then he stood about two hours in IloToM oH cToH.II. "<Iaca ,zJ;Ba a TeM-
the dark passage waiting for the IIbiX ceHJI:x n )K,ll;aA, Kor,zJ;a OT-
door to be opened (period of onpyT ,li;Bepb (Chekhov)
waiting incomplete)
 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 257
Alternatively, the final clause of the second example might have
read: noKa oTonpyr ,ll,Bepb or 'IT06Lx oTnepAH ABepL. There is
no implication here that the door was ever opened, although
the person waiting expects that it will be. The literal translation
of noKa He is while not: one may compare northern English
usage I won't see you while Friday (i.e. while it is not yet Friday)
where standard English demands until.
If the He is omitted in Russian, it will be in circumstances
when the action in the main clause is positive and precedes that
described in the subordinate clause:
He will go on living with us until On y Hac ocTaHeTC.Il *HTb ,11,0 Tex
he grows up nop, noKa on nb'1pacreT
(Stepanov)
(ii) Not until is translated by TOALKO (Kor,11,a):
It was not until the md ojthefol- ToAbKo K Konyy CAe,ll,ylol,!!ero,~~,n.~~
lowing day that Kirill chose the KlipiiAA nb'16paA MHnpy, •n6-
moment to send Anochka a note 6hl nocAaTb AnotJKe aamlcKy
(Fedin)
It was not until he tumed the T6A~>Ko ~~:or,11,a ou nonepnrA aa
corner that I saw him yroA H }'Bli,ll,eA er6

Just, as soon as, scarcely (hardly)

429. (i) To have just in Russian is TOALKO 'ITO followed by the
perfective past:
I l1ave just arrived in England R TOAhKO 'ITO npHexaA n AnrAmo
To be just is e,11,na, AHWL, or TOALKO, followed by the present
tense:
He is Just beginning to speak Rus- On e,ll,Ba naqnm1eT ronopJ!Tb no-
sian pyccKn
Occasionally TOALKO 'ITO is found in this sense:
Dawn is just beginning to tinge YTpennHH aapH: TOAbKO 'ITO naqu-
the horizon uaeT OKpanmBaTh ne60CK.I\On
(L. N. Tolstoy)
ToALKo, with the perfective past, may meanjust as:
Just as he entered the room, the ToAhKo on noweA n Ko!.maTy,
lights went out llOTyx CBeT
258 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
With yen~ almost before:
... and then, having undressed, he ..• u noT6M, paa,n;eBlliHCb, TO.I\bKO
fell fast asleep almost before ycnb no.I\O)KIITb r6.1\oBy Ha
his head touched the pillow no,n;ylliKy, aacHyA KpemmM
cnoM (L. N. Tolstoy)
(ii) Placed first in the main clause, TO.II.LKO 'ITO (or .1\.HIIIL
TO.II.LKO) means no sooner ... ; the subordinate clause may or may
not be introduced by KaK:
He had no sooner entered the room T6AbKO tiTO OH BOllle.l\ B KOMHaTy,
than an argument started (KaK) B03HMK cnop
KaK always introduces an action which follows immediately
upon the main action.
As soon as is KaK TO.II.LKO (qyTL TO.II.LKo), sometimes shortened
to KaK (qYTL):
As soon as he entered the room . . . 1\aK ( tiYTb) TO.I\bKO oH BOllle.l\ B
KOMHaTy ...
In Saratov, as soon as he arrived, B CapaToBe oH, KaK npm!xaA,
he began to searchfor the actor B3HACH paab'ICKHBaTb aKTepa
Tsvetukhin. . . IJseryxuHa... (Fedin)

Scarcely (hardly) is eABa (e,n;Ba .II.HIIIL or e,n;sa TO.II.LKo); the subor-

dinate clause may or may not be introduced by KaK:
He had scarcely come in when the E,n;sa oH sollleA, (KaK) aaasonll:A
telephone began to ring TeAe<J?6H

Place
Where
430. f,n;e is preceded by TaM in sentences similar to the tem-
poral sentences in which Kor,n;a is preceded by Tor,n;a (see
para. 423):
Where, in the darkness, the ~e TaM, r,n;e r.l\a3 ne Mor y)Ke OT.I\H·
could no longer distinguish field tiMTb B noTeMKax n6Ae OT ne6a,
from sky, a light wasflickering .!lpKoMepga.l\oroHeK(Chekhov)

Similarly Ky,n;a is preceded by ry,n;a:

I'll go where he goes
 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 259
Notice also:
He has come from the same place OH npnweA, OTKy,~~;a n BLI
as;•ou
But in strict literary usage OTKy,o;a should be preceded by
orry,o;a, as ~<y,o;a is preceded by ry,o;a above.
Cause, reason
Since
431. Since with causal meaning is in Russian TaR KaK. The
subordinate clause introduced by TaK KaK may precede or
follow the main clause; if it precedes, the main clause is often
introduced by TO:
Since he is a poor man, she may TaK KaK oH 6e,~~;HLiii 'le.'l.oaeK, To
not marry him OHa, 6LITL MO)KeT, ne Bbiu,~~;eT
3a Hero 3bry"'
Why, because
432. (i) IlOtze:My and oT'lero mean for what reason? 3atzeM was
also used with this meaning in the early nineteenth century but
now means only with what purpose? Ilotzel'.cy H or OT'lero H may
mean therefore:
He was not at home, therefore I Er6 He 6LI.I\o ,~~;6Ma, noqeMy 11 n
left a note ocTaBII.I\ 3amkKy (Pushkin)
IloTm.ry u or orroro H may mean and that is why ... :
She is jealous of Barbara, and Oua peBH)'eT K BapBape, noToMy
that is why she is withholding MHe n Mecra He ,~~;aeT TaK ,~~;6Aro
the post from me for so long (Sologub)
(ii) Sometimes noTowy and orroro stand in the main and tzTO
in the subordinate clause. This is a stylistic device used, at need,
to balance the sentence. It is often found when, in English,
because is qualified by an adverb or adverbial phrase, e.g. only
because, perhaps because, for the further reason that (eJ.ge noTOMf, tzTO) :
The fourth detachment was com- l.JeTBepTLIH pa3p.R,~~; cocraBiliu
posed of people, declared to be NOAH noTo:t.i)f TO.I\LKO 3aqi.fc-
criminals, only because they AeHHLie B npecrynHHKn, qTo
were morally above the average om{ CTOHAH npaBCTBeHHO BhiWe
level of society cpe,~~;Hero ypoBH.fl 66!,!!ecTBa
(L. N. Tolstoy)
260 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
It is also found when the sentence expresses two or more reasons
or consequences:
We are miserable and take a 0TTor6 HaM HeBeceAo n cM6TpHM
gloomy view of life, because we Mbl Ha .lKH3Hb TaK Mpa'IHO, 'ITO
do not know what work is He 3HaeM TpyAa (Chekhov)
(iii) When alternative conjectural reasons are given for an
action or state, expressed in English by either • • • or (because
understood), Russian uses TO .11.n ... TO An:
Some gentleman, reading his news- KaKoii-To rocno,D;liH, 'IIITaBumii
paper and yawning the whole ra3eTy n Bee BpeMH 3eBiBwn,
time, eitherfrom great weariness TO .1\H OT 11pe3MepHOH ycTa-
or from boredom, cast two or .1\0CTII, To .11.n oT cKyKn, pa3a
three unpleasant sidelong glances ,D;Ba HenpHHTHO llOKOCMACH Ha
at the hoy Ma.ll.b'IHKa (Andreyev)
The runner did not return from OT PeMn3oBa CBH3Hoii He BepHyA-
Remizov: either he must have CH: TO .1\H OH 6bl.ll. y6fiT no nyTH,
been killed on the way, or Remi- To .11.n PeMn3oB He Mor Hn'leM
zov could offer no help noMO'Ib (Simonov)
(iv) Not that ••• but, repudiating in English a possible cause
of what precedes and giving the real cause, is translated into
Russian He To, liT06bl ..• Ho:

Not that I do not like the cinema, He To, '1To6LI H He 6LI"- ox6THH-
hut I am tired KOM AO KHHo, Ho H ycTa"

(v) (All) the less, because, (all) the more, because are translated
into Russian TeM MeHee ... liTO, TeM 66Aee ... liTO:

His death was regretted all the less 0 cMepTH er6 TeM Menee cmKa-
because he had been a heartless "eAH, 'ITo oH 6bl" 6eccep,D;e'I-
skinflint HbiM CKynyoM
Spring is all the pleasanter because BecHa TeM npnHTHee, 'ITo c"eAyeT
it follows winter 3a 3HMOH
(vi) In that implying because is translated by TeM:
He differs from the other boys in OH oTAH'IaeTcH oT Apyrlix Ma;\b-
that he likes reading 'IHKOB TeM, qTo M061IT qnTaTb
 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 261

Consequence
So that
433· (i) The English so that, expressing the result of a pre-stated
cause (French de sorte que followed by the indicative) is in Rus-
sian TaK 'ITO:
The ice has become thin in places, Ae.D; MeCT<hm cTaA TOHKHM, TaK
so that skating is dangerous "'TO KaTaTbCH Ha KOHbKaX onac-
HO
(ii) So .•. that may be translated in three ways, TaK ... 'ITO,
HaCTOALKO ... 'ITO, ,li;O TOrO ..• 'ITO:
The sack was so heavy that no one lVIew6K 6LIA TaK T.R)KeA, "'TO HM-
could lift it KT6 He MOr no,D;HliTb er6
,Ll;o TaKort cTeneHH (lit. to such an extent that) may also be used
as a stylistic variant of the three alternatives given:
I could not help smiling, so true JI He MOr He yALI6nY"rLc.R, .D;O
was all that TaK6u cTeneHH Bee aTo 6biAo
BepHo (Rozhdestvensky)

434· The sequence of cause and effect, expressed in English by

one has on?J to ... for, is translated into Russian by CTOUT (TOALKo)
KOMY·HH6YAL .•. KaK ('1T06LI):
He has on(y to forsake Nadezhda CToltT eMy TOAbKO 6p6cnTb Ha-
F;•odorovna and go to St. .D;e)K.ll;y <l>e.D;opoBny H yexaTL B
Petersburg to obtain all he needs IIeTep6ypr, KaK OH noAj"'nT
Bee, "'TO eMj HY)KHO (Chekhov)
He has on(y to open his mouth for CTolfT eMj aaroBopliTL, "'T06br
everyone around to fall silent BCe KpyroM 3aMOAK<iNI
(L. N. Tolstoy)
CTOHT in such constructions is always followed by a perfective
infinitive. On the other hand He CTOUT (it is not worth while) is
always followed by an imperfective infinitive.

435· ... is enough to (make) .•. is translated into Russian by

AOCTaTO"'HO "'TOOLI, with the noun designating the cause or
reason in the genitive case:
 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
The slightest rustle in the passage ,LJ;ocniTo•mo MaAeiiwero w6poxa
or cry in the yard is enough to B ceiDix, nAn KpnKa Bo ABOpe,
make him raise his head and •n66bi OH fiOAHBA r6AOBY H
listen CTaA npHCAYWHBaTbCB
(Chekhov)
436. Events brought about by the passage of time are expressed
in English by not a day, week, year, passed without: in Russian by
He 6hiAO AHH, etc., qTo6bi:
Not a year went by without one of He 6hiAO r6Aa, •n66br B H-cKoM
the o.fficers of the N. regiment nOAKY He aacTpeNiAH OAHOr6
being shot na O<fmyepoB (Kuprin)

Purpose
To, in order to, so as to, lest
437• (i) qTo6hl is often omitted after verbs of motion:
I have come to talk to you R npnweA noroBopnTb c BaMH
It is included, however, when the sense of purpose is strong:
Danilov went out in order to allow ,Ll;aHMAOB BbiWeA, "<IT06bl He Me-
the couple to say goodbye WllTb cynpyraM npOCTMTbCB
(Panova)
(ii) qTOObi may not be omitted in the following circumstances:
(a) if the actions expressed by the verb of motion and by
the subordinate clause exactly coincide in time:
He left the room precisely to de- Ou BhiWeA na KOMHaTbi, "<IT06bi
monstrate his indifference to the TeM CllMbiM AOKa3aTb CBOe 6e3-
conversation pa3AM"<IHe K pa3rOB6py
(b) if the subordinate infinitive is negatived:
He left the room so as not to On BhiWeA na KOMHaTbr, qT60bi ue
awaken the child paa6yAMTb pe6euKa
(c) almost invariably when the subordinate infinitive is
accompanied by modifying words:
I climbed up a high tree in order to R aaAea ua BbiCOKoe AepeBo,
get a proper view of the sur- "<IT06bi oTTjAa KaK CAeAyeT
rounding countryside orNIAeTb oKpecruocTb
 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 263
(iii) If the sense of purpose is particularly emphasised 3are:r.~,
qr66Lr or AN£ ror6, qr66Lr are used (lit. with the object(!/'). These
conjunctions, like noroMy qro and onor6 qro, and in similar
circumstances (see para. 432 (ii)), may be split up:
. . . Cor' ky had asked me to this ,, .f6pLKlill 3aTCM H ll03B.iA Merul
carriage in order to tell me of B BTOT Bar6a, qr66hl paccKa-
his plan for the revival of a aaTL 0 CBOeM 3a!llhiCAe B03pOJK•
genuine literature for children ACHUJI llO,IV\HHHOH ACTCKOH AH-
in Russia and to obtain my Teparyphl B PocciiH n npnBA.e'IL
co-operation in this task 111en.R K aToii pa66Te
(Chukovsky)
(iv) So as to, in such a way as to, are translated by raK, 1IT06Lr:
If theGermans arrive, they must EcAu npnAYr ne~fUhi, on1i AOAJK-
behave in such a way as not to Hbi BeCTH ce6.R TaK, 'IT06hl He
arouse suspicion BOa6yAIITL llOA03pCH11ll
(Fadeyev)
(v) Lest is qr66Lr He:
He carefully undressed in the hall, l.{T66hl He paa6yAHTL CBOliX, OH
lest he should awake his family ocropomHo paaAt!Aca B nepeA-
nefl (Chekhov)
(vi) Rejected purpose (instead(!/') is expressed in Russian by
BMeCTO TOrO, qr06LI :
Instead of going up to him, I went BMecro Tor6, qro6LI noAofrru K
and stood by the table neM)', a cTaAa K cToAy
(L. N. Tolstoy)

Comparison
As ... as, as much as
438. (i) As ... as, in simple comparative statements, is trans-
lated by TaK (JKe) ... KaK:
He is as rich as I On TaK me 6oraT, KaK a
If two different qualities are compared, KaK may be strength-
ened by H:
He is as kind as he is rich
 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
Alternatively, CTOAI>KO JKe ... CKOAI>KO II (HaCTOAI>KO ... HaCKOAI>-
Ko) may be used in such sentences: oH CTOAI>KO JKe ,ZJ;o6p,
CKOAI>KO II 6or;h.
(ii) As much as with verbs may be translated by TaK (JKe) ...
KaK, CTOAJ>KO (JKe) ... CKOAJ>KO, or CTOAJ>Ko (JKe) ... KaK:
.. no one wished that people ... HIIKT6 Tax He JKeAaJI., tiT66I>I
might become enriched with J\ID,Il;H o6orar,gaJ\HCI> aHaHHllMII
knowledge and culture as much "KYJ\LTypon, KaK <horo JKeJ\aJ\
as M. Gor'ky did. . . M. f6phKHH... (Maximov)
I am not so much indignant at the MeH.R He CTOJ\hKO BOaMyr,gaeT
loss rif my clothing as at the J\HIIH~Hne o,~~;e.lK,IJ;hi, CKOJ\hKO
thought that I shall have to MhiCJI.h, liTO MHe npn,~~;eTC.II
walk along stark naked HATH Hamm6M (Chekhov)

Just as, just like

439· Tax JKe KaK may translate either just like or just as (i.e. may
precede either noun or verb) :
(He) . . . will keep an inn just
like his father
. . . his son will remember this un-
usual day just as he himself . ..
remembers his first trip in a
coach
(0H)... 6y,~~;eT, TaK .lKe KaK II
OTeg, CO,Il;ep)!(aTh TpaKTllp
(Gogol')
... er6 CbiH 6y,11;eT BCllOMIIHaTb
:fnoT He06hiKHOBeHHhiH ,ll;eHb,
TaK .lKe KaK OH CaM ... BCllOMH-
HaeT CBOe nepBOe nyTeiiieCTBIIe
B ,li;IIJ\H.lKaHCe (Fedin)

As if, as though
440. (i) Normally translated by 6yATO (6~>r) or KaK 6yATO (6~>r):
.. this gladness was gone in a ... {lTa pa,ll;OCTb TaK .lKe MrHOBeHHO
flash, as if it had never been " npOIIIJI.a, 6y,ll;TO ee BOBCe He
6LIBaJ\o (Gogol')
(ii) ByATO (6~>r) is used, idiomatically, after verbs of saying to
give the statement the character of an allegation of doubtful
truth:
He assures us he has seen it him- OH YBep.ReT, 6y,~~;To caM BH,Il;eJ\
self
 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 265
This construction is particularly common with the verb rrpM-
TBop.IITbC.!I (rrpHTBOpHTbC.!I) to pretend:
He pretends never to have read this Ou npnTBopll:eTCH, 6y,zFO ou Hn-
book KOrAll ue qnni.A §ny KHI1ry
(iii) The conjunction .11Ko6bl translates English supposedly or
allegedly:
The theory developed by Hitler is Te6pnH, pa3BiiTaH fHTAepoM,
based upon the imaginary superi- ocH6BaHa na MHilMOM npe-
ority of the German race, which BOCXOACTBe replllllHCKoii pllcbi,
allegedly gives it the right to KOT6poe HK06LI AaeT eii npll-
rule the whole world BO rocnOACTBOBaTL HaA BCeM
MnpoM (Press)

Condition
441. (i) In a conditional clause, introduced by if, the indicative
is used if the condition is not contrary to fact:
ljthey have gone when you arrive, EcAH om1 Y"'e yWAM: KorAll BLI
return at once npHAeTe, B03paigaHTeCb cpa3y
lj he is reading, I shall not disturb EcAn on 'lnTaeT, H He no6ecno-
him KOIO er6
Whereas in English a condition referring to future time is ex-
pressed by the present tense (disguised future), in Russian either
the imperfective or perfective future is used:
lj he comes before six o'clock, ECAn on npnAeT AO wecni qac6s,
itiform me C006I]JllTe 1\IHe
(ii) In frequentative constructions, in which each individual
action is envisaged as completed, ec.Mi and other conditional
conjunctions (e.g. pa3 once) may be followed by the perfective
future instead of the imperfective past or present. The verb in
the apodosis also appears in the perfective future:
Such people, once they begin a task, TaKiie, pa3 Y"' B03bMjTCH 3a A6Ao,
carry it through to the md TaK AOBeAyT er6 AO KOHya
(Chukovsky)
 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
lf he fell, then one had only to tell ECAn oH ynaAeT, To CTOH.II.O eMy
him that he had fallen like a CKa3<lTI>, lJTO OH yn:iJ\ KaK .1\0•
horse and . .. he wouldjump up maAI> H... OH BCKOlJHT H BeCeAO
and gleefully run to tell every- no6e)KHT o61>liBNlTI> BCeM, lJTO
one that he had fallen like a yml.l\ KaK .1\0lliaAI>
horse (Garin-Mikhailovsky)
These constructions are similar to those in which the perfective
future is used as an historic present (see para. 211). Sometimes
conditional meaning is expressed in Russian by the perfective
future alone, used historically, without eCAH, and referring to
past, present, or future time:
lf he noticed a fault, he would 3aMeTHT HenoAaAKY, llOCBMCTHT,
whistle, bite his nails, and climb noKycaeT HOITM u Ae3eT Ha
on to the control panel to correct ij!HT ucnpaBAliTI> (Krymov)
it
lf they bring the newspapers, let Ilpm1ecp ra3eThl - cKa*me
me know MHe (Panova)

The future tense of 6hiTh may also be used in this meaning:

lf you are going to the theatre, liyAeTe B TeaTpe, 3aXOAHTe
call in (Fedin)
(iii) EcAu, followed by the indicative, may also introduce a
statement of fact or assumed fact in clauses which are not true
conditional clauses:
lf the first gesture expressed a Ec.l\11 nepBI,n'i .lKeCT Bhlpa.lKa.l\
threat, the second betokened yrp63y, To BTopoii: roBopH:A o6
zrony up6H1m (Stanislavsky)

442. If the condition is a general statement, referring not to

one definite person but to a number of persons or to humanity
in general, it may be expressed by eC.I\H followed by the in-
finitive:
For if we think about it and look A eC.I\H llOAyMaTI> H pa3o6paThCll,
into it, he is a peasant through TO MY.lKHK MY.lKliKOM ...
and through . . . (Chekhov)
 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
443· Provided that (so long as) is ec.MI TOALKO:
He would have decided that there OH penniA 6hl, 'ITO HeT HHKaKrix
was no reason not to marry the npn'IHH He JKeHiiTI>CH Ha /l,C-
girl, whoever she was, provided BYWKe, KTO 6bl OHa 6I>IAa, eCAil
he loved her TOJ\LKO OH Aro6uT ee
(L. N. Tolstoy)

444· Unless may be either eCAU He or TOALKO eCAII with different

verbal constructions:
I shall not stay unless he leaves R He 6y11.y ocTaBaTLcx, eCAn oH
He yti:/l,eT, orR OCTaHyCL, TOAb-
KO eCAIJ oH yilAeT

Otherwise, which may express the same meaning in English as

unless, can be rendered in four ways, a To, He To, a nc To, nm\.qe:
Come in time, otherwise we shall IlpnlJ.liTe BO-BpeMH, (a) ue To
go to the theatre without you noii/l,eM 6ea Bac B TeaTp
(Unless you come in time ... )

445· On condition that npn ycA6Bnu, liTO (ecAn); c TeM ycAOBHCM,

'ITO:
She will marry him on condition 0Ha Bhiii/l,eT aaMyJK aa Her6 npn
that he leaves England YCAOBHM, 'ITO OH ye/l,eT U3
AHrAUU
Notice npu npoqnx paBHLIX ycAoBn.!Lx all other things being equal.

446. If the condition is contrary to fact eCAII is followed by the

subjunctive; the verb in the apodosis is placed in the conditional
(in form identical with the subjunctive):
If I hadfallen, I would never have ECAH 6LI x ynll.A, TO yJK HHKOr/l,a
got up 6LI He BCTaA (Turgenev)
If a favourable wind were blow- ECAu 6LI AYA nonyTHLiii BCTep,
ing, we would sail along much Mbl nAhiAH 6hl aHatiiiTeAbHO
faster 6LicTpee

Note the fact that the apodosis when it follows the protasis is
often introduced by To as in the first example. Sometimes, also,
 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION

ecAH may be omitted, verb and subject in the protasis inverted,

and the apodosis introduced by TaK:
Had you not missed the train, I He ono3,11;a.11.n 6bi Bbi K n6e3,11;y,
would not have made your TaK x He n03HaK6MH.II.CH 6bi c
acquaintance BaMn

447· The apodosis of a conditional sentence may be expressed

with Obi alone, unaccompanied by the past-tense form. Most
often the omitted verb is OLIAO:
Ten pounds would suffice me MHe 6hl AOBO.II.bHO AeCHTM cf>YHTOB
Moris also sometimes omitted:
Who can that be so earry? KTo 6bi BTO TaK paHo?

Notice also the use of ecAH Obi He but for, in the protasis:
But for the rain, I would go for a Ec.II.H 6LI He AOII<Ab, x nowi::.ll. 6bi
walk ryNITb
448. EcAH Obi is used also in polite requests:
I have finished and would be very R KOH'IH.I\ H 6hl.ll. 6bl otieHb c'lacT-
happy if any of my esteemed .1\HB, eC.I\H 6bi KTO-.II.H6o H3 MOIIX
listeners wished to ask me for BbiCOKOYBall<aeMbiX C.l\ywa Te-
explanations or to raise a1!JI ob- .1\eH nOII<e.ll.aA o6paTMTbCH KO
jections MHe 3a pa3'bHCHeHHHMH li.I\H C
B03j)all<eHHHMH (Pavlov)

449· Conditions contrary to fact may be expressed by the 2nd

person singular of the imperative as well as by CCAll and the
subjunctive:
If he had said even one single CKa~~<ri oH xoTb oAH6 cAoBe'IKo,
word, she would have returned oHa 6LI BepHyAacb (Boborykin)

The aspect of the imperative is more commonly perfective, and

even in the negative, a negated perfective imperative, is often
found, especially when referring to a specific action in specific
circumstances. The subject of such clauses may be first, second,
or third person. Common verbs in such constructions are oyA»
TO were it ... and He 6yA» (followed by the genitive) but for .. . :
Were it the General himself, I EyAL TO caM reHepa.11., x He c.11.yma.11.
would not listen to him 6LI er6
But for me, he would have died He 6yAb Memi, oH 61>1 yMep
 ADVERBIAL CAUSES

Concession
450. (i) Concessive clauses, introduced by such expressions as
whatever, whenever, however much, are normally translated into
Russian by the use of the appropriate pronoun or adverb (qTo,
Kor,~~;a, CKOALKO) with the negative particle HM alone, or with Hn
and the subjunctive particle 6LI:
Strange as it may seem KaK cTpauuo un Ka.lKeTCll
Strange as it seemed KaK cTpanuo uu KaaaAocb
Both these phrases may also be expressed: KaK 6LI CTpaHHO HU
KaaiAocL. Note that the subjunctive construction may have
either past or present meaning according to the context, but
if Hn alone is used, the tense of the English clause must be ex-
pressed by the tense of the Russian verb.
(ii) In frequentative constructions, when each individual
action is envisaged as completed, the Russian perfective future
may translate an English present:
Is it not clear that whatever He llcuo AH, qTo .l\tinoqKa, ace
Lipochka does, she does from qTo uu c,~~;baeT, c,~~;eAaeT no
sheer immaturiry? COBepWeHHOll Hepa3BlfTOCTH?
(Dobrolyubov)
451. If not •.. then at least is normally translated into Russian
eCAU He ... TO:
One, if not fine, at least rypical O,~~;HiiM,
eCAH He npeKpaCHbiM,
St. Petersburg morning ... TO coaepweuno neTep6ypr-
CKHM 'frpoM... (Herzen)
452. Although is normally translated by xoTJI: and when the
subordinate clause introduced by xoTfl: precedes the main clause,
the latter may be introduced, seemingly tautologically, by Ho.
In this way the contrast between the statements made by the
main and subordinate clauses is emphasized:
Although young, he is experienced On, xoTll MOAo,~~;oii, no onhiTHhlii
Xod 6LI is a synonym of ,~~;i.JKe ecJ\li even if:
I would not forgive him, even if he .H He npocni:A Obi er6, xod Obi
were on his knees before me (,o~;a.JKe ecAu 6Lt) on CTOHA na
1<0.1\eHllX nepe,11;0 MHO!':'!
 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
It may also translate even or say when the speaker is adducing
an example or illustration:
His talent is evident, even in his Er6 Ta./\aHT BH,zten, xoTli 6hl B
earliest sketches nepBhiX er6 O'lepKax
Let us take, as an example, say BoaLMeM, B Ka'lecTBe npHMepa,
Turgenev xoTli 6hl TypreneBa

453· The conjunction xoTL has several idiomatic meanings.

Note:
You can read for two hours ifyou Bhl MO)KeTe 'IHTaTL XOTL ABa
like qaca
Let's go to our cabins. There's HAeM B KaiDThl. TaM miBo, xoTL
some beer there, we can at least BbiDUTL MO)KHO (Garin)
have a drink

454· It is true, used concessively, is translated by npaB,zr;a, often

standing as first word in the sentence:
He is clever, it is true, but he does TipaBAa, on YMeH, no ne anaeT
not know everything Bcer6

455· Notice the expression {.zr;a) H TO used idiomatically, mean-

ing and even (then), in such sentences as:
I have only one suit and even (then) y MCHH TOJI.LKO 0,1\HH KOCTIDM,
it is very shabby (Aa) H TO O'leHL non6IIIennhlii

456. In spite of everything is HeB3HpaH (HecMoTpH:) HH Ha 'ITo:

In spite of everything, I shall con- HeBaHpaH nH ua 'ITO, H 6yAy npo-
tinue to live in Russia AO)I.)KaTL )KIITL B Poccnn:

457· However, as a concessive adverb, is translated by nycTh:

He needed a victory, however in- EMy uy;.KHa 6h1Aa nycTL 6eccMbiC-
significant "eHnaH, no no6eAa (Fedin)

THE CONJUNCTIONS 'A', 'H', AND 'IKE'

458. A in Russian is often merely an alternative for :u (and) or
no (but). Certain of its uses are, however, distinctive from the
point of view either of meaning or of style:
 THE CONJUNCTIONS 'A', 'lf', AND 'IKE' 271

(i) A may be used with similar meaning to B TO Bpbrn KaK-

English while:
.A:(y mother was having something Y MaT}'lllKJt nponcxo;pho o6"I>l!'c-
out with my father: she was HeHne C OTI;.!OM: OHa B qeM-TO
making him some reproach, ynpeKaAa er6, a oH, no cBoe~t:Y
while he, as was his custom, 06biJ<HOBeHHIO, XO;!I;lfA H Be~­
walked about and remained BO OTMoiAqnBaACll' (Turgenev)
politely silent
(ii) A is commonly used in conjunction with certain adverbs,
notably ei,Ye, Bee, y.~Ke, 11.0 cnx nop, Me.~KAy Tel'.t:
The sun had not yet risen ... but, C6AHye er,ge He noAH.HAocb, ... a
on the fold-aerodrome, engines Ha noAeB6M aapoAp6Me y.lKe
were already roaring, as they peseAn nporpesae~lbte MOTopbt
warmed up (Polevoy)
August has passed but there is as AsrycT npowe,,, a ua 9To 3aHBAe-
yet no reply to this note sent by HHe COBeTCKOrO npaBtfTeAbCTBa
the Soviet Government AO cux nop HeT oTBeTa (Press)
It was long past dawn, but the Y .IKe Aasu6 paccseA6, a AaMna
lamp was still burning with a BCe ropba KOI1THJ!!HM 6eccrhb-
feeble, smoky flame HbiM OrOHbKOM (Fedin)
The doctor replied: 'I, for my Bpaq oTBentA: t.H .lKe He 6016c ..
part, do not fear for you, but 3a BaC, a Me.lK;!I;y TeM Bbl oqeHb
still ;·ou are very seriously Tll'.lKeA6 paueubu (Pavlenko)
wounded'
(iii) A is found, with strong adversative sense, especially after
negatives:
Already not seven but twelve years ITpoWA6 y.lKe ue ceMb, a yeAbiX
had passed ABeHaAQaTb AeT (Turgenev)

(iv) Very common is the combination a caM(a), contrasting

two different actions of the subject of the sentence:
He would bring her tickets for the OH npHHOCIIA di 6uAeTbl B TeaTp,
theatre but would himself stay a caM ocrasoiAcJI AOMa
at home (Kaverin)
In his study, uncle asked the guests B Ka6nueTe, .ltli.luoWKa nonpoc(tA
to sit dow11 and make themselves rocre1i ceCTb H pacnoAo.lKmcx
at home, but he himself went KaK AOMa, a caM Bb'rweA
out (L. N. Tolstoy)
 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
(v) A is used in slightly emphatic parentheses, which rein-
force the speaker's point:
Since he settled here (and that will 0 TeX nop, KaK OH noceAHACH
be jive years now) he has never a,~~;ecb (a ;hoM)' 6y,~~;eT y)Ke nHTb
once left the town AeT), OH HM paay He Bbie3)KaA
M3 ropo,11;a
(quoted by Vinogradov)
(vi) Notice the expression a BApyr, followed by the perfective
future, which may translate but what if?:
But what if he does not arrive in A BApyr OH He a6-apeMH npn,~~;eT?
time?

459· )Ke as a conjunction is particularly common in the follow-

ing uses:
(i) however
Tatyana Ivanovna Gardenina al-
ways spent the winter in St.
Petersburg. In the summer, how-
ever, she had, for some time,
lived abroad
(ii) also
Children are a joy to their parents,
they are also a support to them
in old age
TaTbJ!Ha MaaHOBHa fap,~~;eH:Hna
nocTOHHHO npoBO,II;HAa 3HMY B
11eTep6ypre. AeToM )Ke, c He-
KoTopbiX nop, )KHAa 3a rpa-
I-nlyeii (Ertel')
,LJ;eTM pa,~~;ocTb po,~~;:HTeAHM, oH:H
JKe M onopa MM B cTapocnr

460. I1 as a simple conjunction presents no difficulties. Notice

that with a negative verb it may correspond to either after an
English negative:
If you don't go, I shan't either EcAn Bbi ne nm'i,~~;eTe, To n H He
noi-i,~~;y

TaKJKe n may translate nor when the subjects of the main and
the subordinate clauses are the same:
He has read nothing of Dickens, OH nwier6 ,li;HKKeHca He 'IJHTaA,
nor is he familiar with Thac- ne3HaKoM on TaK)Ke u c Ta-
keray KepeeM
 (273)

THE PARTICLES
461 • .IKe is also commonly used as a particle:
(i) for (my) part •••
The doctor replied: 'I, for my BpatJ oTBeniA: •R a<e He 6oroc&
part, do not fear for you • . .' 3a Bac o ~
0 0

(ii) after all

Why do1z't ;•ou trust him? He's TiotJeMy Bbl He ,l!;OBeplieTe eMY?
your brother, after all OH a<e Barn 6paT
(iii) very
We shall go this very day Mbl cero,l!;Hll a<e noe,l!;e:M
But at the very first step we en- Ho Ha nepBOM a<e mary BCTpe-
counter an obstacle tJaeTCll npenliTCTBne
(Saltykov-Shchedrin)
(iv) else (after MAn)
Either I do not understand ;·ou or fiAn ll Bac He noHm.raJO, JWi a<e
else you do not wish to under- Bhl He xonhe noHHTb Meu.R
stand me
462. U also has a wide range of meanings as a particle:
(i) at all:
They did not know what to do at OHJi ue 3Ha.,\Ji, 'IJTO Ji ,J,eAaTh
all
(ii) even:
I will not erotn u•islz ;•ou good- He xo~ u ,J,66pott HO'IJH a<eAaTb
night Te6e (Gogol')
We decided that the doll would M&l pernJiAH, 'IJTO K)hu..y Heo6xo-
lzat•e to be taken back, all the Ath.to yHeCnf o6paTHO, TeM
more because Marusya would 66Aee, 'IJTO Mapycll ;horo u He
not et•en notice it 3aMenn (Korolenko)
(iii) indeed:
At first our aunt would look i1zto TiepBhle AHii 3ar,\liAhiBaAa K ua:r.~
our room ... but her visits be- B KOMHary TeT)'IDKa, ... a noToM
came less frequent and finally cT:iAa xoAJ{Tb pe.lKe u HaKoHeu
ceased altogether. We only saw coBceM nepecr<i.Aao :Mhl TOA&Ko
her indeed . • . at dinner • . • H BlfAeAHCb C He!Oo .. 3a o6e-
AOM... (S. Aksakov)
274 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
(iv) as (so) much as:
They were great!J enjoying them- MM 6:b1Ao 61:JeHb aeceAo, a Ha Hac
selves, but 110 one so much as HHKTO H He CMOTpeA
looked at us (S. Aksakov)
I thought as much
(v) just, precisely:
That's just the point B TOM-TO H AeAo

With personal pronouns, this emphatic sense is translated by

it is, that is:
I hope Victor will not forget to HaAeiOcL, BliKTop He 3a6yAeT
bring some wool, mine will soon npHBe3TH rnepCTH, a TO MOX
all run out. That's him coming cK6po acx BLriiiJ.eT. BoT OH H
now eAeT (L. N. Tolstoy)
463. M is also used idiomatically with the words Aa, TaK, and
TO.I\.bKO:
(i) Aa n means and indeed:
I made no reply-and indeed what R HH"'er6 He OTBe"'ci.ll., 11.a H 3aqeM
cause had I to rep!J? MHe 6:bl.ll.o oTBe"'aTL (Turgenev)

(ii) TaK H may mean as much (see para. 462 (iv)).

Notice also:
I told him, in so many words, that R TaK H cKa3aA eMy, 'ITO OH
he was a fool AypaK

(iii) TaK H also means literally, simply in metaphorical ex-

pressions:
His spectacles were literal!>' jump- Ha er6 A6y O"'KH TaK H np:brraAH
ing up and down on his brow (Mamin-Sibiryak)
I don't know why, my heart was He 3HaiO oner6, cepAue y MeHH
simp!J thumping TaK H 6riAOCb (S. Aksakov)
(iv) To.ll.bKO H ••• qTo translates idiomatically nothing but,
only: notice the partitive genitive:
His on!J redeeming feature is that T6ALKO H xop6rnero a HeM, 'ITO
he works hard ycepiJ.HO pa66TaeT
 THE PARTICLES 275
llepaoe apeMH, 11 ToMxo u ,~~;eAaA,
At first, I did TUJthing but lie with
a book in my hands 'ITo .1\eJKa.l\ c xarrroH: a PYKa.x
(Bunin)
People are talki11g of nothing else ToMKO u pa3roa6poa, qTo o6
BTOM
(v) H TO translates and then in a concessive sense:
In our family wine was served 011(}• Buu6 nop,aaa.I\OCL y uac TO.I\bKO
at dinner, and then only one 3a o6e,~~;oM, n To no pK>Moqxe
glass each (Pushkin)
464. Other common particles are:
Be,~~;o after all, but:
But at the same time nothing after A MCJKAY TeM unqer6 BC,ll;b He
all can be easier than to over- M6JKeT 6biTh Aene, xax nepe-
estimate one's own strength oyeHihb cami cll.i\bl
(Sergeyev-Tsensky)
But you'll go to the front with A aa cppoHT Bbi c nHM noe,~~;eTe?
him? Of course! Egor Pavlo- - xone•mo! Erop llaa.l\oaHq,
vich, we'll go, won't we? noe,li;CM BC,J,L (fedin)
Bor here is, that's:
Here are the typical tracks of a BoT xapaxTepLnu'i cAeA 3auua.
hare. It was going along in On ABHra.i\Cll Me.I\KHt.m npbiJK·
short bounds xaMii (Arsenev)
That's fine BoTH xopow6
BoT may also be used to describe graphically a series of events:
I pictured to myself a tiger lying fi npe,~~;craanA ce6e nirpa AeJKa-
in a thicket of vines. Lo a11d be- J!!HM a 3apocN!X BHHorpa,~~;a.
hold it stood up, shook itself and BoT OH BCTaA, acrpHXHy.1\Cll H
yawned 3eBHYA (Arsenev)
BoT H may indicate that something expected has happened:
'Here we are, arrived safely', «BoT n ,~~;o Mecra ,~~;oexaAnt, MoA-
said the driver, turning to me auA HMJ!!HK, noaopaqHBaHCb xo
MHe (Saltykov-Shchedrin)
BpJIA Ali it's unlikely, I doubt:
I doubt if he knows BpM An oa 3aaeT
276 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
f .z:te followed by an infinitive expresses the speaker's view that
something is doubtful, or even impossible:
They don't understand, your He llOHHMa!OT, same 6Aarop6AHe,
honour, they don't understand. He llOHHMa!OT. f ,ZJ;e HM llOmlTh!
How can they be expected to un- f.l\'ym.Ie OHH pe6l1Ta (Garshin)
derstand? They are onry stupid
children
LJ,a expresses agreement with what has just been said or sug-
gested, and may therefore be translated by no as well as yes:
Tou don't like it? No, I don't Eho BaM He HpaanTCH? ,LJ;a, He
HpaBHTCH
There's something in this TYT 'ITO-Hn6yAo Aa ecTh
-Ka with the perfective future indicates that a speaker is intend-
ing to do something and is inviting comment; cf. English what
if . .. :
And what if I ask this postmaster A nonpowy-Ka H y 9Toro no'IT-
for a loan MeiicTepa B3aiiM:bJ: (Gogo!')
Y JK may correspond to after all:
Not so bad after all! He TaK Y.lK nA6xo!
It is most commonly used however to strengthen other particles
in the meanings already indicated: BeAb yJK, BOT yJK, r.z:te yJK:
That's completery untrue! BoT Y.lK 9To HenpaBAa!
How can an old man like him go fAe Y.lK eMy, cTapoMy, HATH Ha
to war? The first soldier he meets BOHHY! Er6 nepBbiii CO.I\AaT
will shoot him 3aCTp6.1\nT (Gogo!')

SOME COMMON ADVERBS AND THEIR

TRANSLATION
Again
465. The general word is onl!TI>: HeyJKeAH Te6e onHTD ecTI.
xoqeTCH sure?J you're not hungry again. CH6Ba means afresh, anew:
Ha'laTI. JKM:Tb CHoBa to begin life anew. E!!!e paa means once more,
on one more occasion: cKaJKihe aTo eJ!!e paa II BI>I noJKaAeeTe o6
aTOM say that again andyou'll be sorry. As much again is eJ!!e CTOAbKO
*e; half as much again is B noATopa pa3a 66AI>me.
 SOME COMMON ADVERBS
Already
466. Y.IKe is more often used in Russian than already in English
(see para. 227 (i)): y.IKe no3,li;HO it's late, it's getting late. EI,ge may
be used as a synonym ofy.IKe meaning as earry as, as far back as:
9To 6biAO n3BCCTHo y.IKe (ei,ge) B I g I o ro,.11;y that was known as earry
as 1910.
Y.IKe He pa3 means several times: H y.IKe He pa3 BH,ll;a./\ ero c
KOHQa BOJ1Hhi I have seen him several times since the end of the war.
Y.IKe ,.11;aBHO means it is a long time since: .11 y.IKe ,.11;aBHO He BI1,ll;e./\ ee
it's a long time since I've seen her; note also BOT y.IKe: Ml>I He BI1,ll;e-
./\HCL BOT y.IKe n.IITL .1\eT we haven't seen each other for five years (It's
five years since we've seen each other).
Also
467. The conjunctions TO.IKe and TaK.IKe are in general inter-
changeable when their function is to indicate a resemblance to
a person or thing previously mentioned:
Her face was pale; her slightly Auuo ee 6b'IAo 6.M!AHo; CAerKa
parted lips had slso gone white pacKph'ITLie ry6bi To.IKe (TaK.IKe)
n06.he,li;HC.hH
But To.IKe is more appropriate than TaK.IKe in conversation: a
yeTi./\ cero,li;H.II. .H TO.IKe! I'm tired today. Me too! In negative con-
texts the English equivalent is nor: MHe He xotieTC.II nnTL. MHe
TO.IKe I'm not thirsty. Nor am I. To.IKe He means not either: a TO.IKe
He 3HaiO I don't know either. To.IKe always carries the logical
stress in its sentence.
TaK.IKe (but not TO.IKe) is used to introduce new information
about a person or thing already mentioned:
Panshin was in fact very adroit, llaumi.fu
not less so than his father, but o'leHL .hOBOK - ue xy.~Ke oTua;
he was also very gifted as well uo ou 6LL'I. TaK.IKe oqeuL Aapo-
Bih (Turgenev)
In certain contexts the compound conjunction a TaK.IKe may be
apt:
It was well known that he drank, H3BeCTHO 6hi.hO, 'ITO OH nLeT,
smoked and also played billiards KypnT a TaK.IKe nrpaeT ua
in dirty pubs 6II.hLllp,ll;e B rpH3HLIX TpaKnJ:pax
(Gor'ky)
815634 K
278 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
A synonym of a TaK.IKe in this sense would be KpoMe Taro besides,
what is more.
Altogether (quite, at all)
468. Although the English equivalents of BnOAHc, coBcb.t, and
coBepwemiO are normally given asfully, altogether, and completely,
these three words are, in positive statements, synonymous.
In unemphatic negative statements He BllOJ\He, He coBceM, and
He coBeprneHHO are, similarly, synonymous: He BnoAHe (coBceM,
coBeprneHHO) ,ll.OCTOHHhiii tieAoBeK a not altogether worthy man. In
emphatic negative statements, however, (English not at all, not in
the least) only coBceM He, coBeprneHHO He and a third expression,
BOBce He, may be used; BnOAHe He is impossible: oH BoBce
(coBceM, coBeprneHHO) He O.IKMAaA 3Toro he did not expect that at
all. BoBce without He is now archaic. The unity of the expression
BoBce He is demonstrated by the fact that, with the long forms
of the past participle passive, He remains separate: a completely
unsolved problem BoBce He peweHHhiH Bonpoc but coBeprneHHo
(coBceM) HeperneHHI>Iif Bonpoc.
J;JeAHKOM and BCey;eAO mean wholly: OH y;eAMKOM (Bcey;eAO)
norAOIMCH cBoeii: pat56TO:if he is wholly immersed in his work.

Always
469. Meaning constantly, all the time, always, is best translated
by llOCTOHHliO, BCe BpeMn, or simply Bee : BTOT pe6eHOK BCe
nAatieT this child is always crying.

Enough
470. With adjectives and adverbs ,ll.OBOAI>HO means enough in
the sense of rather or fairly but not in the sense of stifficiently:
,ll.OBO.hl>HO xop6rna.11 meca a fairly good play. Enough meaning
stifficiently with adjectives and adverbs is translated by ,ll.OCTaToti-
HO: OH ,ll.OCT<iTOtiHO 6oraT, 11T06l>I KynHTb Tpn ,ll.OMa he is rich
enough to buy three houses.
With a noun enough meaning stifficient may be translated by
either ,ll.OBO.hbHO or ,ll.OCTaTOtiHO: ,ll.OBO.hl>HO (AOCTaTOtiHO) y BaC
KMpmrt~e:H Ha nocTpoifKy ,ll.OMa? have you enough bricks to build the
house?
 SOME COMMON ADVERBS 279
Note that not enough may be idiomatically translated by MaJI.o:
MaJI.o KyrrnTL KHnry, HaAo er,ge llnT<iTL ee it is not enough to buy
a book, one must also read it.
Even
471. Even meaning as early as is translated by er,ge or yJKe: er,ge
(yJKe) pet5eHKOM oH OLIJ\ BLIAa!Or,gnMcx cKpnna'leM even as a child
he was an outstanding violinist.
Not even in Russian is A<iJKe He (not He A<iJKe): A<iJKe OH He
3HaeT ot5 ;hoM not even he knows of this; HnKm.cy, A<iJKe AeHnHy,
He OLL'\O cKa3aHo ot5 onacHocTn no one, not even Lenin, was told
of the danger.
Exactly, precisely
472. P6BHO is used only with numbers or quantities: poBHO B
ABa 'lad at precisely two o'clock; BecoM poBHo B KJtAorpaMM exactly
a kilogram in weight; note also oH posHo Hn'ler6 He noHHJI. he
understood precisely nothing.
To'lHO may also be used with numbers but is also combined
with identifying words: TO'lHO TaKa.ll JKe KHiira precisely the same
sort of book; OH TaK TO'lHO nocTymiA KaK 6paT he behaved in exactly
the same way as his brother.
KaK pa3 is the exact equivalent ofjust: KaK pa3 TO, 'ITO MHe
HYJKHO just what I need; OOTJIHKH MHe KaK pa3 Bnopy the boots are
just right for me. Note that KaK pa3 may be used as a predicate:
IIL\{ma MHe KaK pa3 the hat is just my size.
liMeHHO in positive statements is synonymous with KaK pa3
in its identifying sense: nMeHHO To, 'ITO r.me HYJKHO just what I
need; IIMeHHO alone, however, is used in questions and reported
questions: KTO JIMeHHO CKa3<iJI. :ho? who exactly was it who said
that?; CKOJI.LKO ti:MeHHO BaM HYJKHO aneJI.LCJtHOB exactly how many
oranges do you need?; x cnpoc1iJI. er6, KyAa nMeHHO OH CAeT I asked
him where exactly he was going.
Notice He TO 'lT6(6LI) ... HO, not exactly . .. but:
She did not exactly run Versilov' s Omi He To 'ITO ynpasilia, HO
estate but kept a neighbourly eye no COCeACTBY HaA3HpaAa 3a
on it uMeHHeM BepciiAosa
(Dostoyevsky)
 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION

First
473· CHa'laAa means first qf all or at first: cnaqaAa A'YM:m!, rroT<)M
roBopu think before you speak (first think, then speak); CHaq:i..\a HX
6eceAa mAa BHAO at first their conversation languished. In the mean-
ingfrom the beginning alternative spellings are possible, cHatiaAa
or c HatiaAa: HatiaTL cHatiaAa (c HatiaAa) to beginfrom the begin-
mng.
IIpe.IKAe Bcer6 may also meanfirst qf all: oH AOA.IKeH rrpe.IKAe
BCer6 KOH'IUTh 3To he must first finish this. IIpe.~KAe Bcer6 also
means first and foremost; IIymKHH npe.IKAe Bcer6 no3T Pushkin is
first and foremost a poet.
BrrepB:bre means for the first time (synonym of B rrepBhrii pa3):
.H BnepB:bre rroexaA B A6HAOH B 1940 fOAY !first went to London in
1940.
Bo-rrepBhrx in the first place (BO·BTop:brx secondly, B·TpeThnx
thirdly).
Here, there
474· TyT is more colloquial than 3AeCh meaning in this place.
Note that who is there? in Russian may be, as well as KTO TaM?,
KTO MeCh ?, or KTO ryT? TyT may also be used without locative
meaning, corresponding to English hereupon, with this, there, now:
TYT AeAo KOH'IHAOCh there the matter ended; TYT on rroAomeA Ko
MHe with this, he came up to me. TyT .IKe may mean there and then,
on the spot: nama APY.IKOa rrpeKpaTHAach TYT .IKe our friendship
ended there and then. TaM may mean then, later: TaM BHAHO 6yAeT
we shall see when the time comes.

Inside, outside
475· BHYTPM means inside (location) and BHYTPh inside (motion):
omf: Bee 6:brAn BHYTPM they were all inside; OHM Bce BOUIAM BHYTPh
they all went inside. Note also BHYTPM CTpaH:br and BHYTPh cTpaH:br:
MHe HpaBiuc.a .IKHTh BHYTPH CTpaH:br I like living inland; OHM
exaAH BHYTPh CTpaH:br they travelled inland.
The opposites ofBHYTPM and BHYTPh are cHapy.IKH and Hapy.IKy
respectively: o6HBaTh (o6MTh) ABeph CHapy.IKn BOHAOKOM to cover
the outside qf a door with felt; er6 rrpecryrrAemre B:brUIAo Hapy.IKy
 SOl\·IE COMMON ADVERBS
his crime came to light; aTH HCCAeAoBaHHH BhmeAii saiKm.re q>aKThi
HapyiKy these researches brought important facts to light.

Left, right
476. HaAeso, Hanpaso may mean either to the left (right) of
(location or motion), or on the left (right) of: nosopaqnsaTh (no-
sepH)'Th) Ha.l\eso (Hanpaso) to turn to the left (right); Ha.'\eso oT
AOMa 6hL'\ napK to the left of the house was a park.
CAesa, cnpasa may mean either on the left (right) or from tlze
left (right): CAesa oT Hero on his left; cAesa Hanpaso from left to
right.

Long
477· ,LJ,oAro means for a long time referring to the actual duration
of a state or action (French pendant longtemps): H AO.\ro CMOTpeA
Ha Hero I looked at him for a long time.
,LJ,asHo means for a long time preceding the moment of speech
(French depuis longtemps): x AaBHO He BIIAM ero I hm•en't seen
him for a long time. Compare:
I waited for you for a long time, R Bac AOAro JK.~~,aA, a Bbi He
but you did not come npuw.,\Jt
I had been waiting for you for a R y.n<e ,~~;aBH6 no,~~;.n<HAa' Bac,
long time when ;•ou came Kor,~~;a Bbl npnmAII

,LJ,asHo yiKe napa means it is high time: AaBHo yiKe nopa naM
yibii it is high time we went.
· ,L(asHo may also mean a long time ago: H AaBHO K)'liliA aTOT
,~~;oM
I bought this house a long time ago.
3a,~~;o.wo AO a long time before • . . ; omi yexa.'\n aaAOAro AO
noA)"HoqJi they left long before midnight.
HaAo.wo means for a long time, referring to the completion of
a state or action, as opposed to AOAro referring to their duration;
compare:
The meeting u•as lasting a long Co6paHne npoAO.\.a<a\och AOAro,
time and Voroshilov went home 11 BopomliAoB yexa., AOM6fl
The meeting dragged out for a long Co6paH11e aaTJmy.,ocb HaA6Aro,
time and I missed the train n ll onoaAa\ Ha n6eaA
 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
In the first sentence Voroshilov went home before the end of the
meeting; in the second the speaker stayed till the end of the
meeting, with the result that he missed the train.
HaAOAro is also used with imperfective or perfective verbs
expressing intention: .H eAy B AOHAOH HaAOAro I am going to
London for a long time; OH yexaA HaAOAro he has gone away for a
long time.
No longer referring to the duration of a state or action is
66ALllle He (French ne ... plus): .H 6oALllle He xoqy pa66TaTL
I don't want to work any longer; .H 66AI>llle He 6yAy )K,l!;aTL er6 I shall
not wait any longer for him. No longer referring to the cessation of
a state or action is 6oALllle He or y)Ke He: oH 6oALllle (y)Ke) He
MaAbqHK he is no longer a hoy.
Before long is cKopo: on cKopo npHAeT he will he here before long.
He cKopo ei,ge is used to translate it will he a long time before: He
cK6po ei,ge MLI BCTpeTHMC.H om1n it will be a long time before we meet
again. BcKope (lit. in a short time) may translate not long: OH
BCKope orneTHA Ha Moe nHCLM6 he did not take long to answer my
letter.
~ore, less, Daost, least
478. E6Aee and MeHee are bookish in tone and less used than
66ALllle and MeHLllle when both are possible, i.e. as the compara-
tives of MH6ro and MaAo: 66Aee (66ALI1Ie) AByx Mec.HQeB more
than two months.
Only 66Aee or MeHee may be used in combination with adjec-
tives and adverbs: on 66Aee 6oranru qeAoBeK, qeM .H he is a
richer man than I; qHTaiiTe Kmiry 66Aee BHHMaTeALHO read the hook
more carefully.
There are also certain fixed expressions in which only 66Aee
or MeHee may be used: 66Aee IIAH MeHee more or less, TeM He
MeHee none the less, ne 66Aee u ue MeHee KaK no less than (quite
simply): AeAo lliAO He 66Aee H He MeHee KaK o Boii:ne IiAn M:Hpe
the issue was, quite simply, war or peace.
More with numerals is ei,ge: ei,ge ABa paaa twice more.
When more means rather it should be rendered by cKopee: OH
cKopee rrox6)K Ha oTua, qeM Ha MaTL he is more like his father than
his mother.
 SOME COMMON ADVERBS 283
At most may be translated by He 66ALIIIe (not more than) or by
CclMOe OOALIIIee: y Hero He OOALIIIe Tpex KO{>OB (caMoe OOALIIIee
T{>H Kop6BLI) he has three cows at most. At least may similarly be
translated by caMoe MeHLIIIee, He MeHLme, or by a third variant
no KpaiiHeii Mepe.
Notice that if the construction with 66Aee (66;\LIIIe) or MeHce
(MeHLIIIe) depends on words which demand the use of the
dative, locative, or instrumental case, the comparative con-
junction 11eM must be used: 66ALIIIe 11eM ABYMCTaM cryAeHTaM
BpyqeH:br MeA<iAu more than two hundred students were awarded
medals.
Much
479· In combination with comparative adjectives or adverbs,
ropci3AO should be used and not MH6ro, which is colloquial:
ropa3AO A'Yllme much better. With verbs much is translated by
HaMH6ro: Jl HaMHoro npeAno'lnTaiO !'.ulco p:b16c I much prefer meat
to fish.
Too (much) may be translated by either CAiliiiKOM or CAitillKOM
!'.moro; CAHIIIKOM indicates excessive intensity or degree, c:~.Iirn­
KOM MHoro excessive quantity. With nouns cArirnKOM !'.moro is,
naturally, always used: CAiirnKoM MH6ro Mac:~.a too much butter;
note also the pronominal use of CAillliK0!\1 MHO me (too ma1ry
people): CAI1rnKOM MH6me A~miOT, 'ITO ... too many people think
that . ... With verbs either CAIIIIIKOM or CAiirnKm.t MHoro is used,
according to whether excessive intensity or degree or excessive
quantity is meant: He HMO CAiimKoM npeAaB<iTLcH pa3B.\e'le-
HnHM one must not indulge too much in pleasure; He HaAo CAitlliKOM
MH6ro roBO{>HTL one must not talk too much. (See also very much).
CAiirnKOM is most often used with verbs of thinking, feeling, or
wishing.
With certain words CAiirnKOM may be omitted:
Twenty roubles for a ticket is too ,LI;aaAu;an. py6Aeii 3a 6n.,eT-
much sTo liiHoro
You are too young to judge of that .Pano BaM cyAJfTh o6 STO:.I
It is too late to think of that now Il63AHO Teneph AyMaTb o6 aToM
Very much may be either 611eHL or o'leHL MH6ro: the difference
between oqenL and O'!eHL MH6ro is the same as that between
 THE ADVERB; THE CONJUNCTION
C.I\HlliKOM and C.I\HlliKOM MH6ro. Like C.I\HlliKOM, O'leHL is most
often used with verbs of thinking, feeling, or wishing: .11 o'leHL
coMHeBaJOcL I very much doubt, .liO'IeHL 6mocL I'm very much afraid,
.11 oqeuL xoqy pa66TaTL I very much want to work. Notice that with
H3MeHHTLC.II (n3MeHHTLCH) one may say either ou oqeuL H3Me-
HH.I\C.ll or oH oqeHL Cil.I\LHO H3MeHH.I\CH, since the meaning may be
to a great extent (qualitatively) or a great deal (quantitative physi-
cal change). One does not, however, say OH O'leHL MH6ro H3Me-
HiiAcx.
Notice the difference between He oqeHL not very and c)qeu& He
a1!Jlhing but, not in the least: .11 He oqeuL .1\106.1\ro BHHO I don't like
wine very much; OH oqeHL He B Ayxe he's very much out of sorts (any-
thing but in a good temper).
Notice that the adverb CH.I\LHO is very commonly used with
verbs to express great intensity or great quantity and may
correspond to a wide variety of English adverbs:
I was forcibly struck by his remark JI 6LI.I\ CII.I\Lno nopa)Ken er6 3aMe-
'lanueM
I am greatly in need of monry R cli.I\Lno ny)KAarocL B AenLrax
He drinks heavily On cHALno nLeT
My curiosity was keenly aroused Moe Aro6onLITCTBO 6LI.I\O CHALHO
Boa6y)KACno
He was sweating profusely On CH.I\bno non!A
He fell seriously ill On Cli.I\Lno 3aneM6r
She is very unea~ Ona CH.I\Lno 6ecnoK6HTCJJ

Now
480. Ceiiqac may mean either at once (immediate future) or Just
now (immediate past): OH ceiiqac npnAeT he will be here presently;
KaK BLI ceiiqac roBopHAH as you were Just saying.
TenepL may mean nowadays: rnaxTepLr TenepL )KHBYT npnne-
BaiO'IH miners nowadays are in clover.
Both cdiqac and TenepL may mean at present, at the moment:
rAe oH TenepL (ceiiqac) )KHBeT? where is he living now?
Now ... now ... is translated by To ... , To ... : ToCHer, TO AO)I(AL
snow one moment, rain the next.
From now on, henceforth is BnpeAL: BnpeAL .11 6y,.11;y )KHTL B
AHr.l\nnfrom now on I shall live in England.
 SOME COMMON ADVERBS 285
Now (French or) in narrative is expressed by a: a TaK KaK OH
He rrpHexaA, 11 penniA, qTo oH y6H:T now, as he did not come, I de-
cided he had been killed.
Really, surely
481. '.Pa3Be is used when the speaker expects the answer no,
Hey.lKeAH when the speaker hopes to receive the answer no' (Un-
begaun, Russian Grammar, p. 279): pa3Be :ho c.-\yqJl:AocL B rrp6w-
AOM ro,zr;y? did that really happen last ;•ear? Hey.lKeAH Bac ocKOf>OlL\O
To, qTo 11 cKa3M? surely you weren't offended by what I said? But this
theoretical distinction is not always observed, and often the two
words correspond to surely not.
 V · The Pronoun and Pronominal
Words
PERSONAL
Ce6.H
482. (i) The personal pronouns present no special difficulties,
except possibly ce6.H, the reflexive pronoun applicable to all
persons. The reflexive pronoun ce6.H usually refers to the per-
former of the action in the clause which contains the ce6»:, or,
as is often said, to the subject of the nearest verb. Compare: OH
npeMmK(IA ChiHY HaJ\HTb ce6e BOAM he told his son to pour himself
out some water-where the son performs the action and ce6e
refers to ChiHy-and: OH npeMO.>KHA Chmy HaJ\HTb eMy BO,ll;bi
he told his son to pour him out some water-where eMj refers to oH.
However, this distinction is not consistently observed, and in
some contexts there is no 'performer' of an action, e.g. OH 3acnill.
.>KeHy y ce6.H B KOMHaTe he found his wife in her (his?) room, where
no action is performed by the wife and it is not clear whether
ce6.H refers to her or to him. In cases of this sort it is advisable
to recast the sentence and say either: B ee KOMHaTe in her room
or B cBoeii KOMHaTe in his room.
(ii) It will be noticed that the various cases of ce6.H are used
idiomatically in a few common expressions, such as the follow-
ing:
Co66ii is added to xoporn, .ztypeH, and He.ztypeH (short forms)
to convey the idea ofjacially, externally:
She is very good looking Omi oqCHb xopormi co66li
Very similar is the force of co66ii in the expression caMo co66ii
pa3yMeeTcn of course, it goes without saying, i.e. the thing is obvious
on the surface.
IIpe.ztcTaBJI.HTb co66ii (followed by the accusative) is a literary
synonym for 6hlr&, RBJI.HTbCR (see para. 362).
(iii) Stressed ce6e is common in the possessive sense of one's
 PERSONAL
own (see para. sox), and, in combination with car.r, in the same
meaning:
I am my own boss Jl caM ce6e xo31hm
Notice, too, the idiom:
He's a very crafty customer OH 6t~eHb ce6e Ha ~te (colloq.)
Unstressed ce6e (sometimes with sHaii) is a particle used collo-
quially in a way which allows no direct translation, but which
often suggests keeping on despite everything:
He just keeps on (ying there say- OH Ae*Ih ce6e TaM, u HH'Iero He
ing nothing rosopJ.iT
We give ourselves airs, but life l\fhr nepeA APYrOM HOC Aepi::-.1, a
carries on regardless )KH3Hb 3Hai1: ce6e npoXOAHT
(Chekhov)
Not too bad, alright (cf. collo- Hnqero ce6e, TaK ce6e
quial English just keeping
on living)
483. With a few verbs ce6»: is used independently (not amal-
gamated as cH) in a way not suggested by the English equi-
valents (see also para. 286):
How does the patient feel? KaK ce6li t~yscTByeT 6oAbHOH ?
He is behaving bad(y OH BeAh ce6li nAoxo
He'll prove his worth before long OH cKopo ce6li noKax<eT

484. When a pair of verbs exists, one with the independent

pronoun ce6.K, the other with the amalgamated reflexive form
-cH, the difference between them, generally speaking, is that the
former emphasises that the action of the verb is done consciously
or deliberately, while the latter merely records the process:
He depri<•ed himself of many OH Alnm-iA ce6.Ji MHonrx YAOBOAb-
pleasures CTBHii
He lost his tongue On AJumi.\CH pet~H

You
485. When BLI refers to one person only, it is usually followed
by the singular number of a noun or an adjective in the long
288 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS
form, and by the plural number of a verb or an adjective in the
short form (or O,ZJ;MH) :
Tou are not so jolly today as you B1>1 cer6,11;Hll He TaK6ti Bect:AI>rti,
were yesterday KaKnM BI>I 6b'r!ili B'lepa
Tou are right, I think B~>~, Ka)KeTcH, rrpliB1>1
Do you live on your own, Anna? B1>1 )KHBeTe O,II;Hn, Aaaa?

But the feminine singular form of O,ZJ;MH is also used after Bbr, as
in the following example from L. N. Tolstoy:
B~>~ o,~~;aa ae rro,~~;,~~;aAnci> Mae Tou alone did not submit to me
For the translation of the indefinite personal pronoun you, see
one (para. s6o).
We
486. As in English, 'we' is often used for 'I'; an adjective quali-
fying it will have a neuter ending: pe,ZJ;aKTopcKoe MDI the editorial
'we'; Moaapwee Mbr the royal 'we'.
He, she
487. BTO may replace OH or oaa when reference is made to a
specific subject already mentioned or about to be mentioned
(cf. French c' est, c' etait) :
At length he came up to me. He HaKoHey oa rro,~~;oiiib Ko Mae.
was a leisurely individual . . . fho 6I>IJ.. HeTOpOIIJ..MBbiH 'leJ..O-
BeK •..
She's a clever woman, our new 3TO yMHall )KCHJ!!HHa, aawa
teacher HoBall rrperro,~~;asaTeJ..LHHUa

488. After the preposition y, two forms of the genitive of oaa

are still widely used: y aee and y aeii. After ,ZJ;J..ll and oT both
forms may still be found in modern Russian, although ,ZJ;J..ll aee
and oT aee are much more common. After other prepositions
nee is now always used in the literary language.
It
489. When it refers to a single specific object which is masculine
or feminine, it will be translated by oa or oaa:
How do you like my skirt? It is KaK BaM apaBUTCll MOll ro6Ka?
very pretty Oaa 6t~eHI> Kpacnsa
 PERSONAL ~9

490. When it refers not to a specific object (e.g. skirt, para. 489)
but to a general state of affairs or set of circumstances previously
mentioned or implied, it will be translated by 3TO. In the follow-
ing sentences the author is reminiscing about a time and an
adventure just alluded to:
Yes, it was a wonderful time. It ,LJ;a, 3To 6L'rAo '~YAHOe speMll.
was an absolutely amazing ad- ~ho 6brAo H3YMiheAhHOe npn-
venture for a nine year old boy KAIO'leHne AJI.ll ,ll.eB.RTHAeTHero
MclAh'lHKa (l\1aisky)

491. It is, it was, used in introducing a narrative sequence to set

a scene or define the place or time of an action, may be idio-
matically translated by ,ll.eAo:
It was in winter. The ground was ,LI;eAo 6biAo 3nM6fi. 3eMAH 6hiAa
covered in snow noKpbiTa cneroM

492. It is not translated in Russian when it does not refer at all

to any subject previously mentioned or implied (the so-called
'unspecified it'). This use of it is especially common in expres-
sions involving the weather, time, and distance:
It is cold outside X6AOAHO ua ,li.Bope
It is hailing l1AeT rPM
(Very colloquial is OH() nox6JKe Ha AOJKAh it looks like rain)
It is Friday today Cero,li.H.II mhHuya
Is it far to the station? ,LI;aAeKO ,li.O BOK3aAa?

493· It will not normally be translated in combinations of

it is+ adjective +infinitive (e.g. it is good to, better to, hard to,
easy to, too late to, etc.) :
It is lln•er too late to mend McnpaBIIThCH m1KOrAa He n63AHO
It i < rosier to get into trouble than Aei"le nonaCTb B 6e,ll.y, 'leM
to get out of it BLinYTaThC.II 113 nee

494· It is, it was arc not translated in Russian in such contexts

as 'it was A that did B', 'it was in A that B happened' where the
English simply means A did B, B happened in A:
It was on just such a day that I
first met him
290 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS
It was just about that time that his KaK pa3 oKOAo TOro apeMeHn 6hlA
new novel was published Ib,~taH er6 n6BLii1 poMan
It was Lenin's strategy that rescued CTpaTernH .l\ennna Bh'IBeAa nac
us from this impasse H3 aToro TynnKa
495· Notice the omission of it in translating sentences such as:
I don't speak Chinese but I under- R He roBopro no-KnTai1cKn, Ho
stand it llOHHM<liO
where the language spoken is expressed by an adverbial con-
struction in Russian.

Ou, oua, OHH after prepositions

496. A prosthetic H- is attached to 3rd person personal pro-
nouns when used after most, but not all prepositions. The H- is
added after all basic prepositions such as 6ea, B, ANI, AO, aa,
na, K, Ha, HaA, o, oT, m!peA, no, no,~t, npn, npo, c, y, qepea. It is
also added after many prepositions of adverbial origin which
govern the genitive case, such as B03Ae, BoKpY'r, BnepeAH, MHMo,
HanponiB, oKoAo, nocAe, nocpe,~tn, caa,~tn. It is NOT added after
prepositions of adverbial origin governing the dative case
(HaBcTpeqy, no,~t66Ho, Bonpexw, etc.); or after BHYTPH and BHe;
or after adverbial combinations consisting of preposition and
noun, e.g. He B npiiMep eft, 3a HCKJ\IOqeHHeM HX, B OTHOWeHHH
er6.
In the combination Bce OHH in oblique cases, the prosthetic
H- is sometimes used, sometimes not. Hence one meets both
y Bcex nx and y Bcex HHX; HaA BCCMH HMH and HaA BCeMn HHMH.

POSSESSIVE
My, your, his, etc.
497· When these possessive pronouns refer to the subject of the
sentence they may be omitted:
I am looking for "!)' sister R MI.l!Y cecTpy
She loves her mother Omi Aro6nT MaTL
No possible ambiguity can arise from their omission, they are
not emphatic, and it is more usual to leave them out than to
translate them.
 POSSESSIVE
498. (i) When they refer to the subject of a clause, they may
also be translated either by MOM, TBOfi, etc., depending on the
person, or by the reflexive cnoH:, irrespective of the person:
I am looking for my sister Jl llf!!Y ~1010 (cBoK>) cecTpy
It is probably true to say that in spoken Russian nowadays
MOJO is as common if not more common than cBoK> in the above
context, but that neither is as common as the omission of the
pronoun altogether, except where emphasis is desired (my own).
With a 2nd person singular subject cnoH: is much more common
than TBoiL With a subject in the 3rd person, of course, only
cnoM can be used.
(ii) It should be added that while one has the option of using
either cnoii or MOM, TBOM, Haw, and naw, one does not have the
option of using either ce6Jl:, or the oblique cases of .11, nx, MLI,
and BLI. Thus:
rou are only thinking of;•ourselj Bbi Ay~meTe TOAbKo o ce6e (not
sac)
But:
rou are only thinking ofyour own Bb! Ay~meTe TOALKO 0 csoeii
safety (Bameii) 6e3omicuocTn
(iii) The choice of cnoii or er6 to translate his is governed by
the same factors as governed the choice of ce6a or the oblique
case of the personal pronoun to translate him in para. 482 (i).
Thus: npo<f>eccop nonpocH:A accncTeHTa npo•mraTb cno1i AOKAaA
the professor asked his assistant to read his (the assistant's) paper:
but npo<f>eccop nonpoCII.I\ accncTeuTa npoquTaTb er6 AOKAaA
the professor asked his assistant to read his (the professor's) paper.
Again: ,L(;Ko11 npur.\acxiA 6paTa npoAOA)KaTb nyTemecTBife n
er6 aKnna,Ke John invited his brother to continue the journey in his
(John's) carriage; but ,L(;KoH 3acTaBH.I\ 6paTa npoAO,\)KclTL nyre-
weCTBHe B CBOCM 9KHflcl)Ke John made his brother continue the
journey in his own (the brother's) carriage.
499· Care is needed with cnofi in the nominative case:
(i) The usc of cnoH: is almost completely restricted to the
object or prepositional complement of a sentence as above. It
may not, for example, be used in the subject of a subordinate
292 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS
clause to translate a possessive pronoun which refers to the sub-
ject of the main clause:
John said that his sister was 4moH cKa3aA, qTo er6 cecTpa 3a
abroad rpaHngeii ( cBo.ll: would be im-
possible)
(ii) Cso:ii may, however, be used in the grammatical subject
of a Russian sentence in have constructions, where the Russian
grammatical subject corresponds to the English grammatical
object:
The director had his own plan Y ,~~;wpeKTOpa 6hl.l\ cBoii: n.l\aH
Communism has its good and bad B KOMMyHH3Me eCTh cBo.ll: xop6-
sides maH n cBo.ll: nAoxaH cTopoHa
Everything has its own rules Ha BCe CBOH npiBH.I\a
(iii) The only other instances of csoii qualifying a nominative
subject (or predicate) occur in a few idioms and proverbs, where
the possessive sense of csoii is often no longer felt:
Accounts between friends are easi{y CBon .l\lO,~~;w- coqTeMCH
settled
He is one of us OH MH Hac cBoii qeAoBeK
He's a good chap OH CBOH napeHh
Charity begins at home CBo.ll: py6amKa 6.1\nme K Te.l\y

soo. Csoii has many idiomatic uses of which the following may
be noted:
Opportune{y B cBoe BpeMH
To die a natural death YMwpaTh (yMepeT~>) cBoeii: cMep-
ThlO
I am upset, I am not myself Jl caM He CBOH
As a substantive cso:H = one's people, one's folk.

501. The English possessive pronouns may also be idiomatically

rendered in Russian by oblique cases of the appropriate per-
sonal pronoun, with or without prepositions. Several common
examples of this construction are:
(i) Personal pronoun in the dative, with no preposition:
He wiped his brow OH noTep ce6e Ao6
He pressed my hand OH noma./\ MHe PYKY
She broke her neck (lit. head) 0Ha C.I\OMa.l\a ce6e rO.I\OBY
 POSSESSIVE 293
Fear and malice gripped my heart Y*ac n 3Ao6a CTitcHyAn r.me
cep,ll,ye
The first thing that sprang to my Ilepsoe, tiTO 6pocnAocr. 11me s
eyes
It fell to my lot l\1He s:bmaAo ua ,II,OAIO
It occurred to me (came into nry MHe npHIIIAO B roAOBY
head)
In almost all the above examples, the object mentioned is a
part of the body.
(ii) Preposition and personal pronoun:
She never came into my room
MHe B KO!IIHaTy
I ran ojJ into nry study R y6e*a.l\ K ce6e B Ka6nHeT
I lay down in my room R .1\er y ce6B: B KO!IIHaTe
Tears were flowing from her eyes C.I\C3bl TeKA:H y Hee n3 r Aa3
In these and many similar examples, motion towards, or rest
in a place are expressed.

DEMONSTRATIVE
This, that
502. While :hoT and TOT correspond in the main to the demon-
strative this and that to indicate differing degrees of proximity,
it will be noticed that !hOT, especially in its neuter form :ho, is
very widely used vvhere English says that. Very often in such a
case it refers to something just previously mentioned or indi-
cated:
That's true (i.e. what you have ~ho npas,11,a
just said)
That depends (e.g. the answer 3To 3aBiknT
to the question you have
just asked)
I used to live in Paris, but that R Kor,11,a-To *HA s Ilapli*e, Ho
(i.e. the fact just mentioned) STO 6:bv.o ,11,asH6
was a long time ago
That's the kettle boiling
Notice also:
Who's that? What's that?
294 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS
503. This is ••• and these are •.• may both be translated by
iHO ... :
These are not my books 9To ne MOI:I Kmlru
But not if the pronoun is emphasized:
Those books are yours and these Te KHHm Banm, a BTH- MOH
are mtne

504. STOT is commonly preceded colloquially by BOT in order

to indicate more clearly the object referred to:
Give me this book here ,L\aiiTe Mne BOT 8Ty Knl1ry (ce
livre-ci)
505. BoT meaning here is (voici) is commonly found with adverbs
of time, cause, manner, etc., where in English we say that is when,
why, how:
That is how the war began
Notice also the colloquial
That's all, that's the lot BoTH Bee
506. That of(celui de). Russian has no comparable construction:
The climate here is very like that 3,n;eiiinHii KAiiMaT oqenL nox6.lK
of England na anrAHHCKHH
507. Ceil= :hoT survives independently today in a few stereo-
typed formulas, e.g. cmo MHH)hy this minute, ,n;o cux nop, no ceil
,n;eHb up to now. It is also used ironically: ceii K>Horna Bee am'leT
this lad knows everything!
so8. This and that, this or that:
(i) Rather colloquial is II TO II ce, as for example in the words
of a popular Soviet song: M:bi npHaeM./\HMC.!I aa CTOAOM, noro-
Bop11M o TOM, o ceM ... chat about this and that.
(ii) This and that meaning various ones will have to be translated
by some such word as paanLiil:
The sick man turned to this doctor EoALn6u o6paJ.!!aAcx K pa3HLIM
and that, but in vain ,n;oKTopaM (To K o,n;noMy, To
K ,n;pyroMy ,lJ;OKTopy), HO na-
npacno
 DEMONSTRATIVE 295
(iii) This one or that is TOT Wl.u Apyr6H::
Which house do ;•ou prefer, this KoT6pbiii AOM Bhi npeAno•mnieTe
one or that? - TOT HAn Apyr6i'i?
sog. It will be noticed that TOT is frequently used in Russian
where English has no corresponding pronoun-periphrastically,
for emphasis, or to give balance to a sentence:
In order to ,L0x Tor6, tiT66bi; 3a TeM, tiT66bi
The worst came to the worst qer6 6oAAHCh, TO II CA)"'HAOCb
I desired with all my heart to be R Bceii AyiiiMI *eAih 6h1Tb TeM,
what you wanted me to be qeM Bbi XOTeAif, 'IT06bi H 6hiA
He who pays the piper calls the KTo UAaTHT, TOT H pacnopx-
tune *aeTcx
The following example illustrates the compressed, idiomatic use
of the pronouns:
qTO KOfO BeCeAlfT, TOT npo TO Literally: What gives pleasure to a
u roBopth man, that man speaks about that
thing

EXCLAMATORY
Such, so, what
510. TaKoii such, such a is used with the long form of the adjec-
+
tive, and TaK with the short form, to translate English so adjec-
tive:
He is such a stupid man! (he is so OH TaK6i1 rxynhii'd (oH TaK
stupid) rAyn !)
N.B. The two constructions should not be mixed: TaK must not
be used with the long form.
The predicative form TaKOB is also used:
Such is Life TaKosa *li3Hh!
Similarly KaKoH what, what a is used with the full, and KaK with
the short form of the adjective to translate how:
What a stupid man he is! (how KaK6ii OH rAynhiit! {KaKou rAyn!)
stupid he is!)
296 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS
Both TaK6ii and KaK6ii are, of course, also used with nouns:
OH TaK6ii AypaK! he is such a stupid man! Notice the following
ways of rendering the exclamatory what!:
What weather! KaKan nor6,~~;a!
Ilor6,11;a KaKoBa!
tho 3a nor6Aa!

ARTICLES
A, the
5II. Although Russian has no definite or indefinite article, the
translation of a and the is by no means simple. Consider these
two sentences:
(i) I hope we shall find a shop before long
(ii) I bought afew old books in a shop in London
In the first sentence a may rightly be termed indefinite, since
it means some one or other. The speaker does not know what shop
he will find, nor does his hearer. In the second sentence, how-
ever, a is definite in the sense that the speaker knows which shop
he bought the books at, though his hearer does not. A in fact
means a certain one. Translating these sentences into Russian we
have:
(i) H HaAeiOc», qTO MI>r cK6po HaiiAeM (KaK6ii-mi6YAb) Ma-
raanH
(ii) H KynnA HecKO.II.hKO cTapi>Ix KHHr B OAHOM MaraanHe B
J\.OH,li.OHe
In the second sentence a meaning a certain is idiomatically
rendered by O,li.MH one (from which a, an derive historically).
The same is true in the following common contexts:
An old friend of mine often gave O,~~;uH Moii cTapbiii aHaK6Mhiii He
me lessons pa3 ,lJ;aBa.l\ Mile yp6KII
A lady wishes to see you O,~~;Ha ,~~;aMa x6tJeT Bac BI1,~~;eTh
This business simply leaves an ,LJ;e.l\o sTo ocTaBNieT o,~~;Ho TO.I\bKo
unpleasant feeling uenpmi:THoe "'YBCTBo
(See also para. 548 a certain).
 ARTICLES 297
512. A is also translated by o,zviH:
(i) when it is a weakly numerical one:
In a word 0AHHM CAOBOM
Just a minute! 0AHY MHlo/ry!

(ii) when it means the same, like:

Birds of a feather 0AHOr6 n6NI .HroAa (.HroAbi)

513. A meaning each, every is rendered in Russian by a preposi-

tional construction:
Twice a ;•ear ,LV!a paaa B roA
Of a Sunday ITo BocKpeceHhHM

514. 'fhe weakly demonstrative the is frequently translated into

Russian by :hOT:
Something of the sort qT6-To B aTOM p6Ae

515. The more emphatic definite article may be rendered by

TOT (cf. ille, le). This is especially common where the article
precedes a relative clause in the sense of the one which:
I was looking in the direction from JI CMOTpeA B T)' CT6poHy, OTKyAa
which the boat was due to come AOA.lKHa 6bL\a noHBnTbcH AOAKa
The lady who is sitting in the arm- Ta AaMa, xoTopaH CHART B xpec-
chair is my wife Ae - Mo.H a<eHa

516. With comparatives the meaning by so much is translated

by an instrumental:
The more the merrier

517. Notice how in different contexts TaK6ll: may translate both

a definite and an indefinite article:
Soviet industry has reached a level CoBeTCKM npomniiAeHHOCTb
which is 5 per cent higher than HAeT Ha TaKoM ypoBHe, KOTo-
in 1951 pbiii Ha 5 npoyeHTOB BbUIIe
1951 r6Aa (Press)
I returned with the feeling that I JI BepHyACH C TaKIIM 'IYBCTBOM,
had had a bad dream KaK 6yATO H BliAeA nAOXOH COH
(Press)
298 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS

INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE

Who (interrogative)
518. KTo does service for both singular and plural. A verb in
the predicate with KTO for its subject has a singular ending even
though it refers to several people. In the past tense the verb will
show a masculine ending even when the subject referred to is
clearly feminine :
Who has dropped a comb? KTo ypoHIIA rpe6ern6K?
(spoken to a class of girls)
Which, what (interrogative)
519. (i) Often in English which and what appear interchangeable
when introducing a question. One may just as easily sly What
is my best wqy to King Street? as Which is my best wqy to King Street?
Nevertheless, there are cases where one word is preferred to the
other, and there is a certain general principle which determines
this choice. The what question belongs to what Jespersen calls
the unlimited type of question, the which question to the limited
type. When I say Can I see what hooks you have?, I have no idea
what to expect. There is no limit to the books which may be
there as far as I know. But when I say Can I see which books you
have?, the question presupposes previous questions about books.
I may know that you collect nineteenth-century Russian novels
and wish to see which ones you have. A general distinction can
thus be made between the unrestricted what and the restricted
which.
(ii) Besides simply asking an open question, what may also
mean of what sort. What clothes was she wearing? means what sort
of clothes, not which of the clothes that she has.
(iii) In Russian KaKoii corresponds as a rule to the unlimited
what? and also to the question of what sort?; KOTOpbrii to the
limited which?, which ones?:
To what extent? Ao KaK6ii cTeneHM?
What books do you like best? KaKne KHnm .M66MTe Bbi 66ALrne
BCero?
Which of these books do you KoT6pyro M3 BTMX KHHr Bbi npeA-
prefer? no'lMnieTe ?
 INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE 299
But with t:Iac, KOTOpi>rli is always used where English uses what:
What time is it? KoTopblii qac?
At what time? B KoT6poM qacy ?

while with t:IIICA6 Russian uses both KaKoe and KOTopoe for the
English what:
What is the date today? KaK6e (KoT6poe) cerOAHH 'IUCA6?

(iv) Notice the Russian idiom KaK (how), for the English what
in the following expressions:
What is your name? KaK uawa IJ>aMiiAIIH? (Kax< uac
30BjT?)
What did you say? What? KaK Bbl CKaa<iAH? KaK?
What do you think? KaK Bbl .zt>'MaeTe?

But:
What do you think about this? 'lho Bbl ,ztyMaeTe o6 BTOM ?

(v) Which of, of people, is KTO ua before a pronoun:

Which ofyou is to blame? KTo ua uac BUHOB<iT?

Before a noun both KTO 113 and KOTOpl>rli II3 may be used, but
KOTopLrli is more selective and asks which particular one?:
Which of your friends is the KoT6phlfi ua u{mmx ,ztpyaeA
cleverest? caMbW cnoc66Hbdi ?

Who, whom (relative)

520. With a noun antecedent the normal relative pronoun is
KOTOpLIH:
This is the boy to whom;•ou gave BoT M<iAb'IUK, KOTopoM)' (not
the book KOMj) Bbl ,ll;clAII KH}U]'

Occasionally KTO is found after a noun antecedent as a stylistic

alternative to KOTop~>rH:, but only in the nominative case:
Thereupon these people who in Tyr BTU AIOAH, KTO no nepa-
their folly had laid down their 3YMHJO CBOeMy MaAOAYWHO
arms in cowardly manner felt noAO;KHAH OPY*Iie, yan:Uu
ashamed ..• CTbi,zt... (A. N. Tolstoy)
300 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS
521. With a pronoun antecedent the normal relative pronoun
is KTO:
Whom the gods love die young Kor6 Aro6xT 66m, TOT paHo yMn-
paeT
But when the pronoun antecedent is emphatic (the man who,
those people who) and is used virtually as a noun, KOTO.flbrli may
also be used as a relative:
I am the one whom you heeded in R ToT, KoT6poMy BHnMaAa
the midnight silence Thl B noAyHoiJ!Hoii TlilliiiHe
(Lermontov)
Tell me, which one is Tatyana? CKa;J<u, KOT6paH TaThxHa?
The one who, sad and silent like ,ll,a Ta, KoT6pax, rpycTHa
Svetlana, came in and sat by the M MOAtJaAliBa KaK CBeTAaHa,
window BoiiiAa li ceAa y OKHa
(Pushkin)
T e, KOTO.flbie and Bee, KOTO.flbie are particularly common alter-
natives to Te, KTO and Bee, KTO as nominative plural subjects.
The verb in the relative clause after Te, KOTO.flbie and Bee,
KOTO.flbie will, of course, be in the plural. With Te, KTO and
Bee, KTO a singular verb is now more common than a plural
(the interrogative KTO is only followed by a singular verb).
Compare the following examples of singular and plural verbs
after Te, KTO :
Victory will go to those who are IIo6e,~~;a 6y,~~;CT 3a TeMn, KTo
building life CTp6nT *M3Hh (A. N. Tolstoy)
Those of us who read the poem Te H3 Hac, KTO 'lliTaAH CTMXO·
were delighted with it TBOpeHMe, 6biAH B BOCTOpre OT
Hero (Press)
522. KaK6ti as a relative pronoun suggests the sort of and often
has for an antecedent TaK6ti, TaK6B, or TOT:
We have not got the sort of people Y Hac HeT TaKux AIO,ll;eii, KaKtlx
whom we need HaM HY*HO
523. Occasionally the relative KTo is found after an adjective
in the predicative short form-in other words, the pronominal
antecedent TOT is omitted:
Happy he who believes . • • BAa;J<eH, KTo BepyeT ...
( Griboyedov)
 INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE 301

Such constructions occur in poetry, or in solemn or sententious

contexts generally.

Which (relative)
524. As in the case of who, KOTOpbiii: is most commonly used to
translate the relative which. Kax61i again is emphatic and means
the sort of . • • which (often preceded by TaK6ii:) :
He has the sort of hair (which) Y nero TaKiie Bo.l\oCbi, KaKiix Bbi
you don't like ne AJ66nTe
525. (i) The relative KOTOpbiH, after a nominal subject, may be
replaced colloquially in the nominative and accusative (in the
accusative only when the antecedent is inanimate) by liTO in the
same way as which may be replaced by that:
That is the car which (that) I saw BoT r.~auulna, KOT6py10 ('ITo) ll
in town this morning BHAe.l\ cer6Anll YrPOM B r6poAe
But qTo in this sense, besides being colloquial, is felt also to be
archaic, and its use is not recommended.
(ii) The relative pronoun cannot be omitted altogether as it
can in English, e.g. that is the car I saw in town this morning.

Whoever, whatever (interrogative)

526. Interrogative whoever and whatever are translated by KTO?
and 'ITo?:
Whatever made you do it? tho 3acniBH.I\O sac CAe.l\aTb BTO?
Whoever heard the like? KTo C.l\blXaA noA66noe?

Whoever, whatever (relative)

527. In affirmative statements where whoever and whatever mean
everyone who, everything that KTO and qTo are used, sometimes with
appropriate antecedents:
Whoet•er says that is mistaken KTo rosop1h :ho, oum6aeTcll
Eat whatever is otz the plate Kyrnafue see, 'ITO ecTb na Ta-
pt!A.Ke
Whose
528. qe1'i is used both as an interrogative and relative pronoun.
KoT6poro (KoT6poil) is used only relatively, referring back to
302 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS
a noun in the main clause of the sentence. It will stand second
word in the subordinate relative clause:
That is the girl whose father has BoT AeBywKa, OTCIJ KOT6poii ( 'leii
just died OTCIJ) TOALKO 'ITO yMep

Like whom, like what

529. The following uses of KaKoii, KaKoB and their English
equivalents are worth noting:
He is a common or garden imposter On o6Man!J!nK, KaKiix MH6ro
How is he today? KaK6B on cer6AHli?
He used to picture the room as it On rrpeAcTaBNiA ce6e KOMnaTy,
would be KaKOH OHa 6yAeT
He is completely different from the On coBceM ne TOT, KaKltM 6LIA B
man he was in former years rrpe.lKHHC fOAhl

INDEFINITE
Some, someone, something
•TO and ·HM6y,ll;b

530. The misuse of the suffixes -To and -nu6yAh is among the
most frequent mistakes made by students of Russian. There is
no simple rule applying to these suffixes, which are added to
the various indicator-words, KaKo:H, r,z~;e, Kor,z~;a, Ky,z~;a, KTO, etc.,
to give an indefinite meaning (some, somewhere, sometime, to some-
where, someone). But the following tendencies, closely related to
each other, may guide the student in his choice of suffix:
(i) The -To suffix is usually more definite, specific, restrictive
than the -m16y,z~;h. A recent Soviet definition says that it is used
to emphasize that a speaker knows the fact in question but docs
not know the details, or cannot remember them. It cannot be
translated by a'!.yone, anything. The -nn6yAh suffix suggests any-
one or anything at all, no matter who or what, and can be
translated by either anyone, anything or someone, something in
different contexts.
 INDEFINITE 303
(ii) -To is commonly found in a past, fulfilled sense, -un6yAJ>
in a future, unfulfilled sense.
Compare the following examples:
(a) Your brother called on us CeroAHll aameA K HaM Bam 6paT,
today and left some book for I{ ocraauA BaM KaKYro·TO KHHry

you
(some means a certain, a definite one, although the speaker does
not know what it is).
(b) He told me something but Ou 'ITO-TO !'.me CKaaa...., no 11 aa-
I have forgotten what 6biA 'ITO
(the action has been completed in past time.)
(c) He is looking for some job Ou JII,!!CT KaKoi-i-nH6yA& pa6oTbl
or other
(not any one in particular.)
(d) I will write to you some R BaM KOrAa-uu6yA& uanumy
day
(some time or other in the vague future.)
It would, however, be wrong to identify -To strictly with the
past and -I-IH6yA& with the future. Compare the following pairs
of examples (from Russkii yazyk za rubezhom):
Question:
fVill you be going out anywhere lloi-I:Ahe KyAa-nn6yA& ceroAHll
tonight? BetiepoM?
Answers:
res, I'll be going out somewhere, Aa, KYA<i-HH6yA& noiiAy, ue
I don't feel like sta;•ing in xoqeTCll cnAeTb Ao:.~a
res, I'll be going out to some t1,a, KyAa-TO B rocnt:, )I(CII<l roBO•
friends, my wife was saying p1-!Aa cerOAHll 'fTpoM
this moming
Or again:
If ;·ou EcMI xoTiiTe tJTo-Im6yA" cnpo-
want to ask an;·tlzing, do
so now cti:T&, cnpamnBaihe ceii'Iac
R xoTeA Bac tJTo-To cnpoct!Tb, uo
I wanted to ask you something, but
celi.qac ue Mory BcnoMHIIT&
I can't just recall what is was
The first tendency (that -To is more definite than -uu6yAL)
outweighs the second (that -To is commoner in the past than
304 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS
in the future), when the two do not coincide. It is interesting to
note that in a recent comprehensive Russian frequency list, the
-To suffixes are shown to be more common than the -mr6yAh
with almost all indicator words.
(iii) K6e-KTO and Koe-tiTO are near synonyms of KTO-TO and
liTO-TO but correspond rather to English one or two people, a thing
or two. Some grammarians make the distinction that with Koe-
KTO and Koe-tiTO the person or thing is known to the speaker but
not to the listener, e.g. OH Koe B tieM BHHomiT he is guilty of some-
thing (I know what, but I shall not disclose it) and OH B tiCM-TO
BHHOBaT he is guilty of something (but I don't know what). The
source quoted earlier in the paragraph says that Koe- is used
only when a speaker knows both the fact in question and all the
details of it: H xo'<~y y Bac Koe-'ITO cnpociln.. CKaiKilTe, no)Ka-
Ayti:CTa, KaKaJI pa3HHUa Me)KAY··· There is something I want to ask
you. Please tell me the difference between • . . (there is one precise
question I wish to put).
(iv) After the imperative mood the -Hn6yAh suffix (not -TO) is
always used, a further illustration of its unfulfilled future sense:
Write me somethingfrom your own Hamnm1: 'ITO-HH6YAb M3 CBoeii
life, I don't want anything else .iKH3HH, HH'ICro Apyroro K He
xoqy (N. Morozov)
It is commonly, but not invariably used after the subjunctive
mood for the same reason:
rou ought to do something else Tbl 6bi 'ICM-Hn6yAh APyrHM
aaHKACJi (N. Ostrovsky)
(v) The suffix -An6o is considered rather more formal or
'bookish' than -Hn6yAh. It may also imply an even greater
degree of indefiniteness-anyone, anything at all you like:
Ask anyone at all you like and he CnpocliTe Kor6-An6o, a OH cKa-
will tell you .iKCT BaM
He was the most interesting man I OH caMblii HHTepecHbiii 'ICAO-
Izave ever met BeK, KOT6poro .11 KOrAa-An6o
BCTpeqciJ\
HeKoTopy,rli and KaK6ti:-To
531. HeKompLrti: and KaKoti:-To are not interchangeable. He-
KoTopLii'I means some in the sense of certain ones, ones that are known,
 INDEFINITE 305
and is most frequently found in the plural. In the singular it
will be used most commonly in temporal expressions, e.g. for
some time now c HeKoToporo apeMeHn. KaK6J'i-To, on the other
hand, cannot mean a certain one in the above sense of one that is
known. One cannot, for example, translate he was talking about
some rich man known to us both by OH roaoplf:A o KaKoM-To 6oraqe,
HaaecTHOM HaM o66nM. One would say ... o6 OAHOM 6oraqe ... ,
or in the plural ... o HeKoTopLrx 6oraqax, naaecTHLIX HaM o66HM
(•.. some rich men known to us both). Cf. para. 530 (ii) (a).
K6e-KaK6J'i
532. K6e-KaK6ii: means some, not in the sense of a certain, but
with the plural meaning of one or two (see also para. 530). It
may or may not be divided by a preposition in an oblique case:
I want to put some (one or two) H xoqy o6paniTLCll K saM c x6e-
questions to you xaxii!.m (or Koe c KaKII~m) ao-
np6car.m
HecKoALKo
533· HecKOAbKO is an indefinite numeral, meaning a relatively
small number, i.e. some = afew. It is perhaps the most indefinite
of the indefinite pronominal words:
Some ;•ears ago HecKOADKo AeT Ha3aA
Some days later tiepea HeCKOADKO AHeii
Here HeKoTopLiii: would not be used in Russian, as indeed
certain would not be used in English. Note that in oblique cases
HCCKOALKO is declined (in some places B HeCKOAbKHx MecTax) but
that in the accusative/genitive case with animate objects either
HeCKOAbKO or HeCKOALKnx may be used. HecKOALKo is now con-
sidered more usual than HeCKO.\bKnx.

534· Compare the translation of some in the following sentences:

I read some (a few) books during Bo ape~lll KaHIIKyA ll npo<!HT<iA
the vacation, and some of them HeCKOADKO Kmrr, 11 HeKoTophle
(certain ones) I liked very much 11a Hl1X r.me o'leHL noHpaBIIAliCb
(HecKOAbKO means a few lumped together indiscriminately,
while HeKOTOpbie singles out this one and that one from among
them.)
306 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS
I read some books on the subject Bo apeMH KaHIIKyA .11 npoliHTciA
during the vacation, but I don't KaKM:e-To KHM:m ua aTy TeM)',
remember what was in them HO ue n6MHJO HX co,~~;ep~aHH.II
(KaKne-To implies some books or other, I don't know which ones. I
remember the fact, but not the details.)
535· Compare the following sentences which translate some,
meaning a little of:
(i) res, give me some, please ,Ll;a, no~aAyikTa, ,~~;aiiTe MHe
HCMHO~KO
(ii) Give me some bread, please ,Ll;aii:Te MHe, no;KaAyii:cTa, xAe6a
(iii) I would like to give you some R. 6DI xoTeA ,~~;aTL aaM xop6wHii:
good advice coseT
In (i) there is no noun, and HeMHoro or HeMHOJKKO has to be
used. In (ii) the noun is concrete and divisible and some can be
expressed by a simple partitive genitive. In (iii) the noun is
abstract and some is not translated.
536. Some more, arry more are both rendered simply by Cl!!e:
Will you have some more? XoTnTe BLI er.ge?
537• Some meaning approximately, no more than may be idiomatic-
ally translated by KaK6ii:-mr6yAh (see para. 68o):
There were some five or six miles OcniAOCh npoii:TII KaKM:x-mt6y,~~;L
to go D.IITL-WCCTL MHAL

538. Some ..• some .•. A common idiomatic construction is

KTO ... KTO ... :
Some affirm it, some deny it KTo yrnep~,~~;aeT aTo, KTo oT-
pnuaeT
Some • .. others ••• Most commonly OAHH ... Apyrne ...
539• To translate some people, HeKOTOpbie as a noun, or HCKO-
TOpbie A"IDAU give the least definite shade of meaning; HeMH6rne
(HeMH6rue AIOAH) means more specifically ajew; Koe-KTO (with
a singular verb) one or two, people here and there.
540. The pregnant something has no direct equivalent in Rus-
sian, except perhaps the simple form liTo, qcr6, etc., as in the
following:
rou have something to be proud of BaM CCTb lJCM rop,D;HTLC.II
 INDEFINITE
Often the sentence must be recast or the sense paraphrased:
To think something of oneself DbiTL Bblc6J<oro MI-II!Hllil o ce6e
There is something in what you B TOM, 'ITO Bbi roBopH-re, ecTb
say TOAK (AONI npaB,~.tbi)

'Some' and 'any' questions

541. Often the word some is used in English without specifically
denoting a few or certain ones. In such cases it may be compared
with any and the two words may be interchanged without any
apparent difference of meaning. But sometimes the use of some
as opposed to any gives a particular nuance to a sentence, which
has been defined by saying that any is negative or non-committal,
whereas some, though indefinite, is positive in meaning. That is
to say that some is used in questions that are really polite sub-
stitutes for commands, or to which an affirmative answer is
expected; any in questions that ask for information, without
seeming to take an affirmative or a negative answer more or less
for granted. This distinction does not hold good in Russian,
and the somefany word is not as a rule translated:
Have you any sisters? (I don't Ecrb Au y Bac cecrpbi?
know whether you have or
not)
Will you give me some sweets, ,Ll,aiiTe MHe, no~~<<iAyifcra, KoHcf1eT
please?
(I see you have some; expecting the reply what would you like?)
Notice, however, that in the second sentence, Russian uses a
partitive genitive to indicate some of a whole-an idea which is
obviously not present in the first sentence.

Any
542. (i) Any is particularly common in questions and in nega-
tive statements (not any). It was said above (para. 541) that the
somefany word in open questions which simply ask for informa-
tion is not usually translated in Russian (e.g. have you any news
ofyour aunt? ecTb ,'\H y Bac HOBOCTM o TeTe ?), although KaKiie-
Hii6yAb may also be used, just as we may also say in English
have J'OU atry news at all • .• ? But in polite requests which ask for
go8 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS
something more tangible than information the any question is
most frequently turned in Russian by HeT AH?:
Have you any matches? (i.e. HeT AH y Bac cmit~eK?
please give me some matches)
(ii) In negative questions and statements not any must be
rendered by HCT followed by the genitive of the noun, with the
optional addition of HHKaKo:H, with the same sense as KaKoii-
HH6YAb when inserted in positive questions:
There isn't any hope (at all) HeT HHKaKoii na,ll;e>KAbi

543· AI!Y =any one at all= every one may be translated by

Ka)K,li;I>Iii, BcHKHH or AI06oii. In some contexts they are inter-
changeable, e.g.:
Any (every) student knows this fho 3HaeT Ka>K,ll;biH ( BcHKHH,
AI06oii) yt~eHHK
Similar expressions may be found I1o,.11;66Hbie Bbipa>KeHH.II Mo>KHo
in any (every) text HaHTH BO BcHKOM (AI06oM, Ka;K-
,li;OM) TeKCTC

But notice the following particular uses of Aio66:H and BciiKn:H

(see para. 562 for Ka;KAI>IH = each, every).
A1066:H =any one you like, but not every:
Choose any three cards
BdKHH = all sorts of:
All sorts of things happen in our B Hameii: >KH3Hn nclixoe 6hmaeT
life
All sorts of rubbish is lying about B yrAy BaAlieTC.II BCHKHii cop
in the corner
Bcfl.KHH also = any after the preposition Gea:
Without any doubt Eea Bclixoro coMneHH.II

Compare the translation of any in the following sentences:

You will find envelopes zn any KoHBepTbi Bbl HaiiAeTe B AI066M
stationer's shop (Bo nclixoM) rrucqe6YMa.JKHOM
Mara3HHC
 INDEFINITE gog

Here both words are possible since 1U066ii = any one you like and
BCHKHii = every.
Buy some envelopes (for me) in K yniiTe KOHBepTbi BAro66M nnc'le-
any stationer's shop 6}'MaiKHOM Mara3IiHe
Here atry = any one you like, the most convenient one, but not every
one there is. Anyboqy at all meaning everyboqy as a noun is translated
by BcHKUH, not AI060l'i:
Anybody will show you Bcfl:Knii saM noKaJKeT
The negative is HUKTO:
He never spoke about his love to OH He rosopiiA Hn c KeM H3 Tosa-
any of his comrades pniJlen 0 CBOeJ'i AI06BH
544· (i) Not atry-the negative ofBcxKHJ'i or AI066ii:-is HHKaK6ii:
It is not sold in mry shop 3TO He npo,llaeTCH HU B KaKOM
Mara31IHe
Notice that the preposition is inserted between Hn and KaK6ii
which are written as separate words. In an emphatic position
(and especially at the beginning of a sentence) Hll o,zJ;J'iH replaces
HIIKaKofi:
In no shop is it sold Hu B O,llHOM Mara31tHe sTo He
npoAaeTCH
(ii) But not atry in the sense of not any old one:
Give me a book-not just any one, ,Ll.aiiTe 11.111e KHJiry, He KaKjxo-
but something interesting un6yAL, a UHTepecHyiO
545· Notice the translation of not any ofin the following sentence:
Neither on that day, rzor on arry of Hn B TOT ,zr,eHh, Hll B O,llltH n3
the following nocAe,llyt<>IJlUX

Anything
546. It will be noticed that 'ITO is frequently used instead of
'ITO-Hu6y,li;L in the spoken language:
She asked him if anything un- 0Ha cnpoc11Aa er6, He 6biAo An
pleasant had happened (was t~er6 HenpmhHoro
there anything the matter)
~W34 L
310 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS
Compare, too, the following example where English may have
either anything or something:
He was qfraid lest anything un- OH 6oJIACll, KaK 6hl He 6&1.1\o qer6
pleasant should happen (he was HenpHHTHoro
afraid something unpleasant
might happen)
Have you anything to say? EcT& y sac lJTO cKaaaT&?
In the same way KTO is used for KTO-Hn6yA&:
If anybody rings don't answer EcAn KTO noaBOHMT, He OTBe-
qciihe
He was afraid lest anybody should OH 6onACll, KaK 6hl KTO He no-
ring (he was qfraid somebody 3BOHM.l\
might ring)
547· There are some idiomatic expressions where anything in
English is rendered by everything in Russian:
She was left without anything Oua ocTaAac& 6ea Bcer6
He likes swimming better than OH 66A&we seem Aw6nT nAaBaT&
anything
She was ready to do anything for On:i roT6Ba 6LI.I\a see CACAan.
her son AM cBoer6 cb'IHa

OTHER INDEFINITE WORDS

Certain
548. For the uses of KaKoif-To and HeKoTopbxll: in the sense of
some meaning a certain, certain ones, see para. 531.
l1aBeCTHbiH is also commonly used in the same meaning in a
few stock phrases, e.g.:
To a certain extent ~0 H3BCCTHOH (HeKOTOpofi) CTe-
nerm
Under certain conditions llpu H3BCCTHbiX (HCKOTOphlx) yc-
AOBHliX
When a certain time had elapsed KorAa npowA6 naBecTHoe (HeKo-
Topoe) »peMH
l1aBeCTHbiH will certainly be preferred when the emphasis is
unmistakably on one particular •.. :
A certain type of people
 OTHER INDEFINITE WORDS 31I
In children's stories and fables OAHH is also often found in this
sense:
A certain man had a beautiful Y OAHor6 tieAoBeKa 6brAa KpacM:-
daughter BaH AOtiKa

The translation of a certain by ueKuii is now somewhat stilted,

although common with surnames and tides:
A certain Mr Ivanov called to see HeKnii r. MBan6B aaxo,D;Ii:A K BaM
you
HeKHH has two forms in the oblique cases plural: neKoux,
HeKnx; HeKoHM, ueKnM; HCKOHMII, HCKIIMII; the second form is
more widely used today. In the genitive singular feminine, both
HeKoeii and HeKoii are commonly found.

VVhoever,~hatever
549· In the indefinite sense ofit doesn't matter who or what, who-
ever and whatever are translated by KTO 61>1 1m and no 61>1 1m
followed by the past tense of the verb:
Whoever you are, you can't do that KTo 6br Bbi Hri 6LL'-H, sToro Ae-
AaTL HeAb3H
Whatever you do, don't go to Lon- qTO 6LI Bbl HH ,D;eAaAH, He e3,D;HTe
don B J\OH,D;OH

A sort of
550. I<aKoii-To may mean a sort of (rather like), or it may mean
rather (a bit):
It's a sort of not•el STo KaK6ii-To poMaH
He is rather stupid (cf. colloquial On KaK6J'i-To rxynLIH
English he's sort of stupid)

Such and such

551. TaKoii-To corresponds to English such and such as a substi-
tute for an unknown name or number:
On such and such a date TaK6ro-To ttnCAa
312 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS

QUANTITATIVE WORDS
Many, much, not much, little
552. Many people may be translated in any one of the following
three ways:
(i) MH<Sme (as a noun).
(ii) MH6me AID,li;H.
(iii) MH6ro AIO,ll;eii.
In the nominative case it is possible to detect a difference be-
tween (i) and (ii) on the one hand, and (iii) on the other, a
difference illustrated by Vinogradov as follows:
Many people think that . . . MH6me (A!O,~~;n) ,~~;yMaroT, liTO ...
Many people perish in war MH6ro AIO,II;eii: ri16HeT Ha soii:He
In the first sentence MHorne means each one of many separately;
in the second, MH6ro means many taken together (a collective
meaning emphasized by the use of the singular verb). But in
the accusative/genitive case, this distinction is not observed:
I knew many people there TaM H 3HaA MH6rux (MH6ro)
1\lO,II;eii:
In other oblique cases MH6ro is, of course, impossible.
Again with expressions of time, the same shade of difference
between MHoro and MH6me can be felt:
And many years slipped quietly by M MH6me ro,ll;bl HCCAblWHO
npoilll\M (Lermontov)
Many years have passed since I IIpowA6 MH6ro ACT c Tex nop,
was at school KaK H Y'UtACH B wK6Ae
In the first sentence MH6me suggests year succeeding year, each
passing quietly by; in the second MHoro suggests totality of
time.
553· Many of is always MHome n3:
Many of us think differently MH6me M3 Hac ,~~;yMaroT nHalle

554· Much, not much:

I have plenty if time Y MeHsl MH6ro speMenn
I haven't much time Y MeHsl ue MH6ro speMeHu
We are not devoting much atten- Mbi y,~~;eNieM He MH6ro BHHMaHMx
tion to questions if defence sonp6caM o6op6Hbi
 QUANTITATIVE WORDS 313
But in these examples and in similar cases not much will also be
more idiomatically translated by M<iAo (little).

555· MHoroe (gen. MHororo) may be used as a noun:

.Nluch needs to be thought out
It cannot in the singular be used as an adjective-one cannot
say Mhi He y,11;eN!eM ~mororo BHUMamur we are not devoting much
attention, but must say Mhi He y,11;eN!eM 6oALIIIOro BHnMaHIIH.
Similarly, HeMHoroe, as a neuter noun, means the little:
During the war Nicholas com- Bo BpeMH BOHHhi HnKOAaii nepe-
pletely forgot the little he had aa6:hlA Bee TO HeMu6roe, qeM)f
once learned KOr,IJ;cl -TO )"'lll\Cll
(V. Nekrasov)
Apart from the little which is KpoMe ueMH6roro H3BeCTHoro,
k11own, she wrote a great many OHa HanHcaAa 60/\biUOe KO/\ll-
things which are unknow11 in 'leCTBO HeH3BCCTHbiX y HaC
our country Bel!!eiJ (Pasternak)

556. Not much of a may be rendered by HeBa.iKIILiii (often after

a noun):
He is not much of an actor at all On aKTep oqenb HeBaiKHblii

Few, a few
557· A few people may be translated by:
(i) HeMHorne (as a noun).
(ii) HeMHOrne AID,Il;n.
(iii) HecKoALKo qeAoBeK.
(i) and (ii) suggest afew taken individually, and (iii) ajew col-
lectively.

558. Ajew: see para. 533·

Few (not many) as opposed to a few (several) is M<iAo. Compare:
There are a few good buildings i11 Y Hac B r6po,~J;e HeCKOAbKO xop6-
our town IIIUX 3,~J;aHUH
There are few good buildings in Y uac B r6poAe MMO xopoiiiux
our tow11 a,~J;aHnii
314· THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS
559· Notice the idiomatic pe,n;KHii: (Englishfew meaning sparse)
The tree, whose few leaves had .l(epeBo, pi!AKue AIIcTL.II KOT6poro
already turned yellow . . . y.lKe no.lKe.I\TeMJ •.•

THE PRONOUN 'ONE'

s6o. The word one is a versatile word with many different uses
in English:
(i) As an anaphoric pronoun it may refer back to a concrete
noun already expressed:
Do you play the piano? There's MrpaeTe.l\nBbiHapoH.I\e?BKa6n-
one in the study HeTe ecTL po.li.l\b
Here the noun must be repeated in Russian. Notice, however,
that as a predicative word after 6LITL the instrumental case of
the personal pronoun (nM, en) may be used instead of repeating
the noun:
There is no reason at all for por- CoBepmeHHo Heaa'leM uao6pa-
traying Tolstoy as a scholarly .lKaTL ToAcT6ro yqeHLIM HccAe-
research worker when he was ,~~;oBaTe.l\eM, KOr,ll;a OH HM HC
not one 6bl.l\ (Eichenbaum)
Similarly in a 'have' construction:
Other people have a mother, but I Y ,~~;pyrnx MaTh ecTL, a y Merui ee
haven't one HeT

(ii) As a 'prop-word' it is used, for example, in expressions

+
involving the definite article or an article adjective-the one,
the ones, a red one, etc.:
I have lost my coat; I must buy a .H noTepH.I\ na.l\bT6; .11 ,11;0.1\.lKeH
new one
In this context the adjective alone is translated.
(iii) It can mean a person who:
For one who speaks German well ,4NI 'leAOBeKa, KoT6pbiH xopow6
it is not difficult roBopuT no-HeMegKH, 9To He
TPYAHO
Here AMI Tor6, KTO rosopliT, etc., is a perfectly acceptable alter-
native.
 THE PRONOUN 'ONE' 315
But notice the difference in meaning when the subject of the
sentence is identical with the pronominal one (i.e. when one
refers to a definite person):
For one who has never been to .L(,'\JI 'leJ\OBeKa, KOTOpbiii HIIKOr.zta
Russia, he speaks Russian well He 6biA B Poccini, oH xoporn6
roBopih no-pyccKH
Here, of course, the .zt.,u Tor6, KTO construction, with its indefi-
nite sense, would be impossible.
(iv) It can mean everyone, people generally:
In Russian one says 'HeT'; in Ilo-pyccKH roBopkr men; no-
English one sa;•s 'no' (spoken aHrAHHCKn Mbi rOBOpiDI «not
by an Englishman)
When the 3rd person plural of the verb is used in this Russian
equivalent of the French on dit construction, the personal pro-
noun (oHli) is always omitted. Another very common way of
expressing one in this same sense is by the 2nd person singular
of the present indicative of the verb, again with the personal
pronoun omitted:
One never can tell (one net•w HHKor.zta He aHaernb
knows)

561. (i) Notice the use of o,~tHH to mean alone:

I was compelled to fight alone R 6biA npHHY.iKACH 6op6nc.11
O,llJIH
The dative singular OAHOMj is used in this construction where a
dative subject is implied, though not necessarily expressed:
It is always nictr to walk with Bcer.zta A9'frne xo.ztiiTb ABOIIM,
somebody than by ;•ourself 'leM o.ztHo~l¥
Here the sense is it is better for two people to walk than for one person.
She had to stand all nJening. Still E:H nplillL\6cb cTom Becb Betiep.
it was better than sitting on her Ho sTo 6h!Ao Bce-TaKii AY'IIIIe
own at home 'leM cn.zteTb .zt6Ma O,llHOH
(ii) Notice also OAiiH, OAHH To.u.Ko meaning only:
Just in one's slzirt B O.ztH6:H (T6AbKo) py6aiiiKe
In the army it's nothing but flog- B apMHli O,llHa mb.Ka
gmg (L. N. Tolstoy)
316 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS

DEFINITIVE WORDS
Each, every
562. In English each tends to suggest each one of a fairly small
number; every-all members of a class or species, without-
dwelling on each constituent member. But there is considerable
confusion of usage between the two. In Russian Ka~rii may
be regarded as the equivalent of each, and will always in pre-
ference to BcfiKHii translate each of a small number, each of two (cf.
KOTop:&rii? which asks the question which of two? as compared
with KaKoii ?)
He gave each one of us a book Ou AaA KaJKAOMY M3 uac no KHHre
This example illustrates also the idiomatic use of no and the
dative case to equal each apiece, which, as the following sentence
shows, is a means of dispensing with KaX<Ahiii altogether:
We took a tray each from the table Mbi CHAAH co CTO.II.HKa no no,~t-
u6cy
KaX<Abiii is also used more commonly than BCHKMii in the expres-
sion KaX<Abiii TpeTHii ,ZJ;eHb every third day and exclusively in
KaX<Abie TPM ,ZJ;HH every three days where English uses every.
Ka.~K,ZJ;biii can be used in the plural onry with numerals and
nouns which have no singular. BcfiKHii can be used freely in the
plural, and broadly speaking it is the more versatile word of
the two. While Ka.IK,ZJ;:&Iii emphasises each one individual{)', each
specific one, scfiKHii has the more general sense of every, and will
be found in general statements and definitions where one is
drawing attention, not to individual components, but to the
totality of objects, e.g. every plant needs moisture BCHKOMY pacTeHHIO
HY.IKHa B./\ara. For every = any see para. 543·
563. qTo and qTo HH can be used idiomatically to give the sense
of every:
Every word is a mockery liTo HH e.~~.6so, To uacMemKa
The constructions MaAo AM KTo, MaAo AM qTo are used collo-
quially in the meaning of all sorts of people (things) and, loosely,
everyone, everything:
Everyone knows that! Ma.11.o .1\ll KTo auaeT aTO!
 DEFINITIVE WORDS
Same
564. Notice that the numeral o;.t!m may do service for TOT .IKe
(caMblii):
They were both the same age 66a omi 6b'v\ll OAHor6 B63pacTa
I lived in the same house as he Jl )KllA B OAHOM AOMe c HUM
The particle H is often used in Russian, with no equivalent in
English, to point a comparison, the same as ... :
The eldest son chose the same Cnipnmft CbiH Bhi6paA TY )Ke
career as his father Kap&epy, KaK H oTeiJ
Often as is translated in this context by KaKoii instead of KaK:
They are almost the same weapons :ho noqn( TO )Ke car.10e opy)Kue,
as are used today KaK6e H cer6AHH ynoTpe6NieT-
CH

Self, the very

565. CaM, ca:Ma (the accusative caMy is rapidly ousting the
older form Cal\IOe), caMO and caMbiH, caMaH, caMoe arc easily
confused.
(i) The king himself told me CaM Kop6Ab MHe cKMaA
(ii) He showed it to me myself OH MHe caMoMy {no noKa3aA
(iii) In the very heart of London B caMOM IJeHTpe A6HAOHa
(= right in)
(iv) On the very top of the hill Ha caMOM Bepxy roph'I
(=right on)
(v) This train goes right to Mos- 3TOT noe3A IiAeT AO car.wil
cow MocKBhl
Until recently the distinction could be summarised as follows:
CaM (i) (ii) most frequently translates self and defines per-
sons-by emphasizing one, it eliminates others. Its chief use
is with nouns and personal pronouns. CaMbm (iii), (iv), (v) fre-
quently defines time, place, and objects in space. Its chief use
is with nouns (when it often translates right in, right on, right to,
etc.), and with demonstrative pronouns (this very one, that very one).
However, the distinction is becoming blurred in contem-
porary Russian, especially the equating of caM with animate
318 THE PRONOUN AND PRONOMINAL WORDS
objects and ciMbiii: with inanimate. CaM appears to be gaining
ground at the expense of caMbrn and is now commonly found
in conjunction with inanimate nouns.
s66. Notice that caM is used with ce6Jl:, ceoe, and co66ti to
strengthen the reflexive pronoun:
She is altogether absorbed in Omi caMa ce6H: 3a6bmaeT B AO-
housework MaWHeii pa66Te
CaM may agree either with the subject or with the appropriate
case of ce6Jl:: e.g. 11 caM ce6Jl: ynpeK<iio, 11 ynpeK<iio caMor6 ce6Jl:
I reproach myself.
It may also mean by oneself, i.e. without help:
The wounded man got up by him- PaHCHbiH caM BeTa..\
self (unaided)
The combination CaM no ceoe means by itself, i.e. independently,
in its own right:
Convictions by themselves mean Y6e.)l(,lJ;emui caMH no ce6e -
nothing (i.e. not backed by HHqTo
actions)

NEGATIVE WORDS
Nothing
567. The genitive HHqero is much more common than HHqTO
even where at first sight a nominative might be expected:
A. What's the matter with you? lJTo c BaMH (sc. CAyqliAocb)?
B. Nothing Hnqer6 (sc. He c"'yqnAOcb)
Here, although a negative verb is not expressed, it is implied,
and thus explains the genitive.
But HHqTo remains in the nominative when it is the subject
of a verb which directly governs an object, whether in the
accusative case or in an oblique case, without a preposition:
Nothing worries him HuqTo He 3a66THT er6
Nothing pleases him Hut:JT6 He HpliBnTCH eMy
But:
Nothing ever happens to him
 NEGATIVE WORDS 319
568. When nothing is followed by an infinitive (e.g. to have
nothing to .•. ), it is always translated by Heqero or an oblique
case ofHe'lero, with or without a preposition. (The nominative
and accusative pronoun He1JTo has the positive meaning of 'ITO-
To, although not common.) See para. 333·
There is nothing to be done there TaM Heqero ,~~;b.aT&
But compare:
There is nothing there TaM Huqero HeT
All cases of both HH'ITO and Het~ero when used with prepositions
other than H3 (see para. 667) are divided by the preposition
into negative particle, preposition, and pronoun:
I have nothing to think about MHe ne 0 qeM AyMaTb
What are you thinking about?- 0 qeM B&I A'fMaeTe?- R HU o
.Nothing at all qeM He ,~~;'fMaro
The same construction is found with a variety of negative com-
pound words, e.g. HeKy,~~;a there is nowhere to (go) (cf. HHKy,~~;a He
nowhere); HeKor,~~;a there is no time to (cf. HHKor,~~;a He never). See
para. 334·
 VI · The Preposition
TIME
At, during, in, on
At
569. B (accusative case):
(i) The time, except half-past:
At five o'clock B miT.& qacos
At a quarter past five B qeTBepTh rnecT6ro
At a quarter to six Ee3 qeTBepnl s meeT.& (more
commonly just 6<!3 qeTsepTH
ween.)
At midday B n6A.zteHL
At midnight B llOJ\HO'I.b
Either qac or speMH may mean time:
At that time you will always find B sTOT qac (s 3To speMH) B.&I
him at home scer.zta 3acTaHeTe er6 .zt6Ma

At half-past with B takes the prepositional case:

At half-past six B noAOBHHe ce,ZJ;.&M6ro
but may also be expressed in the nominative case, without B:
TIO.I\OBHHa CeA.bMOro
(ii) A stage in time:
At this time of the year B 3To speMH r6.zta
At the present time B HacTOHI£ee speMH
(cf. also B nocAeAHee speMH recently). Notice B pa3Hoe speMJI at
different times.
(iii) The age of a person:
He married at twenty-five On .)KeHIIACH s .ztsa.ztQan. nHT.& AeT
(or OH .)KeHI-fACll ,ZJ;Ba,lJ;QaTH llJITH
AeT)
At my time of life B MOH r6.zt.&I
 TIME 321

570. B (prepositional case):

(i) In the interrogative expression at what time? (cf. expres-
sions of time with accusative case para. 569):
At what time did he arrive? B KoT6poM qacy oH npuexaA?
(ii) At twilight B cyMepKax
(cf. at dawn, etc., para. 572.)
(iii) With beginning, middle, end:
At the beginning-middle-end of B Ha'la.l\e- cepe,z.tnHe- KOHQe
July mo.I\H
Notice also, however, at mid-summer cpeAH AeTa, in the middle of
the week cpe,z~;n ne,z~;bn
571. Ha (accusative case):
Religious feasts:
At Easter Ha nacxy
At Shrovetide Ha MacAemiQY
At Christmas Ha po*,z.tecTB6
The prepositional case is also found in these expressions but the
accusative is more usual.
572. Ha (prepositional case):
At dawn Ha 3ape, Ha paccaeTe
At sunset Ha 3aKaTe c6AHUa
573· Ilpu (prepositional case):
When at, followed by a noun, corresponds to a verbal con-
struction with as:
... that dark mass from which I ... Ta TeMHaH MaCCa OT KOTOpoii .II
recoiled at landing (as I landed) wapaxHy.I\C.II npH DOCa,II;Ke
(Kaverin)
They wept at parti11g 0HH nAaKa.l\n npu paccTaBaHun
Everyone trembled at the menti091 Bee TpeneTa.l\11 npu ynoMJmaHnn
of his name er6 J!MeHn
574· Ilo (dative case):
When at means upon, following:
At his signal they would begin the ITo er6 CllrHaAy Ha'lnn<l.l\u cea
sowmg (Musatov)
322 THE PREPOSITION
575· C (genitive case):
When at means from:
I shall begin at the beginning R Ha tmy c HaqciAa
. • . many people turned out to be ••• MHOrHC .1\ID,Il;H BbiXO,D;IiMI: COB•
quite different from what they ceM He TaKHMH, KaKHMH OHM
seemed to be at first sight Ka3a.I\HCb c nepBoro B3rNI,D;a
(M. Prishvin)
He fell in love with her at first On B.11.106MCR B Hee c nepBoro
sight B3rNI,~~;a

In (during) -a point in time

576. B (prepositional case):
(i) Times of life:
In childhood-youth-old age B AeTcTBe IDHOCTH CTa-
pOCTH

But compare B AHM MOJ\OAOCTM in the days of one's youth.

(ii) Months:
In February-March, etc.
(iii) Year, decade, century:
In the year 1900 B n:rcgqa ,II;CBRTIICOTOM ro,~~;y
During the first decade of the nine- B nepBOM ,ll;CCRTII.I\eTHH ,ll;CBRTHcl,ll;-
teenth century ljaToro BeKa
In the nineteenth century B ,~~;eBRTHa,~~;gaToM BeKe

Note that with ,ll;eCjfrMJ\eTMe the accusative after B is also possible

with no difference in meaning. During that year may be either
B TOM ro,.11;y or B TOT roA and during that period B TOM nep:H:o,~~;e or
B TOT nepM:o,.11;. When, however, the year is named, only the pre-
positional'is possible. With BeK (cTOJ\eTMe) only the preposi-
tional is possible.

577· Bo BpeMH (genitive case):

During the First World War Bo BpeMR nepBOH MHpOBOH BOHHhl
During the thunderstorm Bo BpeMR rpo3hl
During the lecture Bo BpeMR .1\eKunu
 TIME 323
Bo BpeMx is used predominantly with historical events, natural
phenomena, activities, and not normally with periods of time.
In these examples the meaning of during is at some stage in. See
para. 581 for BO BpCMH meaning throughout.
578. Ha (prepositional case):
(i) Designates a minute, hour, year as one in a series from a
definite starting point:
He scored in the fifth minute
nrpb'r
A child begins to speak during its Pe6euoK uaq1mae-r roBopuTb ua
second year BTop6M roAy OT po)K,Il;eHIDI
Compare para. 587 (i) where AeHI, following Ha is placed in the
accusative case.
(ii) Weeks:
Last-this-next week Ha np6mAoti- aTOit- 6yAyiJJeii
ueAeAe
(iii) Certain expressions which combine a sense of time and
the manner in which the time is spent:
On the way back (during the re- Ha o6paTHOM nynl
tum journey)
In the holidays Ha KamiKyAax
(iv) Notice the idiom na CTapocm AeT in old age and compare
with the use of B in all other similar expressions (see para. 576
(i)). Notice also the idiom ua MOeM BeKy in my lifetime.

In (during)-duration of time
579· B (accusative case):
(i) The period taken to complete an action:
I shall write this story in three R uamnuy aTOT paccK<ia B Tpn
weeks HeAI!An
(ii) .Meaning in the course of:
I go to the cinema three times a R xoX<y BKI1H6 TPif paaa BHeAeAIO
week
(iii) Duration of a state, an action, an age, an historical event:
During his absence B ero OTCjTCTBiie
324 THE PREPOSITION
(Cf. B ero npHCYTCTBHH in his presence which is a prepositional
expression of place.)
In the revolution of July 1830, the B moA&CKYID pesoAIDJlHIO 1830
French bourgeoisie seized power ro,~~;a cppaHtW3CKa.fl 6yp*ya3H.fl
3aXBaTHAa BAaCTb

Here the revolution is envisaged as a whole and its result

described.
During the Middle Ages
Also B KaMeHHbiif BeK in the Stone Age; B :;moxy npocBel!!eHIUI
during the Age of Enlightenment; B p:biuapcKne BeKa during the Age
of Chivalry.
(iv) In expressions which combine a sense of time and the
manner in which the time is spent. Especially common are:
During the whole journey Bo Bee& nyT& (so sc10 ,~~;opory)
During all the rest of the journey, Manop so Bee& ocTaA&Hoif nyr&
the Major did not say a word ne nponanec HH CAoBa
(Fadeyev)

(Contrast Ha o6paTHOM nyrli para. 578 (iii).)

580. 3a (accusative case) :

(i) Synonymous with B in the meaning of period of completion
of an action (para. 579 (i)):
I shall write this story in three }I nannwy BTOT paccKaa aa Tpn
weeks ne,~~;eAn

(ii) Meaning over a certain period:

Vas' ka ... undertook to count how Bac&Ka ... BallAd c•mTaT& cKoA&Ko
many wounded would come to paHeHblX 3a ,l!;eHh n pn,l!;eT Ha
the dressing station in one day nepes.R:aKy (Panova)

581. Bo BpeMH (genitive case):

To take notes during a lecture
Here the meaning of Bo BpeMH is during the whole of, throughout
(cf. para. 577 where it means at some point in).
 TIME
582. B re•u~HHe; na nponiiKeHIIII (genitive case):
During the nineteenth century B Te'leHHe (Ha npoTH.>KeHim) Ae-
BHTHciAyaToro BeKa
During mat!)' decades B Te'leHne (Ha npoTH.>Kemm)
MH6mx AecliTHAenrii
These expressions are used predominantly with nouns with
temporal meaning (cf. BO Bp6ul para. 577). Compare the mean-
ing of the above examples (during the course of) with that of the
examples with B and the prepositional case in para. 576.
583. B npo,zto.UKeHI·te (genitive case):
The majority, during the course, EoA&liiHHcrs6, a npoAOA.>KeHne
do not work at their subjects K)•pca, He 3aHiiMaiOTCll CBOilMll
npeAMeTa:o.m
B npo,zto.UKeHire, as well as with expressions of time, is commonly
used with nouns denoting a process or activity.

In-other meanings
584. tiepe3 (accusative case):
After a certain interval:
I shall finish this book in three R KOH'I)' ;hy KHiiry qepe3 Tpn
days' time AHH

tiepe3 meaning after a certain interval is used to designate actions

which occur at regular intervals:
The buses run every ten minutes ABT66ychl x6AHT qepe3 Ka.>KA&Ie
AeCJITb :t.!HHYr
EveT)• ten steps :.\fitrofan II' ich lJepe3 Ka.>KAblH AeClfrOK 11Iar6B
stopped MnTpo<l'aH fu&Ii'l ocraHaBAH-
BaAcll (Polevoy)
Notice the expression ne'laraTL '1epe3 crpo'IKY to use double
spacing.
tiepe3 may also be used as a strengthening word, followed by
noc.\e after:
Three years after his marriage, he l.lepe3 TPH r6Aa n6CAe .>KeHim6hl,
obtained the post of shippillg- OH noAyqiiA AOA.>KHOCTb ynpas-
office manager NIIOIQero napox6AHOii KOHT6-
poii
 THE PREPOSITION
The exact opposite of qepe3- noc.l\e in such constructions is
3a - ,21;0 before:
Three years before his marriage, 3a Tpn r6,lla AO <~<eHI1Tb6bl ...
etc.
Notice the expression paHhiiie 'lCM qepe3 in less than:
I cannot complete this work in less R He ,llOKOH'lY ;ho CO'IMHeHne
than three weeks paHbwe 'leM '1epe3 TPII He,lle.I\M
585. llp11 (prepositional case):
(i) Meaning in the reign of:
But life was easier for Radishchev A PaAih,gesy npii EKaTepil:He
in Catherine's reign .1\.ertJ:e <~<H.II.OCh (Musatov)
(ii) In constructions similar to those translated by at in
para. 573=
The documents found in the search ,LI;oKyMeHTbl Hati,lleHHble npn
were too revealing 66hlcKe 6h'I.II.M c.ii.HwKOM Kpac-
Hope'IHBbl (Ignatov)
With this sense of concomitance npii is used in numerous ex-
pressions which are temporal in that they denote attendant
circumstance:
In (when) crossing the street ... IlpM nepex6,lle '1epe3 Y.II.MUY· ..
When in doubt lead trumps Ilpn COMHeHMM XO,llHTb CK03blpeii:
He made his speech in complete OH npoH3Hec csoro pellh npM n6.11.-
silence HOM MO.II.lJaHMH
Note also npn CH.I\hHOM BeTpe in a strong wind.

On -sometimes understood but not expressed in Eng-

lish:
586. B (accusative case):
(i) Morning and evening:
(On) that same morning B TO <~<e yTpo
One fine evening B O,llHH npeKpacHLiii setJ:ep
(or TeM .IKe )h-poM: O,li;HHM npeKpaCHbiM Bet~epoM).
(ii) Days of the week:
On Monday, Tuesday, etc. B noHe,lle.ll.bHMK, so BTopHnK, n
T. ,ll.
On that same day B TOT <~<e ACHb
 TIME
587. Ha (accusative case):
(i) With next day (cAeA)'lOIQHH AeHL, Apyroi1 AeHL, aaBTpa)
and when day is accompanied by an ordinal number. The sense
is often but not always one of comparison with what happened
the previous day:
The next day he went away Ha a:iBTpa oH yexaA
The next morning he was well Ha frpo oH y.iKe 6LL\ 3AOp6B
again.
Lar'ka spent only two days in AapLKa CHA~ He 66.\ee AB)'X
prison, on the third day he was AHefi, Ha Tpc!THH AeHL er6
released BbmYCTHAH (Ertel')
(ii) On this occasion is normally translated by Ha STOT paa
On this occasion sleep was longer CoH Ha BTOT paa aacr:iBHA ce68
than usual in coming .;KAan. 66.,ee o6blKHoBeHHoro
(Kuprin)
Compare such expressions as BO BTop6H: paa of which the sense
is one of enumeration:
This is the second time I har!e been R BO BTop6ii paa B IIapHJKe
in Paris

s88. Ilo (dative plural):

Used to describe repeated actions and the intervals at which
they occur. These constructions are similar to those with no
given in para. 598 but do not indicate the duration of each
repeated action:
On holidays we used to sleep till Ilo npaaAHHKaM MLI cni..\.11 'lac6B
about ten o'clock AO Aecm (Gor'ky)
We go to the theatre on Thurs- 1\.fbl x6AHY B Te<iTp no qemeprar.~
days
Ilo, of course, may correspond in these constructions to English
prepositions other than on, depending on the English noun
used:
I read in the mornings R •nfTaiO no )'TpaM
 THE PREPOSITION

589. ITo (prepositional case):

When on replaces when and a verbal construction in expres-
sions such as the English on his return (when he returned):
On his father's death, he went ITo cMepTH oTga oH yexa.11. 3arpa-
abroad Hngy
Notice also no er6 B03Bpal,!!emm on his return, no ocM6Tpe on
examination, no rrpm!a,ZJ;e on arrival.

Other prepositions of time

After
590. II6c.11.e (genitive case):
After the ball I16c.11.e 6<l.ll.a
591. 3a (instrumental and accusative case):
Following in succession (instrumental):
Day after day
Beyond (accusative):
After midday (midnight) 3a n6MeHL (no.II.HOllh)
Compare rr6cAe noAy.ZJ;H.H (noAyuoliH):
After midday she began to feel the I16c.11.e no.ll.'yAHll oHa Ha'la.ll.a TO-
pangs of thirst MHThCll JKa:.~<,ZJ;oii (Lermontov)
The use of n6cAe means simply at some moment after midday. The
use of aa followed by the accusative case gives the sense of the
movement of time beyond midday:
It was already long after midday Ebi.II.O y:.~<e ,ZJ;a.ll.eK6 aa n6A,ZJ;eHL
when they arrived Kor,ZJ;a OHH npMexa.11.n
3a is used in the same way in such expressions as eMy aa c6poK
he is over forty.
592. Bc.11.e.ZJ; aa (instrumental case):
Immediately following:
These words were followed imme- CTpamHLiu myM no.ZJ;mi.11.c.li BC.II.eA
diatery by a fearful noise 3a aTIIMH C.II.OBaMM (Kaverin)
 Til\-IE

Before
593· ,LJ.o (genitive case):
Before the war 4o BOHHhi
Before Christ ,L1o pOIK,ll,eCTBa XpllCTCJBa

594· IlepeA (instrumental case):

To work before an examination 3aHHt.lclTbCH nepe,11, 3K3clMeHOl\1
It is difficult to describe the excite- Tpy,li,HO onncaTb TO BOAHeHne,
ment which I and the other KOTopoe .H n ,11,pynl:e aKTepbr
actors felt before the dress JICDLITblBaAn nepe,11, reHepi,\b-
rehearsal HOH peneniyHeii
(Stanislavsky)
Compare the difference between AO Tor6, KaK and nepeA TeM,
KaK in para. 425 (i). ,LJ.o means simply anterior to: nepeA means
immediately before, on the eve of. The common Russian expressions
cpaay nepeA immediately before and aa,llOArO AO long before illus-
trate the difference between the two prepositions.

595· IloA (accusative case):

Translates just before, on the eve of, especially with times of the
day, seasons, and festivals:
Just before morning it began to
rain heavily
On the t•ery night before the opera- B cal'ot:yro HO'IJb no,ll, onepay1110
tion (Solzheni tsyn)

By
596. K (dative case) :
He will arriz•e by the end of next OH npue,11,eT K KOH!JY 6yAyi,ijeii
week He,li,CMI

For
597· Ha (accusative case):
Denoting time subsequent to the action of the main verb:
I shall lend you the book for six R BaM O,li,OAIKY KHiiry Ha mecTb
days ,li,Hel1
330 THE PREPOSITION
598. ITo (dative case):
(i) Denoting repeated actions and the period of time which
they occupy, English for ••• on end. The nouns denoting the
period of time (qac, ,~~;eHL, He,~~;b\n, etc.) are almost always
accompanied by the adjective IJCALiii and are always in the
plural:
I used to sit at my books for days ITo ueAblM ,li;HHM H CHAeA aa KHlf-
on end raMH (Kaverin)

(ii) As an alternative to no and the dative plural, the instru-

mental plural without a preposition is also possible in such
expressions :
Aleksey would gaze at the commis- .A.i\eKCeH yeAblMH ,li;HHMH npHrAH-
sar for days on end ,ll;blBaACH K KOMHCcapy
(Polevoy)

The instrumental plural may also translate English for in ex-

pressions which denote a protracted action without the notion
of repetition:
• • • we shall not have to wait for •.• HaM HC npHAeTCH ,li;O)Itlf·
weeks ,ll;llTLCH HC,ll;eAHMH (Panova)

From ... to
599· C ... AO, aT ••• AO (genitive case):
(i) C is used in combination with AO when the starting-point
in time is not strictly defined:
From spring to late autumn C BCCHhl ,11;0 n63,11;ueli: 6cenH
From morning to evening C YTP<i ,~~;o Be'lepa
From childhood to old age C ,D;eTCTBa ,11;0 CTapblX ACT

OT ••• AO is used when the starting-point is strictly defined:

From the second ofJune to the fifth
of August
From two o'clock to a quarter to
four
From twenry to thirry years of age
OT BTop6ro mom ,11;0 mhoro
aBryCTa
OT AByx lJac6B AD 6ea lJCTBCpTii
lJCTbrpe
OT ,D;Ba,~~;uani ,11;0 TPHAuani ACT
 TIME 331

In certain expressions either cor oT may be used:

From February to October C (aT) «t>eBpaNI AO OKTH6p,f
From ancient times to the present C (aT) ApeaHHxBpeMeH p;o miumx
day AHeii:
From cradle to grave C (aT) KOAJ>I6eAn AO MOrHAJ>I
(ii) When in Englishfrom is not followed by to, c and not oT
is used in Russian:
I shall live here from the fifteenth R 6yAy ;KUTJ> 3ACCJ> c nHTHap;ya-
of August TOro aarycTa
(iii) C may be followed by no (and the accusative case) with
a different meaning from ,li;O. C ... AO meansfrom ... up to (but
not including) whereas c ... no means from ••. up to (and in-
cluding):
From the sixth of May to the tenth C wecT6ro Mill no ;~edToe monH
of June inclusive
Notice the expression no celi ,ll;eHL to this very day.
(iv) Cis followed by Ha in the expression oTK.\a,IJ,hiBaTh co ,11,mi
Ha ,IJ,eHh to put offfrom day to day, and in oTK.\a,IJ,LmaTL (oTAO.ltaiTh)
c Bet~epa Ha )7po to put offfrom the evening until the next morning.
6oo. Compare the following expressions:
(i) Co ,ll;mi mi ,ll;eHLfrom day to day, from one day to the next:
We were expecting the declaration M1>1 O;KUA<iAli co AHH Ha p;eH~>
of war dai?J o6'bHBACHHH noii:nhl
We get along from one day to the Mhl nepe6HaaeMCH co AHH Ha
next ACHJ>
(ii) ,ll;eHL oTo AHH gradually, day by day, normally found with
comparatives:
My life is becoming emptier day /KnaHJ> Moll cTan6nHTCH nycTee
by day AeH~> oTo AH.Ii (Lermontov)
(iii) I1:3o AHH B ,li;CHh day after day, day in day out:
The factory exceeds the programme 3aB6A nepenJ>moAIIJieT nporpall!-
day after day ).ty 1rao AHH B ACHJ> (Polevoy)
These expressions are also possible, of course, with other periods
of time as, e.g. t~ac, r.u!cSig, ro,11,, hour, month, year; t~ac OT t~acy ne
Aert~e things are going from bad to worse.
332 THE PREPOSITION
Since
601. C (genitive case):
With an imperfective verb cis used in the same way as French
depuis which, with the present tense, denotes that an action
begun in the past is still in progress:
I have been waiting for you since R Bac )K,II;y c Tpex -qac(m
three o'clock
With a perfective verb, however, c does not mean since but
simply states the moment at which the action was performed
as in c yTpa in the morning, c Beqepa in the evening:
Katya in the morning put on her Kchx c yTpa na,~~;e.11.a -qepHoe
black dress and smoothly combed rr.11.au.e, r.ll.a,II;KO rrpn-qeca.11.a
her fair hair CBeT.I\ble BO.I\OChi (Paustovsky)
Often such constructions have the sense of the action beginning
at the time stated:
It began to rain in the morning

Towards
602. Ilo,11; (accusative case):
They arrived towards evening Oml: rrpnexa.11.n no,~~; Bellep
Alternatively this may be expressed rrepe,ll; BeqepOM

Until
6o3. ,ll;o (genitive case):
Stay with us until Tuesday OCTaBati:TeCh y uac ,11;0 BTopHnKa
Not until may be neatly translated by TO.I\hKO:
I shall not see you until Friday H Bac TO.I\hKO B mi:TmiJJY YBii)Ky

PLACE
At, in, on, translated by B and ua
At
604. B (prepositional case):
The essential function ofB as a preposition of place is to define
location inside an encompassed space. It is used to translate at
 PLACE 333
predominantly with the names of buildings encompassed by
four walls:
Public places
At the theatre B Te<iTpe
At a hotel B rocnl:Hnge
At the cinema B KIIHO
At church BgepKBn

Places of study
At school B lllKOAe
At the Universiry B yHimepcnTeTe
At the technical school B TexHIIK)'Me
Notice also B caHaTopnn at a sanatorium. The English expressions
at church and at school have lost the definite article and become
almost adverbial expressions. Russian, however, retains with
these words the concrete preposition B.
605. Ha (prepositional case):
(i) The most typical use ofHa, translating at, is to define loca-
tion combined with a sense of activity, when the noun concerned
describes an occasion rather than a place:
At the concert Ha KOHgepTe
At the play Ha mece
At the exhibition Ha BbiCTaBKe
At the wedding Ha cBaAJ>6e
At thefuneral Ha noxopoHax
At the lecture Ha AeKgmt
At the lesson Ha yp6Ke
At the war Ha BofiHe
At thejront Ha ppoHTe
At the military council Ha BoeHHOM coBeTe
At the party Ha Be'lepiiHKe
At work Ha pa66Te
At the meeting Ha co6paHim
(ii) Ha is also used to translate at with the majority of places
of work:
At the post office Ha no'ITe
At the factory Ha pa6pnKe
334 THE PREPOSITION
At the works Ha aaBoAe
At the market Ha pirHKe
At the mine Ha waxTe
At the station Ha soK3.V..e ( cTaHgmi)
Notice also Ha KypopTe at the health resort. The reason for the use
of Ha with these words is that none of them is linked with the
notion of a single building or a strictly encompassed space.
3ano,zr;, q>a6pMKa, and rnaxTa may all occupy an extensive space
and consist of numerous buildings, housing many different
forms of activity. In addition, Ha with rnaxTa may convey, more
narrowly, the sense of location among the surface workings, as
opposed to B rnaxTe which means inside the mine (i.e. down the
mine). It is suggested by some Russian grammarians that both
nOqTa and CTclHIJIUI are linked with the old term noqToBaH CTclH·
IJMH post station, where not only was post handled but coachmen
and horses were kept for the convenience of travellers. Boi<aaA
takes Ha probably because the original BOKaaA was simply an
open platform (called ,zr;e6apKa,zr;ep, cf. French deharcadere) and
even now designates both the station building and platforms
(cf. Ha nAaT<}>opMe below). A market consists of many stalls and
covers a wide area.
(iii) Ha also translates at when the object or place concerned
is regarded as a flat surface:
At platform No. 3 Ha IIAaT~opMe N~ 3
Curtains at the windows fapAMHhi Ha oKHax
At the corner Ha yn..y
(Cf. CTOA CTOifT n yrAy the table stands in the corner.) Note American
English on the corner.

In
6o6. B (prepositional case):
B is used meaning in with the names of towns, territories, and
countries, encompassed by boundaries or frontiers:
In London B Aon,zr;one
In the Crimea B Kp~>rM"Y
In Georgia B fpya1-m
 PLACE 335
In France Bo <l>paHg;nH
In Siberia B Cu6npH
In the Donets Basin B 4oH6acce
Notice, however, the exception Ha YKpaliHe in the Ukraine which
is a Ukrainianism. (Compare Ha oKpanHe on the outskirts). But B
is used when YKpa{ma is subdivided into geographical regions:
B aarra,ztHOH YKpaliHe in the western Ukraine. Notice also Ha po,ll;HHe
and Ha qy.>K6Jffie which are abstract expressions and mean at
home and abroad. (For in Alaska see para. 6og.)
607. Ha (prepositional case):
(i) Ha translates in with nouns which designate activities or
occasions rather than places (cf. at para. 6os):
In a duel Ha noe,~~;IiHKe
In the medical faculty Ha Me,z~ng;nHcKoM <f?aKyAhTeTe
In the war Ha Boil:He
Compare 6biTb y61hbiM Ha nol':i:w~ but B 61ITBe to be killed in the
war, in a battle. (But when the war is defined: n rpa.>KAaHcKoii
noii:He in the civil war). Compare also yqiiTbC.H n yHnnepcnTeTe,
aa Me,ll;IIQIIHCKOM q>aKyAhn!Te to stut.ry at the universiry, in the
medical faculry.
(ii) Also with places regarded as flat surfaces:
In the street Ha yAHg;e
In the square Ha nA61,!!a,~~;u
(iii) With all points of the compass:
In the North, South, East, West Ha ceBepe, !Ore, BOCTOKe, aana,~~;e

Similarly:
In the Far East, Far North Ha ,4ciAbueM BoCT6Ke, Ha AciAb-
HeM CeBepe
(iv) With mountainous regions inside Russia which do not
possess strictly defined borders:
In the Caucasus, in the Urals, in Ha KasKaae, Ha YpciAe, Ha
the Pamir IIaMI.fpe
but B hhrrax, n ITupeHe.HX, B KaprraTax in the Alps, in the
Pyrenees, in the Carpathians.
 THE PREPOSITION
As a general guide, Ha is used with nouns which are gram-
matically singular, B with grammatically plural nouns. Fluc-
tuations occur when the noun is in some way defined-one
meets both B and Ha IloAHpHoM YpaAe, B and Ha :QeHTpaALHOM
A-uae; or when there is a slight semantic difference-s Kap-
naTax (in the region) but Ha KapmiTaX MHOro noBapeHHOH COJ\M
there is a lot of salt in the Carpathians (i.e. on the surface). One may
write exaTb B or Ha KapmiTbi but only exaTb Ha KasKa3, Ha
YpaA, Ha IlaMHp, Ha AJ\Taii.
(v) With natural phenomena which are not tangible:
In the sun Ha coAHQe
In the fresh air Ha cse)KeM s63,11,yxe
In a draught Ha cKso3HHKe

(Contrast in the rain ITOA AO*ACM.)

(vi) In strictly professional usage:
To work in the theatre Pa66TaTb Ha TeaTpe
To serve in the navy CA Y*IITb Ha <JIA6Te

6o8. Notice that with certain nouns either B or Ha may be

used to translate in:
In the kitclzen B (Ha) KyxHe
In the sky B (Ha) He6e
In the eyes B (Ha) rAa3ax
In the yard B (Ha) ABope
In the fields B (Ha) noMix
In the saddle B (Ha) ceMe

Also s (Ha) Mope at sea but only s OTKp:hlToM Mope in the open sea.
Notice that the metaphorical expression Ha ceAbMOM He6e in the
seventh heaven takes only Ha. With no.J\e and ABOp, B is used if an
enclosed space is meant, Ha if there is no sense of enclosure
present. In English one may talk of working in a field, or work-
ing on the land. ,l(eTM Mrp<iAM so ABope means that the children
were playing in a yard, surrounded by a fence or buildings, in
contrast to Ha ABope meaning anywhere outside the house. B in
general is a more concrete preposition of place than Ha, which
accordingly lends itself more easily to use in adverbialised ex-
pressions. This difference comes out clearly, in theory, when
 PLACE 337
they are used with forms of transport. Ha in such contexts
expresses the method of travel in principle rather than the
actual journey, whereas B expresses a definite journey inside a
conveyance. Compare:
Travel by car is more convenient Y,li;06Hee exaTb Ha MaUIIIHe, 'leM
than by train na n6e3,ZJ;e
Three boys and their father were Tpu 1\i<l.Ab'liiKa c OTIJOM exaAII B
travelling in the car Mauul:ue
In practice, however, Ha appears to be more common in the
contemporary language than B, even with specific journeys in
a vehicle.
Notice the semantic difference between oH )KUBeT B ceAe he
works in the village and OH nepaLn1 Ha ceAe pa66THnK he is the best
worker in the village.

On
609. Ha (prepositional case):
Used with islands and peninsulas:
On the island of Malta Ha ocTpoae Ml:lALTe
On the Scandinavian peninsula Ha cKaH,li;UHaBCKOM noAyocTpoae
On the Crimean peninsula Ha Kph'IMCKOM noAyocTpoae
Compare in the Crimea B KpLIMy, para. 6o6. Notice also Ha
AAxcKe in Alaska (Alaska is a peninsula).

At, in, on, translated by prepositions other than

Band ua
At
610. Y (genitive case):
(i) Corresponding to French chez:
I shall live at my aunt's H 6yAy )KliTb y TeTKII
I am having a suit made at the best H IllbiO ce6e KOCTIDM y AY'llllero
tailor's nopTuoro
(ii) Denoting close proximity:
She is sitting at the piano Oua cn,ZJ;xh y poliAs:
The car stopped at the prison Malllxlua ocTanoaiiAacL y TIOpeM-
gates HLIX BOpOT
 THE PREPOSITION
Certain expressions used withy in this meaning have an implied
temporal meaning:
At the fork in the road he was the y pa3BH.I\KH ,~~;op6m, OH nepBblii
first to turn right noBepHyA HanpaBO (Erenburg)
611. TipH (prepositional case):
(i) May be used as a synonym ofy as given in the preceding
paragraph (ii):
A house with two lighted windows ,ll;oM c ABYMH oCBei)JeHHbiMH 6K-
stood at the entrance to the HaMH cTmiA npH B'be3,ll;e B ce.l\6
village (A. N. Tolstoy)
TipH however may, in addition, give a sense not only of nearness
but of actual attachment:
The doctor 'lives in' at the hospital ,ll;oKTOp )KHBeT npH 60.1\bHHge
At court IIp11 ,~~;Bope
To work as a translator at the CAy)KHTb nepeBo,ll;liHKOM npn
United Nations OOH
TipH may also be used in the abstract expression rrpH cMepTH at
death' s door in which y may not be used.
(ii) TipH also means present at:
Pet'ka was present at this scene IleTbKa 6bl.l\ IIpH {ITOfi CQeHe
(Kaverin)

612. 3a (accusative and instrumental case):

(i) In contrast to y (first example para. 610 (ii)) aa means
that the person near an object is also engaged in some activity
connected with it:
She was sitting at the piano play- Omi cn,~~;eAa 3a pofl:AeM, Hrp<l.l\a
ing a waltz BaA&C
We can appreciate this meaning of aa if we bear in mind such
English expressions as behind a desk, behind the plough which have
the same connotation of activity connected with the object in
question as aa, of which, of course, the basic meaning is behind.
(ii) Like Band Ha, aa is followed by the accusative case when
motion is expressed:
The princess seated her daughter KHHrHHH yca,~~;IiAa ,li;Ollb 3a pofl:Ab
at the piano
 PLACE 339
613. K (dative case):
He fell at the king'sfeet
In
614. Y (genitive case):
Churchill was then in power
On
615. C (genitive case):
Used with cTOpomi (side) followed by OT and the genitive case
to indicate relative position:
On the right (to the right) of the C npfulm1 cTopoH:br oT AOpom
road is a wood Haxo,ll;nTcsr po~,ga
But N.B. the translation of on the wrong side in the idiom:
He got out of bed on the wrong OH cero,li;Hll yrpoM Ben\,, c nocTe-
side this morning Jill c AeBOJi uon1:

6x6. no (accusative case):

Used with CTopomi (and py1d.) to denote place where, in a
more concrete sense than c rrpaBoli cTopoHh1 oT above (position
relative to):
He was walking on the other side On IIIeA no TY cTopony ,ll;op6rn
of the road
Ha with the prepositional case may be used as a synonym of no
and the accusative in this locative sense.
617. no (dative case):
Used with the verb yAap.Hn. (yAapun.) to hit:
He hit me on the head On yAapnA Men.!l no roAoBe
Notice the idiom yAap.Hn. (yAapHTL) no p)'KaM to strike a bargain.
To, into, translated by B, ua, and I(
To
618. B, Ha (accusative case):
(i) Those nouns which take B or na with the prepositional
case meaning location take the same preposition with the accu-
sative case meaning motion:
340 THE PREPOSITION
To go to the theatre 11Ani (noihli) B Te<hp
To go to the play MATH (noiiTH) Ha mecy
(ii) With islands and peninsulas to is translated by Ha:
Lenin went to Capri to confer with J\eHHH noexaA Ha KanpH coseTo-
Gor'ky BaTLCH c fopLKHM
(iii) Ha translates to in such expressions as ,~~;op6ra Ha EepAnH
the road to Berlin, where the emphasis is on leading or moving
towards a place (often in a military context) rather than on
actually reaching it.
619. K (dative case):
(i) K is always used to translate to with persons:
He returned to his parents OH BepHyAcH K poAHTCJ\HM
I am going to the doctor's R HAY K spa'ly
Compare oH BepHyAC.II B OTUOBCKHH ,II;OM he returned to his father's
house.
(ii) The noun following K meaning to always represents the
ultimate point of the movement expressed:
The ship reached (came to) the Kopa6AL npHnALIA K 6epery
shore
K is especially common after verbs with the prefixes npH- and
no,~~;- meaning up to:
Come up to the table IloAOHAHTe K CTOJ\y

Into
620. B (accusative case):
Except with nouns which must take Ha translating at and in,
into is almost always translated into Russian by B. (Note, how-
ever, :ha yAHUa yrnrpaeTC.II B rrAoiJ!aAL this street abuts on to [comes
out into] the square.) With the meaning of into, B is usually pre-
ceded by a verb strengthened with the prefix B-. Compare:
I was going to the theatre R meA B TeaTp
I was going into the theatre R BXOAHA B TeaTp
In certain constructions B may be used after a noun, without a
verb, when motion is implied:
The door into the side room
 PLACE
From, out of, off, translated by na, c, and O'F
6~:u There are three main Russian prepositions which desig-
0

nate movement away from. These prepositions, n3, c, and OT,

form pairs with B, Ha, and K respectively. Almost invariably
when B, Ha, and K are used with a noun to mean motion to or
motion towards, n3, c, and OT are used with the same noun to
mean motion away from:
We came out of the theatre Mbr BhiiiiAII na Te<iTpa
T/ze guests from tlze Ukraine f6cnt c Y.KpaHHbi npnexaAJI
arrived today cerOAHll
The ship left (sailed away from) Kopa6AL omAh'IA OT 6epera
the shore
Notice, however, to get into bed AOIKHTLCH (AeqJ>) B nocToo, but
to get out of bed BCTaBaTb (BcTaTb) c nocTb.n; to sit down in an arm-
chair ca,~~;l'rncx (cecn) B KpecAo, but to rise from an armchair BCTa-
BaTb (BcTaTL) c KpecAa. Compare caAHTLCH (cecTL) Ha cTyA and
BCTaBaTL (BcTan) co cTyAa. If, however, a verb with the prefix
BI>I- is used with nocTeAJ> and KpecAo, it is followed by n3: oH
BbiCKOqHA 113 llOCTeAH he leapt OUt of bed.
622 oThe concrete meaning of n3 is out oj, of c from the surface of
or down from, of OT away from.
The combination OT ... ,~~;o means essentially the distance from
one point to another:
It is 450 miles from Glasgow to OT fAaaro AO .l\6HAoHa 450 MHAb
London
The combination li3 ... B envisages the place of departure and
the place of arrival, and the emphasis is on the journey between
the places, not on the distance between them:
I was travelling from Birming- R exaA H3 EupMHHraMa B ReM-
ham to Cambridge via London 6pnAJK qepea .l\6HAOH
The train was making for ilios- II6e3A HanpaBNIACll na .l\eHnH-
cow from Leningrad rpaAa B Moc.KBY
This last sentence, however, may be expressed by noea,~~;
HanpaBNl:Acx na .l\eHnHrpci,ll;a Ha MocKBy, in which case it has
the further meaning that the train will not necessarily end its
journey at Moscow, but may go farther.
81563~ M
342 THE PREPOSITION
The combination OT ... K also envisages the place of departure
and the place of arrival, and may be synonymous with M3 ... B:
The steamer was sailing up the ITapox6,11; no,II;HMMa.II.CH no Bo.I\I'e
Volga from Astrakhan to Sa- OT AcTpaxaHH K CapaToBy
ratov
This combination is especially common when the verb of
motion is itself prefixed by oT:
The ship lift one shore in the Kopa6.11.& OTll.ll.hi.II. OT o,~~;Hor6 6e-
morning and reached the other pera yTpoM H npn:ndiA K APY-
in the evening r6My Bet~epoM

623. The combination c ... Ha means downfrom-on to:

The book fell from the table on to Kmira yna.11.a co cTo.ll.a Ha no.11.
the .floor
Notice paccKa3 o npM6LITMM c Mapca the story of the arrival from
Mars. C also, of course, often translates off:
At the first turning off the square ITpu nepBOM noBop6Te c llJ\OIQa,II;H

Into, translated by other prepositions than

Band ua
624. 3a (accusative case):
Used with noHc (belt) and roAeHI1l!!e (boot-top) when the
literal meaning is behind:
I thrust my pistol into my belt and R 3aTKHYA 3a noHc nncro.11.eT u
went out Bbiiiie.ll. (Lermontov)
... the snow which had got into ... CHer, KOT6p&Iii eMj 3a6W...cH 3a
his boot-tops roAeHHJMa (L. N. Tolstoy)
3a may also, of course, be used with these words in the instru-
mental case meaning location, in: 3a noHCOM in one's belt. Note
also the word na3yxa which means the space between the breast
and the clothing and is used with 3a meaning in, into: oH 3ac)hfyA
flYKY 3a mbyxy he thrust his hand inside his jacket.
625. BHYTflb (genitive case):
Used in the expression BHYTflb cTpaHLI meaning inland (lit.
into the country) :
We were travelling inland
 PLACE 343
The corresponding expression describing location is BHyTpri
CTpaHLI:
We live inland

From, out of, translated by other prepositions

than H3, c, and OT
626. Russian prepositions usually define position or movement
with great precision. Two prepositions which offer excellent
examples of this precision are n3-ITOA and H3-3a, both followed
by the genitive case:
A series of articles came from his .P.II,zt CTaTell BblllleJ\ H3-l10,lt ero
pen (lit. from under} nepa
The soldiers came out of the firing CoMaThi BhiUI.I\H na-rro.zt orHJi
line
She rose from the piano without 0Ha BCTclAa H3-3a pOHA.II, He
playing (lit.from behind) nrpaB

627. IloA (accusative and instrumental case):

This preposition may also define motion or location with
great precision:
She hung the lamp from the ceiling 0Ha rroBeCIIAa J\aMIIy rro.zt rroTo-
J\OK
The lamp was hanging from the .i\aMJia BHc<!Aa rro.zt noTOJ\KoM
ceiling (lit. under)

Other English prepositions of place

About
628. ITo (dative case):
When the meaning is from one part to another of the surface of an
obJect or in one part and another of, i.e. whether there is movement
or not:
It is pleasant to wander about the IIprnhHo 6po,zti'rTL no Y""IJaM
streets of London J\oH,ztOHa
Scattered about the floor lay books .Paa6p6caHHhle n6 noJ\y J\e*fuui
on all sorts of subjects Kmirn caMoro pa3Hoo6paaHoro
co,ztep*amm
344 THE PREPOSITION
ITo in this meaning is often found in combination with a verb
with the prefix pa3- meaning in different directions or in separate
places:
They hung the pictures about the Om1: paaBeCn./\H KaprnHbi no cTe-
walls miM
629. 0KoAo, BOKpyr, Kpyr6M (genitive case):
When about means around:
He looked anxiously about him 011 cMoTpeA omiCAnBo BoKpyr
(6KoAo, KpyroM) ce6ll
To beat about the bush Xo~M:TL Kpyr6M Aa 6Ko./\o

Above
630. HaA (instrumental case):
Above sea level Ha~ ypoBHeM Mopx
He raised the chair above his head OH no~HH./\ CTY./\ Ha~ ro./\OBOH
Notice that Ha,ll; takes the instrumental case whether motion is
present or not.
631. BLnne (genitive case):
With rivers (lit. higher than):
Saratov stands on the Volga above CapaToB .1\emM:T Ha B6Are Bb'nne
Astrakhan AcTpaxaHn
Along
632. B.ZJ;OAb (genitive case):
Meaning along the length of, alongside:
He was walking along the shore OH me./\ B~O./\b 6epera
Bonfires burned along the shore KocTp:hl ropeAn B~O./\b 6epera
B.ZJ;OAb may be followed by no and the dative case: OH meA
B,ll;OAb no 6epery.
633. ITo (dative case):
ITo, used alone, means along the line of or over the surface of:
The pilot was flying along the AeT'lHK .1\eTe./\ no rpauM:ge, Kor~a
frontier when he was shot down er6 c6H:An
He is walking along the street OH HAi!T no yAnge
Pink along the edges P6aoBLiii no KpaliM
 PLACE 345
Notice that although no is followed by nouns in the dative case,
pronouns appear after it in the prepositional case:
It is difficult to walk along this ITo aTOMY 6epery TPYAHO XO,Il;llTb
bank
This bank is steep; it is difficult ~hoT 6eper KpyY; no HeM TPYAHO
to walk along it XOAHTb

Before
634. IlepeA (instrumental case):
lnfront of:
He stood before the king with OH CTO>lA nepeA KopoAeM, noTy-
bowed head nns r6Aosy

635• IlpH (prepositional case):

In the presence of:
Be careful not to say that before CMoTpHTe, He CKa.tKHTe 9Toro npu
witnesses CBH,Il;eTeNIX

636. Ha (prepositional case):

He struck her before my eyes

Behind
637. 3a (instrumental and accusative case):
The instrumental is used for location, the accusative for
motion:
There is a statue behind the house 3a AOMOM CTOIIT cTaTyJI
He placed his hands behind his OH 3a.I\O.IKll.l\ PYKH aa CllliHY
back

638. Caa,ztn, noaa,zti1 (genitive case):

These are stronger words than aa for denoting location:
The lorry brought up the rear IloaaAII (caaAn) scer6 meA rpy-
aosuK
There is a large garden at the back Iloaa,ll;Il ( C3aAH) ,ll;OMa 60.1\blliOM
of the house CaA
346 THE PREPOSITION
Below, beneath
639. IIoA (instrumental and accusative case):
The instrumental case is used for location, the accusative for
motion:
He lives below us OH )KHBeT noA m1Mn
The duck dived beneath the boat YTKa HbipHyAa no,ZJ; AOAKY
640. HnJKe (genitive case):
With rivers (cf. BLnne, para. 631):
Astrakhan stands on the Volga AcTpaxaHb AeJKnT Ha B6Me HJI)Ke
below Saratov CapaToaa

Beside
641. Y (genitive case) :
Meaning near to, at:
He was sitting beside the river OH cu,11;eA y peKii, CAe,zvi 3a ABH-
watching the movements of the )KCHHHMH pbr6
fish

Between
642. MeJKAy (genitive and instrumental):
See Among, para. 6go.

Beyond
643. 3a (instrumental and accusative case):
Instrumental case with location, accusative with motion:
Beyond the swamp stands an old 3a 6oA6ToM CTOIIT cTapbi:ii AOM
house
This goes beyond the bounds of ~ho BbiXOAHT 3a npeAeAbi 3aKOH-
legitimate competition noif KOHKypem;pm

By
644. Y (genitive case):
Meaning at:
They were sitting by the fireside CriAll y KaMHHa, OHM 6ece,1J;OBa.I\H
chatting
 PLACE 347
645. Ilpn (prepositional case):
Meaning at, by the side of:
She sat by the sick man all night Bc10 uoq:& oua cnAba npu 6oAD-

646. qepe3 (accusative case):

Meaning via:
We travelled to Paris by London M:&I exaAll B ITapxi:lK qepe3 .i\6u-
AOH
647. M~mo (genitive case):
Meaning past:
I was going by (passing) the house R me'\ }.fllMO AOMa, KOrAa ycA:&i-
when I heard a shot illa./\ BbiCTpeA

Down
648. C (genitive case):
We walked down the hill Mhl IIIAHc rop:br neWK6r.t
Alternatively down the hill in this sentence may be translated
no.zt ropy. Note, however, that whereas lJATII (nofrrH:) c rop:br
can only have the concrete and specific meaning to come down a
hill, H.ztTii (noiini) no.zt ropy has acquired adverbial meaning-
downhill:
I feel dizzy when I travel downhill Y MeiDl Kpy:lKHTCH rol\oBa, KOrAa
eAy n6A ropy
lbni (noiini) no,lt ropy may also have the metaphorical mean-
ing to go downhill and has as its opposite IiATII (noiini) B ropy to
rise in the world.
649. Ilo (dative case):
Meaning over the surface of in a downwards direction:
Tears were rolling down her cheeks C.\e3hl Kani..uic:& y uee no I.J!eKaM

650. Buri3 no (dative case):

'·Vith rivers:
The steamer was sailing down
riz·er
We were sailing down the Volga
l1apOXOA IL\:bL\ BHU3 no TetieHHIO
peKxi
:M:&I IL\:bL\11 BHII3 no ( cnycK<iNie:&
no) B6Me
 THE PREPOSITION
Near
651. 6KoAO (genitive case):
Meaning somewhere near:
Near the town stands a factory
652. I1oA (instrumental and accusative case):
Instrumental with location, accusative with motion. I1oA is
really short for no.ZJ; cTemiMu under the walls and means therefore
very near:
Peter moved his forces near (up to)
Poltava TliBy
We live in a villa near (on the Mbi xmBeM B Aaqe no,ZJ; MocKBoii
outskirts of) Moscow
The close proximity designated by no,ZJ; is well illustrated by the
fact that the battle of Stalingrad is translated into Russian 6:llTBa
no.ZJ; CmAHHrpa.ZJ;oM; similarly the victory at Stalingrad no6e.ZJ;a
no.ZJ; CTaAnHrpa.ZJ;oM. Alternatively, 6:llTBa npn CTMHHrpa.ZJ;e is
possible although npn is more commonly used of battles which
took place not in the vicinity of (i.e. not under the walls of) a
town:
The battle ofBorodino (a village) Burna npn Eopo.ZJ;nHe
The battle of Thermopylae (a EnTBa npH ci>epMomiAax
pass)
The battle of Tsusima (a sea- EiiTBa npu lJycnMe
battle)

Of
653. Ha (accusative case):
With BHA (view) when ofmeans on to:
A wonderful view of the river
654. C (genitive case):
With KOIIHH (copy) when ofmeansfrom:
Make a copy of this letter CHHMnTe K6muo c sToro nnchMa
These two examples show once again the precision of Russian
prepositions.
 PLACE 349
Over
655. t.Iepea (accusative case):
Like over, 11epea may mean either from one side to the other,
(across), or over the top of:
The bridge over the river MocT 11epea peKy
The ladies were exchanging re- ,Ll;aMbr neperoBapnBaAHCb 11epea
marks over the table CTOA (Pushkin)
To fly over a range of mountains IlepeAeTaTh (nepeAeTeTb) 11epea
ropHbiH xpe6eT
He was . .. talking to me, . .. with OH... ycTaBnB rAaaa Ky.o;a-To
his gaze directed somewhere qepea MOW roAoBy... paaro-
over my head BaprmaA co MHO:ti (Gor'ky)
Notice also HecTii (noHecnl:) 11epea nAe'lo to carry over one's
shoulder. A synonym of 11epea in the meaning of over the top of is
noBepx (genitive case). This preposition should be used when
the meaning of 11epea is ambiguous:
He was looking at the child over OH cMoTpeA Ha pe6eHKa noBepx
his spectacles 011KOB
t.Iepea here could mean either through or over.

656. 3a (accusative and instrumental case):

(i) Used with the word 6opT:
To throw overboard BbiKll,ll;biBaTb (BbiKIIHYTb) aa 6opT
Man overboard! l.JeAOBeK 3a 6opTOM!
Note, however, to fall over a cliff mi.o;aTL (nacTb, ymicTL) co
cKaA"bi (lit. to fall off a cliff).
(ii) 3a is often a synonym ofqepea meaning motion from one
side to the other of:
To cross the Volga IlepeeamaTL (nepeexaTL) aa
B6AfY
To cross one's threshold (i.e. to IlepexoAHTh (nepetirn) aa nopor
travel over, to step over)
Also aa Mope over the sea, aa ropLI over the hills. Note that a verb
with the prefix nepe- may be used in such contexts without
11epea or aa (cf. English to cross): nepeea)KaTb (nepeexaTL) Boxry
350 THE PREPOSITION
to cross the Volga. When over in English means location and not
motion, then, of course, only 3a (instrumental case), and not
qepe3, may be used:
Over the hills 3a ropaMH
Overseas 3a MOpeM

657. Ha,z~; (instrumental case):

Meaning above, overhead:
A brown storm-cloud was station- HaA xyTopoM cTa.l\a 6ypas: Ty"'a
ary over the farm (Sholokhov)
A shell flew overhead CHapJi,ll; npoAeTb. HaA HaMH

658. IIo (dative case):

Meaning over the surface of:
A flush spread over his face P}'MIIHeu pa3AHAC.II no er6 AH\JY

Round
659. IIo (dative case):
Meaning from one to the other, from one part to another:
It is pleasant in summer to travel IlpmiTHo AeTOM CaAHTL no APY-
round one's friends 3LHM
To walk round the garden ry.hlin no CclAY

66o. 3a (accusative and instrumental case):

Used with }'roA (corner) and noBop6T (turn), the accusative
for motion, the instrumental for location:
The car turned the corner into the Maun{Ha noBepHyAa aa yroA Ha
square nAoJ!!aAL
The church is round the corner lJepKoBL aa yrAoM

661. 6KOAO, BOKpfr, KpyroM (genitive case):

Meaning round about:
The fields round the town Ilo.hli 6KoAo (BoKpyr, Kpyr6M)
r6po,.11;a
When, however, round means precisely in a circle round only
BOKPYr or Kpyr6M may be used.
 PLACE §I

The earth revolves round the sun 3eMNI Bpai,YaeTCll BOKpyr (Kpy-
r6M) co.I\Hua
To travel round the world llYTernecTBOBan. BOKPYr (Kpy-
r6M) CBeTa

Through
662. CKBoa~>, 'Iepea (accusative case):
(i) In many common uses of through CKB03h and qepea are
interchangeable:
Through a sieve-opening-slit- CKB03b (qepea) cnTo - oTBep-
keyhole erne - I,YeAb - aaMoqayro
CKBa.lKHHY
(ii) CKB03I> is more common than 'Iepea when the passage
through is obstructed or difficult:
He pushed his way through the Oa npoApaACll CKB03h TOAUY
crowd
CKB03I> is also more common when the meaning is visible through:
Visible through smoke-mist- BnAHO CKB03h AhiM - ryMaH -
dust nhiAh
CKB03h and not 'Iepea is used in a number of idioms:
To shut one's eyes to somethi!'g CMoTpeTh (nocMoTpeTh) cKBoah
llWtJbl Ha qTo-au6yAh
To look through rose-coloured CMoTpeTb (nocMoTpen.) cKBoa~>
spectacles p6aoB~>Ie oqKll:
To fall through the floor with llpoBauiBaTbCll (npoBaAllTbCll)
shame CKB03b 3CM.I\IO OT CTldAa
(iii) qepea has two special meanings in which CKB03I> may not
be used:
We shall go east through (via) M~>I npoeAeM ua socToK qepea
Edinburgh 9Anu6ypr.
We were travelling through Geor- Mbl exaAJI qepe3 fpyamo
gia
663. Ilo (dative case):
(i) Meaning over the area of:
The good news quickly spread PaAOCTHall BeCTb 6:brcTpo pac-
through the town npocTpamiAaCh no r6poAy
352 THE PREPOSITION
(ii) Used with Bo3,ll;yx:
The stone flew through the air
664. B (accusative case):
To look through the keyhole CMoTpeTb B 3aM6•myro cKBa)KMHY
To look through (out of) the win- CMoTpeTh B oKHo, B 6MHOKJ\b
dow, through binoculars
Under
665. IIoA (accusative and instrumental):
Accusative for motion, instrumental for location:
Under the water flo,11, BO,II,OH
The seal dived under the water TroAeHI> HI>IPHYA n6,11, BOAY
Notice rro,ZJ; PY*I>eM 6:bv.o cTo TLICjlll 'leAoBeK there were a hundred
thousand men under arms and 6piTa rrpHaBaAH rro,11, PY*I>e my brother
has been called to the colours.

CAUSE
About
666. OT (genitive case):
She is mad about him 0Ha 6ea yMa oT Hero
667. Ma (genitive case):
Much Ado About Nothing MH6ro wyMa M3 HM'Ier6
After
668. C (genitive case):
Used with ,li;Opora (journey) when after means from, as a result of:
I am very tired after my journey R oqeHb ycTaA c ,II,Opom

Because of
669. Ma-aa (genitive case):
Used when, as often happens in English, because of is followed
by a concrete, physical reason, which prevents or hinders an
action:
 CAUSE 353
She refused because of a headache Omi orKa3a.ll.aCL H3-3a ro.I\OBH6ii
60.1\H
We did not go because of the rain MLI He nowAII na-aa AOJKAR

670. 3a (instrumental case):

Because of old age 3a crapoCTb!O .1\eT
In this sense 3a tends to be archaic, except in certain stock
expressions, e.g. 3a He,ll;oCTaTKOM (+genitive) because of the lack
of, for want of.
For
671. ITo (dative case):
(i) Used with np1mi:Ha (reason):
For some reason or other Tio roii II.I\H nH6ii nprPuiHe
For what reason? no KaK6ii npH•niHe?
(ii) In the expression JKeHI1TLCH no AI06BI1 (to marry for love):
They married for love
Opposite: JKeHMTbCH no paC'IJCTY to make a calculated marriage.
(iii) Whenfor means by virtue of, on account of:
The guards were all youngfellows, Ha;.t3HpaTC.I\H Bee 6b!.l\ll napHn
rigorously selected for their MO.I\O.z,thie, crp6ro or66paFIHLie
physique no Mop6BLIO (Solzhenitsyn)
672. Pa,.11;n (genitive case):
For the sake of:
He risked his life for your sake OH pa;.tn Bac pHCKHYA JKilaHLIO
Pa,.11;n is found most frequently in fixed expressions such as pa,ll;n
cMexafor a laugh, pa;.tn urfTKnfor a joke.
From, out of
673. OT, c, JI3 (genitive case):
Of these three common prepositions of cause, OT is the most
common since it can refer to both physical and emotional
reasons and is used in both literary and everyday speech:
Her eyes were red from weeping Ee r.l\a3a 6b'IAU Kp aCHbl OT C.l\1!3
He drinks from boredom OH nLer or cKyKu
354 THE PREPOSITION
For the difference between the verbs cTpaAaTb and 6oAeTD,
followed by oT and the genitive and by the instrumental with-
out a preposition, see para. 54· C, in causal expressions, has a
colloquial flavour and should, in writing, be used only in a
number of fixed expressions predominantly emotional in mean-
ing. Common expressions of this kind are:
From grief C r6pa
From joy C pa,D;OCTH
From annoyance C ,li;Occl,ll;bl
From boredom Co cKyKH
From anguish c TOCKH
From fear Co crpaxy
From shame Co cu:l,ll;a
These expressions are almost cliches but will often be found with
oT instead of c. In doubt, it is almost always safe to use OT. Ma
like c designates predominantly emotional reasons but, unlike c,
is a strictly literary word:
Out of respect for 11a YBa.meHHll K
Out of hatred for 113 HeHaBHCTH K
Out of love for 113 .II.J06BH K
Out of curiosiry 113 .II.J06onbrrCTBa

Of
674. OT (genitive case):
Used to define the cause of death:
He died of consumption

Through
675· EAaroAapH (dative case):
Thanks to:
He was rescued on{)/ through your OH cnacca TOALKO 6Aaro,D;apa
intervention BameMy BMem<heALCTBY

This preposition has retained its basic meaning, and should be

used only when a cause leads to a desirable result.
 CAUSE 355
676. Ha-aa (genitive case):
(i) Through the fault of:
It was through you that I caught 113-sa Bac a npocryAr1Aca
cold
(ii) Used when the reason is a quality of character:
Through laziness
Through carelessness Ms-sa HeBHHMaTeAbHocTn
677. Ilo (dative case):
A synonym of Ms-aa in meaning (ii) above. Elsewhere no is
used predominantly when the reason is an abstract one:
Through stupidity ITo rAynocm
Through the fault of the general ITo Brme reHepaAa
Through a happy combination of ITo c•IaCTAHBoMy cTeqeHHIO o6-
circumstances cToiiTeAbCTB
Note that no, and Ma-aa in the previous paragraph, are most
commonly, though not invariably, used to qualifY an action
brought about by a negative quality.

With
678. OT (genitive case):
Her eyes are wet with tears Ee rAa3a MOKpbl OT CAe3
The apple-tree branches are heavy BeTBH y .H6AoHb Ta)KeAb'r oT nAo-
with fruit AOB
I am delighted with (at) your pro- H B BocT6pre oT Barrmx ycnexoB
gress

PREPOSITIONS OTHER THAN THOSE OF

TIME, PLACE, AND CAUSE

About
679. 0 (o6, 66o) (prepositional case), rrpo (accusative case),
OTHoc:HTeAbHO, HactieT (genitive case) :
no n6BoAy (genitive case) :
B (prepositional case):
(i) All these prepositions may be used, in different contexts,
to translate about meaning concerning, on the subject of. 0 (o6, 66o)
 THE PREPOSITION
is used predominantly after verbs of saying, thinking, knowing,
and hearing, and their cognate nouns:
Tell us about the accident PaccKamuTe HaM o HCCtiaCTHOM
cAytiae
I try not to think about him R cTaparoc& He ,ztyMaTb o HeM
The rumour about the king's death CAyx o cMepni KopoNI
Notice that Russian makes the same distinction as English
between expressions such as to remember, to forget, to remind, and
to remember about, to forget about, to remind about, the former having
general and the latter specific meaning:
I have forgotten his surname R aa6L'IA er6 <J>aMHAHIO
I reminded him about (of) his pro- R Han6MHHA eMj o er6 o6eiJ!aHHH
mise
(ii) llpo is occasionally found as a synonym of o (o6, 66o) in
the meanings given above but is much less common.
(iii) 0THOCJheAbHO, HactieT may be used in Russian where
English, with certain nouns, uses concerning to define a broader,
more abstract relationship than about:
Our suspicions concerning him Hawn no,ztoapeHHH OTHocuTeA&Ho
were justified Hero onpaB,ztaAuc&
Fears concerning the submarine C>naceHHH HaCtiCT no,ztBO,ltHOH
proved groundless .1\0,ltKH OKa3a.i\HCb HeOCHOBa-
Te.l\bHbiMH
(iv) llo noBOAY means in connexion with (noBOA occasion, motive):
I have come to see you about the R K BaM no n6so,zty ,zteuer, KOT6-
mon~ you owe me phle Bbl MHe ,ltOA*HLI
'Romanticism springsfromfear of <<PoMaHTU3M - {no OT CTpaxa
looking the truth in the face', B3rAHHYTb npas,zte B rAaaat -
said he yesterday evening con- CKa3a.i\ OH Btiepa BetiepOM llO
cerning Bal'mont's poetry n6Bo,zty cTHXoB EaAI.MOHTa
(Gor'ky)
The following sentence shows clearly the difference between o
and no IIOBOAY:
... critics will again reproach us ... KpnniKH ynpeKHyT uac onrn,
on the grounds that our article 'ITO CTaTbH Hawa HanucaHa He
is written not about Oblomov o6 C>6A6Mose HO no n6so,zty
but apropos of Oblomov C>6A6MoBa (Dobrolyubov)
 OTHER THAN TIME, PLACE, CAUSE 357
(v) B is used in the expression:3Han. (noHm.taTh) TOAK B qeM-
HHOYAh to know a lot about somethz'ng:
He is well up in mathematics On 3HaeT TO.I\K B :o.mTeMaTnKe
(knows a lot about)

68o. 0Ko.l\.o (genitive case):

c (accusative case):
(i) These prepositions are used to translate about meaning
approximately. Other ways of expressing about with this meaning
are by inversion of substantive and numeral or by the use of the
adverbs npn6AH3IITeAhHO and npnMepHo.
(ii) In quantitative expressions consisting simply of noun and
numeral, any of the above methods of translation may be used:
(a) 6KO.I\O llllrnAeCllTH MH.I\b
(b) C llllTbAeCHT Mll.l\b
About fifty miles (c) Mlf.l\.b DllTbAeCHT
(d) l1pH6.1\H3lhe.l\.bHO (npnMepHo)
llllTbAeCHT Mll.l\b
The indefinite pronoun KaKne-HH6yAh (KaKHx-HH6yAh) may
also mean about (some) but with a nuance of only, no more than:
On{y some fifty miles KaKne-HH6yAL (KaKIIx-HH6YAb)
llllTbAeCJiT Mll.l\b
(iii) An approximate time is normally expressed with OKO.I\.0
or by inversion:
About two hours ago 6Ko.l\o AByx tJac6B Ha3aA (qaca
ABa Ha3aA)
With the words n6MeHb, noAHOllb (midday, midnight), inversion
if, of course, impossible:
About midnight 6Ko.l\o no.l\fHO'IH
C can express only an approximate duration of time. Compare
the two parts of the sentence:
The concert lasted about two hours KoHuepT npoAOMKa.l\cll c ABa
and finished about two hours tJaca H KOH'IH.I\.Cll qaca ABa
ago Ha3liA
(iv) With inverted noun and numeral any prepositions
 THE PREPOSITION
present are placed between them, and the presence of such
prepositions makes the use of 6KoAo or c impossible:
In the direction of the Volga, about Do HarrpaBAeHHIO K B6Are, Bep-
two versts away, was situated cTax B AByx, 6h1Aa pacnoAo-
the village of Pseki and, about JKeHa ,~~;epeBHH TiceKH a BepcT:bi
four versts farther into the Ha 'leT:bipe B cTerrh, He6oAbWaH
steppe, a small Cossack settle- Ka3ayKaH cTaHilya (Gor'ky)
ment
When no other preposition is present 6KoAo and c may stand
either before the numeral or between the inverted noun and
numeral, the latter if it is wished especially to emphasize the
indefiniteness of the expression:
They arrived somewhere about two 0H11 rrpwexaAH '!JacoB OKOAO AByx
in the afternoon rrorroAyAHII
(v) Cis used most commonly to express quantity, or to com-
pare size or weight:
About a kilogram in weight BecoM c KHAorpaMM
A man about my height qeAoBeK pocToM c MeHa
Notice that whereas c, in such expressions, designates approxi-
mation, the preposition B is used to express exact amount:
A ton in weight BecoM B TOHHY
A room twenry feet in length KoMHaTa AAIIHO:H B .zJ;Ba;maTb
<J>YTOB
(vi) When such single-word expressions as noNmd. (half an
hour) are used, accompanied by a preposition, the adverbs
npii6AII3HTe.I\LHO, npiiMepHo, or the indefinite pronoun KaKIIe-
HII6y,n;L (KaKHX-HH6y,n;L) must be used:
In about half an hour llpii6AII3IITeALHO (rrpnMepHo)
qepe3 rroA'laca
In about half an hour, not more qepe3 KaKHC·HII6y,n;b (KaKHX-
HII6y,n;n) rroAlJaca
Above
681. CBepx, CB:bnne (genitive case) :
These prepositions mean above in the sense of greater in quan-
tity. CB:bnne is commonly found with numerals corresponding
to English upwards of:
Above a thousand people CB:biwe ThiCHlJII lJCAoBeK
 OTHER THAN TIME, PLACE, CAUSE 359
Caepx means in excess of, over, and above.
Above establishment Caepx nmiTa

682. Bb'uue (genitive case):

Morally above:
He is above such base actions OH at:nne TaKHx n6,zv.ocTeii:
Notice also sHe no,n;o3peHHH above (beyond) suspicion.

After
683. I16cA.e (genitive case):
Meaning next to in achievement:
After Tolstoy, Turgenev is the best I16CAe ToAcT6ro Ayqumii: pyc-
Russian writer cKHii nuc{lTeAL - TypreHeB

684. IIo (dative case):

Meaning according to, like:
He is a man lifter my own heart OH qeAoBeK MHe no Aywe
The child was christened after i.ts f>e6eHKa oKpecni.hH no OTuY
father

685. BcA.e,n; (dative case):

3a (instrumental case):
These prepositions, in different contexts, mean after in the
sense of in pursuit of. BcA.e,n; means in pursuit of as a person is de-
parting, 3a means in pursuit of with the object of catching:
They shouted something after him, OHM: KpuqciAH eMj qTo-To BCAeA,
but he did not stop HO OH He OCTaHOBHACJI
He was running breathlessly after OH 6e)Ka.h 3aALIX<iHCL 3a aBT6-
the bus 6ycoM
BcA.e,n; 3a (instrumental case) is also used meaning after,Jollowing,
but not necessarily in pursuit of:
Morozka •.• climbed down from Mop63Ka ... BC.heA 3a Bapeii: noAe3
the hayloft after Varya c ceHoBiAa (Fadeyev)
 THE PREPOSITION

Against
686. llpomB (genitive case):
c (instrumental case) :
Meaning in opposition to, nponiB is the generally used word:
I have nothing to say against such Heqero MHe cKa3aTh np6TnB Ta-
a proposal Koro npeAAO)KeHH.II
Notice the idiom ecAH BLI HII'Iero He HMeeTe npOTIIB ifyou have
no objection. C is used with reflexive verbs of mutual action:
6liTLCH c to fight against, 6op6TLcx c to struggle against.

687. 0 (accusative case):

Meaning contact with:
The bottom of the boat scraped A,ml.r,ge AOAKH uaparraAo o6o
against something 'ITO-TO
The ship struck (ran against) a Kopa6Ah yAapHAc.ll o cKaAy
rock
Notice that the preposition translating against in the sense of
contact with is not always o but may vary according to the
prefix of the verb:
The old man leant against the wall CTapH:K rrpuCAoHnAC.II K cTeHe
They ran up against difficulties Omi HaTKHYAHCL Ha TPYAHOCTH

688. Ha cAyqaif (genitive case):

Meaning against the eventuality of, in case of:
We are taking measures against a Mbi npHHHMaeM Mephi Ha cAyqau
possible shortage of water He,ll;OCTaTKa BOAbi
Notice the idiom c6eperaTL (c6epe11L) AeHLm Ha 11epHLIH AeHL
to save mon~ for a rainy day.

68g. Ha <[>6He (genitive case):

Against the background of:
The bright colours of the picture HpKne QBeTa KapTiinLI BLIAe-
stand out against the dark wall NiroTc.ll Ha IJ>6He TCMHOH cTeHLi
 OTHER THAN TIME, PLACE, CAUSE 361
Among
690. CpeAM (genitive case):
MeJKAy (instrumental case):
CpeAM means fundamentally in the middle rif; MeJKAy between:
We found the mushrooms among Mbi HamAn rpH6bi cpe,~~;n cyxnx
some dry leaves AHCTbeB
Gor'ky in our midst f6pbKHH cpe,11;n Hac (Fedin)
The lion stands out among animals Aen Bbi,II;eNiercx cpe,11;n )KHBOTHbiX
for its strength cnoei:i cnAoi:i
They divided the booty equally 0Hn pa3,11;eAHAn ,~~;o6b"1qy n6poBHY
among themselves Me)K,II;y co66i:i
They reached complete agreement 0Hn ,~~;oronopnAHCb o6o nd!M
among themselves MC)KAY co66il:
Notice that MeJKAY takes the genitive case in the metaphorical
expression MeJKAy ABYX omeil: between two fires, and in MeJKAy
cTpoK between the lines (an alternative to Me)KAY cTpoKaMn:).
Although the above distinction between cpe,~~;Ii and MbKAY is
basically valid, Me)I(AY + the genitive case will still be met in
modern Russian in the sense of cpeAM (among):
Like a sapper among buried mines KaK canep Me)KAY aapb"rrbiX MHH
(Solzhenitsyn)
as well as in the sense of Me*AY +the instrumental case (be-
tween):
The riverflows between steep banks PeKa Teq(!T MC)I(AY KPYThiX 6e-
per6n (Press)

Apart (from)
691. Kp6Me and nOMMMO (genitive case):
Apart from other consideratiollS IToMHMO ,~~;pynix coo6pa)KeHni:i
Joking apart Kp6Me wyroK

At
692. B (prepositional case):
aa (accusative case) :
Both prepositions may be used meaning at with expressions
of distance (at often understood in English):
 THE PREPOSITION
At about three versts from Kislo- BepcTax B Tpex oT KncAoB6.ztcKa
vodsk (Lermontov)
In the steppe, about sixty versts B cTem1, BepcT aa lllecn.ztediT oT
from the fortress Kpenocm (Pushkin)
Cf. B OAHOM mare OT ••• one step away from, where the preposition
is always omitted in English.
But notice at what distance?:
At what distance from London did Ha KaK6M paccTmlmm OT A6H-
the accident happen? AOHa npOH30lll.l\a KaTaCTpo~a?

693. Ilo (dative case):

In expressions of price and value:
At a reduced price ITo cHn)KeHHoii ueHe
At any rate, at least ITo KpaiiHeii Mepe

694. Ilo.ZJ; (accusative case):

(i) In the expression rro,ZJ; .ZJ;MKTOBKY at the dictation (of):
She wrote the letter at her father's 0Ha nnci.l\a llHCbMO llOA AHK·
dictation ToBKY oTJ;!a
The decision was taken at the PellleHne 6LI.II.o npniDITO no.zt
manager's dictation AMKTOBKY aaBe.ztyrol,!!ero
(ii) In the expression rro,ZJ; 6oAI>IIIHe rrpoueHnr at a high rate of
interest:
He has invested his mon~ at a high OH noMeCTH.II. .zteHbm no.zt 6o.ll.b·
rate of interest llllle npoyeHTbi

Beneath (below)
695. HH:)Ke (genitive case):
Meaning lower than, shorter than:
He is below average height
Also morally:
He is beneath contempt
 OTHER THAN TIME, PLACE, CAUSE 363
Beside
6g6. IIepe.zt (instrumental case):
Meaning compared with:
Beside Tolstoy, all novelists are TiepeA ToACThiM, Bee poMaHHCTbi
insignificant mrtrro>KHbi

697. BHe (genitive case):

In the expression BHe ce611 (OT) beside oneself (with) :
He was beside himself with joy OH 6bl.l\ BHe ce6li oT paAocTn

Beyond
6g8. BHe (genitive case):
In the expression BHe cnopa be_;•ond dispute:
His talent is beyond dispute Ero TaAaHT BHe cnopa

6gg. CBepx (genitive case):

Exceeding:
The play was successful he;·ond Tibeca nMeAa ycnex cBepx o>Ku-
the author's expectations A<iHuii aBTopa

By
700. ITo (dative case):
c (instrumental case and genitive case):
rryreM, nocpe.ztcrnoM (genitive case):
(i) These prepositions translate, in different contexts, by de-
scribing means or method. Both no and c are used to describe
means of communication and travel but c is more specific in
this use than no: nocbL'\an (nocAan) no n6'<rre to send by post,
but noAytran (nOAytrHTh) IIIICbMO C YrfleHHeii (BeqepHefi)
no'lTOii to receive a letter by the morning (evening) post (notice that
both prepositions may be replaced by an instrumental construc-
tion without a preposition: nolJToii, y-rpeHHefr no'lTOH, by post,
by the morning post, also no B03A)'1IIHoii nolJTe, B03.ztynmm1 no'lTOii
by air mail). To travel by rail is exaTb (noexan) no ;.KeAeaHoii
 THE PREPOSITION
Aop6re, but to arrive by the one o'clock train is npueaJKaTL (npiit~xan)
c l!aCOBbiM n6eMOM (or l!aCOBbiM n6eaAoM). To inform by telephone
is coo61,!!an, (coo61,!!HTI>) KoMy-Hu6yA~> no TeAe<J>6Hy.
(ii) Notice:
He pulled up the weeds by the roots OH BbipBaJ\ c6pHLie TpaBLI c
(by meaning with) KopHeM
(iii) C with the genitive case describes method in a restricted
number of expressions in which English says by but Russian
from. The commonest of these expressions are 6pan (Ba.an) c
66.a to take by force, by storm and npoAaBan (npoAan) c Topr6B
(c MO.i\OTKa) to sell by auction:
The infantry took the town by Ilex6Ta BJHJ\a r6poA c 66H
storm
The house was sold by auction ,Ll;oM 6blJ\ np6,~~;aH c Topr6B (c
MOJ\OTKa)
(iv) IlyTeM and nocpeACTBOM mean by means of:
He cured himself of rheumatism OH :naJ\eliHJ\CH OT peBMaTnaMa
by means of physical exercises nyTeM (nocpeACTBOM) ~H3H·
lleCKHX ynpaJKHeHHH
701. B, Ha (prepositional case) :
For these prepositions used with means of travel see para. 6o8.
702. Ha (accusative case):
(i) Used when by denotes the difference between two quan-
tities, two amounts, two points in time:
By what amount do your expenses Ha KaKyro cyMMY Bam:n pacx6Abi
exceed your income? npeBbiiiiaiOT AOXOAbi?
Bread has come down in price by XAe6 noAemeB~ Ha nHTb KoneeK
five copecks
We missed the train by five minutes Mbi onoa,~~;aA:n K n6eaAy Ha nHTb
MHHYT
Note also, in expressions of distance where actual units of
measurement are not used:
He missed death by a hair' s OH 6blJ\ Ha BOAoc6K OT cMepTu
breadth
 OTHER THAN TIME, PLACE, CAUSE 365
fVe were already a rifle-shot from Mbi 6Lv.n y.lKe oT uer6 ua pyJKeii-
him (lit. separated from him by Hhlii BhiCTpeA (Lermontov)
a rifle-shot)
(Cf. ou B 1)'3 n3 nncToAeTa B rum! caiKemix nona,ll;aA (Pushkin)
he could hit the ace from a pistol at thirty-Jive feet.)
(ii) Expressing multiplication, division, dimensions:
If you divide (multiply) thirt;• by EcAnBhl paa,~~;eNieTe (yMumd.eTe)
five . . . TpiiAy;an ua nlfTh ...
A room thirteenfeet by twelve KoMHaTa TpHHa,~~;uan 1>YTOB Ha

(iii) Unit or method of sale:

Tomatoes are sold by the pound IIo~niAOpbi npo,~~;aroTcx ua 1>YHT
(by weight) (ua Bee)
703. ITo (dative case):
(i) Used when by describes personal qualities (by nature, h_y
character) or personal standing (by prcifession):
He is gay by nature Ou Becb.biH no npHp6,~~;e
He is a law;•er by profession Ou 10pncT no npo1>eccnn
Note that with qualities of character no npnp6Ae is generally
synonymous with oT npupoAbi (naturally lazy Aemi.Bhm no npn-
p6Ae or Aeulffibrli oT npnpo,ll;bt). When, however, the quality
referred to is a congenital physical defect, only oT npnpoAhi
(which means fundamentally from birth, congenitally) can be
used, e.g. c.l\enofi 01 npupoAbi blind from birth. ITo npup6Ae can-
not be used in such constructions any more than by nature can be
used in English.
(ii) When by means by looking at or according to:
I knew by his eyes that he was .fl 3Ha.l\ no ero T.l\a3aM, 'liTO OH
suffering cTpa,~~;aeT
It is twelve o'clock by m;• watch ITo MmiM tiacaM ABeHa.ztuan
(iii) One by one:
Copeck by copeck he amassed a Ou no xoneii:Ke uaxomiA orpoM-
huge sum uy10 c~cy
But notice one after the other O,li;IIH 3a ApynlM::
They were killed one by one Oulf 6hi.I\H y6Ihbi O,li;IIH 3a ,~~;py-
g66 THE PREPOSITION
(iv) By invitation:
I am here by invitation R a.zr;ecL no npurAaweamo

704. 3a (accusative case):

Used with verbs meaning to hold, to seize, to take, etc., referring
to the object taken or held:
He led his sister by the hand OH BeA cecTpy aa-pyxy
He pulled the door by the handle OH .zr;epHyA .zr;aepL aa pyttKy
But notice ,z~;epiKaTL Aowa,z~;L no,z~; YMUM to hold a horse by the bridle.

705. llo,z~; (instrumental case):

Used in expressions of naming or defining:
What is meant by the word 'Ro- qTO paa}'MeeTCH no.zr; CJI.OBOM «po-
manticism'? MaHnf3MI)?
He goes by the name of Nezhdanov OH HaaecTeH no.zr; liMeHeM He.lK-
.zr;aHoB

706. OT (genitive case):

A letter written by hand IlncLM6 HamkaHHOe OT PYKli

For
707. ,l(J\..ll (genitive case):
Ha (accusative case):
no (dative case) :
no,z~; (accusative case) :
K (dative case) :
Ha ltMll (genitive case):
These prepositions translate, in different contexts, for mean-
ing for the purpose of, meant for, intended for:
(i) ,l(J\..ll means primarily for the sake of:
Everything for victory Bee AM no6e.zr;hl
For appearance's sake 4;ul npiiJI..litJ.Hll
It is also used whenfor expresses close personal interest:
A present for grandmother Ilo.zr;apoK AM 6a6ywKn
 OTHER THAN TIME, PLACE, CAUSE 367
AAH also describes a function when the connexion between the
nouns preceding and following it is particularly close, so that
the English equivalent is often a hyphenated word:
Spectacle-lenses CTeKAa AAH OtiKOB
A document-file IIanKa ANI 6yMar
~may also be used to convey disparity between what is and
what might be expected:
The frost would have beetz severe Mop63 6biA 6bl BeAIIK .zr;a)Ke ANI
even for a northern town ceBepHoro r6po.zr;a (Katayev)
(ii) Ha is used whenfor implies intention in making or doing
something:
This money can be usedfor repair- STu .zr;eHLnt !IIO)KHO ynoTpeoMiTL
ing the factory Ha pe1116HT <J>a6pnKn
They have gone for a walk OHM: OTnpaBn.I\IICL Ha nporyAKY
Notice AaBaTb (AaTL) Ha BOAKY to tip (i.e. to give for vodka).
(iii) ITo means to do with,for dealing with:
The committee for the raising of Ko1-ulcciiH no noBhiiiieHHIO ypoB-
the standard of living HH )KH3HH
Syllabuses for political education KoHcneKTLI no nOAHT)"'le6e
(iv) lloA is used meaning for when the meaning isfor use as,
for the cultivation of, for containing:
They need premises for a school 11M HY)KHO noMei,geHue no.zr;
UIKOAY
We have prepared this field for Mbi npuroTOBIIMI ;)To n6Ae no.zr;
cabbage KanycTy
This barrel is meant for wine STa 66tiKa npe.zr;Ha3Ha'leHa no.zr;
BHHO
Note that when a field or building is already in use in some
function, it is followed by noA and the instrumental:
A cabbage-field I16Ae no.zr; KanycTolr
Premises in usc as a school 11oMei,geHue no.zr; UIKOAoti
(v) K is used whenfor means intended for an occasion, often
a meal:
I have ordered meat for Thursday .H 3aKa3:iA Mxco K tieTBepry
We shall keep the eggs for break- lVh.r c6epe)KeM Mi:ya K 3aBTpaKy
fast
s6s THE PREPOSITION
(vi) Ha nMH translates for meaning addressed to, for the atten-
tion of:
A report for (the attention of) the PanopT Ha nMH ,zr;wpeKTopa
director
708. Ha, aa (accusative case):
These prepositions translate for meaning in exchange for, as a
reward (punishment) for. Ha translates worth in Mnco Ha nHTb
py6Aeiifiue roubles worth of meat and is used in a similar function
m:
How many books can I buy for CK6A&KO KHIIT .11 K)'IL\IO Ha TY
that pile of money Kyt~y ,zr;eHer?

3a does not imply financial value, but merit or shortcoming:

He was awarded a Stalin prize for EMy aa TOT poMaH 6&rAa npwcym-
that novel ,zr;emi CTa.I\MHCKa.ll npeMM.Il
He was reduced to the ranks for OH 6&1.1\ paamaAoBaH B coA,zr;aTbi
drunkenness aa nhHHCTBO

709. Ha (accusative case):

Ha has a number of special uses translated into English by
for. It may mean:
(i) For the maintenance of:
He took Russian prisoners from a OH BaHA wa AarepH H aacTaBMA
camp and made them work for Ha ce6li pa66TaT& pyccKMX
him BOeHHOn.l\eHHhiX (Grin)
(ii) On the occasion of:
I gave him a book for his birthday R ,zr;aA e:Mj KHnry Ha ,zr;eHI> pom-
,zr;eHM.Il
(iii) Provision for:
We have laid in food for the winter
(iv) As against:
For every good apple in the barrel Ha Kam,zr;oe xop6mee li6AoKo B
there were five bad ones 66t~Ke 6hl.I\O ll.llTh ll.I\OXHX

(v) Sufficient for:

A dinner for ten people
 OTHER THAN TIME, PLACE, CAUSE 369
(vi) Q.uest for:
Prospecting for oil
(vii) Distance from a centre:
He is the most brilliant man for OH caMbJi:i: 6AeCDIJ,!!HH qeAOBeK
miles around Ha ?.niAH Kpyr6M
(viii) Idiomatically:
Luckily for her

710. 3a (accusative case):

(i) Covering the period:
He is compiling a weather report
for the past week
(ii) On behalf of:
A{y brother will sign for me
OH cocraaAieT CBOAKY nor6Abi 3a
npoiiiAYJO He,1\eJ\IO
MoH: 6paT noAnliweT 3a Memi

711. ANI (genitive case):

(i) Personal interest:
This is an important business for Eho abmoe ACAO ANI Hero
him
(ii) Comparison, taking into account:
He is too thoughtful for his age OH CAHWKOM 3aAyMtlua ANI camix
J\eT
Note that He no (dative case) may be used as an alternative for
CJ\HIIIKOM ... AJ\H: OH 3a,ll;yM'IUB He no J\eTaM. Notice also no
HanmM apeMeHaM as times go, for these times:
It was not a magnificent meal but, ~ho 6bLJ\ o6eA He poCKOIIIHbiH, HO
as times go, a plentiful one o6HJ\bHbiH no HaiiinM apeMe-
HaM

712.B (accusative case):

Meaning to be a member of:
He proposed a new candidate for OH npeMO.>KHA H6aoro KaHAII-
the presidium AaTa B npe3HAHYM
370 THE PREPOSITION
From, out of, off
713. lb, c, oT, y (genitive case):
(i) In different contexts ua, c, oT, andy translate from, out of,
off, referring to source or origin. As a general rule, with places
or localities, when BorHa is used to describe location, n3 and c
respectively are used to describe origin: B fpyauu in Georgia and
ane.i\hCHHbi ua fpyauu oranges from Georgia, Ha .i\CBOM 6epery
peK:fl on the left bank of the river and aa.i\n c AeBoro 6epera a volley
from the left bank.
(ii) In non-locational contexts n3 is used when from means
a member of, one out of:
She is from a good family Omi na xop6mefi ceMhH
Also meaningfrom the contents of:
Extracts from a novel 0TpbiBKH na poMana
I understood from his allusions R n6Hll.l\ ·na er6 HaMeKoB, 'ITO ...
that .••
(but cf. to take the hint noHuMaTb (now!Tb) c noAycAoBa). 113
also means made of or consisting of:
A stone house ,ll;oM ua KaMHll
A team made up of Scottish and KoManAa na moTAaHACKnx u
English footballers aHr.I\Jiii:cKux q>yT6oAIIcTOB
(iii) C is not commonly found meaning origin but is used
when the origin is clearly from the surface of:
Bark from a tree Kopa c AepeBa
Note the expressions 6paTb (BaJITb) npnMep c Kor6-tm6yAb to take
an examplefrom someone and cHnMaTb (cHJITb) Konmo c KapniHbi
to make a copy of a picture.
(iv) OT is used generally with persons:
I learned of that from my uncle R yanaA o6 :hoM OT NJAH
Also with objects which give rise to phenomena perceptible to
the senses:
The light from the street-lamp CBCT OT q>oHapll
The scent from the flowers 3anax OT W!eTOB
 OTHER THAN TIME, PLACE, CAUSE 371

(v) Y is also used with persons but expresses a sense of posses-

sion on the part of the person concerned whereas OT simply
expresses taking away from:
I borrowed two roubles from him H aaHHA y Her6 ABa py6.\JI
I took my book from the boy H oTo6p<l.A csoro Kmiry oT MaAL-
qHKa

Y is also used with an object from which a component part is

taken or broken:
I have broken the spout off the H oT61.f11. HOCHK y qaifHni<a
tea-pot
And when the meaning is one of personal service (cf. French
chez):
I am taking treatment from a R Aeqyc:t. y aHaMemhoro spaqa
famous doctor
714. (i) M3, oT, and c are also used to translatefrom referring
to remainder. M3 refers to one or several out of many:
One soldier out of a hundred was Ocnl.AcH o,zv1H coA,~~;aT ua eTa
left
(ii) OT refers to a quantity left from a whole:
Two cutlets are left over from OT aasTpaKa oCTaAuc:t. ABC ROT-
lunch AeTLI

(but two cutlets out of ten ABe I<OTACThi 113 ,ll;eCHTH).

(iii) C is used in expressions with c,.11;a:qa change:
Change from a rouble
715. Do (dative case):
Do translates from meaning according to or from the contents of:
A costume made from a pattern KocTroM cwiiTLn1: no o6paagy
We all learnedfrom the same books ~1LI BCC yqa\UCb no TCM .lKC
KHHraM

716. He B (accusative case):

He was singing out of tune (out OH neA He B TOH (He B TaKT)
of time)
372 THE PREPOSITION
In
717. Ha (prepositional and accusative case):
(i) With the prepositional case Ha translates in in expressions
describing culinary processes:
We roasted the meat in butter
(ii) With the accusative case Ha translates in meaning as to
with physical characteristics:
He is young in appearance OH MOAo,n;6M: Ha BHA
He is blind in the right eye OH CAen Ha npaBhiM rAa3
He is lame in the left leg OH xpoM Ha AeByro Hory

(Note also OH ryr Ha yxo he is hard of hearing.)

Ha is also used, as an alternative to the instrumental case
without a preposition, with KOH'IaTbcH (to end) when applied to
words:
This word ends in a consonant Eho cAoBo KoHqaeTcH Ha corAac-
uyro (corAacHoll:)
Verbs ending in -aTh fAarOAhl KOHqaiOJ!!HeCH Ha -aTb

718. Ilo (dative case) :

(i) Meaning according to:
They are similar in size OHM: o,n;nHaKoBbi no BeAnqnue
The senior in rank was General IlepBhiM no paHry 6biA reHepaA
Ivanov J1BaHOB

(ii) On the subject of:

Problems in geometry
I am doing research in physics
(iii) Distributively:
We counted the eggs in dozens
3a,n;aqHnK no reoMeTpnn
JI 3aHHMaiOCh HCCAC,ll;OBaHHHMH
no cJ>H3HKe
Mhi cqHTaAH Jill:ga no .n;ro.llmHaM
(or ,n;roJKHHaMH)

719. OT (genitive case):

In the name of:
I am speaking in my father's name JI roBopro oT HMeHH oTga
 OTHER THAN TIME, PLACE, CAUSE 373
Like
720. IIo,n; (accusative case):
In imitation of:
To write like (in the manner of) IlucaTb noA ToAcToro
Tolstoy

Of
721. B (accusative and prepositional case):
(i) Used with the accusative case in expressions of amount or
quantity (see para. 679 (v)):
A loan of twenry pounds 3aeM B ,li;Ba,li;QaTb <f>YHTOB
An army offorry thousand men ApMim s c6poK ThiCH'I 'leAoBeK
A two-storied house (house of two ,ll;oM B ABa :;na~~<a
stories)
(Notice also the string was almost as long as the whole room BepeBKa
6bL'\a AAHH6IO no'lni Bo BciO KOMHaTy.)
(ii) With the prepositional case B expresses discrepancy or
mistake in amount:
A miscalculation of twmry pounds Ilpoc'leT s ABaAuarn <f>YHTax
An error of ten roubles Ouni6Ka B AeCHTit py6Nix

722. OT (genitive case):

(i) Of the nature or character:
There is something of the bureau- B HeM eCTb 'ITo-TooT 6IOpoKpaTa
crat about him
(ii) Originating on:
The order of 15th April IlpnKaa oT nHTHiAQaToro anpeAH

723. C (instrumental case):

(i) Containing:
A letter of complaint IlHCbMO C IKaAo6oil
(ii) To do with:
One of Gor'ky' s best stories is OAliH Iia "Y'~lllHX paccKaaos
' The Affair of the Clasps' f6pbKoro - ~,ll;eAo c aacTeJK-
KaMH>>
815634 N
374 THE PREPOSITION
724. Ha (accusative case):
On the night of the 30 April- B HO'II> Ha nepBOe Ma.ll
r May

On
725. Ha (accusative and prepositional case):
(i) Object or purpose (accusative case):
On what has he spent his money? Ha 'ITO on noTp<iTHA ,~~;eubm?

(ii) With the accusative of quantity Ha is used in the expression

)I{HTb Ha to live on meaning to manage on a certain sum of
money:
They are living on slender means 0Hn <lnmy-r Ha CKYAHhle cpe,~~;cTBa
When, however, the meaning is to live on (a diet) the verb
nHT<lTbCH is used, followed by the instrumental case:
They live on vegetables 0HH miTaiOTC.II OBOIJ!aMH

(iii) About:
An article on an abstract theme

726. ITo (dative case):

(i) To do with:
Work on the draining of the M,~~;e-r pa66Ta no ocywKe 6oA6T
swamps is under way
Decisions on reparations PeweHH.II no penapay;H.IIM

(ii) The combination no cAytiaro on the occasion of:

I expressed my sympathy with him R Bh'Ipa3HA eM)' co'I)'BCTBHe no
on the loss of his mother CAy'laiO yrpaThl M<iTep:n
(iii) The expression no pa,n;uo on the wireless:
I like to listen to music on the R AI06Aro cAywaTL MY3hlKY no
wireless
727. 0 (accusative case):
Meaning against:
I have cut my hand on a knife
 OTHER THAN TIME, PLACE, CAUSE 375
728. lloA (instrumental case):
He was forbidden, on pain of EM9 6bi:Ao aanpeJ;ijeHo, noA
death, to leave the capital (cf. CTpaXOM CMCpTH, yexaTb H3
English under the threat of) CTOAHUbi
He went home early on the pretext IIoA npeAA6roM ycTaAOCTH oa
of tiredness paao noweA ,n;oMoii

729. C (genitive case):

Used in a number of idioms with the word cTopomi (side):
My uncle on my father's side Mow ,zviAH co cTopoHLI oTya
Very kind of you (i.e. on your 6qeHb AI06e3HO CBameii CTOpOHhl
part)
On the one hand . . . on the other C O,IJ;HOH CTOpOHLI ... C ,n;pyr6f1

Over
730. 3a (instrumental case) :
While drinking (eating):
To chat over a glass of beer (a Eece,~J;oBaTb aa cTaKciaoM nilBa
meal) (eA6ii)

Through
731. tiepes (accusative case) :
Through the medium of:
The order to retreat was passed IlpHKa3 06 OTCTynAeHHH 6biA
through the liaison ojficer nepe,ll;aH qepea CBli3HOfO OcpH·
uepa
We notified him of his father's Mbl If3BCCTHAH ero 0 CMepni OTUcl
death through the newspaper qepe3 ra3CTY

To
732. K (dative case):
The preface to a book IIpe,ll;ncA6BHe K KHnre

733· llo (accusative case):

Up to the level of:
I was standing up to the knees in R cToliA no KOAeHH B BO,IJ;e
water
I am full up R ChiT no ropAO
376 THE PREPOSITION
(Cf. para. 599 (iii) for no in a similar meaning in temporal
phrases.)
734· ,LJ,o (genitive case) :
As far as:
I am soaked to the skin JI npOMOK AO KOCTeii
735· Ilo,ll, (accusative case):
To the accompaniment of:
He usual(y sings to (the accom- OH o6LrKHoBeHHO noeT noA po.HAb
paniment of) the piano
I Jell asleep to the sound of ani- JI 3acHyA noA O.lKIIBAeHHhlii pa3-
mated conversation roB6p
736. Ha (accusative case):
Who set these lines to music? KTo noAO.lKMA BTII CTIIXM Ha MY-
3biKy?
Towards
737· Ilepe,ll, (instrumental case):
Meaning vis-a-vis in a moral sense:
He is guided by a strong sense OH pyKoB6AnrCH CMAbHbiM '~YB-
of responsibility towards his CTBOM OTBeTCTBeHHOCTll nepe,o;
fami(y ceMLeii
He is oppressed by a sense of guilt Er6 yrHeTaeT 'lyBcTBo BifHLI nepeA
towards his father oTgoM
738. Ha (accusative case):
Purpose:
~Ve are saving montry towards our Mbr c6eperaeM AeHbru Ha o6pa-
children's education 30BaHne AeTeii
With
739· C (genitive case):
(i) Used in the expression to begin with:
This word begins with a capital 3To cA6Bo Ha'IIIHaeTcH c npo-
letter Dl:!CHOH 6yKBbi
But notice this word is written with a hyphen (with 'Lr') 3TO cAoBo
m1meTcR qepe3 qepTO'IKY (qepe3 «bn>) [no sense of beginning].
 OTHER THAN TIME, PLACE, CAUSE 377
(ii) Used also in the sense of to take action from the moment
consent or approval is given:
She married with her father's con- 0Ha BbiW.I\a 3aMya<. C COr.l\aCHJI
sent oTua
I went abroad with my uncle's ap- R noexa.l\ aa-rpamluy c OA06-
proval peHHJI AHAII
Notice also by common consent c o6J!!ero corAaCHH, with your per-
mission c Bawero paapeweHH.H.
740. Ha (accusative case):
With the ten pounds you gave me Ha ACCJITb <l>YHTOB, KOTop~>Ie Bbi
I bought a new suit Mne AaAH, Jl ~<ynu.l\ HoB~>Iii
KOCTIDM

741. Ha (prepositional case) :

(i) After 6IITbC.II to fight and similar verbs, describing the means
of combat:
They fought with their fists Ouu ApaAHCb Ha KyAaKax
Bayotzet-:fighting Eoii Ha WTbiKax

(ii) When with means literally on, notably with the word
IIOAKJ\aAKa(lining):
A dressing-gown with a blue lin- XaAaT Ha roAy66ti noAKAaAKe
ing
742. B (accusative and prepositional case):
Dotted with:
A red tie with blue spots KpaCHbiH ra.I\CTYK B Cihmx Kpa-
nnHKax
But notice:
A black suit with grey stripes qepHbiH KOCTIDM B cepyiO nO.I\OCKY

The accusative is used because the stripe runs the whole length
of the suit whereas the spots on the tie are all over it (cf. a
freckled face An:go B BecHywxax).
743· IIoA (instrumental case):
Fish with tomato sauce f>hi6a llOA TOMaTHbiM coycoM
 THE PREPOSITION
744· Ilpn (prepositional case):
(i) Taking into account, in view of:
With his wealth and intelligence Ilpn er6 6oraTcTBe n yMe HeKoro
he need fear no one eM'j 6mh&cx
With the best will in the world IIpn BeeM )l{eJ\aHnn
(ii) Despite,for all:
With all his abilities, he does not Ilpn Bcex er6 cnoc66HOCTliX, OH
prosper He npeycnesaeT
With the aid ofnpn rroMOJ!!IL (Kor6-Hu6yA&), with the co-operation
of rrpu co,ZJ;eikrnuu (Kor6-Hn6yA&).
745· K (dative case):
I have no urgent business with him HeT y MeiDl cnemHoro ,zteAa K
HeM)f

RUSSIAN PREPOSITIONS USED WITH

CERTAIN NOUNS, VERBS, AND ADJECTIVES
Nouns
About
746. B (prepositional case):
There is no doubt about his relia- HeT coMHeunx B er6 Ha,zte)I{HOCTn
biliry

At
747· K (dative case):
My disgust at this action Moe oTBpall!emie K sToMY
IIOCTfiiKY

For
748. K (dative case):
A passion for reading
Greed for money
Love for one's father
Contempt for money
Respect for culture
A weakness for oranges
CTpacT& K •neunro
AA"'nocr& K .zten&raM
J\ro60llb K OTllY
ITpe3peune K .zteu&raM
YBa)l{eHne K KYA&rype
CAa6ocTh K aneA&CHHaM
 WITH CERTAIN NOUNS, VERBS, ETC. 379
749· ITo (dative case):
Longing for home Toed. no p6.zume
750. ITo (prepositional case):
To wear mourning for someone
751. Ha (accusative case):
Afiendfor work 3Bep& Ha pa66Ty
Demand for coal Cnpoc Ha yroAl>

752. B (prepositional case):

There's no need for this
753· 0 (prepositional case):
The order for retreat
A proposal for the construction
a school
B aToM HeT HHKaK6ii: HaAo6HocTn
Ilpma o6 oTcrym.eHHH
of IlpeMO.lKeHHe o nocTp6:tiKe
wKoAhi

In
754· K (dative case):
Trust in afriend 4oBepne K Apyry
Interest in aeroplanes MHTepec x caMoAeTaM

Of
755· B (prepositional case):
An accusation of theft 06BimeHne B .:pa.lKe
Reproaches of laziness Ynpexn B AeHH
Suspicion of arson IlOA03peHHe B TIOA)Kore
A vow offriendship KNiTBa B Apy1K6e

756. Ha (accusative case):

The last hope of victory IlocAeAHHll HaAC.lKAa na no6eAy
A review of a novel PeneHanx Ha poMiH

757• K (dative case):

Envy of one's brother 3aBHCTb K 6paTy

758. 0 (prepositional case):

News of the battle BeeT& o 6:HTBe
380 THE PREPOSITION
Over
759· 3a and HaA (instrumental case):
Control over production, over the KoHTPO.I\b HaA npon3BOACTBOM,
quality of a job 3a Ka'leCTBOM pa60Tbi

To
760. K (dative case):
Attention to detail BHHMaHI1e K noAp66HocTHM

761. 3a (accusative case):

Toasts to members of the legal T6cTbi aa pa66THUKOB npaBo-
profession cyAHH

Verbs
Against
762. Ha (accusative case):
Often with verbs of speaking or writing against, informing,
denouncing, etc. :
Nobody would have dared to in- HHKTO He nocMe.l\ 61>1 AOHecni aa
form against the all-powerful BCeCM.I\bHOro MHHMCTpa
minister (Solzhenitsyn)
Once people can say and write Paa aa yepi<oBb roBopliT H ne'la-
what they like against the church TaiOT, 'ITO xoTliT, a eii: onpaBAhl-
without it being able to answer BaTbCH He AaiDT, pa3Be aTO He
back, isn't that persecution? roHHT? (Solzhenitsyn)

At
763. Ha (accusative case):
He was angry at this suggestion Ou cepAH.I\CH ua aTo npeMO-
(see para. 778) :lKeHne

764. HaA (instrumental case):

Why do you laugh at him? IJoqeMj Bbl CMeeTeCb HaA HIIM?
 WITH CERTAIN NOUNS, VERBS, ETC. 381
765. B (accusative case):
no (dative case):
To fire at a target CTpe.Nin (Bb'xcTpe.MITL) B uel\b
To fire at the retreating enemy CTpe.Nin (Bb'rcTpe.MITb) no OTCTY-
forces mhol!!II.M Bpa:lKeCKnM Boi-icKfiM
B means to fire at a fixed point, no (lit. after) at a moving target.
When no is followed by a pronoun in the plural number, the
pronoun normally goes in the prepositional case with first and
second persons (no Hac, no Bac), and the dative case with third
persons (no mm). See also para. 633.

For
766. 3a (accusative case):
How much did ;•ou pay for this CKOl\bKO Bbi 3anl\aTII/\u 3a STOT
house? ,li;Olll?
We are interceding for him with Mb! XJ\ono'le.M 3a nero y rene-
the general pa"a
767. Ha (prepositional case):
The grief which I experienced for fope, KOTopoe x ncnbiTa" na
myself. . . ce6e ...
( Cf. yamiTL Ha amiTe to learn from experience, to find out for oneself.)

In
768. B (accusative case):
To believe in God BepuTb B Eora
She oftm dresses in bright colours Ona '!aCTO O,ll;eBfieTCH B xpKne
J;JBeTfi

Into
769. Ha (accusative case):
Translate this into French IJepCBe,li;Ihe ;)To Ha <JlpaHJJY3CKUH
ll3b1K

770. B (accusative case):

He turned into a drunkard OH npeBpanhcx B nMIHngy
382 THE PREPOSITION
Of
771. Ma (prepositional case):
This house consists offive rooms fhoT ,li;OM cocTOIIT H3 miTH KOM-
HaT
But notice a five-act play (consisting of five acts) DLeca B rurrn
,~~;eiicrnnHX;
and compare the different meaning of to consist of
in the following example:
His duties consist of translating Er6 o6.HaaHHOCTII cocTOHT B nepe-
German novels BOAc HCMCUKIIx poMaHOB

On
772. Ha (accusative case):
I am re(ying on you Jl Ha,~~;boch (noAararocb) Ha Bac

773· Ha (prepositional case):

I insist on the return of my book Jl uacTaiiBaiO Ha B03Bpa~QCHIIII
cBoe:ii KHurii
Notice HacTanBaTI> (HaCToHTI>) Ha cBoeM to insist on having one's
own way, to carry one's point.
774· Ha,n; (instrumental case):
He is working on a translation of OH pa66TaeT ua,~~; ncpcBO,li;OM
War and Peace «Bo:iiHbl H Mupa))
They took pif:Y on him 0Hu cJKaAHAIICb HaA HIIM

To
775· Ha (accusative case):
He agreed to my proposal OH corAacuAca Ha Moe npe,~~;-
AoJKeHne
They have not replied to my letter Omi He OTBCTIIAII Ha MOe niiCbMO
He has been appointed to a new Er6 uaaHatiiiAII Ha H6Boe MeCTO
post
776. B (accusative case):
We have appointed him to the Mbi er6 uaaHal!IIAII B coBeT
council
B here means to be one of the members of, na above means simply
to a single post.
 WITH CERTAIN NOUNS, VERBS, ETC. 383
With
?n· ITo (dative case):
She is busy with household tasks 0Ha XAon6t~eT no xoJmcmy
77a. Ha (accusative case):
He was angry with his brother OH cepA!iAor Ha 6pha
(see para. 763)

Adjectives
At
779· K (dative case):
Good at languages

For
780. 3a (accusative case):
Grateful for help
7ax. K (dative case):
Ready for departure r OTOBLrK K OT'Lea.zty
Notice that rOTOBbrH may take either K or Ha (accusative case)
with slightly different meanings (see para. 153 (iii) (c)).
Of
7a2. Ha (accusative case):
Capable of murder Cnoc66mm Ha y61mcmo
Compare crroc66mrli K good at above.
Sparing of words CKynofi Ha CAosa

7a3. AM (genitive case):

Typical of him TimtPmLiil: (xapaKTepmrii) .~~;All
Hero

To
784· K (dative case):
Good to the poor ,Ll;o6pLD1 K 6e.II;HhiM
Inclined to laziness C:KAoHHLll'1 K .'l.eHH
 THE PREPOSITION
785. C (instrumental case):
The room adJacent to mine K6MHaTa coceAHHH (cMe.)KHaH) c
MOCH

786. Ha (accusative case):

Similar to (like) his father floXO.)KHH Ha OTQa
Susceptible to flattery lla,zvmii: Ha AecTL
Sensitive to inJustice qjTKHH Ha Hecnpaae,llAHBOCTb

787. ,lr,AH (genitive case):

Changes common to all Slavonic l13MCHCHHH 66ijJIIe ,llAH acex
languages CAaBHHCKHX H3biKOB
Detrimental to the health BpeAHbrii: AM MopoabH

788. OT (genitive case):

Near (to) the station JiAH3KHH OT BOK3aAa

With
789. OT (genitive case):
Eyes wet with tears M6Kpb1e oT cAea rAaaa
Apple-trees heavy with fruit TH.)KeALre oT nAoA6B li6AoHH
(Notice the order of words.)
790. K (dative case):
He is very strict with his son OH 6tJeHL CTpor K ChiHY
(Alternately CTpor C CLIHOM.)

RUSSIAN PREPOSITIONAL EXPRESSIONS

CORRESPONDING TO ENGLISH COMPOUND
NOUNS
791. B (accusative case):
A ten-year sentence (term) CpoK B ACCHTb ACT

79~· ,lr,AH (genitive case):

Aflour bin J\apb AAH MYKH
A milkJug K yarmln AAH MoAoKa
A watchman's cabin IiyAKa AAH CT6po.)Ka
Spectacle lenses CTeKAa AM O'IK6a
 WITH CERTAIN NOUNS, VERBS, ETC. 385
793· 113-nOA (genitive case):
A milk bottle Eyrb!AKa Ha-noA MoAoKa
A jam jar EaHKa Ha-noA BapeHoll

794· Ha (prepositional case):

A bath chair KpecAo Ha KoAecax
A spring mattress MaTpac Ha npy)KliHax
Honey cakes IIpH:HHKH Ha MeAy
A fur-lined coat IIaAoT6 Ha Mexy

795· 0 (prepositional case):

A three-legged table CToA o Tpex Ho)KKax
Satire is a double-edged weapon Canipa - naAKa 0 AByx KOHUaX

796. OT (genitive case):

A door-knob Py'IKa oT ABepH
The library key KA10'1 oT 6H6AHOTeKH
(Compare KAIO'I K 6n6AnoTeKe the key to the library.)
An insecticide CpeAcTBo oT HaceK6Molx
A headache powder IlopOiliOK OT rOAOBHOH 66AH

797· ITo (dative case):

N.A. T.O. allies CoroaHHKH no HATO
Playmate ToBapm,g no nrpe
Comrade-in-arms ToBapm,g no opy*HlO
University friend ToBapm,g no ymiBepcnTeTy

798. IIoA (accusative case):

Imitation mahogany furniture
799· Y (genitive case):
The station square
 VII · The Numeral and Numeral
Words
8oo. We shall draw attention in this chapter mainly to mor-
phological difficulties concerned with numerals and numeral
words and, in addition, to constructions involving them. Stress
peculiarities will be noted, as will trends discernible in current
Russian speech, modifying traditional usage.

CARDINALS
Half
8or. The variety of Russian nouns prefixed by 110.11.- or noAy-
and the declension of such nouns can cause much confusion.
We can distinguish between the following:
(i) Compound nouns which in the nominative case combine
110.11.- with a noun in the genitive:
Common examples are:
IIoA'laca Half an hour
IIOAMHHfThl Half a minute
IIOMID.iKHHhl Half a dozen
Such nouns express measurement of time, weight, distance, etc.
When they are used in the nominative or accusative singular,
adjectives qualifying them normally go in the nominative
plural:
Every half-hour Ka.iK,ZJ;hle noA'laca
For the last six months 3a llOCAeAHHe llOMOAa

In oblique cases, both parts of the noun may be declined, with

no.11.- changing to noAy- throughout, and the second part follow-
ing the regular declension of the noun concerned (qac, 1\fHHjTa).
Thus:
Half an hour
 CARDINALS
Half an hour's walk (drive) from B noAyqace xoAb6b'I (eMh'I) oTcro-
here Aa
He arrived half an hour later than OH npnweA noAyqacoM n6a)Ke,
he expected t~eM AyMaA

But frequently (especially colloquially) the noA- is left un-

changed:
In half a glass of water B noACTaKaHe BOALi
Half-way Ha noAnyni
When these nouns are used in any other case except the nomina-
tive and accusative singular, adjectives qualifying them agree
in gender and number with the second half of the compound:
After the first half-hour II6cAe m!pBoro noAyqaca
After the first half-minute II6cAe nepBOH llOAYMHHYnt
(ii) Compound nouns which in the nominative case combine
noA- with a noun in the nominative: e.g. n6MeHL midday; n6A-
HO'IL midnight. Here the meaning is clearly not half of, but the
middle of; compare n6AACHb midday with TIOJ\AHH half a day. II6A-
AeHL and n6AHO'IL follow the same declensional pattern as the
nouns in section (i), but noAy is stressed:
Up to midday 4o noAyAHH
Towards midday K noAyAHIO
Notice the adverbial expression nonoAYAHli in the afternoon.
(iii) Compound nouns which in the nominative case combine
noAy- with a noun in the nominative, e.g.:
Half-moon IIoAYMeCHU
Semicircle IIOAYJ<pjr
Demigod IIoAy66r
Such nouns which correspond to English half-, semi-, demi-, are
declined regularly, noAy- remaining unchanged.
802. The following idioms should be noted:
In two, half and half IIono.MiM
To cut in half PeaaTb (paapeaaTb) nonoAaM
I bought the book half-price R KynliA KHHry aa noAueHL'I
Children under 5 half-price (offi- 4eTH B B03pacTe AO llliTli ACT
cial notice) nAaTliT llOAOBilHY
388 THE NUMERAL AND NUMERAL WORDS
Notice too:
We met half-way from the station Mhl BCTpeTit.I\HCL na rroAnyrri oT
BOK3a.l\a
We had to turn back half-way Mhl AOMKHLI 6Ll.I\U BepnyTLCH c
IIO.I\IIYTH
It was half raining, half snowing llaAaA ne TO AOa<AL, ne TO cner
Colloquially half with expressions of time by the clock may be
rendered by rroA instead of rroAonltna:
Half-past one lloA Bmp6ro

(cf. colloquial English half one for 'half-past one').

One
803. (i) 0AHH is commonly used as a pronoun to mean alone,
on!J (see para. 561). In this meaning it always appears predica-
tively in the nominative case: AnApefr rrpnmeA OAIIH Andrew
came alone. When it is combined with :ua to mean one of it nor-
mally appears in the instrumental case: nopmiAcH on O,ll;HHM H3
nepBbiX B ropo,ZJ; (Gorbatov) he was one of the first to break into the
town.
(ii) Notice that one o'clock is simply qac (without OAHH). Simi-
larly one inch wide mnpnnOi'r B ,ZJ;IOHM.
(iii) In counting one, two, three, ... a Russian says paa, ,ZJ;Ba,
Tpn, ... (i.e. once, two, three, ... ) .
(iv) Notice the agreement with compound numerals ending
in O,ll;MH:
21 big houses ,lJ,BMlJaTL OAllH 60.1\LIIIOH AOM
Have you met the 21 Hungarian BcTpeTitAH Bhi ABaAyaTL oAnor6
refugees who arrived last week? BenrepcKoro 6ea<enya, KoT6phie
rrpH6hi.I\H Ha rrpoiii.I\OH HeAe.l\e?

One and a half

8o4. (i) In the nominative and accusative cases noATopa (i.e.;
noA and BTopa = BTop6ro ), feminine noATOpbr (like ,ZJ;Ba, Tpn,
'leTbrpe) is followed by the genitive singular of the noun:
He drank a glass and a halfof milk On BhlmiA rroATopa cTaKana
Mo.l\oKa
 CARDINALS
In all other cases a noun after noATopa will be in the plural and
in the case required by the verb or the preposition preceding it.
IloAyTOpa does service for all the oblique cases and genders,
the femine riOA yTopbr being now archaic:
It is impossible to make do with a 0AHli!Im noAyTopa TLICl!tiaMn ne-
mere I ,jOO B03MO:lKHO o60HTllcb
Infifteen cases B noAyTOpa ,ll;eCHTKax cAyt~aeB
This word is particularly common in combination with cyToK,
but then the stress is on the first syllable:
36 hours TioATopa cyToK
Adjectives qualifying noATopa may be in either the nominative
or the genitive plural case:
She waited a good hour and a half 0Ha :lK,lJ;aAa A66phle (A66pLIX)
noATopa t~aca
(ii) There is also a special word in Russian for one and a half
hundred-noATopacTa, which gives noAyTOpacTa in all oblique
cases.

Two, three, four, both

8os. 2, 3, 4, and both combined with nouns qualified by adjec-
tives:
(i) In nominative and accusative: with masculine and neuter
nouns the qualifying adjective normally goes in the genitive
plural:
Two large tables 4Ba 6oAbiiiiiX cToAa
My two old friends MoM: ,ll;Ba cTapbiX Apyra (and ,ll;Ba
MOHx CTapbiX Apyra)
If, however, it precedes the numeral, it normally goes in the
nominative plural, with the notable exceptions of the adjectives
QCAblH, ,ll;o6pbrti:, and noAHbrif, where a genitive is normal:
The first two hours TiepBLie ,ll;Ba 'laca
During the last three years 3a noCAe,ll;Hne Tpn r6,ll;a
But:
Two whole glasses
390 THE NUMERAL AND NUMERAL WORDS
(ii) In nominative and accusative: with feminine nouns, the
tendency in nineteenth-century literature was for adjectives to
go in the nominative plural. Nowadays, however, there is such
widespread use of the nominative and the genitive plural that
both must be considered permissible alternatives, despite the
continued recommendation of the nominative:
Two big rooms ABe 6oAbiiiHe (or 6oMIIIIi"<) KoM-
naTbi
It should be added that the adjective commonly goes in the
genitive plural with nouns which have a different stress in the
nominative plural from that in the genitive singular:
Three high mountains rose above HaA r6po,3,oM IIO,IlHIIMaMICb TPH
the town BbiC6Knx ropbi (gen. sing.)
The reason for this may be that if the nominative plural BbiCO-
Kne were used, the natural tendency would be to follow it by
the nominative plural ropbi because of the combination high
mountains BbiCOKne ropbl,
(iii) With possessive adjectives in -nH and -on the genitive is
used regardless of the gender of the noun.
(iv) In oblique cases: the numeral, adjective, and noun are
all in agreement:
With two new ties c ASyMli HOBLIMH raACryKaMH
8o6. 2, 3, 4, and both combined with adjectives used as nouns:
(i) If the adjective-noun is masculine or neuter, it will go in
the genitive plural:
Three icecreams TpH Mopoa<eHbiX
(ii) If it is feminine, the tendency is for it to go in the nomina-
tive plural if the numeral is itself nominative:
Two drawing-rooms ABe rocnrHLie
(iii) If a qualifYing adjective precedes the group the nomina-
tive form of the adjective-noun is preferred.
8o7. 2, 3, 4, and both when combined with nouns used in the
plural only must, in the nominative and accusative, be trans-
lated by the collective forms, ,a;n6e, Tpoe, etc.:
Two watches
 CARDINALS ~~

In oblique cases the use of the appropriate form of the collective

numeral is optional:
With two watches C ABYMR (I(BOIIMn) qacaMn
8o8. 2, 3, 4, and both when combined with the nouns qac, mar,
p.HA, map, cause the stress of these nouns to shift from the stem
to the ending:
Till one p.m. Ao qaca ,l(Hll
Two p.m. ,4Ba qaca ,l(Hll

Bog. \Vhen 2, 3, and 4 are used in the accusative case with

animate objects the grammatical norm is:
I counted 4 soldiers R coctJHTcl.A tJeThlpex coMaT
I counted 4 cows R coctJHTcl.A tJCThlpex Kop6s
Departures from the norm (i.e. ll coctJHTa.l\ qeTb!pe COM<iTa,
etc.) are not uncommonly met with in colloquial speech.
With compound numerals ending in 2, 3, and 4 in the same con-
text the situation is reversed. Here the grammatical norm is:
I counted 24 soldiers R COClJHTcl.J\ ,l(Bll,l(UaTb tJeTbipe
COA,l(aTa
I counted 24 cows R COClJIITcl.J\ ,l(Bai(UaT~> qenipe
KOpOBbl
and the alternative form (i.e. H cocqnTa.l\ ABa,ZJ;yan, tJCT~>Ipex
COMciT) is regarded as a colloquial departure from the norm.

Five and upwards

810. (i) These numbers present no syntactical difficulties, being
followed invariably, in the nominative and accusative, by the
genitive plural of adjective and noun, and in oblique cases
agreeing with adjective and noun.
(ii) The following points of morphology and stress should be
noted:
(a) 5 to xo, 20, and 30 decline like feminine nouns ending
in a soft sign, but the stress shifts from the stem to the ending
in all oblique cases.
(b) But in the combinations mln,xo IIHTh, meCThiO mecTh,
etc. ('5 times 5', '6 times 6') the stress of the numeral in the in-
strumental case is on the stem.
392 THE NUMERAL AND NUMERAL WORDS
(iii) I I to Ig decline in the same way, but the stress remains
throughout on the same syllable as in the nominative.
(iv) 2 I to 2g, 3 I to 3g, etc.: both parts decline, e.g. up to 25 ~o
~Ba~y;anJ: nJITM.
(v) 40 has only one oblique form copoKa for all cases.
(vi) 50, 6o, 70, and 8o: both parts decline, the second like a
feminine noun ending in a soft sign, despite the fact that it ends
in a hard consonant ~ec.HT. In the instrumental, n.HTM~ec.HTLIO
will be found as well as the grammatically more conventional
ll.HTL!O~ec.HTLIO. Notice the stresses n.HTL~ec.HT, mecTL~ed:T, but
ceML~ec.HT, BOCeML~eC.HT. In oblique cases the stress always falls
on the ending of the first part.
(vii) go and IOO have the one oblique form ~eBHHOCTa and CTa
for all cases. CTy is now archaic, although colloquially one still
hears llO CTy.
(viii) 200,300, etc., to goo: both parts decline, with CTO in the
plural (-coT, -cTaM, etc.). The stress of 200, 300, and 400 in the
nominative and accusative is on the first part; in oblique cases
on the ending (e.g. ~Becni, ~ByxcoT, ~BycTaM, etc.). The stress
of 500, 6oo, 700, Boo, and goo is on the ending in all cases.

One thousand, one million

8n. (i) In the nominative and accusative TLICH'Ia is always
followed by the genitive plural.
(ii) In oblique cases when unqualified by a pronoun, numeral,
etc. two constructions are possible. If TLICH'Ia denotes an exact
number it is regarded as a numeral and as such has the same
type of agreement in the oblique cases as nHTL, ~CBHTL, etc.:
Not to mention the r ,ooo roubles He roBop>l o Tb:Icnqe py6Nix,
he owed her KOT6pbre oH 6hrA ~6AmeH en
But if it has the less exact meaning of a large number of (cf. such
words as ytiMa, nponacTL, MHomecTBO, etc.) it is regarded as a
noun, and as such is followed by the genitive case:
The school is linked to life by a lliK6Aa ThiCH%10 mheii: coe~M-
thousand threads HeHa c mH3HbiO (Press)
In front of a thousand people IIepe~ T:brcnqhro AIO~eti (Press)
 CARDINALS 393
Notice that TbiCJf<la has two forms of the instrumental case:
TbiCJf<lbiO is used both as a numeral and as a noun; TbiCJf<ICH only
as a noun.
(iii) In oblique cases, when qualified by a pronoun, numeral,
etc., TbiCJf<la is always treated as a noun and therefore followed
by the genitive plural:
With a mere r,ooo roubles in the C OAH6ii TOAbKO TLicaqefi py6Aeii
bank (not py6NIMH) B 6aHKe
(iv) MHA~uiOH is a noun and always requires nouns following
it to be in the genitive plural, irrespective of its own case.

Fractions and decimals

812. Mter fractions and decimals the noun is always in the
genitive singular:
Forty five point nought (45·0) C6poK llliTb n: HOAb ,~tecHTbiX
seconds ceKyHAbi
Six and seven eighths (61) metres lllecTb 11 cel\l:b BOCbMLIX MeTpa

General observations
813. (i) The 2os, the 30s, etc., when referring to historical
decades, are translated by the ordinal forms of the numerals:
In the 20s of the last century B ABaAuaThiX ro,~tax np6rnAoro
BeKa
In the 1900s B ,~teBHTn:c6TbiX ro,~tax
This is not the case when they refer to people's ages:
He is in his twenties
or
He is in his 'teens' Ou no,~tp6cToK (eMy eiQe ueT
ABa,~~;uani AeT)
(ii) People in the genitive plural case is translated by tJeAoBeK
not .1\IOAeii, after the numerals 5 and upwards (see para. I 16).
(iii) Years in the genitive plural is translated by ACT, not
ro,.11;6B, except in combination with ordinal numbers denoting
decades:
3oyears TpiiAuaTh ,,eT
In the course of the 30s B TetJeHIIe Tpn,~~;uaTbtx ro,~~;6B
394 THE NUMERAL AND NUMERAL WORDS
(iv) Inversion of numerals suggests approximation:
She is about 30 Eii AeT TPHAUaTh
(v) Approximation of age:
She's getting on for three Eii HAeT TpeTHii roA
Approximation of time:
It's getting on for four o'clock Y.me no<JTH <JeTb'tpe qaca (HAeT K
<JeT&tpeM <JacaM)
It's just gone four Y.me 66A&me <JeThtpex (noweA
niiT&Iii qac)
(vi) Adjectives compounded from numerals are prefixed as
follows: one- OAHO-: one-storied OAH03Tia<H&tii:; unilateral OAHO-
cTop6HHMi1. Adjectives with the eAMHo- prefix are classified
as bookish.
Two-, three-, four-; AByx:- (or ABY-), Tpex-, lleTLtpex-; three-
year-old TpeXA.eTHMM.
In the case of two-, some adjectives have parallel forms, the
one with the prefix AByx:-, the other with ABY-· Common ex-
amples are ABycmiALHan, AByxcmiAbHan KpomhL double bed;
ABy66pmLrn, AByx:66pTHLIM KOCTIDM double-breasted suit. In most
cases, however, one form has become standardised. Generally
speaking AByx- is used in newly-formed words, in adjectives in
common everyday use, and before vowels (though not in-
variably-bilingual is ABY113hl11H&rn). ,ll;sy- is associated rather
with scientific, technical and literary terms-disyllabic ABy-
CAOmHLii1-and with archaic words.
Five-, etc.; the prefix is again the genitive of the numeral:
fifty-year-old ll11Tlf,l\eCnTMAeTHHM.
Ninety-, hundred-; the prefix is the same as the nominative,
,2\eBmOCTO-, CTO-: hundred-gramme CTorpaMMOBbiM.
Thousand-; the prefix is TLIC1111e-: thousandth anniversary ThiC1111e-
"'eTH1111 roAOBJ!!HHa; a 18o,ooo volt X-ray tube cTasoCLMHAeCHTM-
TLicmeso"'LTHan peHTreHoscKan Tpy6Ka (Solzhenitsyn).

ORDINALS
814. (i) Compound ordinals have only the last number in the
ordinal form: IJISt CTO TPHAQaTb nepBblH.
 CARDINALS 395
(ii) Notice the idioms:
In the first (second) place Bo-nepBLIX (Bo-BTOpbiX)
The day before yesterday TpeThero AHH (no3aB'Iepa)
The year before last B TpcrLeM roAy (B noaanpoiiL\oM
roAy)
(iii) IIepBLrii is more commonly used to mean best than first
is in English, e.g. rrepBLrii Y1:JeHliK best pupil, rrepBbni capT best
quality. Notice too MOll rrepBbrll Bpar my worst enemy.

COLLECTIVE NUMERALS
815. (i) The only obligatory use of the collective, instead of the
cardinal, numeral to translate 2, 3, and 4 in conjunction with
a noun, is in the case of a noun existing in the plural only. Thus
two sledges must be translated by ,zoJOe caHeii. But even here one
finds a tendency to revert to the cardinal in oblique cases, e.g.
c TpeMJi HOJKHHQa!'.m with three pairs of scissors.
(ii) The collective numeral may be used with a masculine or
common noun denoting a person of the male sex, as an alterna-
tive to the cardinal. Thus two brothers ,zoJoe 6paTI>eB or ,zoJa 6paTa.
It is very commonly found with the words AeTII, pe6ha, and
AID,li;R. It is preferred with masculine substantivised adjectives:
three patients Tpoe 6oALHbiX, and with masculine nouns ending
in -a: two men ,ZJ;BOe MYJKtn{H. It may not be used with feminine
nouns or \\<ith nouns denoting animals.
(iii) With the pronouns MI>r, BLI, and oRI1, the following uses
of the collective numeral may be noted:
There were two of us in the boat Hac 6hiAO AB6e B .1\0AKe, or Hac
6hiAO ABa llC.I\OBeKa B .1\0AKC
But in the nominative:
We two Mbi 66a, MLI ABOe (not 1\fbi ABa)
(iv) The collective numerals rrhepo and upwards are seldom
used today and are tending to become obsolete.
(v) With animate nouns the collective numerals are usually
retained in all cases: Tpoe ,ZJ;eTeii, MaTb Tpoll:x ,ZJ;eTeJ':'I, etc. \Vith
inanimate nouns they are as a rule replaced in the oblique
cases by the cardinals, even when the noun exists in the plural
only: llemepo c}-roK, orw:~.o qeTI>rpex cy-roK.
396 THE NUMERAL AND NUMERAL WORDS

NOUNS EXPRESSING NUMBER

816. The nouns ABOiiKa, TpoiiKa, etc., denote the figures 2, 3,
etc., and their use nowadays is chiefly colloquial (as 1JernepKa,
for a number 4 bus) or else technical, e.g. the number of a playing
card: ceMepKa 11epBeii (11epB) 7 of hearts; the number of a crew:
tieTBepKa a rowingfour; the number of a team of horses: TpoiiKa
a team of three.
The nouns mnoK, AecHTOK (5, IO individual things) arc used
colloquially in association with items purchased in these quan-
tities and especially with eggs: 5 eggs miTOK ~niu (cf. half a dozen
eggs).
Similar in use are COTHH (xoo of a thing) and more rarely
IIOACOTHll (50 of a thing).

DISTRIBUTIVE EXPRESSIONS
817. Most grammars observe a distinction between the con-
struction after no with the numerals 2, 3, 4, go, 100, 200, 300,
and 400 (i.e. the accusative case of the numeral: 200 roubles each
no ABecrn py6Aeii; three magazines each no rpn JKypmiAa), and
after no with all other numerals (i.e. the dative case of the
numeral: five roubles each no mrrn py6Aeii-note that numeral
and noun, although in oblique cases, are not in agreement).
But the tendency in spoken Russian is for no to be followed by
the accusative case after all numerals in this distributive sense.
ITo nHTb py6Aeii is probably as common as no nHTli py6Aeii
(five roubles each). Two fortys, i.e. two tickets at 40 copecks each,
is invariably ABa no copoK in current speech. In literary Rus-
sian this tendency is being resisted.

ADVERBS
818. Once, twice, etc.: the normal forms pa3, ABa p:ba, etc.
are replaced by special forms for multiplication purposes:
Once three is three 0AHHmKAbi rpu - rpu (cf. OA-
Ha)KAbi once upon a time)
 ADVERBS 397
Twice three are si)..· ,Ll;BaiKA&I Tpu- meeT& (alterna-
tively) ABa Ha Tpu- meeT&

and similarly with Tplt;.KA&I, tJeTbipeiKAJ>I.

·with numerals 5 and upwards the multiplicative adverb is
spelt in the same way as the instrumental case of the numeral
but has initial, instead of final, stress .
.Nine nines are eighty-one ,Ll;eBHTblO AeBHT& - BoceM&AecHT
OAlfH

819. Twice as, three times as, etc.: to denote comparisons of quan-
tity the forms B,l(Boe, BTpoe, BtJernepo (i.e. the collective numerals
prefixed by B) are used, with a comparative adverb:
Twice as loud BABoe rpor.~qe
We outnumber them exactly three M&l poBHO BTpoe npeBOCXOAHM Hx
to one no 'IUCAy

Forms exist for adverbs from the numerals 5 to 10, i.e. Bn.liTepo,
BIIIeCTepo, etc., but like the Collective numerals n.liTepo, rneCTepo
from which they derive, they are seldom used in comparison
with B nHTb paa, B IIIeCTb paa:
Ten times as fast B AecHT& paa cKopee

820. Twice as much (i.e. B,lUloe 66A&IIIe) can be expressed by

BABofiHe, doubly, in double quantity:
To pay double IlAaniT& BABOHHe

Similarly BTpofme three times as much (BTpoe 66,'\&IIIe).

821. Two together, in twos: B,lUloeM. BTpoeM and BtJeTBepoM are

also used, but the higher adverbs are seldom found:
The two of us painted the house M&I BABOeM c HUM noKpacnAu
AOM
~Vhen she and I are on our own KorAi M&I BABOeM c Heii

822. In two, in three, in four, after verbs of dividing, cutting, etc.,

are translated by H<l,lU!Oe, miTpoe, HatJernepo. ITo ,lU!Oe, no TpOe
translate in twos (two by two) and in threes respectively.
398 THE NUMERAL AND NUMERAL WORDS

ADJECTIVES
823. Single: usually OAHH (not a single HH OAim). EAHHCTBeHHLiii
suggests on(y one. EAnHLrii has both the meanings single and on(y
one, but tends to have a more literary or rhetorical flavour than
either OAHH or eAHHCTBeHHLrii. It also means united, inseparable
as in the words of the Soviet national anthem . • . eAHHr.rn,
MorytzHii CoBeTCKHii Coi63. EAnHntznr.rii generally means indi-
vidual as opposed to collective (AeHTeALHOCTL eAHHHtzHLIX AIOAeii
the activity of individual people), or isolated in the sense of exceptional,
rare (eAHHHtzn:brii cAytzaii an isolated case). 0AHHOKHii means
solitary, lone(y. Notice:
A single bed 0AHOCmlAbHaH KpOBaTb
He (she) is single On xoAocT, ne~eHaT (ona ne3a-
MY~HHH)
In single file fycbKOM
A single ticket EuAeT B o,zuiH KOHCJl

824. Double: ,li.Boiinoii means twice as much (ABoihroii naeK

double ration) or consisting of two parts. ,4B6iicTBennr.rii is essen-
tially figurative (two-sided, two-faced). In a grammatical context
it translates dual number (ABOHCTBennoe tzHcA6). The basic
meaning of ABOfiKHii is containing two possibilities (ABonKoe 3Ha-
tzenue double meaning). For double translated by AByx- (ABY-) see
para. 813 (vi).

825. Triple: Tpoiin6:H means three times as much, treble the quan-
tity, or consisting of three jJarts. Tp6iicTBennr.n'i is most frequently
applied to treaties and alliances (Tp6iicTBCHHr.rii Cmo3 Triple
Alliance). T pofiKnii means threefold, containing three possibilities
(TpofiKoc TOAKOBanne threefold interpretation).

AGREEMENT OF NUMERAL AND

PREDICATE
826. The following should be treated as guiding principles, not
hard-and-fast rules. There is considerable freedom in the matter
of agreement of numeral and predicate both in written and
spoken Russian.
 NUMERAL AND PREDICATE 399
827. (i) When the subject is a cardinal numeral, the verb is
normally in the singular, and, in the past tense, neuter:
Of the r2 chairs, 3 were left Ha ABCHaAuarn cTj./\beB ocTa.l\oc&
TPH
But when the numeral clearly refers to animate objects, the
plural is used:
Of the three sisters, one died and Ma Tpex cecTep OAHa ~rep:\a, a
two got married ABC Bbiiii.I\H aaMyJK
(ii) When the subject is a collective numeral, the verb may
be commonly in either the singular or the plural, though there
is a preference for the plural if the numeral precedes the verb,
and for the singular if the verb precedes the numeral:
2 arrived ,ll;Boe npniii.I\It; npniii.I\O ABOe
(iii) If the numeral (whether cardinal or collective) is quali-
fied by an adjective or clause, the verb is in the plural:
All 26 are singing Bee 26 noK>T (Gor'ky)
828. When the subject is a numeral-noun combination:
(i) If the noun refers to an inanimate object or animal, the
verb is normally singular, and, in the past tense, neuter:
98 per cent of the harvest was g8 npoueHTOB ypoJKall 6bi.i\O
gathered in by the collective c66paHo KO.i\XoaaMII
farms
33 schools have alTt'ady been built B aToM roAy yJKe nocrpoeHo 33
this year IIIKO.I\bl
When a plural verb is found, it is often because the noun in the
genitive is qualified by an adjective:
Those wonderful 5 years passed Te aaMetJaTe.I\&H&Ie nHT& .1\CT
almost unnoticed no'IJTli HC3aMeTHO npoiiL\ll
By November I 23 major and so6 K HOH6pro 6bi.i\H BoccTaHOB.I\eHbi
minor pits had been restored 123 KpynHMC IllclXThl (gen.
sing.) 11 506 Me.i\KIIX IIIaXT
(Press)
(ii) If the noun refers to a person, the verb is normally plural:
3 farmers am"ved Ilpuexa.i\II Tpn Ko,\xoamxKa
r 48 generals surrendered to the 148 reHepa.I\OB CAaAifCb B II.I\CH
Soviet forces COBeTCKHl\.1 BOlicKaM (Press)
400 THE NUMERAL AND NUMERAL WORDS
But the singular is found:
(a) with words expressing approximation, e.g. 66Aee, Menee,
csbnne, no"<Inr, etc.:
More than 6oo workers were sit- E6Aee 6oo pa66'1HX CnACAo a aaAe
ti11g in the hall
(b) with the words scer6, TOALKo:
43 delegates in all attended the Bcer6 cnexaAOCh na cneJA 43
congress ACAeraTa
Compare:
The 43 delegates had 51 votes 43 ACAerina HMCAH 51 r6Aoc
(c) with a few verbs of existence, such as 6LITL, MMeTLcH:
He had 3 sons Y Hero 6LIJ\o Tpn cLma
(d) often in statistical lists where attention is drawn to the
strikingly large number of people in the mass, or to people as a
united whole:
90 million electors voted foAOCOBa.l\0 go Mll.l\.l\IIOHOB U3-
6npaTeAeii
5o,ooo workers were on strike EacTOBaAo 50 TLIC.II'I pa66'1IIx
829. Nouns expressing a definite number (e.g. ABOliKa, Tpo:HKa,
etc., AID)KIIHa, COTH.H, ThiC.Htia, MUMIIOH) generally have verbs
in agreement with them in gender and number, in written,
though not always in spoken Russian:
r,ooo soldiers escaped to Germany TLrCHtia coAAaT y6eJKaAa B fep-
MaHIIIO

830. Collective subjects not containing a numeral, but an

indefinite numeral word, such as 6oALlliiiHCTBO, MeHLlliiiHCTBO,
MHO)KeCTso, pHA, MaAo, Mnoro, neMnoro, cTOALKo, and cKOALKo.
A recent study by J. Mullen has shown, contrary to general
belief, that in the overwhelming majority of cases involving a
collective subject which does not contain a numeral, a singular
verb-predicate is used in modern Russian. Plural agreement is
preferred only when the subject is widely separated from its
verb-predicate, when it has more than one noun in the genitive
 NOUNS EXPRESSING NUMBER 401

plural dependent on it, when it governs more than one verb-

predicate or when stress is laid on the activity of the persons
who form the subject.

831. The general principles governing the use of these indefi-

nite numeral-words may be summarised as follows:
(i) if they are used absolutely, the verb will be in the singular:
The majority voted for war EoAblliHHCTB6 roAocoa:i.l\o 3a
BOHHY

(ii) if they govern a noun in the genitive singular, the verb will
also be in the singular:
The majority of the group declared EoAhlliHHCTB6 rpynnhl Bh'rcKa3a-
itself in favour of the new pro- .I\OCb 3a HOBOe npe,ll;.I\OiKeHne
posal
(iii) if they govern a noun in the genitive plural the verb is
commonly found in either singular or plural, and the choice is
often determined by the nature of the verb:
(a) In passive constructions (and also in active constructions,
where the verb is of a non-dynamic nature or denotes a state
rather than an action, e.g. 6biTh, liMeTLcx, cy~,gecTsosaTL, rrpeA-
CTasNl:TL co66ii:, CTOHTL, etc.), the singular verb is normal:
The majority of the soldiers were EoAblliHHCTB6 coA,ZJ;aT 6h'IAO aT-
sent to Moscow for the winter npaaAeHo Ha 3HMY a MacKay
There were few people there TaM 6b'IAo MaAo AIO,ZJ;eu
A number of new houses stood at PHA HOBbiX ,ZJ;OMOB CTm1A B KOHge
the end of the village ,ZJ;epeaHn

(evidence suggests that a singular verb is almost invariable after

PHA whatever the nature of the verb).
(b) In active constructions, in which the subjects appear as
active agents, a plural verb is preferred:
The majority of the students EoAblliHHCTB6 cTyAeHToa npHexa-
arrived late .1\H n63,ZJ;HO

832. Numeral and noun combinations in which the noun ex-

presses duration of time (minute, hour, day, year, etc.) have verbs
402 THE NUMERAL AND NUMERAL WORDS
in the singular number and (in the past tense) the neuter
gender:
40 years passed IIpornA6 c6poK Ae:r
This applies also to fractions (e.g. noAoBJ{ua, TpeTL, qeTBepTL)
which are grammatically feminine nouns, and to compound
nouns of which the first part is the abbreviation noA-:
It struck half-past six IIpo6IiAO noAOBHHa ceALM6ro
A third of the day remained OcTaAocL Tpe:rL AHll
A quarter of an hour went by IIpornA6 'leTBepTh -qaca
But if the subject includes an adjective, the verb is plural:
The last half hour flew by (lit. IloCAeAHHe noA'Iaca npornAH He-
passed unnoticed) 3aMeTuo
 VIII · Some Remarks on Word-
order and Omitted Words
833. The order of words in Russian, a highly inflected language,
is much freer than in English which, like other relatively unin-
flected languages, can often show the grammatical relationship
between words only by their position in the sentence. The free-
dom of Russian word-order may be exploited to express varied
shades of meaning and emphasis which are expressed in English
by methods less neat than the transposition of words or may
even be incapable of expression. In addition, certain syntactical
deficiencies of Russian may be offset by the manner in which
the various parts of the sentence are arranged. The very free-
dom of Russian word-order often makes it possible to translate
an English passage into Russian without changing at all the
English order of words. At the same time, this freedom is part
of the idiomatic structure of the language, and an adequate
translation from English into Russian may be transformed into
a good translation by making, where appropriate, changes in
the order of words. In this chapter we indicate some of the
salient idiomatic characteristics of Russian ·word-order.

The position of the subject

834. The subject in Russian may stand at the end of its sen-
tence or clause, if the writer wishes to emphasize it, or especially
to bring it to the reader's attention:
Her guests at dinner that day were 06e,D;aAH y Hee B aTOT ,D;enb
Strakun and the Englishwoman CTpaK9H H aHrAH'IaHKa
(Bunin)
Seryo;:ha arrived at seven o'clock. CepeiKa npnweA B ceMb t~ac6B.
He had been sent by his father Er6 nocA<iA OTe~ (Panova)

(Notice how the same balance of emphasis is achieved in the

Russian sentence as in the English, by different syntactical
 WORD-ORDER AND OMITTED WORDS
means.) This arrangement of words is especially common at the
beginning of a narrative or a critical study, when the author,
by placing the subject at the end of the introductory sentence,
draws to it the attention of the reader:
In the mist and half-light of dawn, Ha paccneTe, n TyMaHe u cyMpaKe,
while everyone in Sinope was KOrAa nce ewe cnaAH B r6po,D,e
still asleep, a pirate ship ap- CuH6ne, IIOAOWeA r. CuH6ny
proached the town paa66ii:HH'IHM Kopa6Ah (Bunin)
The poet Alexander Trifonovich 6t~eHb aKninHo n ycnewHo
Tvardovski worked with great pa66TaA no npeMH BeAnKofi
energy and success during the 0Tet~ecTBeHHoi1 BOMHhl nosT
Great Patriotic War AAeKcaHAP TpmJ>oHOBH'I Tnap-
A6BcKni1
(Soviet History of Literature
for Schools)

The inversion of subject and verb

835. The inversion of subject and verb is much more frequent
in Russian than in English. It occurs commonly at the beginning
of a story when the author is setting the scene or bringing the
reader into the course of events:
The river flows to the sea, year Tet~h peKa K Mopro, HAeT roA aa
follows year. Every year, with r6AoM. Ka)KAblfi roA aeAeHeeT
the approach of spring, the K BeCHe cephli1 AeC HaA ,lJ;HeCT-
grey forest above the Dniester pOM n Pe)fToM (Bunin)
and Reuth grows green
Notice the frequency of inversion, in such contexts, even after
adverbial expressions of time, which are not normally followed
by inverted subject and verb:
One evening, in the spring of 1916, KaK-To net~epoM, necH6i1 1916
I was sitting alone in the chalky r6Aa, cnAt!A H OAMH n 6eAecLIX
twilight cyMepKax (Rozhdestvensky)
One earry spring day, we were 0AHa)KAbl, paHHeM BeCHOi1, WAH
travelling to Batum from Port Mbl B BaryM na TiopT-CaiiAa
Said (Bunin)
The author does not, however, invert subject and verb if he
wishes to begin his story without preamble. Such a beginning
in Russian often corresponds to the beginning of an English
 THE POSITION OF THE SUBJECT 405
story with the definite article, when the author does not trouble
to proceed from the unknown to the known:
The guests had long since departed f6crn AaBH6 paa1:.exa..uiCL
(Turgenev)
The restaurant was empty. Only PecTopaa onycreA. Ocr<i..\ncL
Leonid Antonovich and I re- TOALKo H u J\eoHllA AHT6HoBHq
mained (Kuprin)

836. Subject and verb are also usually inverted when the verb
is one which denotes coming into existence, existing or passing.
The Russian verbs most commonly found in such constructions
are HaCT)'miTL (aaC'rynll:TL), HacTaBaTL (HacniTL) to come, 6LrrL,
6LmaTL to be, npoxOAHTL (npoftT1I) to pass. The subject in English
is normally accompanied by the indefinite article or no article.
A time will come when I shall no HacTaHeT BpeMH, a BaM 66ALwe
longer be your slave He 6yAy pa66M
Autumn came HacTymV..a 6ceaL (Katayev)
Strange things happen ELmaroT cTpaaaLie cA~an
But war soon came Ho BcK6pe cT<i..\a Boiiaa
(Erenburg)
The subject usually only precedes these verbs when it is strongly
individualized (English definite article, possessive pronoun,
demonstrative adjective):
.. they (his comrades) kept on ... om!: (ToBapnr,gn) TBepAIIAii: AO
repeating: 'Till we meet again cK6poii BcTpequ, AO cK6poti
soon, till we meet again soon.' BCTpeqn ..• II BOT BCTpeqa Ha-
. . . And now the meeting had CTyiiiiAa (Fedin)
come
Her childhood and youth, and that ,LI;eTCTBO II IDHOCTL ee H AByx
of her two brothers, passed in 6paTLeB npoWAI1 Ha I1HTHlllJKOi1:
Pyatnitsky Street yAug;e (Chekhov)
The whole of that day passed in BecL BTOT AeHL npowi!A KaK
the best way possible aeAL3H A~we (Turgenev)

837. Semantically similar to the verbs in the preceding para-

graph are a larger number of verbs which mean to begin, to arise,
to exist in more specific contexts and which also often precede
their subject. The commonest of these verbs is H,ZJ;TII (nofmi) in
815634 0
406 WORD-ORDER AND OMITTED WORDS
its meaning of to be going on (imperfective), to begin (perfective):
HAyr neperoBopLI negotiations are going on, eMy meA ,zJ;Ba,zJ;y;aTL nep-
BLiii ro,zJ; he was in his twenty-first year, H,zJ;eT AO.JKAL it is raining,
nomeA cner it began to snow. I1AT:H (noihli) with inverted subject
is very common in expressions describing the weather. Inver-
sion is also common with other verbs in expressions describing
weather conditions, e.g. CTOlh cM:Ju,nLrli Mopo3 it is freezing hard,
no,zJ;yA BeTep c ceBepa a wind blew up from the north, 3arpeMeA
rpoM it began to thunder, MopocW\ AOiKAMK a light drizzle wasfalling.
Less frequently, such expressions will be found with non-
inverted subject and verb and since weather conditions do not
easily lend themselves to individualization there is almost no
difference in sense between inverted and non-inverted order.
There is, for example, as little difference between AO.JKAL meA
c paHnero yTpa and meA AO.JKAL c paHHero yTpa as in English
between rain had been falling since early morning and it had been
raining since early morning. Notice, however, the more appreciable
difference in the degree of individualization between:
The thunderstorm broke as we were fpoaa paapaaliAacL, KOrAa MLI
walking home IIIAH AOM6ii:

and
It began to thunder 3arpeMeA rpoM

Inverted order may also express the indefiniteness of future

time, compared with the definiteness of past time, expressed by
non-inverted order:
When the wind blew up from the KorAa BeTep noAyA c ceBepa •.•
north ...
If a wind blows up from the EcAn IIOAyeT BeTep c ceBepa ...
north ...
In the past tense the speaker is referring to a definite wind of
which he had experience.

838. There are several other verbs which mean to arise, to begin
in special senses and are commonly accompanied by an inverted
subject. Common among these are:
 THE POSITION OF THE SUBJECT 407
CA)"''aTLCH (CAyqliTLcx), nponcxo,ZJ;IITL (npon3oiin!) to happen:
An accident happened Ilpon3owi!A Hec'laCTHLin cAjqan
BcnbnnmaTL (BCTibiXH}'TL) to flare up, to break out:
War broke out BcnwmyAa BOnHa
A fire broke out Bcn:hlxHyA no:a<ap
CAbiUiaTLCH (noc.l\bnuaTLcx) to be heard, to echo:
Steps were heard IloCA:brwaAnc.& war:H
Bo3HHKaT.& (B03HHKHYTL) to spring up, to appear:
A brilliant idea came to him Bo3HHKAa y Hero 6AeCTHJ!!aH
MhiC.I\.b

and a number of verbs with the prefix pa3-, e.g. pa3ropiT.&cH

(pa3ropeTLcx) to flame up, to flare up, paSAaBan.cx (pa3,ZJ;aT.&cx) to
be heard, to ring out, pasbirp.&IBaTLCH (pa3I>rrpaTLcx) to rise (of
the wind), to burst forth (of a storm). The subject, if it precedes
these verbs, is usually strongly individualized:
At midnight a storm arose, but by C noA)hiolln no,zr;HHAac& 6ypx,
early morning the ship had al- HO UOYTPY paHo xopa6.1\.b y:a<e
ready passed the Lido. During MIIHOBaA JUi,D;o. B Te'lemre AHH
the day tlu storm burst forth 6ypx pa3h!rpaAac.& c cTpawHon
withfearsome violence. . . c:H.I\on... (Turgenev)
This passage offers a very good example of the author proceed-
ing from the unknown to the known, from inverted subject and
verb (English indefinite article) to non-inverted subject and
verb (English definite article).
839. Inversion of subject and verb is common in Russian when
the subject is an anaphoric pronoun referring back to a noun
in the preceding clause or sentence. The inversion draws the
reader's attention to the pronoun and through the pronoun
back to the original noun:
Before us stretches only one road Ilepe,zr; HaMn o,zr;Ha TOA.&Ko ,zr;op6ra
and it is Like an endless bridge. II nox6:a<a oHa Ha 6ecxoHe'I-
They are taking this road and Hhill Mocr. M,zr;p- oH:H aTon
cannot turn aside ,zr;op6ron n Hnxy,zr;a cBep~
He MOfYT (Press)
408 WORD-ORDER AND OMITTED WORDS
In this public house wine is pro- B aTOM Ka6aKe BHH6 npoAaeTCJI
hahly sold at not less than the aepo.~iTHo He AeweaAe noA61KeH-
.fixed price but it is patronized HOM geHbi, HO llOCeiJJaeTCH OH
much more assiduously than all rop<laAO npnAeiKHee, tieM ace
similar neighbouring establish- oKpecTHhle aaae,lleHHH TaK6ro
ments IKe p6Aa (G. U spensky)
They brought out horses. I did not Bb'me AH AowaAeii. He noHpaan-
like them AHCb omi MHe (Turgenev)

840. Inversion of subject and verb is also common to balance

a relative or comparative clause which includes an auxiliary
verb and infinitive:
Historical events are accompanied l1cropnqecKHe co6b'ITnx conpo-
by ... sufferings and hardships BOIKAaiOTCJI •.. CTpa,llaHHHMH H
which men cannot avert AnwemiHMn, KOTopLIX He Mo-
IKeT OTBpaTihb tieAOBeK
(Fedin)
Sufferings do not cease to exist, CTpaAaHHH ne nepecraroT cy-
just as pain does not cease to be IJJecraoaan., KaK He nepecraeT
felt because it is known by what OIJJYIJJclTbCH 60Ab OTTOro, liTO
illness it is caused H3BCCTHO, KaKOH 60AC3Hh10 OHa
nopoiKAeHa (Fedin)

841. Indicative of the greater freedom of Russian, compared

with English word-order, is the fact that after negative adver-
bial expressions in English (never before, never again, nor, nowhere)
or expressions positive in form but negative in meaning (scarcely,
only, only once, seldom) inversion is compulsory, whereas in Rus-
sian both inverted and non-inverted order are possible, the
choice be~ng often purely stylistic:
But never, since the day of his Ho HHKOrAa J\.y11 Py, co AHH
father's death, had Louis Roux cMepTH caoer6 oTga, He noA-
gone near the completed cafis xoAilA 6AH3KO K ,llOCTpoeHHbiM
and not once had he tried the K04>CHHHM, H HH paay OH HC
ruby brandies np66oaaA py6nHOBhiX HaCTOeK
(Erenburg)
Never before had Rodion's foot HHKOr,lla AO CIIX nop He CTyna-
trod onforeign soil Aa Hora PoAH6Ha Ha tiYIKYIO
aeMAIO (Katayev)
 THE INVERSION OF SUBJECT AKD VERB 409
Scarcely had the scarletjel•er passed EABa KOH"<IlL'\ac& cxap.,arJIHa,
when pneumonia set in Ha"CJ:aAoC& BOCllaAeHne AerKHX
(Katayev)
But scarcely had the boy takm a Ho e,<U~a '-HiA&"<InK, pa36e)l(<iB-
running dive into the sea . . . wHc&, 6yAThlXHYACll B Mope ...
(Katayev)

842. When the source of an item of information is indicated,

inversion is normal both in the introductory clause and in the
clause which communicates the information:
According to Tass, the construe- Kax nepeAaer T ACC, Ha Ypcil\e
lion of a new integrated plant JaKoH"<IeHo crpOiiTeA&CTBO Ho-
in the Urals is complete (Tass eoro KOM6nHaTa (Press)
reports that ...)

The position of subject and complement

843. In Russian sentences containing verbs meaning to be, to
become, to be considered, to turn out, to seem, different shades of
meaning and emphasis may be expressed by changing the posi-
tions of subject and complement. If the complement in Russian
follows the verb, it \vill normally be translated into English 'vith
the indefinite article:
The colonel turned out to be a IloAKOBHHK oKaJ<iACll HJMeHHH-
traitor KOM
The subject preceding the verb is usually to be translated with
a definite article in English but may correspond to an emphatic
indefinite article:
Even a colonel may turn out to be M noAKOBHHK Mo)l(eT oxaJaT&Cll
a traitor HJMeHHlffiOM
The complement preceding the verb in Russian is usually to be
translated with a definite article in English:
The traitor turned out to be the H3MeHHUKOM OKaJ<iACH nOAKOB-
colonel HnK
It may, howe\"er, correspond to an emphatic indefinite article:
The colo11el may be a coward but IloAKOBHHK, 6hiTh MO)I(eT, rpyc,
he will never become a traitor HO li3MeHHliKOM OH HliKOrAa
He CTaHeT
410 WORD-ORDER AND OMITTED WORDS
The subject following the verb may correspond to either the
definite or indefinite article in English:
The traitor turned out to be a 113MeHHHKOM oKa3a.I\Cll noJ\KoB-
coloncl HHK
(Cf. with example above.)

The position of the object

844. Just as the subject may in Russian be brought into pro-
minence by being placed at the end of its sentence or clause, so
the object may be emphasized by being placed at the beginning.
This may be paralleled in English, as in:
His threats he took pleasure tn CBOH yrp63bl OH c YAOBO.I\hCTBHCM
carrying out . . . npHBO,li,HJ\ B ,ll,eHCTBHe •.•
(Fedin)
Or the Russian order of words may have to be changed in Eng-
lish as in:
(/) would have given anything in (JI) 6hi OT,ll,aJ\ Bee ua cBeTe,
the world just for these charm- '!T66hi TO.I\hKO u Meufl: sTH npe-
ing little fingers to have patted .1\eCTHhie n.U.b'!HKH X.I\OlllfYJ\H
me also on the brow no J\6y (Turgenev)
Notice that the emphasis upon the object in this position is
often strengthened in Russian by such words as n (also, even)
Been), n).l\bKO (on[)').
845· The object in Russian is often placed first in the first sen-
tence of a story when it is uppermost in the author's mind and
he wishes to bring it first to the reader's attention. The same
effect may be achieved in English by the use of a passive con-
struction:
This little story was told by the Ehy He60.I\bmYIO ucT6puro pac-
saddler nicknamed' The Cricket' cKa33..1\ rnopHHK «CBep'!OK»
(Bunin)
I was awakened by a strident noise MeHli pa36y,li,II.I\ )KCCTOKHM rnyM
(Erenburg)

846. The object in initial position is very common in Russian

when the indefinite third person plural or an impersonal con-
struction translates an English passive. The order of words in
 THE POSITION OF THE OBJECT
Russian achieves the same balance of emphasis as the passive
in English:
He was detained in hospital for a Ero no.z~ep)KclJ\li He,lleJ\10 B rocnn-
week TaJ\C (Fedin)
Pavlik, exhausted by the oppres- IHBAIIK, paaMopennLiii .z~yxoT6ii
sive heat and the journey, began II .z~oporoii, cTaA KAeBaTb Ho-
to nod. He had to be put to bed coM. Ero npnmAoch yAo.lKHTb
in a black, oil-skin hammock cnaTb Ha -qepHyro KAeen"~IaTyro
KoiiKy (Katayev)

847. The object may, for emphasis, stand between subject and
verb:
Surely you loved your own son Hey.lKeAu Tbi cBoero c:bJHa He
.l\ro6HJ\a (Turgenev)
Pronoun objects, however, with or without prepositions, often
precede the verb simply as a stylistic alternative, without em-
phasis:
She whispered something Ona 'ITO-To wemiha (Fedin)
The better I knew him the more qeM 66Abwe x yauaBiA er6, TeM
attached to him I became. I soon CIIJ\bHee ll K ueM)f IIf>IIBll3aJ\Cll.
understood him JI CKOf>O ero IIOHliJ\
(Turgenev)

848. If a verb governs a direct object and an indirect pro-

nominal object (but not an indirect nominal object) the indirect
object with or without preposition usually immediately follows
the verb:
The police-officer, without looking IlpucTaB, ue rNiAH ua yc<iToro,
at the man with the moustache, npOTliHYA K ueM)f PYKY
stretched out his hand to him (Katayev)
'Are you busy at present?' she said, Bbt Tenepb aaHliTLI? - npoMoA-
without taking her eyes off me BIIJ\a oHa, He cnycKall c Memi
r.l\aa (Turgenev)
(She) ... carefully unwound the [OHa]... cTapliTeAbHo paaBllaaAa
ball (of wool) and placed it CBH3KY [wepcnl] H IIOJ\O.lKHJ\a
over my hands MHe ee ua f>YKII (Turgenev)
412 WORD-ORDER AND OMITTED WORDS

The position of the adjective and adjectival

expressions
849· The normal position of the attributive adjective in Russian
is immediately before the noun it qualifies. For emphasis, how-
ever, it may be placed at the beginning of the sentence:
You have chosen fine apartments, OTJ,Ji•myro Bhi Bh'r6paAH KBap-
I said nl:py, npoMO.I\BH.I\ .11 (Turgenev)
Our life is out of the ordinary, said Heo6hrKHoBeHHa.H y Hac )KH3Hh,
Lidya .Nikolayevna to Shtrem cKaaaAa AiiAH HHKoAaeBna
llhpeMy (Erenburg)
This construction is particularly common with nouns which
designate persons:
She is a charming woman QqapOBaTe.l\bHa.ll OHa )KeHI,YHHa
(Bun in)

850. As well as at the beginning of the sentence, but more

rarely, an adjective may be placed for emphasis at the end of
the sentence ('Lighter elements can be placed near the centre
while heavier ones are relegated to more peripheral places'-
Jespersen on word-order in English, equally true of Russian):
He was an uncommon{)' good story- PaccKaaqHK on 6bl.l\ Heo6hiKHo-
teller BeHHhln (Pavlenko)
He had a phenomenal memory for llaMHTb Ha .1\IO,II;eH y Hero 6bl.l\a
people q>enoMeHa.l\hnaH (Pavlenko)

851. An attributive adjective may acquire slight emphasis by

being placed before a demonstrative or possessive adjective:
I remember my first morning in JI n6MHIO nepnoe Moe YTf>O B
barracks KaaapMe (Kuprin)
This short conversation was heard Kop6TKHH :hoT paaroB6p cAb'rmaA
by A{yosha AAema (Fedin)
By placing the attributive adjective first, the writer brings it
first to the reader's attention and it becomes therefore the
weightiest word of its phrase.

852. Sometimes in English the noun in a complement or object

is simply an indicator-word and the adjective or adjectives
accompanying it bear the logical stress. This logical stress may
 THE POSITION OF THE ADJECTIVE 413
be expressed in Russian by placing the attributive adjective or
adjectives after the noun:
J\lly father was a thoroughly kind,
0Teu 111oii 6hv. 'leAoBeK BechMa
clever, cultured, and unhappy A66phlii, YMHhiH, o6paa6BaH-
man Hblll II HCC'laCTHblM
(Turgenev)
The steamer Turgenev was con- IlapOXOA <<TypreHCBl) C'lHT<iAC.II
sidered even for those days a Aa:~Ke H no ToMy BpeMeHH cyA-
fairly antiquated craft HOM llOpHAO'lHO ycTapeBIIIIIM
(Katayev)
His face wore a pleasant enough Auy6 er6 m.reAo BDipa:~Kemre AO-
but roguish expression BOAhHo npHJiTHoe Ho TIAYTOB-
cK6e (Pushkin)
853. A predicative adjective may for emphasis stand at the
beginning of the sentence:
Only her father was close to liAiiaoK 6biA Ilapawe AHmh oTeg
Parasha (Bunin)
I have known Jew people kinder, ,LJ;o6pee, KpOT'le, MJ!rqe .11 MaAo
gentler, milder BCTpe'laA AJOAeM (Gor'ky)
854. Qualifying adjectival expressions consisting of a pronoun
or noun in an oblique case, with or without a preposition, nor-
mally precede the noun when another single adjective is pre-
sent:
It was a pairiful evening for him tho 6brA TH:IKeAhiii MH Hero Be'lep
(Erenburg)
The house next door PJI.zloM c HaMH AOM
I have similar tastes to his . . . , Y Memi cx6AHhie cHUM BKYChi ... ,
swinging freely his thin legs in cBecHB Ha BOAJO TOHKne B
blue Austrian puttees aBcTpiH'rcKnx roAy6b'rx o6MOT-
Kax Horn (Fedin)
Frequently in such constructions, a participle is found instead
of an adjective. The participle may be modified by an adverb:
. . in heated goods-wagons, ... B cAy'lafmo noABepHyamnxcH
crammed with people, which aa6nThrx Hap6AOM Bar6Hax-
happened to be there TenAymKax (Fedin)
The events described in this OmichmaeMbie B aToll: KHiire co-
book •.. 6b'rTnH... (Katayev)
414 WORD-ORDER AND OMITTED WORDS

The position of the adverb and adverbial

expressions
855· All that can usefully be said about the position of the
adverb in the sentence is that an adverb of time or place pre-
cedes the verb more often than not, and that if adverbs of time
and place occur together the former normally precede the
latter, either directly:
The newspapers yesterday pub- Bllepa B raaeTax 6b'IAo ony6AMKO-
lished a report oj the launching BaHO C006J,!!eHMC 0 aanycKe
of the first earth satellite nepBOrO MCK)TcCTBCHHOro CllYr•
HMKa 3CMAII (Press)
or separated by subject and predicate:
I arrived yesterday in Pyatigorsk Bllepa ll npMexaA B IlliTMropcK
(Lermontov)
856. Mtcr an adverb of place, inversion of the subject is normal:
The light went on in the dining- B cToA6aou aa.a<ercH caeT
room
857. Notice the difference in meaning conveyed by the differ-
ent positioning of the adverbial expression in the following sen-
tences, a difference best brought out by the use of the articles
in English:
A Czech delegation has arrived in B MocKBy npMexa;\a lleiiicKall
Moscow .zteAeraynH
The Czech delegation has arrived tieiiicKan ,zteAerayMH npMexaAa B
in Moscow MocKny
The first sentence reports the arrival of a new delegation. The
second refers to the progress of a delegation, the existence of
which is already known.
Omitted words
858. The verb is often omitted in Russian, especially in narra-
tive, when the meaning is clear without it. The omitted verb
may be a verb of motion:
'Sh! Hello! Don't open the door, <<Tii:IIIe! 3.ztpaacTByJ'i! He oTnn-
I'll come through the window', pati ABCpb, ll - llepe3 OKH6l>,
whispered <7rigo~ IIIonoToM cKa3aA fpMr6pm'i
(Sholokhov)
 OM:ITTED WORDS
Or a verb of saying:
'Vera, what does this mean?', he •Bepa, no aTo aHa'IHT?* c HeTep-
asked impatiently. Vera said not m!ImeM cnpocliA oH. Bepa-
a word, only her chin quivered HJ:I c;\osa, To.M.Ko no,~~;6op6,~~;oK
y Hee ,~~;po"'ci.\ (Goncharov)
859· Often, where in English two verbs or verbal clauses are
joined by and, Russian may omit the conjunction H. This may
happen:
(i) When the verbs describe actions which rapidly follow each
other:
Two gendarmes took Nikolai by 4B6e "'aHAapMoB B3AAH HHKoAciH
the arms and roughly led him n6A pfKH, rpy6o noseMi: B
into the kitchen KYxHID (Gor'ky)
(ii) When the verbs describe habitual actions, closely con-
nected with each other:
I used to get up et•ery day before BcTaBciA .11 KcbK.,ZJ;bm ,~~;eHb ,~~;o Boc-
sun-rise and go to bed early x6,~~;a c6AHJ;Ja, AO)KJlAC.H paHo
(Chekhov)
(iii) When the verbs describe simultaneous actions, closely
connected with each other:
The child was cr;ing and strug- .Pe6eHoK IL\aKM, 61i:ACll (Gor'ky)
gling
Ever;•one was tired and in a bad Bee ycTciAH, o6oaAJi:AIICb (Gor'ky)
humour
86o. \.Yhen the subjects of the main and subordinate clauses are
the same, the personal pronoun which in English heads the
subordinate clause, is normally omitted in Russian:
He was firmly convinced that he OH 6bL\ TBep,~~;o ysepeH, 'ITo
had a complete right to rest n:MeeT n6AHoe npaBo Ha 6TAbiX
(Bunin)
She never knew, one day, whether On a HI:IKor,~~;a He aH<iAa HaKaHyHe,
she would have enough to eat the 6y,~~;eT Ail cbiTa aaBTpa (Gor'ky)
next
The personal pronoun may occur, in Russian, for emphasis or
precision:
416 WORD-ORDER AND OMITTED WORDS
Finishing her course in the board- KoH'lHB Kypc s naHcu6He, Coc-
ing-school, Sosnovskaya at once HoBcKan TOT'lac )Ke aaHBHAa
informed her mother that she M<hepu, 'ITO omi pemHAa noc-
had decided to devote herself BHTHTb ce6B: ucKyccTBy
to art (Bunin)
The personal pronoun is normally expressed in both clauses
when the main clause follows the subordinate:
I have not kept the magazines and .IKypHciAOB H raaeT, B KOTOPLIX H
papers in which my writings ne'l:haACH, H He coxpaHB:A
appeared (Chekhov)
861. In Russian, a pronoun object is often omitted in the
second clause of a sentence when it is clear to which noun or
pronoun in the first clause it would refer:
Gerasim motioned him towards fepacnM no,~~;oasaA er6 K ce6e
him with his finger and took nciALgeM, oTBi!A B KapeTHbtil:
him into the coach-house capau (Turgenev)
This may also occur in the second of two successive sentences:
rou will learn the order of march IJopH,li;OK ,li;Bll)KCHMH yaHaeTe qe-
in ten minutes from Korsakov. pe3 ,~~;ecHTL MUHYT y KopcaKoBa.
He is just making it out OH cefiqac cocTaBAB:cr
(V. Nekrasov)
862. The answer to a question is often given in Russian by
repeating the word which bears the logical stress in the question:
'But does she love him?', he asked <1A oHa er6 AID6nT?•> cnpocnA OH
'res' <V'U66un (Turgenev)
'And is Denisov a good fellow?', <1A 'ITO, ,LI;eHHCOB xopomuii?)>
she asked. cnpocHAa oHa.
•res, he is' <1Xop6nmii» (L. N. Tolstoy)
If the answer is negative then, of course, the negative particle
is added. Negative answers to the above questions would have
been expressed by He Aro6HT and Hexoponmti.
863. Before nouns or pronouns in apposition, a preposition is
repeated in Russian where it is not repeated in English:
I am speaking of literature as one R rosopl6 o AHTepaType, KaK o6
of the thermometers of spiritual O,li;HOM M3 TepMOMeTpOB ,ll;yxOB·
health Horo cocTOHHMH (Gor'ky)
 OMITTED WORDS
They look upon kim as a hero Omi CMOTPJIT Ha HerO, KaK Ha
rep6JI
When the pronoun Bee in an oblique case follows a personal
pronoun governed by a preposition, the preposition may for
emphasis be repeated before the appropriate case of Bee:
And so, when enough tractors have IIT!Uc, KorAli Hacrp6JIT ,~~;ocraTo'I­
been built, there will be evening Ho TpmopoB, y HaC y BCex
clothes for all of us 6y,D;yT Be'lepHHe ryaAhht
(Press)
 List of Main Works Consulted

(A) IN RUSSIAN
DICTIONARIES

AAeKCeeB, M. II., nAp., peA., CJ1o6aflb pycCKozo 1!3b!Ka, 4 rr., MocKBa, I 95 7-6 I.
1\.Aroesa, B. H., Kpam~euu CJI06aflb cuHOIUJMo6 pycCKozo I!JbliCa, MocKBa, I956.
O)Keros, C. 11., Cllo6ap!opycCKozo 1!3bl1Ca, MocKBa, I96I.
CJ1o6aflb co6peM.eHHozo pycCKozo llumepamypwzo 1!3blKa, 17 TT., MocKBa-.i\emm-
rpaA, 1945-65.
YwaKoB, A. H., ToliK06blU C/I06apb pycCKozo l!:lbtKa, 4 TT., MocKBa, I935-40.

PERIODICALS

Bonpocbt Kyllbmypbt pe'll.u, TT. 1-8, MocKBa, 1955-67.

PycCKa/1 pe'll.b, MocKBa, I 967- •
PycCKUUII:IblK 6 HayuoHa/lbHOu wKolle, MocKBa, passim.
PycCKuu l!:lbliC 6 WKOJie, MocKBa, passim.
PycCKuu R:lblK Ja py6e:HCOM., MocKBa, 1967- •

BOOKS AND ARTICLES

AsaHecos, P. 11., n O)KeroB, C. 11., PyccKoe Jlumepamypwe npouJHOWeHue u

y(Japmue, MocKBa, I96o.
ByAaXOBCKl!H, A. A., Kypc pycCKOZO JIUmepamyp~tozo 1!31ill(a, 5-0e H3A., KueB,
1952·
BHHorpaAOB, B. B. peA., rpaM.M.amuKa pycCKOZO 113blKa, 3 TT., MocKBa, I952-4•
BnHorpaAOB, B. B., PycCKuu 1!3bliC, MocKBa, 1947.
BnHorpaAOB, B. B., peA., CoBpeM.eHHbtu pycCKuu I!JblK, MocKBa, I952.
ra.I\KliHa-<l>eAopyK, E. M., H AP· peA., Co6peM.eHHblU pycCKUU l!:lbll(, MocKBa,
1957·
MypaB&eBa, .i\. C., oOcHOBHble TPYAHOCrn B pa6oTe HaA rAaroAaMU ABII)Ke-
HHll B HepyccKoii ayAHTOpliHl>, Oll.ePKu no M.emoouKe npeno(JaBaltUII pycCKozo
I!JblKa, peA. E. 11., MoTHHa, MocKBa, 1962.
 LIST OF MAIN WORKS
lleliiKOBCKHii, A. M., PycCKuii cuHmaKcuc 6 Hl!)''IHO.'II oc6e1J!,muu, 7-oe H3.zl.,
MocKBa, 1956.
IIyJII>KHHa, lf. M., KpamKuii cnpa60'IHUK no pycCKoii zpa.lutamuKe, l\1ocKBa, 1961,
Paccy,lloBa, 0. II., Ynompe611mue 6uiJo6 zllaZOJla, MocKBa, 1966.
- - $K BOnpocy 06 ll3}"1eHifil BH,llOB B pyCCKOM li3LIKe>), J/3 Onblma npeno-
iJa6aHUR pycCKozo I!JblKa uHocmpaHyaM., pe,ll. E. A., Eymma, MocKBa, 1964.
PoaeHTaAr., A. 9., CnpaBOIIHUK no npa6onucamno u Jlumepamyp~toii npa6Ke, MocKBa,
1967.
--IIpaKmU'IeCKaR. cmUJlucmUKa pycCKozo 1!3b!Ka, MocKBa, 1967.
Cnarnc, A. A., 06paJo6aHue u ynompe611mue BuiJoB Zllazolla 6 pyccKOM. R3blKt,
MocKBa, 1961.

(B) IN ENGLISH
Bratus, B. V., The Formation and Expressive Use of Diminutives, Cambridge
U.P., 1969.
Collinson, W. E., 'Indication: A Study of Demonstratives, Articles, and
other "Indicators".' Supplement to Language, 17, April-June, Baltimore,
1937·
Costello, D. P., 'Tenses in Indirect Speech in Russian', Slavonic and East
European Review, xxxix, 1961.
--'The Conjunction noKa', Slavic and East European Journal, vi, 3, 1962.
Davison, R. M., The Use of the Genitive in Negative Constructions, Cambridge
U.P., 1967.
Foote, I. P., Verbs of Motion, Cambridge U.P., 1967.
Forbes, N., The Russian Verb, reprint, Oxford U.P., 1960.
--Russian Grammar, 3rd ed., revised and enlarged by J. C. Dumbreck.
Oxford U.P. 1964.
Forsyth, J., A Grammar of Aspect, Cambridge U.P., 1970, appeared when
this book was in the page-proof stage.
Harrison, W., The Expression of the Passive Voice, Cambridge U.P., 1967.
Jesperson, J. 0. H., A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles,
Parts 1-7, Heidelberg-Copenhagen, 1909-49.
Morison, W. A., Studies in Russian Forms and Uses-the Present Gerund and
Active Participle, Faber, London, 1959.
Mullen, J., Agreement of the Verb-predicate with a Collective Subject, Cambridge
U.P., 1967.
Murphy, A. B., Aspectival Usage in Russian, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1965.
Rozental', D. E., A1odem Russian Usage, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1963.
Uglitsky, Z., 'Accusative and Genitive with Transitive Verbs Preceded by
a Negative in Contemporary Russian', Slavonic and East European Review,
xxxiv, 83, 1956.
 LIST OF MAIN WORKS
Unbegaun, B. 0., Russian Grammar, Oxford U.P., 1957.
Ward, D., The Russian Language Today, Hutchinson, London, 1965.

(C) IN OTHER LANGUAGES

lsachenko, A. V., Die russische Sprache der Gegenwart. Vol. I, Formenlehre,
Halle, 1962.
Mazon, A., Emplois des aspects du uerbe russe, Champion, Paris, 1914.
- - Grammaire de la langue russe, Librairie Droz, Paris, 2nd ed., 1945.
R0ed, R., .(wei Studien iiber den priidikatiuen Instrumental im Russischen, Oslo,
1966.
 Russian Words
All numbers refer to paragraphs. ·words occurring in the vocabulary sec-
tions at the end of the chapters on the Noun, Adjective, Verb, and Adverb
are not included. -
a, 458.
a BApyr, 458 (vi).
a caM, 458 (iv).
a (He) TO, 444•
-a, -Ji (Masc. nom. pl.), 17.
a.z~, 6o (ii).
a,ll.'wOBO Ji6AOKO, 165 (i).
a,llBod.T, 7·
aKBapll)'M, 3 (i).
aHrAH'I:aHHH, aHrAH'I:aHKa,
aiiAo,zulpoBaTI>, 4 7 (vii).
aXW\)\CCOBa rurra, 165 (i).
6aKTepWI, 13 (i).
6aA, 6o (ii).
6aHKa, 35 (i).
6apaHHH, 167 (i).
6er, 61 (iii).
6eraTD, 315.
6er6M, 404.
6eAHDlli, 171 (ii).
6e,l1Hlira, 6.
6e,IIHJiK, 171 (ii).
6eJKaTD, 315, 323.
6ea, 37, 496.
6ea yAepJKy, 405.
6eMeficneHHDiii:, 158 (i).
6eaHp:iBCTBeHHI>ri"i, 158 (i).
6eper, 6o (ii).
6ecnOKOIITDCJI, 293·
6eCCMhiCAeHHDiii:, 158 (i).
6u6!\lmTeKapma, 9·
61ITI>Cll, 284.
6AaroAapli, 675.
6AaronpHJiTCTBOBaTD, 47 (i).
6AecTJii!:!uil:, 173 (i).
6A!OAUe, 63.
6oraT, 153 (iii) (d).
6or:hDiii, 57 (i), 171 (ii).
6oraq, 171 (ii).
6oft, 6o (vi).
6oK, 6o (ii).
8 (i), 66Aee, 16o, 163 (iv).
6oAeH, 155 (ii).
6oAeTD, 54·
6oADHoii, 155 (ii).
66ADme, 66Aee, 161 (i), 828 (ii) (a).
66ADmnii, 163 (i).
60ADIDHHCTBO, 830, 831.
6oADm6il:, 152 (iv).
66poB, I 7 (i).
6opT, 6o (ii).
60CHKOM, 404.
6omcH, 39, 251 (iii), 293.
6paTHliH, 165 (ii).
6paTI>, 218 (ii).
6peA, 6o (vii).
6pe,lll1Th, 52.
6peHAJr, 3 (ii).
6pecrn, 315, 319 (i).
6po,zuln, 315, 319 (i).
6po,l!Jiquii, 174 (i).
6pocaTD, 55, 249 (i).
6y,l!eM, 241.
6yAeT, 249 (i), 331-4.
6y,l!TO (6DI), 440 (i, ii).
422 RUSSIAN WORDS
6yA}"'H, 353· BepXHun, Bepx6BHLIH, Bepxos6n, I 76.
6yAI> ro, 449· Bepx6M, 404, 407.
6}'MM<Ka, 63. Bee, 36.
6hl, 28g, 291, 295· 301, 302, 304-6, BCCHTL, 283.
337, 446-5o. BeCTII, 315, 323.
6LIBaAO, 210, 211, BeCTII ce6Ji, BeCTltCL, 286.
6LIBaTL, 359, 836. seTep, 6o (vii).
6LIBwuii, 173 (i). sbpeHLin, sbpliHLili, I 76.
6b!Ao, 229, 231, 331-4, 421 (ii). BC'IHLIH, I 76.
6LIT, 60 (vii). BCIIIaTL, nOBCCIITL, 283.
6biTL, 24-6, 828 (ii) (c), 831 (iii) (a), s6rn, 53·
836. B3anepTn, 406.
B3BCWIIBaTL, 283.
B 496, 513, 569, 570, 576, 579, 586, B3liTL, 35 (iii) •
6o4, 6o6, 607 (iv), 6o8, 618, 620, BH,Il, 60 (vii),
664, 679 (v), 692, 712, 721, 742, BH,IleTL, 220 (ii), 228 (ii), 294·
746, 752, 755. 765, 768, no, ,., BH,I!HO, 336.
776, 791. sri:AKa, 63.
-B(wu) (Gerund), 352-5. Bl1AJiTL, 55·
B O,I(HH6'1Ky, 405. BHHa, 4 8 (ii).
B OTHOWCHHH, 496. BHHIITL, 276.
B npO,liONKeHne, 583. BHHOBllT, I53 (iii) (c).
B mtTL, etc., pa3, 81g. BHHOrpaA, 35·
B Te'leHne, 582. BHCCTL, 283.
B TO Bp6.£ll, KaK, 416 (i), 417,458 (i). BHCKH, 3 (ii).
Bar6H-pecropaH, 21 (i). Bl'!CJi'lnfi, I 74 (i),
BaA, 6o (ii). BIITLifi, BHT6n, I 74 (v).
BaHHH, I65 (i). BKAIO'IaTL, 218 (ii).
BapBapnH, 165 (i). BKPYTYIO, 407.
BapeHHb1fi, BapeHLIH, 174 (ii). BKycHLili, BKycos6H:, 176.
Baw, 498. DAaArn, 51 (i).
B6po.ll, 406. BMCCTO Ton), 'IT66hl, 437 (vi).
BAB6e, BTp6e, B'ICTBepo, etc., 8I9. BHaKAa,l\Ky, 407.
B,I(BOeM, BTpOeM, B'leTBep6M, 821. BHe, 496, 697, 6g8.
BABOHHe, BTpOHHe, 820. BHH3 no, 65o.
B,l\OAL, 632. BHYTpH, 496, 625·
Be,lll>, 464. BHYTpL, 625.
Be3rn, 315, 321. BO BpeMll, 5 77, 581.
BeK, 6o (iv), 61 (iii). BO,n.I!TL, 315, 324.
BeKOB6ii, 176. B6,1!HLIH, BO,IlliHHCTLiii, BO,IlliH6ii, I 76.
BCAeHO, 344· BOCHHhlii, 171 (i).
BeAm, 47 (iv). Bo3, 6o (vii).
BeAIIK, 152 (iv), I53 (ii). B03Bpa'!\aTL(Cll), 282.
BeAit'leCTBeHHLIH, 158 (i), B03B:bJweH, B03s:bJweHeH, I58 (ii).
BCpliTL, 47 (v), 294• B03HTL, 315, 321.
BePTeTL, 51 (ii). B63Ae, 496.
 RUSSIAN WORDS
B03MOlKHO, 338. raatra, 3 (v).
BooHHKin, 838. r,~~;e, 306 (ii), 334> 464.
BOW, 35I. reHepiJu.ma, g.
BOKp}T, 496, 62g, 661. re6Aor, 7·
BOAeH, 153 (iii) (a). rep6ii, repomur, 8 (i).
BOAOCOK, 63• rAaa, 6o (i).
BOA"'illi, I 67 (i). rAaa6K, I 7 (iv), 63, 64.
Bo-nepBb!X, etc., 814 (ii). rAyx, rAyx6ii, I53·
BOnpeJOI, 496. maT~>, 315.
BOpO"laTD, 51 (i). rny-n.cJI, 284.
BOCXHI,ijliTCJI, BOCXHI,ijeHHe, 52. rosopun, 294·
BOT, 464, 505. ro,~~;, 6o (iv), 61 (i).
Bnepe,zuf, 496. rOAOBKa, 63.
BTIJ\aBI>, 406. roAy66it, 153 (v).
snonb!Xax, 406. roruin., 315.
BpaCCDmMYro, 403. rop,~~;nncJI, 52.
spe,zuln, 47 (ii). roprn, 283.
BpeMJI OT BpeMeHR, 217 (iii). r6pJ\I>IlliKo, 63.
Bp}'KOnlllliH}'IO, 403, r6po,21, 3 (v), 21 (ii), 31, 62 (ii).
spyqHJ!o, 403. ropo,~~;6K, 62 (ii).
BPJIA J\II, 464. rop6x, rop6muHa, 15 (i), (ii), 35·
BCe, 863. ropi>'IIDi, 174 (i).
Bee, 458 (ii), 547· rOTOB, 153 (iii) (a), (c).
scer6 (only), 412 (ii), 828 (ii) (b), rpoaHTI>, 47 (ii), 51 (ii), 285 (i).
844. rpoaHTI>CJI, 285 (i).
Bcer6/Bcex, 162 (vi). rpylKeHH~>m, rpylKeHDiit, 174 (ii).
BCAe,ll;, 685. ry6Ka, 63.
scAe,~~; aa, 592, 685. ryCI>KOM, 404.
BCJ\enYro, 403.
BCAyx, 406. ,~~;a, 464.
BCMJiTKy, 407, ,~~;a BApyr, 212.
BCnLDamaTD, 838. ,~~;a II, 463 (i).
scrasan, 218 (ii). ,~~;a KaK, 212.

scmwn, 543, 562. ,~~;asaii, -Te, -Ka, 241, 242.

BCBiwH paa, KOr,~~;a, 422.
sya, 3 (vi).
BI>I, 485.
BI>I6Rpan, 56 (ii).
Bhl,ll;aiOIIJIIHCJI, I 73 (ii).
Bhl31>IBa101!JRH, I 73 (i) ·
BhlHOCllMhlH, He-, I 73 (i) •
BDmRBaJI, 350.
BDipal!JIIBan, 283.
BbiClliHH, I 63 (iii).
Bblme, 63 1, 682.
BI>IOIWleCJI, 173 (ii).
,~~;alKe ec.l\li 6DI, 452.
,~~;afi, -Ka, 242.
,~~;aAeK, 153 (iii) (c).
,ll;a.l\eKIIfi, ,li;WHIIit, 176.
,~~;a.l\l>me, ,~~;aAee, 161 (i), 412 (i).
,~~;aHHI>Ie, 172.
,~~;apoM, 4o 4 •
,~~;an, 35 (iii), 41.
ABa, TpR, 'leTblpe, 8o5-g, 815.
ABepua, 63.
,li;BeCTII, TpHCTa, etc., 810 (viii).
ABHraT~>, 55·
 RUSSIAN WORDS
ADHHyn.cH, 273· .D.OKpacua, 400.
AD6e, Tpoe, 'lrnepo, etc., 331, 807, .D,OKTOp, ·rna, g.
8!5, 822, 827 (ii). .D,OM, 19 (i), 6o (vii).
ADoiiKa, TpoilKa, etc., 816, 82g. .lJ,O)\.)J(eH, 29 (vi), 153 (iii) (a),
ABOilHo~i, .z~s6iicmeHH&rli:, ADolhmii, 340 .
824. .D,O.I\lome, .D.OI\ee, 161 (i).
ADyx- (ADy-), Tpex-, 'leTbipex-, 813 .D,OM, 61 (ii), 62 (ii).
(vi). ,IIOMHK, 62 (ii) •
.z~esliHOCTo, 810 (vii). .lJ,OMHHa, .D,OMHIIIKO, .D,OMHJ!!e, 4·
AeBliHOCTO-, 813 (vi). AoH, 6o (v).
A~l\aTbCll, 56 (i). .D,OpO.)J(HTb, 51 (ii) •
.z~ei\HT&cll, 51 {ii). .D.Opo.)J(J(a, 63 •
A~O 6&11\o, 491 . .D,oca.)J(.lJ,aTb, 47 (ii).
A~Hb OTO .D.HH, 600 (ii). .lJ,OCTaBaTb, 335·
.D.~H&rn, 14. .D,OCTaTO'IHO, 331 .
.D,epeBllHHbiH, 176. ,llOCTaTO'IHO, 'IT06hl, 435•
.D.ep.)J(aTbcx, 38 (i). .D,OCTaTb, 35 (iii) .
.D,eCHTOK, 816. .D.oc=raTh, 38 (i) •
.D,HTli, 13 (iii). .D,OCTOHH, He-, 153 (iii) (d) .
.D,i\lfHHOTa, 19 (iv). .D,ocyxa, 400.
.D,M, 488,496, 707 (i), 711, 783, 787, .D,OC&rra, 400•
792 . .D,OU~HT, 7·
.lJ,i\ll TOI"O, 'IT06bl, 437 (ii). .D,O'IHCTa, 400.
.D.O, 496, 593, 6o3, 734· AOJ!!C'IKa, 63.
,110- (Adverbs), 400. .D.pesccHhlil, 176.
,110 6ea~, 405. .D.pyr, 7, 27 (ii).
,110 66.1\H, 405. .D.py.)J(eCKnii,.D.py.)J(eCTBeHHhlii,.D.py.)J(-
,110 KaKOI"O Bp~MeHH, ,110 KaKHx nop, Hblii:, 176.
424· .D.YMaTh, 294·
,110 HeBepOHTHOClTI, 405. .D.ypeH coooii:, 153 (i), 482 (ii).
,110 HeB03MQ.)J(H0CTH, 405. AYPHOM, 153 (i).
,110 HeyaHaBaeMOCTH, 405. .lJ,}'XOBHbift, .lJ,}'XOBOi1, 176.
,110 cnx nop, 458 (ii). .D.hiM, 6o (vii).
,110 TaKOH CTcneHH, 433 (ii). ,zuill.m&rli:, .lJ,hlMOBOii, 176•
,110 Toro, KaK, 425 (i) • .lJ.hlpKa, 63.
.D,O TOrO ... , 'ITO, 433 (ii). ,llbllllaTb, 53 .
,~~66el\a, 400. ,IIJO.)J(Il:Ha, 82g.
.D,06HsaTbCH, 38 (i), 252, 2S3> 291. ,1lli.D,HH, 165 (ii) .
,~~66phlil, 8os (i). .D.li.D.ll, 5·
.lJ,OBOI\eH, He-, 153 (iii) (d).
.D,OBO.I\loHO, 249 (i), 331, ero, 482 (i) •
.D,OBO.I\loHhiH, 57 (i). eADa, 429.
.D,OrMa, 3 (i). e.D.Ba .1\H He, 43 (i) (d) .
.D,Orol\a, 400. eABa 1\HIIIh/TO./\loKO, 429 (ii) •
.D,OKa3aTe.l\loCTBO, 48 (i). e.D,HuHqHhJH, e.D,HH:&Iii, 823 .
,lloKaahJBaTh, 252, 253. e,llHHCTBeHH:&rli:, 158 (i), 823.
 RUSSIAN WORDS
-eej-eiif-e (Comparath·e adj.), I59- 3a6oAen, 26o.
I6I. aa6Lman., 240, 250.
Ca..:UrrL, 3I5, 327-g. 3aBC,2J.OBaTL, 51 (i).
-eirnm:fi/-afumtii (Superlative adj.), 3aBJi:,ll.en., 266.
I62. 3aBJi:,21.osan., aasHcn., 47 (vii).
-emu.rli:j-amu.rli:j-JIHJILI:H, I 58. aas:brn., 259·
CCMI, 44 I, 442. aarosoplrrL, 259.
eCl\11 6LI, 446--8. aaroBOplmcll, 265.
eCl\11 He, 444· aarpeMrn, 259.
eCAH He ... , TO, 451. aary,21.rn, 259·
eCl\11 TO.I\LKo, 443· aa,21.peMan., 26o.
eCTCCmemu.rli:, I58 (i). aae3JK3n., 2I8 (i).
ecn. (is), 332-4, 358, 359· 3aJKeATCn, 260.
ecn. (to eat), 220 (i). 3oiJKIIBO, 400.
exan., 315, 326-g. aaaeAeHen, 262.
eJ!!e, 227 (i), 42 I (ii), 458 (ii), 536. aaurpan., 261.
aaKpaCHCTL, 262.
~n., 38 (i). 3aKypli:n., 264.
~'\L, 29 (v), 342· a;v., a<i.\a, I I •
~p, I I, 36, 6o (vii). a;v.emrrLCll, 26o.
JKapa, I I. aaAeTan., 26 3 •
~TL, 350. a<iAnoM, 404.
lKf"}"'Iltii, I 74 (i) · aiMepTBo, 400.
;K.Z~;an., 38 (ii), 276, 29I, 350. aaMOpoiJKlman., 283.
JKe, 459, 46 I· a~eM, 408.
JKOOTL, 38 (ii). aaHaBCCKa, 63.
JKOAyr, JKe~A)·JKirna, I5 (i), (ii). 3aHIIMaTLCll, 5 I (ii).
JKCHIIH, I65 (ii). aaHliT, 57 (ii).
JKepe6eu, I o (iii). a<iH!m.di, aaHliT6ii, r 74 (v).
JKCpTBOBan., 5 I (ii). aamicKa, 63.
JKe'D>, 2 j6, 283, 350. 3amin., 264.
JKIIB, JKIIBOl1, I53 (i). 3aiiA3.Kan., 26 I .
JKlfBOTHOe, I3 (iii). aanpeJ!!an., 47 (iii), 249 (ii).
JKIIB}"'Iln"i, I 74 (i). aanpocli:n., 265.
nwp, 6o (vii). 3anpocro, 400.
lKHpaq,, I I. 3aCBeTAO, 400.
JKirrL, 5 6 (iii). aacrrnen, 262.
aoop1i:, 3 (iii) . aacAyJKeHHhll"i, aaCAyJKeHHLifl, I 74
(iv).
aa, 496, 580, 59I, 6r2, 624, 637. aaCAyJKiman., 40, 252, 253•
643, 656, 66o, 67o, 685, 704, 7o8, 3aCMefuCll, 26I.
jiO, 730, 759, 761, 766, 780. 3aTCM, 'lT06LI, 437 (ii).
aa ... ,21.0, s84· 3aTeMHo, 400.
aa- (Adverbs), 400. aanlxli)'TL, 261.
aa- (Verbal prefix), 2 r8 (i), 259-66. aaxo.;ui:n., 263.
aa .HCK.\IO'ieHIIOl, 496. aaxpo~n., 260.
426 RUSSIAN WORDS
aaWJecrn, 261. -HHa (Augmentative, pejorative
aaqeM, 334, 432 (i). nouns), 4·
aaqHTan.cll, 265. HHaqe, 444·
aawaran., 261. HHmeaepwa, g.
aally, 3aWrmca, I 0 (i) -HHCKHii, I 66.
3Ban., 56 (iii). HHTepecouan.cll, naTepec, 52.
3BCa,liOqKa, 63. -HH&rn (Possessive adjs.), 167.
3BOHihh, -Cll, 285 (i). HCKaTb, 38 (ii).
3BOHOK, 63. IICKOmleMhle, I 72.
3,llop6Bblii, a.z~paB&IH, 176. ncKoca, 400.
3eJ\eHh, 15 (i). liCKyCcTBeHHblll, 158 (i).
aeMOOIU.Iif, aeMAHCTblii, aeMJ\liHOii, HCIIO,liTHWKa, 4 o6.
3eMH6if, aeMCKHii, I 76. liccepa-, uccnHll-, 400.
3JI.O, 16. -HCTbJii, I 76.
3J\OynOTpe6AJiTh, 51 (ii). -uqeCKH (Adverbs), 397·
30AOT6ii, 30!\0THCTbiH, 30JI.OqeHblll, -JiqeCKHii, I52 (iii), I59 (iii).
176. -JI'IHblti, I52 (iii), I59 (iii).
30JI.oqeHHblif, 30JI.OqeHbJH, 174 (ii). -=- (Pejorative noun suffix), 4·
ay6, 17 (ii). -n~,g- (Augmentative noun suffix), 4·

n, 438 (i), 460, 462, 463, 564, 844, K, 496, 596, 6I3, 61g, 707 (v), 732,
859· 745· 747· 748, 754. 757, 760, 779·
H TO, 455, 463 (v). 781, 784, 790.
llBanoB, 165 (i). -Ka, 235, 242, 464.
~~r6AKa, 63. Kam,llbln, 543, 562.
HATH, 315, 321, 323, 327-g, 837· Kim.zt&IH .zteH&, 217 (iii).
H3, 37, 496, 568, 621, 622, 667, 673, K~ii paa, Kor.z~a, 422.
713, 7'4 (i), 771. Kaaan.cll, 56 (ii).
na- (Adverbs), 400. KaK, 4I4, 4I9-2 I, 427 (iii), 429 (ii),
na- (Verbal prefix), 271. 519 (iv).
na6eraT&, 39, 249 (ii). KaK 6y.ztTO (6&1), 440 (i).
li3BeCTHblft, 548. K3K 6&1, 293·
naBeTwaT&, 271. K3K B,llpyr, 420, 421.
Ha.ztaAeKa, 400. KaK Hlf, 450 (i).
J!ameATa-, 400. KaK TOA&Ko, 429 (ii).
na-aa, 626, 66g, 676. KaKne-alf6y.zt&, 68o (vi).
H3MeHlfrh, li3MeHa, 47 (ii). KaKOB, 529.
uao AHll B .zteHh, 6oo (iii). KaKOH, 510, 5I9 (iii), 522, 524, 529,
na6pBaHII&rn, 271. 564.
II3-IIO,ll, 626, 793· KaKOH-HH6y.llb, 537, 540 (i), 544 (ii).
H3pbJTbJii, 271. KaKOit-TO, 531, 550.
-nii (Possessive adjs.), 167, 168. KaAeKa, 6.
HJ\11, 461 (v). KaMeHHblfi, 1(aMeHiiCThili, 176.
JJMen.cll, 359 (i), 828 (ii) (c), 831 KapT6cpeJI.b, KapT6cpeJ\IIHa, KapT6w-
(iii) (a). Ka, I5 (i), (ii).
-nH (Possessive suffix), 165, 805 (iii). KaCaTbCll, 38 (i).
 RUSSIAN WORDS
Kaccl%p, -wa, 8 (ii). KptMOBblit, 153 (v).
KaTaprucra, 11. KpecnJHLI, 14.
KaTan., 315, 325. KpeCTLIDmH, KpeCTLliHKa, 8 (i).
KaTihL, 315. Kp6111e, 6g1.
Klman, 55· Kpyr, 6o (ii).
KllAO, 35 (i). I<p}'I"OBOii, I<pylKIILifi, 176.
KIII"lfqnit, 174 (i). I<pylKOI<, 63.
KAaccHbli!:, wccoBLiit, 176. I<pbllKOBHUK, 15 (i), (ii).
KAei!:, 35, 6o (iii). KpLIM, 6o (v).
KHWKKa, 63. Kph'IWKa, 63.
KHli3L, KHl!I'lfmi, KHJOKila, 8 (i V), I<pyroM, 404, 629, 661.
Ko6eAL, ro (ii). KTO, 518, 519 (v), 520, 521, 523,
Ko6h1Aa, 10 (iii). 526, 527, 546.
KOI"Aa, 22 3 , 334, 4 13 (ii), 4 16 (ii), KTO 6LI HH, 549•
418 (ii, iii), 420, 428 (i). KTO ... KTO, 538.
K6e-KaK6it, 532. I<YAi, 306 (ii), 334·
K6e·KTO, 530 (iii), 539· KjKAa, 13 (iv).
KOC-'IITO, 530 (iii). K}'Mnp, 13 (iv).
K6JKaHhrl!:, KOJKeBeHHLiit, 176. I<ynmL, 35 (iii).
KOACHO, 18. I<ypnHblfl, 167 (ii).
KOAOKOI\L'IHK, 63. I<yCaTbCll, 28 4 .
KOAIIaK, 13 (iv). KYCHjTL, 273·
KOI\X03, 3 (vi). KYCOK, 35 (i).
KOMaHAOBaTL, 51 (i). Kfqa, 35 (i).
KOMMymicT, -Ka, 8 (i).
KOMj, 332. Aarep~>, 17 (i).
KOHAYKTop, -wa, 8 (ii). Aa3RTL, 3 r 5 , 316.
KOHCK, 63. Ae6eAHHLiit, 167 (ii).
KOHtiaTL, 249 (i). AeB, Al>BII!!a, 10 (i).
KOH'<IHK, 63. Aeswa, 6.
KOHL, 10 (iii). AeA, 35, 6o (iii).
KOpeHL, 17 (ii). AtAR, 3 (iii).
KOpWIHeBLiit, 153 (v). AeJKan, 354, 36o (ii).
KOpOBHit, 167 (i). Ae)Kat~m"t, 174 (i).
KOpOTOK, 153 (ii), AeJKe66Ka, 6.
KOT, 10 (ii). Ae3Tl>, 315.
KOTeAOK, 63. Aec, 6o (ii), 61 (i).
KoTopLrn, 519-21, 524, 525. AeT, 813 (iii),
K64>e; 3 (ii). ACT, 6J (iii).
KocpeitHL!it, 153 (v). AeTaTb, 3 15, 316.
KOWa'IRH, 167 (i). AeTeTL, 3 15 , 316, 323.
K6WKa, 10 (ii). AeTfqaii, 174 (i).
KpaA)"'liCL, 41 I. .1\lKHBL!it, I 76.
Kpait, 6o ( ii). -An6o, 530 (v).
KpfliiHe, 395· Mkni!:, 167 (i).
KpacoTa, 19 (iv). 1\liCT, 17 (ii).
428
.1\H!.!O, I 3 (iii).
.1\HWaTh, ·CH, 39, 286.
.1\lllllb, 429 (i) .
.1\liWb TO.I\bKO, 429 (ii).
.l\o6, 6o (i).
.1\0BHTI>, 252, 253·
.1\0.lKHblii:, I 76 •
.1\0.lKb, 16.
.1\onaTKa, 63.
.1\0Wa,li;HHbiii:, 167 (ii).
.1\owa,ll;b, 10 (iii).
Ayr, 6o (ii) .
.1\)"'HHa, 15 (iii).
.1\~wnii:, 163 (ii).
.1\bBHHbiii:, 167 (ii).
.1\bCTHTb, 47 (vii).
.1\106itn, 249 {ii).
.I\I060BaTbCJI, 51 (ii).
.I\I066ii, 543·
.1\HI'aThCH, 284 •
Ma.l\, 152 (iv), 153 (ii).
MaJ\CHbKHii:, 152 (iv).
MiAO, 36>331>554>558,830,831.
Ma.l\0 .1\II KTO ('ITO), 563.
MaMHH, MaTepiiH, 165 (ii).
MaHep, MaHepa, I I.
MaCCOBhli1, 159 (ii).
MaxaTb, 55·
MaumuKa, 63.
MfY, 3 (vi).
MeA, 35, 6o (iii).
Me,li;BC,ll;b, Me,li;BCAH!.!a, 10 (i).
Me,li;B~Hii:, 167 (i).
Me,ll;.l\eHHbiH, 158 (i).
Me.lK,zr;y, 690.
Me.lKAY TeM, 458 (ii).
MC.lKAY TeM, KaK, 417.
MeA, 35·
MeHbwe, MeHee, 161 (i), 828 (ii) (a).
MCHbWHii:, 163 (i).
MeHhwimcm6, 830, 83 1.
MepaHyn, 283.
Mepmeu, 13 (i).
Mex, 17 (i), 6o (iii).
Mewan, 47 (ii).
RUSSIAN WORDS
Ml!I'aTb, ss-
MHKp66, 13 (i).
Ml:l.I\.I\HOH, 81 I (iv), 829 •
MHMO, 496, 64 7.
MiipHhiif, Mnpoa6ii, MIIpcKoii:, 176 •
M.l\a,IIWHH, I 63 (iv).
MAeKonnTaiOIQee, 13 (iii) .
M.I\C"lHbiii, I 76 •
Mnome, 552, 553·
MHoro, 35 (ii), 36, 331, 552, 554,
83o, 831.
MHoro paa, 217 (ii).
MHoroe, 555·
MHOI'O"lHC.I\eHHbiii:, 158 (i) .
MHo.lKecTBo, 83o, 831 •
MO.lKHO, 338 .
Moar, 6o (i) .
MOH, 498.
MO.I\0,11, 153 (ii) •
MO.I\O,IIOii:, MO.I\o.lKe, M.l\a,llwe, 161
(iii).
MO.I\OTOK, 63.
MO.I\O"lllbiii:, I 76.
MOJ\qa, 410.
Moprny-n,, 273·
MOpKOBh, MOpKoBKa, 15 (i), (ii).
MocKBa-peKa, 21 (i).
MOCT, 60 (ii).
MOCTHK, 63.
MOX, 60 (iii).
MCTHTh, 47 (vii).
MbiTb, ·CJI, 282.
Ha, 496, 571, 572, 578, 587, 597,
599 (iv) , 6os, 6o7-9, 618, 636,
653 , 702, 707 (ii), 7o8, 7o 9, 717,
724, 725, 736, 738, 740, 741, 751,
756, 762, 763, 767, 769, 772, 773,
775, ns,782, 786, 794·
Ha- (Verbal prefix), 267, 268.
Ha H:MH, 700 {vi).
Ha pe,IIKOCTb, 405.
Ha npOTH.lKCHHH, 582.
Ha C.l\~aii:, 688.
na fll6He, 689.
na6pocan, 267.
 RUSSIAN WORDS
HaBeKn, 407. He 6yAJ>, 449·
HaBCTpe'ly, 496. He 6&r.l\o, 33 1.
HaBLIKaTe, 407. He 6bl.l\0 ,1\HSI, 'IT06bi, 436.
Har.I\SI,lleTbCSI, 268. He B, 716.
Harpa"'AaTh, Harpa)K,lleHne, 51 (ii). He B npnMep, 496.
HaA,496,63o,657,759,764, 774· He Be3eT, 323.
Ha,liBoe, HaTpoe, Ha'lemepo, 822. He Be.l\eHO, 344·
Ha,~~;en&cH, 251 (iv). He B3AYMaii(Te), 240.
Ha,l\HH, 165 (i). He BM,l\HO, 43 (iv) (b), 336.
Ha,liMeHHbii1, I 58 (iii). He AYMaH, 411.
Hll,l\0, 337• He nMeTb, 43 (iv) (a).
Ha,liOe,llaTh, 47 (vii), 249 (ii). He .1\e)KihCH, 343·
Hae,llllTbCSI, 42. He HaAo, 43 (iv) (b).
Ha3Ha'lllTb, 56 (ii). He MY)KHO, 43 (iv) (b).
Ha3bmllTbCSI, 56 (iii). He no, 711 (ii).
Han-, 162 (vii). He nOK.I\a,llaSI pyK, 4 I I.
Haii3HaHKy, 406. He npep&maHc&, 41 r.
Ha.l\nlTb, 267. He pa3, 2 I 7 (iii).
HaACTaTh, 267. He cn,l\llTcH, 343.
HaMepeH, 153 (iii) (a). He C.I\LiillHO, 43 (iv) (b), 336.
HammaT&CH, 42. He enema, 409.
HanoBaA, 406. He CTonT, 434·
HanOMHHllTh, 47 (xiii). He C'IJITaSI, 4 I I.
HanpoAeT, 406. HC TO, 444•
HanpOTIIB, 496. He TO, 'IT06bJ ... HO, 432 (iv).
Hapa66TaTbCSI, 268. He yen~, 42I (i).
Hapo,ll, 13 (viii), 35· He myTJi, 409.
HaceKOMOe, I 3 (iii). He6biDJ!!IIHCSI, I 73 (ii).
HaCJ\a)K,llaTbCSI, HaCJ\a)K,lleHIIe, 5 I HeB~a, 6.
(ii). HCB3npaHjHeCMOTpH Hll na 'ITO, 456.
HacTaBaTb, 836. HeB03M0)KHO, 339·
Hacd.JmaTh, 291. Her,~~e, 334·
HaCTOJ\bKO ()Ke) ••. , HaCKOJ\bKO, 438 He,liOCTaBaTb, 42, 335·
(i). He3a'leM, 334·
HaCTOJ\bKO .•. , 'ITO, 433 (ii). HeKHH, 548.
HacTynaTb, 836. HeKor,~~a, 334·
HaC'IeT, 679 (iii). HeKoro, 332 (ii).
HaTOJ;yaK, 406. HeKOMY, 332 (i).
HaXO,lllfTbCSI, 56 (i), 360 (i). neKOTOpble, 534, 539·
Ha'IHHllTb, 249 (i). HeKOTOpbrii:, 53 I •
Ha'IIllill!OJ!!Hti, I 72. HeKyAa, 334·
Ha'IJITllTbCSI, 268. He.l\b3H, 339·
Ham, 498. HeMH6rne, 539, 557·
Hai!By, 407. HeMHorojHeMHO)KKO, 35 (ii), 36,
He, 43 (i) (c). 535 (i), 830, 83 I.
He 6y,lleT, 331. HeMH6roe, 555·
430 RUSSIAN WORDS
HenpRKOCHOBeHHbrn, 158 (iii), o6LI<rHhlii, 176.
uepllxa, 6. -oaj-ea (Possessive suffix), 165, r66,
ueCKOAbKO, 331, 533, 534· 8os (iii).
uecKoAbKO paa, 217 (ii). oae<rnrr, 167 (i).
uecKOAJ>Ko qeAoBeK, 55 7. -OBCKllli (Adj. suffix), 166.
uecAhlx:au, necAhlx:aueu, 158 (ii). ornea6ii:, 6rueuubm, 176.
necnpocTa, 400. oroneK, 63.
uecni, 3 15. orpanll<reu, rs8 (ii).
neT, 35 (ii), 331, 542 (ii). orpauil<IHBaTbCll, 52.
neT An, 542 (i). O,lleBaTb, 282.
ney,llaBllliiHC.II, 173 (ii). O,lleB<lTC.II, 282, 286.
IICxOT.II, 410. oAlin, 511, 512, 545, s6r, 564, 8o3,
ueqero, 333· 568. 823·
neqTo, 568. o,zulu TOAbKO, 561 (ii).
uu, 43 (iii) (a), 460. o,zu'mo)K,llbr, AB~Abl, etc., 818.
Hll O,llllH, 331, 823. O,llliHOKHti:, 823.
-HH6y.llb, 530. O,liHlf ... ApyrHe, 538.
uillKe, 64o, 695. O,llHO-, e,llliHO-, 813 (vi).
HH3Wllll, 163 (iii). 6aepo, 21 (ii).
HliKaKOii, 542 (ii), 544 (i). od3b!BaTI>Cll, 56 (ii).
HHTKa, 63. oKoAo, 496, 629, 651, 661, 68o.
Hllqero, 567, 568. OKOWKO, 63.
HWITO, 56 7. on, omi, ou6, oml, 487-g, 496.
uoea Koa<rer, 165 (i). OOH, 3 (vi).
Hilli<Ka, 63. onacaTbCll, 293·
HOC, 60 (i). onpaa,llbmaTbCll, 252, 253.
HOCHK, 63. onpe,~:~eAen, onpe,~:~eAeueu, 158 (ii).
uocHn., 315, 324, 325. onpOMeTbiO, 404.
HOCOK, 63. onycrnaWHiiCll, 173 (ii).
-uy- (Verbal suffix), 273. op,~:~eu, 17 (i).
uy)I(Ho, 337· opi!A, opAnya, 10 (i).
opAHHblii, 167 (ii).
o {o6), 496, 679 (i), 687, 727, 753, OCAa6AJiTh, -C.II, 282.
758, 795· OCTaBllTbC.II, 56 (iii), 249 (i).
66a, 66e, Bos-8. OCTaHaBAliBaTb, -Cll, 282.
o6BliHHeMblii, 172. OCTpOB, 21 (ii).
o6*6pa, 6. OT, 37, 488, 496, 621, 622, 666, 673,
o6nAJ>Hbiii, 57 (i) · 674, 678, 706, 713 (iv), 714 (ii),
o6Aa,~:~anHe, 51 (i). 719, 722, 788, 789, 7!)6.
o6Aa,llaTb, 51 (i). OT ... ,110, 599·
06MCHJ!BaTbC.II, o6MCii, 51 (ii). oT- (Verbal prefbc:), 218 (i), 269.
o66n, 14. OTBCTCTBeliHbiH, 158 {i).
66pa3, 17 (i). OTBOpOTHCb OT, 351.
o6pa30Ban, 158 (ii). OTBb!KaTb, 249 (ii).
o6nliCHliTb, 252, 253· orrpeMm, 26g.
06biKHOBCilllbiH, 158 (iii), 176. OTKaaauo, 344·
 RUSSIAN WORDS
oTKaablBan., 47 (xiv).
OTKpOBCHHbll'i, 158 (iii).
OTKp&man., 218 (ii).
OTKpbiTbiH, 173 (i).
OTHOCJheAbHO, 679 (iii).
OTHOCim, 218 (i).
Orn)·cK, 6o (iv), 61 (iv).
oTpaJWillan., 283.
OTTOro 11, 432 (i) ·
OTTOrO 'ITO, 432 (ii).
o"I"I"Y'Aa, OTKyAa, 430.
oryamHaT&, 269.
OTUOB, 165 (ii).
oner6, 432 (i).
omcKimaTb, 252, 253·
O'lepTJi rOAOBy, 409.
onm6lic&, 351.
nasAliww, 167 (i).
n~, 174 (i).
naAaTKa, 63.
nil\oqKa, 63.
n3.mm, 165 (ii).
nap, 6o (vii).
napeHHbdi, napeHbili, 174 (ii).
naclfnmH, 168.
nhHyn., 53·
neseu, nesnua, 8 (i).
ne,~~;ar6r, 7·
neHKa, 63.
nepsblii, 814 (iii).
nepe6pachlBaT&cll, 51 (ii).
nepeA, 496, 594, 602, 634, 696,
737·
nepe,~~; TeM, KaK, 425 (i).
nepe,~~;os6ii, 159 (ii).
nepeKii:,IJ;blBaT&cll, 51 (ii).
nepenncKa, 63.
nepecTasaT&, 249 (i).
nee, 10 (ii).
nec6K, 35·
nen., 279, 350.
neJIIKoM, 404.
m1p, 6o (vii).
nncan., 220 (iii)' 279·
mnD, 220 (i), 350.
431
nAasaTb, 315.
nAaKca, 6.
nAeH, 6o (vi).
nAirrKa, 63.
IIAO,IJ;OBHTbiii, llAOAOBblii (IL\O,IJ;O-
BOi"l), nAo.z~opoAHbii-1, nAo,~~;oTBop­
Hbm, 176.
nAOT, 60 (vii).
nAOX, nAOXOH, 153 (i).
IIAOJ!!i,ll;Ka, 63.
IIAbiTb, 315·
no, 496, 513, 574· 588, 589, 598,
616, 617, 628, 6 33, 649, 6s8, 659,
663, 67 I, 677, 684, 693, 700 (i),
703, 707 (iii), 715, 718, 726, 733·
749, 750, 765, 777, 797, 817, 822.
no- (Adverbs), 397-402.
no- (Verbal prefix), 257, 258, 274.
no Mepe ror6, KaK, 415.
no oqepe,lllf, 405.
no n6BoAy, 679 (iv).
no63.Mman., 274·
nosepx, 6ss-
noseCTII, 55·
n6so,~~;, 17 (ii), 6o (vii).
noro,~~;II, -Te, 237·
no,11, 496, 595, 602, 627, 639, 652,
665, 694, 705, 707 (iv), 72o, i28,
735· 743· 798.
no,~~;- (Verbal prefix), 218 (i).
nO,IJ;BbnniTb, 272.
nO,ll;BbipaCTII, 272.
no,ll;i:HHO, 399·
rro,IJ;MbiJIIKm'i, 406.
nO,lJ;IlltcKa, 63.
no,~~;pa)Klhb, 47 (ix).
no-,~~;pyr6MY, 401 (i).
nO,IJ;o6HO, 496.
nOAYn, 258.
nO,ll;XOAUTL, 47 (vi), 218 (i).
noexan., 258.
DO)Kii\YJ'iCTa, 235·
no)KJ!Man., 55·
no~,350.
no3aAII, 638.
n03BaHHBan., 274•
432 RUSSIAN WORDS
D03BO.I\eHO, 344· nonO.I\llM, 406, 8o2.
D03BO.I\lfTb, 47 (iii). oonO.I\YAHII, 801 (ii).
n63me, no3,11Hee, 161 (i), 412 (i). no-npe)I{HeM)', 401 (i).
no-3InmeM)', 401 (i). no-pa3HOM)', 401 (i).
nofiMaTh, 252, 253. nopOBHY, 400.
ooiin1, 258. nopT, 6o (ii).
ooKa, 236, 416 (i, iii), 418 (iii). nopTH6ii, 171 (i).
ooKa He, 425 (ii), 428 (i). nopyqeH6, 344·
noKaniT&, 258. nO-CBOeM)', 401 (iii).
noKa'laT&cll, 273. llOCKaKaT&, 258.
DOKOl!HliK, 13 (i). oocKopeii, 289.
oo.l\, 6o (ii). noc.l\e, 496, 590, 591, 683.
oo.l\-, oo.l\y-, 8o1, 8o2, 832. OOC!\e TOro, KaK, 418 (ii), 426.
oO.I\AeH&, 801 (ii). noc!\ywaii, -Te, 237·
o6.1\e, 19 (ii). DOCMCHHO, 399•
oo.l\eTaT&, 257. oocnaTb, 257·
oo.l\creT&, 258. nocpeAil, 496.
o6.1\3aTb, 315. nocpeACTBoM, 700 (iv).
DO.I\3KOM, 404. oocT, 6o (vi).
DO.I\3TH, 315. OOC'IOii, -Te, 237·
OO.I\3'fqllii, 174 (i). noCTOHHHbiK, 158 (iii).
o0-.1\HC&II, 402. nocTom, 257.
00.1\K, 60 (vi). nOCbl.l\all, 350.
00.1\HO, 249 (i). noT, 6o (iii), 61 (i).
00.1\HO'Ib, 80 I (ii). DOTepJiT&, 56 (ii).
oo.I\Hhln, 57 (iii), 8os (i). noTe'l&, 258.
00.1\0BHHa, 802, 832. noTOM'Y II, 432 (i).
00.1\0YTH, 8o I (i), 802. DOTOMY, 'ITO, 432 (ii).
00.1\COTHII, 816. noTp6raT&, 273·
00.1\TOpa, 00.1\'IOpbi, 804 (i). oox6m, He-, 153 (iii) (c).
oo.I\TopacTa, 8o4 (ii). n6xopoHhl, 14.
oo.l\'laca, 8o 1 (i). no-'!e.I\OBe'l&ll, 402.
o6.1\&30BaT&Cll, o6.1\&30BaHlle, 52. noqeM'Y, 432 (i).
no.I\I06HTb, 249 (ii), 258. no'<~eM'Y II, 432 (i).
OOMCCli'IHO, 399· DO'ITeH, OO'ITCHeH, 158 (ii).
OOMCI!!li'IHii, 168. DO'ITH, 828 (ii) (a).
OOMHMO, 691. noJ,!!lm&maTb, 274·
OOMHIITb, 294· nolle, 17 (i).
llOMOraT&, 47 (i). npas, He-, npas&lfi, 153 (i).
OO·MOeMy, 401 (iii). opaBAa, 454·
llOM'IaTbCll, 25 8. npasl!Tb, 51 (i).
noHecTil, 257. opeAOo!\araT&, 294.
00-HOBOM)', 401 (i). opeACeAhe!\&, ·Hlll.la, 8 (ii).
OOHOCHTb, 257· npeACTaB.I\n& ce6e, 294·
OOO'IepeAHO, 399· npCACTaB!\liT& co66H, 362, 831 (iii)
non!\hiTb, 258. (a).
 RUSSIAN WORDS 433
npeJKAe 'leM, 425 (i). nponmope'IUTb, 47 (ii).
npeapea, npe3peHea, 158 (ii). npo<}leccop, -ma, g.
npeae6peraTh, npeHe6peJKeaue, 51 npoxoAJin, 836.
(ii). npoqTJi, 351.
nperuhcmoBaTh, 47 (ii). npome,zumrll:, 173 (i).
npecMh!KaiOIJ!eec", 13 (iii). npyA, 6o (ii), 61 (iv).
npu, 496, 573, 585, 611, 635, 645, mK<un'l:, 167 (i).
652, 744· nyraTbCH, 39, 29 3 .
npu- (Verbal prefix), 218 (i), 274· ny3blpeK, 63.
npu ycAOBiill, <rrofeclUI, 445· nycKali, 244.
npu6AiDKeHHhll'l:, npn6AlflKeHHLil'l:, nycKaTbcll, 249 (i).
174 (iv). nyCTb, 244, 457·
npn6AJ13WreJU.Ho, 68o (ii). nyTeM, 700 (iv).
np1mo3{rn., 218 (i). nyx, 6o (vii).
np11BhiKaTh, 249 (ii). nyxoBbiH, nyuukTbiH, I 76.
np:HAepJKHBaTbCH, 38 (i). nbiA, 6o (vii).
np:HAli, 351. mmuga, 6.
npue3JKaTh, 218 (i). IlliTb, etc., 810 (i-iv).
npwaean, -ell, 285 (ii). IlliTb,D;ecliT, etc., 810 (vi).
npruuiaaao, 344· nliTH-, etc., 813 (vi).
npuKliabiBan, 47 (iv). nnoK, 816.
npHMep, 48 (i).
npHMepao, 68o (ii). paOOTHIIK, pa60THIIQa, 8 (i).
npuHaMeJKan, 47 (xii). pa6oTlira, 6.
npHH)'JKAeH, npnayJKAeaea, 158 (ii). paBHOAYmeH, 153 (iii) (c).
npunesaroqu, 41 1. pasafucg, 47 (xi).
npnnAlicbiBaTb, 274· paA, 49, 152 (i).
npliCAYra, 8 (iii). pa,D;n, 672.
nplrrBOpmcH, 56 (ii), 440 (ii). paAOBaTbCll, o6pa,D;OBaTbCH, 47 (vii).
npmc.O,I.!UTCH, npliAeTCH, 337 (iii), pa3, 803 (iii).
npnxoAlhb, 330. pa3- (Verbal prefix), 838.
npuxpliMbmaTb, 274· pa3,D;asancll, 838.
npn"'liH:a, 48 (ii). pa3{!HH poT, 351, 409.
npo, 496, 679 (ii). paaAI06mb, 249 (ii).
npoBHaUH, 15 (iii). pa3MlixlmaTh, 55·
npO,D;OAJKliTb, 249 (i), 282. pa3HbiH, sos cii).
npO,D;OAJKaTbCH, 282. pa3pemaTb, 47 (iii).
npoeaAIITb, 270. pa3pb1BliH, 350.
npOliCXO,lJ;ltTb, 838. pa3~HBaTbCH, 249 (ii).
npoW, 351. paa&rrpbmancH, 838.
npoKliliiNITb, 270. pali:, 6o (ii).
npoaecll, 351. paaeHblli:, paaeHHbtii, 172, 174 (ii).
np6nycK, 17 (i). paHbme, paaee, r6r (i), 412 (i).
npOCWrb, 38 (ii). paHbllie 'leM 'ICpea, 584.
npoTeJKe, 3 (iii). pacnesliH, 350.
np6nm, 686. pacnoAaraTb, 5 r (i).
434 RUSSIAN WORDS
pacnOAO)KeH, 3G0 (ii). CaM, 5G5, 5GG.
pacnopH)KaT&Cll, 52. caM no ce6e, 56G.
pacnpocTpaHRT&, -c11, 282. caMhlii, 1G2, 1G3, 5G5.
pacce11n, 158 (ii). canu, '4·
paccel!Hn&Iii, 173 (i). caxap, 35·
paCCTaBaTbCll, 5G (iii). c6eraT&, 318 (ii).
paCTH, 283. csepx, G81, 699.
psaT&, 350. cso66AeH, 153 (iii) (a).
pBaT&Cll, 284. CBOAHT&, 318 (ii).
peAKllli, 559· CBOH1 482 (i), 498-500.
ped, 3 (v), G5. cs6iiCTBeHHhlii, 158 (i).
pcqKa,peqen&Ka,peqyucrKa,peqonKa, csbiwe, G81, 828 (ii) (a).
p~Ka, G5. cropll"'a, 400.
pewiT&, 252, 253· ce6e, 287, 482 (iii).
pHCKOBb&, 51 (ii). ce6Ii, 482-4, 498 (ii), 501.
poA, Go (vii). ceii, 29 (iv), 507.
pOAHT&Cll, 5 6 (iii). ceA&n6, 3 (vi).
POA&I, '4· cepe6pHCT&IH, cepe6pliH&IH1 I 7G.
po)KoK, G3. CeCTpHH1 1G5 (ii).
poan&, 48 (iii). c)Knrall, 35 o.
poT, Go (i). C3aAH, 496, G38.
pow, 11. CH,llCT&, 354· 3GI (iii).
PYKOBO,l!Hn, 51 (i). Cl!AH"'HH1 174 (i).
PYKOBO,llCTBO, 51 (i). Cl!Aaq, 171 (ii).
pyqKa, G3. CHAbHbiH1 I 71 (ii).
p&16a, pbi6Ka, 13 (ii). CllpOTa, G.
pb16a"'nii, 1G8. CKa3aHO, 344•
pbi6nii, 1G7 (i). CKB03&1 G62.
pb!Cbl01 404. -CKH (Adverbs), 397, 398.
pHA, Go (vii), G1 (ii), 83o, 831. -CKilH (Adj. suffix), 152 (ii), 1GG.
pRAOM1 404. CKHp,lla, II,
CKAOHen, 153 (iii) (a) (c).
c, 27, 37. 427 (iii), 49G, 575. 599 (ii), cKoA&Ko, 331, 83o, 831.
6o1, 615, G21-3, G48, G54, 6G8, CKOpee, 289.
673, G8o, G86, 700 (iii), 713, 714 CKpe)KeTaT&, 55•
(iii), 723, 729, 739, 785. CAaT&, 350.
c- (Adverbs), 400. CAerna, 4oo.
c ... AO, 599· CAe,l!HT&, 291.
C KaKOOO BpeMeHII1 C KaKIDc nop, 424. CACAOBaT&, 47 (ix).
c AHWKOM, 405· cAeAyeT, 337 (iv, v).
c ... no, 599 (iii). cAimKH, 14.
C TeM YCAOBlleM, qTO, 445· CAo)Ka PYKH, 35'· 409.
c Tex nop, c Tor6 speMenu, 427 (ii). CAOMJl TOAOBy, 351.
c Tex nop, KaK, 427 (i). CAyra, CAy)KaHKa, 5, 8 (iii).
ca,ll, 6o (ii), G1 (i). CAY)KIITh, 47 (ix), 56 (iii).
CaARMH, 3 (ii). CAyqaT&Cll, 8 38.
 RUSSIAN WORDS 435
CAywan., •CJI, 285 (ii). cpeAHe, 395·
cAJ.ITb, 56 (ii). cpoAHii, 408.
c./\ldwan., 220 (ii), 228 (ii), 294· CTasHJI, I I.
cAhlman.cB, 838. craKiH, 35 (i).
cAhn.uao, 336. CTaHOBHTLCJI, 56 (i).
cMemCJI, 47 (vii). cTapumi'I, 163 (iv).
CMOTf>, 60 (vi). CTaTL, 249 (i), 335, 336.
CMOTf>CTI>, 29 1. CTCCHJin.CJI, 39·
CMOTf>H, ·Te, 238. cTUNira, 6.
CMJII"'IaTL, ·CJI, 282. CTO, 810 (vii).
CHer, 6o (iii). CTO·, 813 (vi).
CHOCllTL, 3 18 (ii). cTor, 6o (vii).
CH.Rn.di, CHJITOH, 174 (v). cToiiT (ToMKO) •.. , KaKf•n66LI, 434·
CO ,!!Wi Ha ,li;CHL, 600 (i). CTOIITL, 40.
co6i'IHI'i, 167. CTOAIIK, 63.
co66il:, 482 (ii). CTO.'I.OBaJI, 171 (i).
cosepmeHHLiii, coBepmeHHLm, 174 CTOALKO, 830, 83'·
(iv). CTOM.KO (lKe) •.. , KaK, 438 (ii).
COBeroBaTL, 47 (x). CTOM.KO (lKe) ... , CKoM.Ko (n), 438.
COBCCM 6h!Ao, 230. CTOf>OHHTLCJI, 39·
corAaceH, 153 (iii) (a), (c). CTOJI, 410.
CO,li;CJfCTBOBaTL, 47 (i). CTOJin., 354, 361 (i), 831 (iii) (a),
CO,liCf>JKllTLCJI, CO,lleplKaTL ce6Ji, 286. 837·
COK, 60 (iii). CTOlNIIH, 174 (i).
COKf>OBCHHLIJ'i, 158 (iii). CTpa,ll;aTL, 54•
c6AeHHLifi, coAeHLiii, 174 (ii). CTpax, 36.
COAHLliiiKO, 62 (ii). crpC.hKa, 63.
coA6Ma, coAoMima, 15 (ii). CTf>Oll, 60 (vi).
co~esaTLcB, 294. CTf>OtiKa, 63.
cop, 35· CTf>Olll£liiiCJI, 173 ( ii).
c6poK, 810 (v). CT}'ACHT, ·Ka, 8 (i).
c6cAena, 400. crynaii, -Te, 238.
cocro.Hn., 56 (i), 363. CT)"laTL, ·CJI, 285 (i).
COCTOmCJI, 363. CTLI,li;Ihi.cJI, 39·
c6Trul, 8 16, 829. cyAL.ti, 5·
co$cmosaTL, 47 (vii). CflKACHO, 344•
cruimca, 63. cyx, 6o (vii).
cnoc66eH, 153 (iii) (a). c)'Ka, 10 (ii).
cnpannmaeTCJI, cnpannmaTb ce6.ti, CYMCf>KU, 14·
286. CYMOtiKa, 63.
cnpannmaTL, 38 (ii). cyTL, 358 (i).
cnpocra, 400. cyweHHLifi, cymenLiii, 174 (ii).
cnycrli pyxasa, 35 1. CYI.!!CCTBOBaTL, 831 (iii) (a).
CnYTHUK, 13 (v). cxsaTlicL aa, 351.
cnL.tiHa, 400. CXO,li;HTL, 318 (ii).
cpeA11, 690. CtieT, 17 (i).
436 RUSSIAN WORDS
CqUTllTLCJI, 56 (ii). TOITHTL, 2B3.
C'LC3AIITL, 318 (ii). TOprOBaTL, 52.
C'LeXaTL, 326. Topr6sJI.JI, 52.
CLIH, 17 (iii). Topa<ecmeHH&rn, 15B (i).
-cli/CL (Reflexive), 343, 4B4. TopMo3, I7 (i).
TOT, 502, 50B, 515, 52 I, 522.
TaK, 510. TOT a<e (cllMLiii), 564.
TaK ~e KaK, 439· TOT HAll Apyr6il:, soB (iii).
TaK n, 463 (ii, iii). Tpe6osan, 3B (ii), 291.
TaK KaK, 431. Tpn, see ADa.
TaK (~e) ... , KaK, 43B. Tp6e, see AS6e.
TaK qTQ, 433 (i) • TpoiiKa, see ABoii:Ka.
TaK ... , qyo, 413 (ii). Tpo:illi6ii:, Tp6ii:cmenn&n'i, Tpolhmii:,
TaK, qTo6LI, 7 (iv). B2s.
Ta~e u, 4tio. Tp6uyn, 273.
TaKoB, 510, 522. Tpy6Ka, 63.
TaK6ii:, 510,517, 522, 524. TyAa, KYAli, 430.
TaKoH-TO, 551. ryq,JI.JI, I I .
TaKCH, 3 (ii). TLIJI., 6o (vi).
TaM, rAe, 430. ThlCJ!qa, BI I, B29,
Tamm, 165 (i). TLICJ!qe-, BI3 (vi).
TaCKllTL, 315. TliHYTL, 53·
moil:, 498.
Te~nil:, TeKyQ!UH, 174 (i). y, 4BB, 496, 61o, 614, 64I, 644, 7I3
TeJI.Ji.nlii:, 167 (i). (v), 799·
TeM 66Aee/Menee ... , qTo, 432 (v). -y, -10 (Masc. gen. sing.), 34·
TeM, qTo, 432 (vi). -y, -w (Masc. loc. sing), 6o, 6I.
TCTRH, 165 (ii). y61Ii'I!!a, 6.
Tnrp, -II!!a, 10 (i). ysepaTL, 252, 253.
nm, 13 (vii). ysAeKaTLcll, ysAeqenne, 52.
-To, 530. yrosapimaTL, 252, 253·
TO li ACAO, 217 (iii). yrOa<AaTL, 47 (vi).
TO Jl.li ... TO All, 432 (iii). YrOA, 60 (ii), 61 (ii),
TOBapn!,!!, 7, 27 (ii). yrpoa<aTL, 47 (ii).
TOrAa KaK, 417. YAaAliTLCJI, 39·
TOrAa, KOrAa, 423. YAimMTLcll, 47 (vii).
TOK, 60 (vii). YAOBAemopliTL, 47 (vi).
TOJI.K, 36. y~, 464.
ToJ\LKo, 429 (i), 6os, 828 (ii) (b), ya<e, 22 7 (i), 4 21 (ii), 4 26, 45B
844· (ii).
TOJ\LKo ecAn, 444· yaoK, I53 (ii).
T6JI.LKO II .. ,, qTo, 463 (iv). YKPllAKOH, 404.
ToA&Ko KOrAa, 42B (ii). yJI.LI6aTLCJI, 47 (vii), 273•
ToJ\LKo ycneA, 429 (i). YMen, 249 (iii).
TOJ\LKO qTO, 429. YMCIO'ill, 4 I I.
TOll, 17 (i). YMulll!a, 6.
 RUSSIAN WORDS 437
ymilKemn>Iii, ymDKeHHbii'i, 174 (iv). qac, 61 (iii), 8os (ii).
ynpllliNin., ynpaB.;\eHue, 51 (i). '<lacn~a, 6g.
ynpannma.T&, 252, 253· '<lacb!, 14.
yp,zzy, 3 (ii). '<lalllKa, 35 (i), 6g.
ycnesaT&, 250. '<lel'i, 528.
ycrpuya, 13 (ii). '<l~OBCK, 7, 24 (ii) (c), s6o (iii), 8rg
yremaT&cH, 252, 253. (ii).
yqaCTHHK, yqacmuua, 8 (i). '<lepe3, 496, 584, 646, 655, 662, 731,
Y'lal!!u:i:tCl!, 172. 739 (i).
yqeHblii, 172. '<lepe3 n6c~e, 584.
0 0.

yqHre.hl>, -mqJa, 8 (i), 17 (i). '<lepHirAa, 14.

)"UmCl!, 4 7 (viii). '<lchsepo, see ABOe.
)'IIIK6, 6g, 64. '<leTbtpe, see ,D;Ba.
=aT&, 220 (iii), 228 (ii), 27 9 .
'<ITO, 293, 333, 525-7, 540, 546,
q,uo~erosblli, 153 (v).
s6s.
q,YHT, 35 (i) ·
'<ITO 6hl Hll, 549·
'<ITO 33., 23.
xsa.CTyHiniiKa, 4· '<ITo llll, 56 3 .
xsacraT&Cl!, 52· '<1T06hl, 153 (iii) (b), 291, 293, 294,
xsa.TiT&, 42, 335· 437·
XAe6, 17 (i). '<1T06hl He, 437 (v).
XAes, 6o (ii). $CTB)'eTCll, 'I}'BCTBOB3.Tb Ce6Ji, 286.
xA6DaT&, 55· '<lY~aTbCl!, 39·
XJ\ODOTbl, 14. '<lyrb JW He, 231.
XOA, 36, 61 (iii). '<lyrb He, 43 (i) (d), 231.
xo,ztiiTb, 315, 317, 321, 325, 327--g, '<lyrb TO~KO, 429 (ii).
354·
xoAJiqd, 174 (i).
illllrOM, 404.
xo~o.lti, 19 (iii).
I:llix:l.laTbl, 14.
xop6m co66il, 153 (i), 479 (ii).
lllBhlpm, 55 .
xop61IIlrl!:, 153 (i).
mes~rn., 55·
xoTCA 6Lvl.o, 231.
mi!AK, 6o (iii).
XOTen, 38 (ii), 291.
-mu (Gerund), 352, 354·
XOTb, 289, 453•
-nnlii (Comparative and superlative
xoTJi (6hl), 452.
adjs.), 163.
xyA6H, x'f~e, xyAee, 161 (ii).
nniMIIaH3e, 3 (iv).
x'YADIIrli, 163 (ii). IIIllpOK, 153 (ii).
mKaq,, 6o (ii).
:uapauaT&Cl!, 284- -lllHlrll: (Adj. suffix), 152 (ii).
IJBCI', 17 (i), 61 (iii). illOKO~iAHblii, 153 (v).
uCAhl:ii, 8os (i). myM, g6.
-wm (Adverbs), 397· myrli, 409.

qati, 35· l!!ero~, 51 (ii).

8liOM p
 RUSSIAN WORDS
I!!H, 14. imorna, 5·
-~>ma-f-JIIBa- (Verb suffix), 274·
-.11(Gerund), 350, 351.
<ho, 26, 357, 358, 487, 490, 502, 56 (i), 362.
.IIB!\JITbc.ll,

503- liKo6br, 440 (iii).

STOT, 502-4, 514. BC.I\U, 14.
 English Index

All numbers refer to paragraphs. This index does not include words listed
alphabetically in the vocabulary sections at the end of the chapters on the
Noun, Adjective, Verb, and Adverb.

A, 511-I3, 5I7. After, adverb 207 (iii), 2I4 (ii), 4I8,

About, 628-g (place); 666-7 (cause); 426; prep. 59o-2 (time) ; 668
67g-8o; 746. (cause); 683-5.
Above, 63o-1 (place); 68I-2. After all, 46I (ii), 464.
Accusative case: expressing time Against, 686-g, 762.
during which, 29 (i); extent or Agreement of verbs linking subject
measurement, 29 (ii); repetition, and predicate, 26, 826-32.
29 (iii); time when, 29 (iv); after All right, 308.
a negated verb, 43· All the lessfmore, because, 432 (v).
Accusative or genitive case after Alone, 56 I (i).
HCKlin., rrpocliTh, etc., 38 (ii); after Along, 632-3.
aac.l\yJK1rr&, CT6ur&, 40. Also, 459 (ii) ·
Adjectives in -H&rn and related par- Although, 452.
ticiples in -liHbiH, I 74 (ii). Among, 6go.
Adverb in Russian for English adjec- And then, 463 (v).
tive, I75· Animate nouns as book titles, 13 (v);
Adverbs formed from adjectives and denoting membership of class,
participles: with the prefix rro-, profession, etc., 30.
398-g; with the prepositions aa, Any, 54I-5·
AO, na, c, rro, and otherwise de- Any more, 536.
funct cases of the short form, 400; Anything, 546-7.
with the preposition rro and the Apart (from), 69I.
long form, 40I; with the preposi- Apostrophe 's' (English) translated
tion no and the nom.facc. pl. of by: genitive case of noun, 34;
possessive adjs. in -nu, 402; with possessive adjective, I64-g; tern
the preposition B and the fern. poral adjective, I70 (ii).
ace. long form, 403. As, 413-15; as • .• as, 438 (i); as
Adverbs formed from nouns: instru- much as, 438 (ii), 462 (iv); as soon
mental case, 404; ·with preposi- as, 429 (ii); as if (as though), 440;
tions AO, 6ea, c, Ha, rro, B, 405; the same as, 564.
combined with prepositions in one Aspectival distinction between
word, 406, action attempted and action
 ENGLISH INDEX
concluded (e.g. ,~~;o6HBaThCli/Ao-
6mcll strive after, attain), 252-5.
At, 569-75 (time); 6o4-5, 610-13
{place); 692-4; 747; 763-5; 779·
At all, 462 (i).
Be, to: not translated, 35 7; trans-
lated byecTb, 358--g; 6bmaTb, 359;
Haxo,iJ;:ffn,cH, 360 (i); cTom,
Jl.ejj(aTb, CII,lleTb, 361; liB.II.mCll,
npe,~~;cTaBJI..tin. co66ti, 362;
COCTOllTb(Ca), 363.
Because, 432.
Because of, 669-70.
Before, adverb 425; prep. 593-5
(time), 634-6 {place).
Behind, 637-8.
Below (beneath), 639-40 {place), 695.
Beside, 641 {place); 696-7.
Between, 690.
Beyond, 643 (place); 698--g.
Both, 8os-8.
But, 458, 464.
Butfor, 447, 449·
But what if? 458 (vi).
By, 596 (time); 644-7 (place);
70o-6.
By the time that, 418 (iii).
Certain, 53 I, 548.
Comparative of adjectives: used pre-
dicatively, 159; used attributively,
r6o; neutral and bookish, 161 (i);
with semantic distinction, 161
(ii), (iii) ; hesitation between
comparative and superlative, 163.
Compound nouns (English) trans-
lated by adverbial expressions,
407; by prepositional expressions,
791--g.
Dative case: after verbs, 47; after
nouns, 48.
Declension: of hyphenated nouns,
21 (i); names oflakes, mountains,
islands, etc., 21 (ii); foreign
Christian and surnames, 22.
Diminutives with additional,
specialized meaning, 63.
Double, 820, 824; double-, 813 (vi).
Down, 648-so.
During (see In).
Each, pron. 562; distributive, 817.
Either . .. or, 432 {iii).
Else, 461 {iv).
Enough to, is, 435·
Even, 462 (ii); even if, 452; even then,
455·
Every, 562-3.
Every time (that), 422.
Everyone, 563.
Few (afew), 533, 557-9·
For, 597-8 {time); 671-2 (cause);
707-12; 748-53, 766-7, 78o-r.
For (my) part, 461 (i).
Four, 805-9, 815-16.
Fractions and decimals, 8r2.
From, out of, off, 621-3, 626-7
{place); 673 {cause), 713-16.
From •.• to, 599-6oo.
Gender: indeclinable nouns, 3;
abbreviations, 3 (vi); masculine
nouns ending in -a {-ll), s; nouns
of common gender, 6; nouns de-
noting persons, 7-9; nouns de-
noting animals, 10.
Genitive case: in -y, -10, 34-7; after
verbs, 38-42; after a negated
verb, 43; to express the date, 44·
Gerunds: in -a, -a from imperfective
verbs, 350; in -a, -ll from perfec-
tive verbs, 35 r ; in -wM, -e, -BwM,
352, 354-5; used as adverbs, 409-
411; used to translate when and
after, 418 {i), 426.
Had begun to, was about to, expressed
by 6hr.ll.o, 229.
 ENGLISH INDEX
Half, 801-2.
Have on{)' to . . . for, 434·
Ha11e something done, to, 287.
He, 487-8.
Here is, 464.
His, 497-501 •
However, 457, 459 (i).
Howroer much, 450.
i.J, 441-2,446, 448-g.
If not ••. then, 451.
Ifyou like, 453·
Imperative: modal use of, 309-14
in conditional sentences, 449·
Imperfective infinitive: after verbs
of beginning, continuing, ending,
249 (i); after other verbs referring
to progress of action, 249 (ii);
after to learn and )'Men, 249 (iii) ;
after negated verbs of permitting,
requesting, commanding, etc.,
251 (ii); after 60lincll, 251 (iii);
after HeJILali, 339·
Imperfective past: expressing ac-
tions projected in the immediate
future, 213 (iii); single completed
actionsubsequentlycancelled, 218.
Impersonal constructions: there is,
there are, 331 ; there is someone (no
one) to, 332; there is something
(nothing) to, 333; there is somewhere
(nowhere) to, 334; there is enough
(not enough) to, 335; it is necessary,
it is fitting, one has to, 337; it is pos-
sible, impossible, 338-g; one must,
ought to, 340; expressing physical
or emotional states, 341-2; ex-
pressing disinclination or inca-
pacity, 343; expressing English
passives, 344-5.
In, 576-8 (during, point in time);
s7g-83 (duration of time); s84-5
(other temporal meanings); 6o6-
6o8, 6r4 (place); 717-19; 754,
768.
In order to, 437·
In spite of everything, 456.
In that, 432 (vi).
Indeed, 462 (iii), 463 (i).
Indirect speech, tenses in, 233·
Infinitive: expressing desirability,
with 6hl, 301; desirability with-
out 6Lr, 303 (i); warning or ap-
prehension (negative infinitive
with 6b!}, 302; a command, 303
(iii) ; should, ought to, 304; have to,
must, 305; shall, should, will, are
to, can, 306 (i); incredulity or
disinclination, 306 (ii); impossi-
bility or inevitability, 307.
Instead of, 437 (vi).
Instrumental case: of predicate
nouns, 24-5; expressing time,
50 (i}, manner, 50 (ii}, route, 50
(iii}, extent or measurement, so
(iv); after verbs, 5 r-6; after adjec-
tives, 57; as a limiting accusative,
58; ofpredicative adjectives, I57i
used adverbially, 404.
Into, 62o, 624-5 (place); 769-70.
Intransitive verbs: expressed by
Russian reflexive verbs, 282;
formed from same root as transi-
tive verbs, 283.
It, 489-95.
It is, it was, 489--g4.
Iterative verbs, 274·
Just, 429 (i}, 462 (v).
Just as (just like), 439·
Lest, 437 (v).
Like (prep.}, 720.
Literal{}', 463 (iii).
Little (not much), 554--6.
Long form of adjective preferred to
short, 154 (v) (a}, (vi).
Many, 552-3.
Million, 811 (iv).
Motion, determinate verbs of: ex-
pressing precise direction, 319;
 ENGLISH INDEX
with frequentative meaning in
a series of events, s2o (i); in
negative sentences, S2 I ; in figura-
tive expressions, S2S·
Motion, indeterminate verbs of: ex-
pressing movement as permanent
characteristic, SI6; physical ac-
tion, s I 7; return journeys, s18;
movement in several directions,
S I 9 (iii); habit or repetition, s2o
(ii); in negative sentences, S2 I -2;
with figurative meaning, s24.;
with figurative meaning not
shared by determinate verbs, S25·
Much, 554-5·
My, 497-501.
Near, 65I-2.
Negative perfective imperative to
express warning, 2S9·
No (not a'!)'), 544·
No sooner ••. , 429 (ii).
Nominative or instrumental case of
predicate nouns, 24-5.
Nor, 460.
Not a day, etc., passed without, 4s6.
Not exactly, soB.
Not much of a, 556.
Not that ..• but, 4S2 (iv).
Not until, 428 (ii), 6os.
Not worth, it is, 4S4·
Nothing, 567--8.
Nothing but, 46s (iv).
Number: nouns with only plural
forms, 14; nouns used only in the
singular, IS; homonyms with
different plural endings, 17;
general observations, 19.
OJ, 6ss-4 (place); 674 (cause); S2
(ii), I7o (i), 721-4, 7ss-8, 771,
782-s.
Off (see From).
On, 586-g (time); 6og, 615-17
(place); 725-g, 772-s.
On condition that, 445·
Once, 818.
One, pron., s6o; num., 8os.
One and a half, 804.
One has only to, 4S4·
Only, 46s (iv), s6I (ii).
Otherwise, 444·
Out of (see From).
Over, 655--8 (place); 7so, 759·
Participles: used as nouns, 172; as
adjectives, 17s-4; in -HHblii: and
related adjectives in -H~>rn, I 74
(ii); expressing English relative
clause, s17.
Passive of action: expressed by im-
perfective reflexive verbs, 275; by
present participles passive, 276;
by past participles passive, 277--8;
by impersonal constructions, 281.
Passive of state: expressed by past
participles passive, by perfective
reflexive verbs, 280.
Perfective future in frequentative
constructions: replacing imper-
fective present, 207 (iii); replacing
imperfective past, 2 I4 (ii).
Perfective future, modal use of: to
express possibility or impossibility,
297--8; to express complete ab-
sence of action, 299; after an
indefinite antecedent, soo.
Perfective infinitive: after }'MerL,
249 (iii); after ycneaan., 250;
after verbs of permitting, request-
ing, commanding, etc., 25 I (i);
after 6oancll, 251 (iii); after
Ha,ZJ;eJITLCll, 25 I (iv); after He;u,aa,
SS9·
Perfective past expressing repeated
actions: where the number of
times is clearly stated, 217 (i);
with HeCKO.I\I>Ko paa, MH6ro paa,
217 (ii).
Perfective past with immediate
future meaning, 225.
 ENGLISH INDEX 443
Possessive adjectives: in -uH and -oa endeavouring, 291; commanding,
(ca), 165; in -HHCKHH, -OBCKIIH, persuading, permitting, warning,
-eBCKIIH, 166; in -uii, 167 (i), 168; 292; fearing, 293; doubting, say-
in -Hm.tii, 167 (ii). ing, thinking, 294; after negative
Preposi tiona! case: masculine forms antecedents, 295·
in -y (-!0), 6o-r. Such a, 510.
Prepositions in adverbs and adver- Such and such, 551.
bial phrases, 400-3, 405-6. Superlative degree of adjectives:
Provided that, 443· fonns in -eii:ll.!Hii:, -all:UIHll:, 162;
with the prefix Han-, 162 (vii);
Rather (a bit), 550. hesitation between comparative
Reflexive verbs: expressing passive and superlative, 163.
of action, 275; permanent charac- Supposedly (allegedly), 440 (iii).
teristics of subject, 284; keen
personal interest of subject, 285; Take and expressions of time (e.g.
compared with verbs governing take two hours to . .•), 213 (ii).
ce6.B, 286. That, 502-8.
Round, 65g-61. That is (how, etc.), 505.
That of, 506.
Same, 564. That's, 464.
Scarcely (hardly), 429 (ii). The, 514-17.
Self, 565-6. There is, there are, 331-5, 359 (i).
Semelfactive verbs, 273. Therefore, 432 (i).
She, 487-8. This, 502-8.
Short form of adjective: lack of, This and that, this or that, 508.
152 (ii), 153 (v); in -H"'IeCKHii:, 152 Three, 805-9, 815-16.
(iii) ; with semantic distinction Through, 662-4 (place); 675-7
from long form, 153 (i); to express (cause), 731.
excessive degree (too), 153 (ii); Thousand, 81 1.
followed by complement, 153 Times as, 819.
(iii); in certain idioms, 153 (iv); Titles of royalty, nobility, institu-
preferred to long, 154 (i-iv), tions, 170 (i).
(v) (b); in -HHI>m, 158. To, 618-9 (place); visit to, 32 (i);
Simply, 463 (iii). 732-6; 76o-1; 775-6; 784-8.
Since, advb., 427, 431; prep. 601. To (in order to), 437·
Single, 823. Towards, 602 (time); 737-8.
So as to, 437 (iv). Triple, 825.
So that, 433· True, it is, 454·
Some, 53<>-9, 541. Twice as, 81g-2o.
Some more, 536. Two, 805-9, 815-16; in twos, 821;
Some ••. others ••• , 538. in two, three, etc., 822.
Some people, 539·
Something, 530, 540. Under, 665.
Sort of, a, 550. Unless, 444·
Subjunctive to express desirability, Unlikely, it's, 464.
289-90; after verbs of wishing and Until, advb., 428 (i); prep., 6o3.
444 ENGLISH INDEX
Verbal prefixes giving special per- Where, 430.
fective meanings (no-, 3a-, Ha-, Whereas, 417.
OT-, 113-, DO,llllhl-), 256-72. Which, 519 (interrog.); 524-5 (rela-
Verbs always followed by imperfec- tive).
tive infinitive, 249· While, 416-17, 458 (i).
Very, 461 (iii); the very, 565. Who (whom), 578 (interrog.); 52o-3
(relative).
We, 486. Whoever, 526 (interrog.); 527 (rela-
What, 510 (exclam.); 519 (interrog.). tive); 549 (indef.).
What a, 510. Whose, 528.
What if, 464. Why, 432 (i).
Whatever, 450 (concessive); 526 With, 678 (cause); 73g-45; 777-8,
(interrog.); 527 (relative); 549 78g-go.
(indef.).
When, 418-21, 423; since when, until rou, 4l5.
when, 424. rour, 497-501.
Whenever, 422.