Manage Knowledge Information System

Maichew ATVET College
Cooperative Marketing Management Level IV
Unit Title: Manage knowledge information system

Module Title: Managing knowledge information system
Module Code: AGR COP4M 05 0318
TTLM Code: AGR COP4TTLM0318V1
Maichew, Tigray, Ethiopia

March, 2018
Maichew ATVET College Pby: Hagos G. 2010 E.C 1

Instruction sheet Learning Guide ≠5
Module description
This Module covers knowledge of the development and maintenance of information processing
systems to support decision making and optimize the use of and learning throughout the
organisation.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the module the learner will be able to:

LO1: Obtain, classify and summarize information relevant to business issues
LO2: Analyze information and knowledge
LO3: Take decisions on business issues identified
LO4: Disseminate information to the organisation
Learning Activities
1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.

2. Read the information written in the “Information Sheet”
3. Accomplish the “Self-check”.
4. If you earned a satisfactory evaluation proceed to the next “Information Sheet”. However, if
your rating is unsatisfactory, see your facilitator for further instructions or go back to
Learning Activity.
5. Submit your accomplished Self-check. This will form part of your training portfolio.
6. Request you facilitator to observe your demonstration of the exercises and give you feedback
Contents
Instruction sheet...............................................................................................................................2
Introduction......................................................................................................................................5
LO1: Obtain, classify and summarize information relevant to business issues..............................8
1.1. Gathering Information reliably sourced and efficiently...................................................8
1.2. Information Classification and summarizing....................................................................9
1.3. Business problems and issues.........................................................................................12
1.4. Information required to reach a decision on problems/issues.........................................13
1.5. Testing of Information for reliability and validity..........................................................14
1.6. Formal and informal networks........................................................................................15
Self-check-1...............................................................................................................................17
LO2: Analyze information and knowledge...................................................................................17
2.1. Objectives for analysis to be clear, relevant and consistent...............................................18
2.2. Identify and interpret Patterns and emerging trends..........................................................20
2.3. Appropriate Utilization of Statistical analysis and interpretations.................................21
2.4. Taking Sensitivity analysis on any options proposed....................................................22
2.5. Reflection of logical approach with Documentation.....................................................23
A brief history of Decision Support Systems............................................................................24
2.7. Systems definition and description.................................................................................25
Self-check-2...............................................................................................................................27
LO3: Take decisions on business issues identified........................................................................27

3.1. Importance of reliable information to support a decision...................................................28
3.2. Risk management plans..................................................................................................30
3.3. Quantitative methods outcomes......................................................................................33
3.4. Consult Specialists and other relevant groups and individuals.......................................34
3.5. Decisions taking..............................................................................................................35
3.6. Decisions reached in accordance with organization guidelines/procedures...................36
3.7. Implementing Decisions taken consistent with organization standards..........................38
3.8. Communicating Decisions taken in a timely manner.....................................................42
Self-check-3...............................................................................................................................45
LO4: Disseminate information to the organisation...................................................................46
4.1 Undertaking of Research and consultation....................................................................46
4.2 Documented Advice/information needs..........................................................................48
4.3 Information documented and data bases updated regularly............................................50
4.4 design and test Systems to meet information requirements of decision makers.............51
4.5 Information is up-to-date, accurate and relevant and sufficient for the recipient...........56
4.6 Develop Communication plans to provide for recipient evaluation...............................58
4.7 Adhering Confidentiality in the transmission of information/advice.............................60
4.8 Regularly reviewing and up-dating of Communication plans........................................64
4.9 Technology utilization.........................................................................................................66
4.9 Corporate knowledge maintaining and security ensuring...............................................68
Self-check-4...............................................................................................................................74
Reference.......................................................................................................................................75

Introduction Learning Guide ≠5
Information Management vs. Knowledge Management

This has always been a bit of a tricky subject, because knowledge and information are used
interchangeably by so many people. Therefore, you will often find KM solutions even today
which are essentially nothing more than information or document management systems, i.e.
which handle data, information, or perhaps even explicit knowledge, but which do not touch the
most essential part of KM - tacit knowledge.
Below you can find an info graphic of the main differences, with a short explanation below.
Please keep in mind that IM in many ways is a useful tool for KM, in that information can help
create and refine knowledge, but as a discipline it is a different one.
As I showed in the previous sections, knowledge and information are actually quite different, as
is tacit and explicit knowledge. So, while information and data management are certainly very
useful, particularly as information sources are growing at exponential rates and with the new
focus on big data, it is not synonymous with KM.
So what exactly is the difference?
Information and IM:

 Focus on data and information
 Deal with unstructured and structured facts and figures.
 Benefit greatly from technology, since the information being conveyed is already codified and in
an easily transferrable form.

 Focus on organizing, analyzing, and retrieving - again due to the codified nature of the
information.
 Is largely about know-what, i.e. it offers a fact that you can then use to help create useful
knowledge, but in itself that
 Fact does not convey a course of action (e.g. sales of product x are up 25% last quarter).
 Is easy to copy - due to its codified and easily transferrable nature.
Knowledge and KM:
 Focus on knowledge, understanding, and wisdom

 Deal with both codified and unmodified knowledge. Unmodified knowledge - the most valuable
type of knowledge - is found in the minds of practitioners and is unarticulated, context-based,
and experience-based.
 Technology is extremely useful, but KM's focus is on people and processes. IT is great for
transferring explicit, codified knowledge, but it's role in the transfer of deeper, internalized
knowledge is more complex. Since this kind of knowledge is passed from person to person,
through interaction, collaboration, mentoring, etc. and preferably in an unstructured
environment, IT tools for KM have to support this function. They are therefore not merely
passing on information, but also act as tools to bring people together, to enhance communication,
to allow the storage and transfer of unstructured thoughts and notes, etc.
 Focus on locating, understanding, enabling, and encouraging - by creating environments,
cultures, processes, etc. where knowledge is shared and created.
 Is largely about know-how, know-why, and know-who
 Is hard to copy - at least regarding the tacit elements. The connection to experience and context
makes tacit knowledge extremely difficult to copy. This is why universities cannot produce
seasoned practitioners - there are some things (the most important things) that you simply cannot
teach from a textbook (or other codified source of information/explicit knowledge). These are
learnt in the field and understood on an intuitive level. You cannot easily copy or even
understand this intuition without the right experience, context, etc. - and it is this intuition that
represents the most valuable organizational knowledge.

Obtain, classify and summarize information relevant to
Information sheet-1
business issues
LO1: Obtain, classify and summarize information relevant to business issues
1.1. Gathering Information reliably sourced and efficiently
Strategies for Gathering Reliable Information

1. Distinguish between primary and secondary sources.
2. Identify strategies for locating relevant print and electronic resources efficiently.
3. Identify instances when it is appropriate to use human sources, such as interviews or
eyewitness testimony.
4. Identify criteria for evaluating research resources.
5. Understand why many electronic resources are not reliable.
Now that you have planned your research project, you are ready to begin the research. This phase
can be both exciting and challenging. As you read this section, you will learn ways to locate
sources efficiently, so you have enough time to read the sources, take notes, and think about how
to use the information.
Of course, the technological advances of the past few decades—particularly the rise of online
media—mean that, as a twenty-first-century student, you have countless sources of information
available at your fingertips. But how can you tell whether a source is reliable? This section will
discuss strategies for evaluating sources critically so that you can be a media-savvy researcher.

In this section, you will locate and evaluate resources for your paper and begin taking notes. As
you read, begin gathering print and electronic resources, identify at least eight to ten sources by
the time you finish the chapter, and begin taking notes on your research findings.
Locating Useful Resources
When you chose a paper topic and determined your research questions, you conducted
preliminary research to stimulate your thinking. Your research proposal included some general
ideas for how to go about your research—for instance, interviewing an expert in the field or
analyzing the content of popular magazines. You may even have identified a few potential
sources. Now it is time to conduct a more focused, systematic search for informative primary and
secondary sources.
Using Primary and Secondary Sources
Writers classify research resources in two categories: primary sources and secondary
sources. Primary sources are direct, firsthand sources of information or data. For example, if you
were writing a paper about the First Amendment right to freedom of speech, the text of the First
Amendment in the Bill of Rights would be a primary source.
Other primary sources include the following:
 Research articles
 Literary texts
 Historical documents such as diaries or letters
 Autobiographies or other personal accounts
Secondary sources discuss, interpret, analyze, consolidate, or otherwise rework information from
primary sources. In researching a paper about the First Amendment, you might read articles
about legal cases that involved First Amendment rights, or editorials expressing commentary on
the First Amendment. These sources would be considered secondary sources because they are
one step removed from the primary source of information.
The following are examples of secondary sources:
 Magazine articles
 Biographical books
 Literary and scientific reviews

 Television documentaries
1.2. Information Classification and summarizing
Policy Statement Information has varying degrees of sensitivity and criticality. Some items may
require an additional level of protection or special handling. The City University of Hong Kong
(“University”) shall classify, label and handle information resources based on their sensitivity,
criticality, value, nature and impact of unauthorized disclosure in accordance with legal,
regulatory and contractual requirements. This standard outlines the specific requirements and
guidelines for the implementation of “Information Classification and Handling” in “Information
Security Policies”.
Objective The objective of this Information Classification and Handling Standard is to provide
guidance on how the information should be handled in accordance with its classification
standard. All the University members that may come into contact with such information shall
familiarize themselves with this information classification standard and follow it consistently.
Scope This Information Classification and Handling Standard apply to the electronic data and
printed documents stored in any form within the University or in relation to the University. 4
Information Identification Before establishing security controls, the Information Owner/Delegate
must identify and classify information assets to be protected. The “Information & IT Asset
Inventory and Ownership Standard” provides guidance on how assets should be identified and
registered.
5 Information Classifications the University must classify all its information assets into
appropriate levels to indicate the need, priority and degree of protection required. When handling
personal data, the personal data user must ensure compliance with the Personal Data (Privacy)
Ordinance, and the University’s “Code of Practice for Personal Data (Privacy) Issues”. Research
data and research information are important assets to the University. The University shall protect
the confidentiality and integrity of research data and research information without creating
unjustified obstacles to research activities. Information related assets funded by research grants
shall also conform to the “Policies and Guidelines relating to Research” maintained by Research
Grants and Contracts Office of the University. The degree of protection required for different
types of information is based on security and legislative compliance requirements. The following

four classification levels, from highest to least, shall be used for classifying the University’s
information assets. If information has not been marked with one of the following categories, the
Information Owner/Delegate must initiate the data classification process and assign appropriate
classification levels timely.
1. RESTRICTED This classification applies to the information that is very sensitive in nature
and is strictly confidential to the University, the government or any other agreements
between the University and third parties (including the government). Such information is
considered critical to the University’s capacity to conduct its business. Generally, this
information shall be used exclusively by a small number of predetermined and authorized
named individuals, roles or positions and business partners. Either disclosure of it to
unauthorized parties or being shared internally could have significant adverse impact on the
University’s reputation, its staffs, students and third parties. Inappropriate release of
“RESTRICTED” information could cause unforeseeable damage to or endanger an
individual, and result in financial lost or damage to standing or reputation at University level.
Examples of information with this classification include:
 examination papers before being released,
 privileged accounts’ passwords of the University’s key information systems
 pending criminal investigation “RESTRICTED” and “SECRET” used
interchangeably in the scope of this set of Information Security Policies and
Standards. “RESTRICTED” is the preferred classification label. Existing
information classified as “SECRET” should be reclassified into “RESTRICTED”
upon review of classification.
2. CONFIDENTIAL This classification applies to sensitive information that is intended for
use by specific group of authorized personnel within the University and business partners,
assigned on a need-to-use basis and for authorized intended purpose. The unauthorized
disclosure, modification or destruction of this information would adversely affect the
business performance or the continuity of operations. Inappropriate release of
“CONFIDENTIAL” information could cause inconvenience to individuals, and result in
limited financial lost or damage to a standing or reputation at unit level. Information of
interest for news media, pressure group or electorates is also classified as
“CONFIDENTIAL”. Such information shall not be copied or removed from the University’s

control without specific authorization. Examples of information with this classification
include:
 student information (e.g., student HKID, credit card information)
 staff information (e.g., staff HKID, personal financial or medical information)
 student and staff disciplinary details
 patent pending
 unpublished research information
 Identifiable research subject data
3. INTERNAL This classification related to non-sensitive operational data. It applies to
information that is intended for use within by members of the University and authorized
services providers. Disclosure of such information could have moderate adverse impact.
Disclosures are not expected to cause serious harm to the University and access may be
provided freely to a specific group of staffs based on their roles and responsibilities.
Examples of information with this classification include University’s staff handbooks,
policies, training materials, manuals, procedures, etc.
4. PUBLIC This classification applies to information that has been approved by authorized
parties for public consumption. Public information shall present no perceived risk to the
University, its staff and/or students. Examples of information with this classification include
program and admission information, published academic literature, press releases, address of
a department, etc. 6 Responsibility Information/System Owners/Delegates are responsible for
identifying the classification level of information. All staff members are responsible for
handling information in accordance with this procedure. Head of Departments of all
University Units shall ensure their responsible areas’ compliance to this procedure.
5. Labeling Information Assets Information that is classified as “RESTRICTED”,
“CONFIDENTIAL” or “INTERNAL” should be appropriately labeled. Unlabeled emails are
considered as “Internal”, unlabeled information on other types of media is considered as
“Public”. Tabulated below are some common labeling methods for various types of
information assets.
Writing the Summary

When writing the summary there are three main requirements:

1. The summary should cover the original as a whole.
2. The material should be presented in a neutral fashion.
3. The summary should be a condensed version of the material, presented in your own words.
In Information summary do not include anything that does not appear in the original. (Do not
include your own comments or evaluation.) And be sure to identify your source.
1.3. Business problems and issues

Nine Steps to Effective Business Problem Solving
1. Take the time to define the problem clearly. ...
2. Pursue alternate paths on "facts of life" and opportunities. ...
3. Challenge the definition from all angles. ...
4. Iteratively question the cause of the problem. ...
5. Identify multiple possible solutions. ...
6. Prioritize potential solutions. ...
7. Make a decision. ...
8. Assign responsibility.
The process of system identification requires that you:
1. Measure the input and output signals from your system in time or frequency domain.
2. Select a model structure.
3. Apply an estimation method to estimate value for the adjustable parameters in the candidate
model structure.
A problem statement' is a short description of the issues that need to be addressed by

a problem solving team and should be presented to them (or created by them) before they try to
solve a problem

1.4. Information required to reach a decision on problems/issues
These 7 steps in decision making will give you the essential elements of a structured process
model. From issue identification to action, evaluation and learning. Improve your decision
making … in just a minute!
Seven Steps in Decision Making: from Identification to Implementation

1. Identify a problem or opportunity
 The first step is to recognize a problem or to see opportunities that may be worthwhile.
 Will it really make a difference to our customers?
 How worthwhile will it be to solve this problem or realise this opportunity?
2Gather information
 What is relevant and what is not relevant to the decision?
 What do you need to know before you can make a decision, or that will help you make the
right one?
 Who knows, who can help, who has the power and influence to make this happen (or to stop
it)?
6. Analyze the situation
 What alternative courses of action may be available to you?
 What different interpretations of the data may be possible?
7. Develop options
 Generate several possible options.
 Be creative and positive.
 Ask “what if” questions.
 How would you like your situation to be?
8. Evaluate alternatives
 What criteria should you use to evaluate?
 Evaluate for feasibility, acceptability and desirability.
 Which alternative will best achieve your objectives?
9. Select a preferred alternative
 Explore the provisional preferred alternative for future possible adverse consequences.
 What problems might it create?

 What are the risks of making this decision?
10. Act on the decision
 Put a plan in place to implement the decision.
 Have you allocated resources to implement?
 Is the decision accepted and supported by colleagues?
 Are they committed to making the decision work?
a. Testing of Information for reliability and validity

Validity is arguably the most important criteria for the quality of a test. The term
validity refers to whether or not the test measures what it claims to measure. On attest with
high validity the items will be closely linked to the test's intended focus.
It is reported as a number between 0 and 1.00 that indicates the magnitude of the relationship,
"r," between the test and a measure of job performance (criterion). The larger
the validity coefficient, the more confidence you can have in predictions made from the test
scores.
Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results.
Types of Reliability. Test-retest reliability is a measure of reliability obtained by
administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals.
In order for research data to be of value and of use, they must be both reliable and
valid. Reliability refers to the repeatability of findings. ... If more than one person is
observing behavior or some event, all observers should agree on what is being recorded in
order to claim that the data are reliable.
Test validity is the extent to which a test (such as a chemical, physical, or scholastic test)
accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.
Validity - the quality or correctness of a measure that it measures what it is supposed to
measure. The reliability of a test refers to stability of measurement over time. When a
person's data entry skills are measured on two occasions (with no special training in
between), the two sets of scores should be similar.

b. Formal and informal networks
COMMUNICATION FUNCTION IN ORGANISATIONS
The communications function as the means by which the activities in the organisation are
coordinated to achieve the organisational goals. It is also the means by the which behaviour is
modified, change is effected, information is made productive & goals are achieved. Whether it is
with a business enterprise, a family, educational institution or trade exhibition, the transfer of
information from individual to another is absolutely essential. There are two main types of
communication in every organisation – formal & informal communication.
Formal Communication Formal communication refers to official communication which takes
place through a chain of commands. It flows in formally established channels & is concerned
with work related matters. Members of the enterprise and expected to communication with one
another strictly as per channels laid down in the structure. The formal communication may be
divided into three categories which are given as follows:
a) Downward Communication: Under this system, the flow of communication from the top
management downward to be operating level. It may also be called a communication from a
superior to a subordinate. It follows the line of authority from the top to the bottom of the
organisation hierarchy. Downward communication consists of plans & policies, orders and
instructions, procedures & rules etc.
b) Upward Communication: It means the flow of information from the lower levels of the
organisation to the higher level of authority. It passes from subordinate to superior as that from
worker to foreman, foreman to manager. From manager to general manager & so on. This
communication includes opinions, ideas, suggestions, complaints, grievances, appeals, reports
etc. On the basis of upward communication, the management revises its plans & policies &
makes further planning. c) Horizontal Communication: The transmission of information and
understanding between people on the same level of organisation hierarchy is called the
horizontal communication. This type of communication is also known as lateral or sideward or
crosswise communication. Usually, it pertains to inter departmental managers working at the
same level of organisation or among subordinates working under one boss. Horizontal
communication speeds up information and promotes mutual understanding. It enables the
managers working at the same level to exchange information and co-ordinate their activities
without referring all matters to the higher level of management. The horizontal communication is

generally of an informal nature. Whenever a departmental head requires some information from
another departmental head, he tends to contact him directly. However, this type of
communication can be oral or written.
Informal Communication There is also a great deal of informal communication in an
organisation. This communication flows through informal channels and may or may not be work
related. Informal communication cuts through the formal organisational structure. Most of us are
familiar with the term ‘grapevine’ used to describe a network of informal communication.
Grapevines are present in all organisations. In fact, in large organisations, there are many
grapevines moving up, down and across departments.
Self-check-1 Written test
Name: _________________________ Date: ________________________

Time started: ___________________ time finished: __________________
Directions: answer all the questions listed below (3pts. each)
1. Write the seven Steps in Decision Making: from Identification to Implementation
2. The process of system identification requires that you:
3. Write Nine Steps to Effective Business Problem Solving
4. When writing the summary there are three main requirements: sate:
5. List four examples of secondary sources:
6. What are Strategies for Gathering Reliable Information?

Note: Satisfactory rating – 9 points Unsatisfactory- below 9 points
You can ask your teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Information sheet-2 Analyze information and knowledge
LO2: Analyze information and knowledge
2.1. Objectives for analysis to be clear, relevant and consistent

Defining clear goals and objectives is a critical first step in making decisions about the transport
system, whether these are about direction setting strategies, plans and policies, relatively minor
regulatory and governance reforms or large-scale infrastructure investments.
There is often confusion about how these terms are used, so it is important for their meaning to
be clear. In these Guidelines:
 Goals and objectives are ‘direction setting outcomes based’ statements.
 Goals are not transport specific - they are higher order general statements of desired economic,
social and environmental outcomes.
 Goals are higher level statements than objectives. Objectives describe the measurable
contribution of the transport system to achieving the goals.
 Targets are specific desired outcomes that support achievement of the objectives.
Goals
Goals are statements that describe the fundamental economic, social and environmental
outcomes that a jurisdiction is aiming to achieve through its activities across all sectors.
In other words, goals are societal outcomes or whole of government outcomes. They are not
transport specific – they sit above transport. Goals draw on whole of government strategic plans
and vision documents and occur at the highest level of planning: network, city or region.

Goals are not set as part of the development of transport initiatives. Rather, they occur well
before, and guide the identification of transport initiatives. When making decisions about a
transport reform or investment, the focus should be on determining how it will contribute to
these goals.
Goals are found in whole-of-government policy documents, statements and strategies. Generally,
goal statements are expressed in broad aspirational terms. In practice, the high-level goals
adopted by governments often share common language and concepts because they reflect
economic, social and environmental aspirations that are common across jurisdictions. It is
important to recognize that goals (and objectives) may change with change of government.
Establishing a strong alignment between government goals and objectives and transport
initiatives is critical. Without this, initiatives will not stand the test of time. They will also fail the
strategic merit test (see F3), which requires transport initiatives to align with government goals
and objectives.
Economic goals
Economic goals are a central concern for communities and governments. Examples of economic
goals include:
 A diverse and resilient economy
 Higher levels of productivity and economic efficiency
 Increased trade or exports
 More competitive industries.
Economic goals are likely to be found in policies and plans aimed at driving economic and jobs
growth, economic prosperity and industry diversity and competitiveness.
Social goals
Social goals are also important to communities and governments. These goals include the
prerequisites for a stable, safe and progressive society and may be very broad or more focused.
Examples include:
 Fairer distribution of income
 Improved public safety in the city centre
 Social cohesion and inclusion
 Equity between geographic areas (for example, in access to services and jobs).

Social goals can be found in strategies dealing with health and wellbeing, equity, social and
economic inclusion, and community services.
Environmental goals
Environmental goals are becoming increasingly important to communities and governments.
These goals can cover a very wide range of issues: from the protection and sustainable use of
natural assets through to increasing the resilience of infrastructure to natural disasters such as
floods and fires. Examples of environmental goals are:
 Preserving healthy landscapes, such as clean air, land and waterways.
 Reducing the loss of habitat and biodiversity
 Increasing the efficient use of energy and water resources
 Protecting sites with heritage, indigenous and cultural values
 Enhancing the livability and amenity of urban centers.
Environmental goals can also focus on intergenerational equity: for example, by aiming to secure
the wellbeing of future generations by protecting the quality and diversity of the natural and
cultural environment.
High-level environmental goals may appear in policies and strategies covering areas such as
climate change, energy and water, biodiversity and land use planning.
Objectives
Objectives are specific statements of outcomes that a jurisdiction is aiming to achieve through
its transport system.
Objectives support the high-level goals and can be expressed for each planning level: the whole
transport system, city or region, a network, an area or corridor, or a specific route or link.
Objectives can also be set for specific initiatives, transport modes and local areas.
The suite of objective statements should be consistent and integrated across planning levels.
The difference between objectives and outcomes should be noted. Objectives are statements
about desired outcomes. Outcomes are the end results that are achieved by meeting the
objectives. For example, reducing fatalities from road trauma is an objective; the number of
fatalities is an outcome. Similarly, reducing greenhouse gas emissions is an objective; the level
of greenhouse gas emissions is an outcome.

Formulating objectives
In some cases, governments may decide to develop a new set of transport objectives. This is
often the case when developing transport plans.
Usually, however, transport system objective statements already exist, and can be found in a
number of places, including transport-related strategies developed by national, state and territory
governments, and legislation covering transport investment and activities, and municipal
transport plans developed by local councils.
Examples of transport system objectives are shown below. These should be seen as examples
only. While the Guidelines are updated to reflect changes in objectives, practitioners should
confirm contemporary objectives set by their jurisdictions and at the national level.
2.2. Identify and interpret Patterns and emerging trends
The Business Users and their Challenges

Despite these advances in analytic systems, it continues to be the case that the business user,
while an expert in his area, is unlikely also to be an expert in data analysis and statistics. To
make decisions based on the data enterprises collect, the business user must either rely on a data
analyst to extract information from the data, or employ analytic applications that blend data
analysis technologies with task-specific knowledge. The following challenges highlight
characteristics of this gap:
1. The time to perform the overall cycle of collecting, analyzing, and acting on enterprise data
must be reduced. While business constraints may impose limits on reducing the overall cycle
time, business users want to be empowered and rely less on other people to help with these
tasks. 2. Within this cycle, the time and analytic expertise necessary to analyze data must be
reduced.
2. Clear business goals and metrics must be defined. In the past, unrealistic expectations about
data mining “magic” led to misguided efforts without clear goals and metrics.
3. Data collection efforts must have clear goals. Once metrics are identified, organizations must
strive to collect the appropriate data and transform it. In many situations, data analysis is
often an afterthought, restricting the possible value of any analysis.

4. Analysis results must be distributed to a wide audience. Most analysis tools are designed for
quantitative analysts, not for the broader base of business users who need the output to be
translated into language and visualizations that are appropriate for the business needs.
5. Data must be integrated from multiple sources. The extract-transform-load (ETL) process is
typically complex and its cost and difficulty are usually underestimated. Trends in Business
Analytics the emerging trends and innovations discussed in this paper embody approaches to
these business challenges. Indeed, it is a very healthy sign for this field that regardless of the
form of the solution—process, technology, system integration, user interface, etc.–the driving
force is the business problem.
2.3. Appropriate Utilization of Statistical analysis and interpretations
Statistics is a branch of science that deals with the collection, organisation, analysis of data and
drawing of inferences from the samples to the whole population. This requires a proper design of
the study, an appropriate selection of the study sample and choice of a suitable statistical test. An
adequate knowledge of statistics is necessary for proper designing of an epidemiological study or
a clinical trial. Improper statistical methods may result in erroneous conclusions which may lead
to unethical practice.
VARIABLES
Variable is a characteristic that varies from one individual member of population to another
individual. Variables such as height and weight are measured by some type of scale, convey
quantitative information and are called as quantitative variables. Sex and eye color give
qualitative information and are called as qualitative variables.

2.4. Taking Sensitivity analysis on any options proposed
What is a 'Sensitivity Analysis'?

A sensitivity analysis is a technique used to determine how different values of an independent
variable impact a particular dependent variable under a given set of assumptions. This technique
is used within specific boundaries that depend on one or more input variables, such as the effect
that changes in interest rates have on bond prices.
BREAKING DOWN 'Sensitivity Analysis'
Sensitivity analysis also referred to as what-if or simulation analysis is a way to predict the
outcome of a decision given a certain range of variables. By creating a given set of variables,
the analyst can determine how changes in one variable impact the outcome.
Sensitivity Analysis Example
Assume Sue, a sales manager, wants to understand the impact of customer traffic on total sales.
She determines that sales are a function of price and transaction volume. The price of a widget is
$1,000 and Sue sold 100 last year for total sales of $100,000. Sue also determines that a 10%
increase in customer traffic increases transaction volume by 5%, which allows her to build a
financial model and sensitivity analysis around this equation based on what-if statements. It can
tell her what happens to sales if customer traffic increases by 10%, 50% or 100%. Based on 100
transactions today, a 10%, 50% or 100% increase in customer traffic equates to an increase in
transactions by 5, 25 or 50. The sensitivity analysis demonstrates that sales are highly sensitive
to changes in customer traffic.
2.5. Reflection of logical approach with Documentation
WHAT IS LOGICAL FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS (LFA)?

A log frame (also known as a Project Framework) is a tool for planning and managing
development projects. It looks like a table (or framework) and aims to present information about
the key components of a project in a clear, concise, logical and systematic way. The log frame
model was developed in the United States and has since been adopted and adapted for use by
many other donors, including the Department for International Development (DFID). A log
frame summarizes, in a standard format:
• What the project is going to achieve?
• What activities will be carried out to achieve its outputs and purpose?
• What resources (inputs) are required?
• What are the potential problems which could affect the success of the project?
• How the progress and ultimate success of the project will be measured and verified?
WHY USE LFA?

Because most donors prefer it? LFA can be a useful tool, both in the planning, monitoring and
evaluation management of development projects. It is not the only planning tool, and should not
be considered an end in itself, but using it encourages the discipline of clear and specific thinking
about what the project aims to do and how, and highlighting those aspects upon which success
depends. LFA also provides a handy summary to inform project staff, donors, beneficiaries and
other stakeholders, which can be referred to throughout the lifecycle of the project. LFA should
not be set in concrete. As the project circumstances change it will probably need to reflect these
changes but everyone involved will have to be kept informed. What is so intimidating about
using LFA? Perhaps because we are very conscious of the complexity of development projects,

we find it hard to believe that they can be reduced to one or two sides of A4. Remember that the
log frame isn't intended to show every detail of the project, or to limit the scope of the project. It
is simply a convenient, logical summary of the key factors of the project.
2.6. Adjust of decision support systems to meet information processing
objectives
A brief history of Decision Support Systems

Decision Support Systems have evolved over the past three decades from simple model-oriented
systems to advanced multi-function entities. During the 1960’s, most Decision Support Systems
were fairly based on powerful (and expensive) mainframe computers which provided managers
with structured, periodic reports. MIS theory developments during the 1970’s saw Decision
Support Systems evolve into more elaborate computer-based systems that supported production,
promotion, pricing, marketing and some logistical functions. By early 1980’s Decision Support
Systems enjoyed more interests from academics and the framework for Decision Support
Systems was greatly expanded by the end of the decade. It was only during the 1990’s that a
paradigm shift occurred in Decision Support Systems and more complex systems, which
incorporated, advanced database technology and client/server capabilities, were emerging from
many areas in business processes.
2.7. Systems definition and description

According to Sprague and Watson (1996) conceptual models or frameworks are crucial to
understanding a new and/or complex system. They define DSS broadly as an interactive
computer based system that helps decision-makers use data and models to solve ill-structured,
unstructured or semi-structured problems.3
DSS provides varying analysis without much programming effort and is usually directed
towards non-technical users/managers. Managers main uses for a DSS includes searching,
retrieving and analyzing decision relevant data to allow them to summarize main points which
assist them in making more informed and educated decisions. Users often search for correlations
between data without rewriting the underlying MIS or software application and most DSS allows
graphic capabilities, which not only allows trend analysis and reporting for top executives, but
also assists managers in mapping out conjoint analysis and alternative scenarios to answer “what

if” queries. Consequently, DSS supports both tactical and strategic decisions and are employed
to leverage manager’s expertise in a certain field.
Many types of Decision Support Systems

As mentioned earlier, DSS can be classified in many different categories. Amongst the
common ones are the following:
1. Data driven DSS
These DSS has file drawer systems, data analysis systems, analysis information systems, data
warehousing and emphasizes access to and manipulation of large databases of structured data
Model driven
The underlying model that drives the DSS can come from various disciplines or areas of
specialty and might include accounting models, financial models, representation models,
optimization models, etc. With model drive DSS the emphasize is on access to and
manipulation of a model, rather than data, i.e. it uses data and parameters to aid decision
makers in analyzing a situation. These systems usually are not data intensive and
consequently are not linked to very large databases.
Knowledge driven
These systems provide a recommendation and/or suggestion scheme which aids the user in
selecting an appropriate alternative to a problem at hand. Knowledge driven DSS are often
referred to as management expert systems or intelligent decision support systems. They focus
on knowledge and recommends actions to managers based on an analysis of a certain
knowledge base. Moreover, it has special problem solving expertise and are closely related to
data mining i.e. sifting through large amounts of data to produce contend relationships.
2. Document driven
These systems help managers retrieve and mange unstructured documents and web pages by
integrating a variety of storage and processing technologies to provide complete document
retrieval and analysis. It also access documents such as company policies and procedures,
product specification, catalogs, corporate historical documents, minutes of meetings,

important correspondence, corporate records, etc. and are usually driven by a task-specific
search engine.2
3. Communication driven
This breed of DSS is often called group decision support systems (GDSS). They are a special
type of hybrid DSS that emphasizes the use of communications and decision models intended
to facilitate the solution of problems by decision makers working together as a group. GDSS
supports electronic communication, scheduling, document sharing and other group
productivity and decision enhancing activities and involves technologies such as two-way
interactive video, bulletin boards, e-mail, etc.
4. Inter- and Intra-organization DSS
These systems are driven by the rapid growth of Internet and other networking technologies
such as broadband WAN’s, LAN’s, WIP, etc. Inter-organization DSS are used to serve
companies stakeholders (customers, suppliers, etc.), whereas intra-organization DSS are
more directed towards individuals inside the company and specific user groups. The latter,
because of their stricter control, are often stand-alone units inside the firm.
5. New breeds of DSS
 Hybrid Systems, which are combinations units using aspects of more than one different type
of DSS. A very popular example is Web based DSS, which can be driven by a combination
of different models such as document-driven, communication driven and knowledge drive.
Web-based DSS are computerized systems that delivers decision support information or
decision support tools to a manager or business analyst using a "thin-client" Web browser
like Netscape Navigator or Internet Explorer.18
 On-line Analytical Processing (OLAP) - a category of software technology that enables
analysts, managers and executives to gain insight into data through fast, consistent,
interactive access to a wide variety of possible views of information that has been
transformed from raw data to reflect the real dimensionality of the enterprise as understood
by the user.
Keeping the various distinctions and classifications of DSS in mind, a DSS should be described
in terms of:
 The dominant technology component or model underlying the system
 Targeted users

 Specific purpose
Name: _________________________ Date: ________________________

1. Define Economic goals.
2. Define Social goals.
3. What is a 'Sensitivity Analysis'?
4. WHAT IS LOGICAL FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS (LFA)?
5. List down some types of Decision Support Systems

You can ask your teacher for the copy of the correct answers
Information sheet-3 Take decisions on business issues identified
LO3: Take decisions on business issues identified
3.1. Importance of reliable information to support a decision

The terms ‘data’, ‘information’ and ‘knowledge’ are frequently used interchangeably and are
defined in the following table. This document and the standards it introduces, focuses on data;
that is, the basic facts from which information can be produced by processing or analysis.
Data Data are numbers, words or images that have yet to be organised or analysed
to answer a specific question.
Information Produced through processing, manipulating and organizing data to answer
questions, adding to the knowledge of the receiver.
Knowledge What is known by a person or persons? Involves interpreting information

received, adding relevance and context to clarify the insights the information
contains.
Characteristics of Data Quality

The Audit Commission has identified six key characteristics of good quality data.
Accuracy
Data should be sufficiently accurate for the intended use and should be captured only once,
although it may have multiple uses. Data should be captured at the point of activity.
 Data is always captured at the point of activity. Performance data is directly input into
Performance Plus1 (P+) by the service manager or nominated data entry staff.
 Access to P+ for the purpose of data entry is restricted through secure password controls
and limited access to appropriate data entry pages. Individual passwords can be changed
by the user and which under no circumstances should be used by anyone other than that
user.
 Where appropriate, base data, i.e. denominators and numerators, will be input into the
system which will then calculate the result. These have been determined in accordance
with published guidance or agreed locally. This will eliminate calculation errors at this
stage of the process, as well as provide contextual information for the reader.
 Data used for multiple purposes, such as population and number of households, is input
once by the system administrator.
Validity
Data should be recorded and used in compliance with relevant requirements, including the
correct application of any rules or definitions. This will ensure consistency between periods
and with similar organisations, measuring what is intended to be measured.

 Relevant guidance and definitions are provided for all statutory performance indicators.
Service Heads are informed of any revisions and amendments within 24 hours of receipt
from the relevant government department. Local performance indicators comply with
locally agreed guidance and definitions.
Reliability
Data should reflect stable and consistent data collection processes across collection points
and over time. Progress toward performance targets should reflect real changes rather than
variations in data collection approaches or methods.
 Source data is clearly identified and readily available from manual, automated or other
systems and records. Protocols exist where data is provided from a third party, such as
Hertfordshire Constabulary and Hertfordshire County Council
Timeliness
Data should be captured as quickly as possible after the event or activity and must be
available for the intended use within a reasonable time period. Data must be available
quickly and frequently enough to support information needs and to influence service or
management decisions.
 Performance data is requested to be available within one calendar month from the end of
the previous quarter and is subsequently reported to the respective Policy and Scrutiny
Panel on a quarterly basis. As a part of the ongoing development of PerformancePlus it is
intended that performance information will be exported through custom reporting and
made available via the Three Rivers DC website. This will improve access to information
and eliminate delays in publishing information through traditional methods.
Relevance
Data captured should be relevant to the purposes for which it is to be used. This will require a
periodic review of requirements to reflect changing needs.
 We have a duty to collect and report performance information against a wide range of
statutory indicators. These are set out in the context of the Government’s White Paper –
Strong and Prosperous Communities. Where appropriate each service will identify

reliable local performance indicators to manage performance and drive improvement.
These are reviewed on an annual basis to ensure relevance.
Completeness
Data requirements should be clearly specified based on the information needs of the
organisation and data collection processes matched to these requirements.
 Checks will be made to ensure for completeness of data. An annual assessment of this is
undertaken by Internal Audit.
3.2. Risk management plans
The Risk Management Plan should identify the risk management activities you anticipate and
plan throughout the product’s life-cycle. It is dynamic and should be revisited and updated often.
This is not a do it one time and it’s done activity.
A Risk Management Plan must include the following criteria:
1. Scope of the Risk Management activities. Define the product included. It is possible to
have multiple products described within a single Risk Management Plan.
2. Describe the intended use of the product(s).
3. Identify all Risk Management activities planned throughout the product lifecycle.
4. Define roles and responsibilities. Identify the Risk Management team that will be
reviewing and approving risk documentation.
5. Criteria for the product’s risk acceptability. (Note, that often times this is likely to be
defined within your Risk Management Procedure.)
6. Specify methods to verify Risk Control measures are implemented and reduce risks.
7. Define how post-production information will be captured and fed into Risk Management
activities for the product.
The Risk Management Plan evolves and should be kept current--even after product development
is completed.
The Role of Executive Leaders in the Risk Management Plan
People often thinks that Risk Management is a job for developers, designers, and engineers. The
product people. While it is true that these resources provide valuable insights to Risk
Management efforts, these individuals are not the only contributors. .

In addition to product developers and engineers, other functional areas including business
development, marketing, manufacturing, sales, and end-users should be an integral part of your
Risk Management process.
Ultimately, though, the cornerstone of a medical device company’s risk management process
must be executive management.
Executive management is the final authority in the company and must be the one to decide if a
risk is acceptable. Executive management is also responsible for ensuring their adequate
resources for risk management activities.
Executive management also has the responsibility for defining the company’s risk management
policy. This involves determining the risk acceptability criteria. The criteria should be based on
solid, objective evidence, such as industry standards.

3.3. Quantitative methods outcomes
Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one
thing [an independent variable] and another [a dependent or outcome variable] within a
population. Quantitative research designs are either descriptive [subjects usually measured once]
or experimental [subjects measured before and after a treatment]. A descriptive study
establishes only associations between variables; an experimental study establishes causality.
Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research
focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than
divergent reasoning [i.e., the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a
spontaneous, free-flowing manner].
Its main characteristics are:
 The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.

 The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
 The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
 Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
 All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
 Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or
other non-textual forms.
 Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or
investigate causal relationships.
 Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical
data.
The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and
construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.
Things to keep in mind when reporting the results of a study using quantitative methods:
1. Explain the data collected and their statistical treatment as well as all relevant results in
relation to the research problem you are investigating. Interpretation of results is not
appropriate in this section.

2. Report unanticipated events that occurred during your data collection. Explain how the
actual analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain your handling of missing data
and why any missing data does not undermine the validity of your analysis.
3. Explain the techniques you used to "clean" your data set.
4. Choose a minimally sufficient statistical procedure; provide a rationale for its use and a
reference for it. Specify any computer programs used.
5. Describe the assumptions for each procedure and the steps you took to ensure that they
were not violated.
6. When using inferential statistics provide the descriptive statistics, confidence intervals,
and sample sizes for each variable as well as the value of the test statistic, its direction,
the degrees of freedom, and the significance level [report the actual p value].
7. Avoid inferring causality, particularly in nonrandomized designs or without further
experimentation.
8. Use tables to provide exact values; use figures to convey global effects. Keep figures
small in size; include graphic representations of confidence intervals whenever possible.
9. Always tell the reader what to look for in tables and figures.
3.4. Consult Specialists and other relevant groups and individuals

The Role of Stakeholders in Your Business: In business, a stakeholder is usually an investor in
your company whose actions determine the outcome of your business decisions. ... They can also
be your employees, who have a stake in your company's success and incentive for your products
to succeed.
Consultation is a two-way process of dialogue between the project company and its
stakeholders. Stakeholder consultation is really about initiating and sustaining constructive
external relationships over time.
The process of consultation is an extremely important concept in the context of managing an
organisation. ... Consultation is an active process in which organisation management opens
formal and informal communication channels between the organisation and its stakeholders.
Workplace consultation. The person conducting a business or undertaking (PCBU) must, so far
as is reasonably practicable, consult with workers who carry out work for the business or

undertaking who are, or are likely to be, directly affected by a matter relating to health or safety
at work.
The importance of Client Consultation Cards: Client consultations are a crucial part of being in
the professional beauty industry. They protect both the client and you and ensure that you do not
perform any treatments on a client that may be detrimental to their well being.
3.5. Decisions taking

Decision-making vs. Decision taking
In my experience decision making is a process and happens over a period of time. It is when
the decision is constructed and built (made).
A decision is taken at a moment, in an instance. The decision is taken at the moment the
choice is made: the decision is taken from the available options.So, decision making, precedes
decisions being taken.
Decision taking
It is quite easy to spot decisions being taken. Or rather, attempts to take decisions. These
often occur as votes in a meeting. They might be a statement from the chairman or leader
that says, “Right, this is what I have decided” or “This is what we will do”.
What is decision-making?
Decision making is about how you get to the decision. It is about making sure you understand
the whole decision process.
There is an important first step, which is realizing that you have to make a decision. I call this
“decision awareness”.
Decision making can include gathering information, creating options, discussing potential
actions and their implications “what if?”.

Decision making can involve deciding who needs to make the decision or be involved in the
decision-making process. it includes the consequences of those decisions, either as actions,
risks or benefits.
Decision making can involve judgment and/or more detailed analysis and thought.
(See Thinking fast and slow about decision making)
Decision making and decision taking: part of longer process.
We have been involved in lots of executive decision making and noticed that the most effective
teams talk about where they are in the decision making process (how they are deciding) as well
as the content of the decision (what they are deciding). Listening to these conversations and
diagnosing where problems are occurring in these processes, has helped us to devise a five step
decision process. This process provides the team with a language to discuss where they are
with a decision, individually and collectively.
3.6. Decisions reached in accordance with organization

guidelines/procedures
Planning and Decision Making
Within this guide Planning and Decision Making is referred as all organisational processes that
 identify medium and long-term goals, based on context and needs assessments
 formulate written principles, rules, and guidelines to reach its long-term goals
 formulate strategies and create the means to achieve them
 make collective strategic decisions
Following this definition three main criteria were identified as essential for good practices of
youth peace building organisations. Those are:
1. Strategic planning
2. Decision making
3. Support measures (for planning and decision making)
Below you can find advice and resources for improving your planning and decision making in
your organisation.

Strategic Planning
In simple words, strategic planning is a planned process in which an organisation defines what it
aims to achieve and how it is going to achieve it.
For an organisation a strategic plan is the fundamental starting point for all its operations. A
strategic plan guides the direction of the organisation by defining explicitly its purpose of
existence and by providing mid-term goals and measurable success indicators. Having clear
indicators or markers allows the organisation to assess whether goals are being reached.
With a strategic planning process, any organisation will be able to know:
 what it wants to achieve in the long-term – Vision

 which principles guide its work – Values
 how it wants to bring about change, what is it doing – Mission
 what specifically the organisation wants to see changed based on the identified problems
– Overall goal
 what the organisation wants to achieve in short to mid-term – Immediate objective
 which results the organisation aims to reach – Key results areas
Once these aspects of a strategic framework are defined, the organisation can start to engage into
a process of action planning. This process consists of identifying concrete activities that will lead
to the achievement of the overall goal of the organisation’s operations.
A successful with any strategic planning is based on a few components:
1. An in-depth context and conflict analysis which is accompanied by an assessment of
the organisation’s capacity to work in the given context.
2. Includes a clear formulation of goals and immediate objective.
3. Includes a theory of change outlining the assumptions that underpinned the logic of how the
envisioned change is to be reached, by which intervention and why these interventions are
expected to have the intended effect.
4. includes indicators for success and the corresponding means of verification that provide the
data source for assessing if the indicators were matched. This is explicitly formulated and
written down in a coherent strategic planning document (see examples below in the read

more about section) accessible internally for the members, staff and volunteers of the
organisation and externally for all relevant stakeholders working in the same field as the
organisation.
3.7. Implementing Decisions taken consistent with organization

standards
Seven Steps to Ethical Decision Making
- Step 1: Define the problem (consult PLUS filters)
- Step 2: Seek out relevant assistance, guidance and support
- Step 3: Identify alternatives
- Step 4: Evaluate the alternatives (consult PLUS filters)
- Step 5: Make the decision
- Step 6: Implement the decision
- Step 7: Evaluate the decision (consult PLUS filters)
Introduction
Organizations struggle to develop a simple set of guidelines that makes it easier for individual
employees, regardless of position or level, to be confident that his/her decisions meet all of the
competing standards for effective and ethical decision-making used by the organization. Such a
model must take into account two realities:
 Every employee is called upon to make decisions in the normal course of doing his/her
job. Organizations cannot function effectively if employees are not empowered to make
decisions consistent with their positions and responsibilities.
 For the decision maker to be confident in the decision's soundness, every decision should
be tested against the organization's policies and values, applicable laws and regulations as
well as the individual employee's definition of what is right, fair, good and acceptable.
The decision making process described below has been carefully constructed to be:
 Fundamentally sound based on current theories and understandings of both decision-
making processes and ethics.
 Simple and straightforward enough to be easily integrated into every employee's thought
processes.
 Descriptive (detailing how ethical decision are made naturally) rather than prescriptive
(defining unnatural ways of making choices).
Step 1: Define the problem
The most significant step in any decision-making process is to determine why a decision is called
for and identify the desired outcome(s). How you define a problem shapes your understanding of
its causes and where you will search for solutions.
First, explore the difference between what you expect and/or desire and the current reality. By
defining the problem in terms of outcomes, you can clearly state the problem.
Consider this example: Tenants at an older office building are complaining that their employees
are getting angry and frustrated because there is always a long delay getting an elevator to the
lobby at rush hour. Many possible solutions exist, and all are predicated on a particular
understanding the problem:
 Flexible hours - so all the tenants' employees are not at the elevators at the same time.
 Faster elevators - so each elevator can carry more people in a given time period.
 Bigger elevators - so each elevator can carry more people per trip.
 Elevator banks - so each elevator only stops on certain floors, increasing efficiency.
 Better elevator controls - so each elevator is used more efficiently.
 More elevators - so that overall carrying capacity can be increased.
 Improved elevator maintenance - so each elevator is more efficient.
 Encourage employees to use the stairs - so fewer people use the elevators.
The real-life decision makers defined the problem as "people complaining about having to wait."
Their solution was to make the wait less frustrating by piping music into the elevator lobbies.
The complaints stopped. There is no way that the eventual solution could have been reached if,
for example, the problem had been defined as "too few elevators."
How you define the problem determines where you go to look for alternatives/solutions-- so
define the problem carefully.
Step 2: Seek out relevant assistance, guidance and support
Once the problem is defined, it is critical to search out resources that may be of assistance in
making the decision. Resources can include people (i.e., a mentor, coworkers, external
colleagues, or friends and family) as well professional guidelines and organizational policies and
codes. Such resources are critical for determining parameters, generating solutions, clarifying
priorities and providing support, both while implementing the solution and dealing with the
repercussions of the solution.
Step 3: Identify available alternative solutions to the problem
the key to this step is to not limit yourself to obvious alternatives or merely what has worked in
the past. Be open to new and better alternatives. Consider as many as solutions as possible -- five
or more in most cases, three at the barest minimum. This gets away from the trap of seeing "both
sides of the situation" and limiting one's alternatives to two opposing choices (i.e., either this or
that).
Step 4: Evaluate the identified alternatives
as you evaluate each alternative, identify the likely positive and negative consequence of each. It
is unusual to find one alternative that would completely resolve the problem and is significantly
better than all others. As you consider positive and negative consequences, you must be careful
to differentiate between what you know for a fact and what you believe might be the case.
Consulting resources, including written guidelines and standards, can help you ascertain which
consequences are of greater (and lesser) import.
You should think through not just what results each alternative could yield, but the likelihood it
is that such impact will occur. You will only have all the facts in simple cases. It is reasonable
and usually even necessary to supplement the facts you have with realistic assumptions and
informed beliefs. Nonetheless, keep in mind that the more the evaluation is fact-based, the more
confident you can be that the expected outcome will occur. Knowing the ratio of fact-based
evaluation versus non-fact-based evaluation allows you to gauge how confident you can be in the
proposed impact of each alternative.
Step 5: Make the decision
when acting alone, this is the natural next step after selecting the best alternative. When you are
working in a team environment, this is where a proposal is made to the team, complete with a
clear definition of the problem, a clear list of the alternatives that were considered and a clear
rationale for the proposed solution.
Step 6: Implement the decision
while this might seem obvious, it is necessary to make the point that deciding on the best
alternative is not the same as doing something. The action itself is the first real, tangible step in
changing the situation. It is not enough to think about it or talk about it or even decide to do it. A
decision only counts when it is implemented. As Lou Gerstner (former CEO of IBM) said,
"There are no more prizes for predicting rain. There are only prizes for building arks."

Step 7: Evaluate the decision
every decision is intended to fix a problem. The final test of any decision is whether or not the
problem was fixed. Did it go away? Did it change appreciably? Is it better now, or worse, or the
same? What new problems did the solution create?
Ethics Filters
The ethical component of the decision making process takes the form of a set of "filters." Their
purpose is to surface the ethics considerations and implications of the decision at hand. When
decisions are classified as being "business" decisions (rather than "ethics" issues), values can
quickly be left out of consideration and ethical lapses can occur.
At key steps in the process, you should stop and work through these filters, ensuring that the
ethics issues imbedded in the decision are given consideration.
We group the considerations into the mnemonic PLUS.
 P = Policies
Is it consistent with my organization's policies, procedures and guidelines?
 L= Legal
is it acceptable under the applicable laws and regulations?
 U = Universal
Does it conform to the universal principles/values my organization has adopted?
 S= Self
Does it satisfy my personal definition of right, good and fair?
The PLUS filters work as an integral part of steps 1, 4 and 7 of the decision-making process. The
decision maker applies the four PLUS filters to determine if the ethical component(s) of the
decision are being surfaced/addressed/satisfied.
Step 1: Define the problem (use PLUS to surface the ethics issues)
 Does the existing situation violate any of the PLUS considerations?
Step 2: Seek out relevant assistance, guidance and support
Step 3: Identify available alternative solutions to the problem
Step 4: Evaluate the identified alternatives (use PLUS to assess their ethical impact)
 Will the alternative I am considering resolve the PLUS violations?
 Will the alternative being considered create any new PLUS considerations?
 Is the ethical trade-offs acceptable?
Step 5: Make the decision
Step 6: Implement the decision
Step 7: Evaluate the decision (PLUS surface any remaining/new ethics issues)
 Does the resultant situation resolve the earlier PLUS considerations?
 Are there any new PLUS considerations to be addressed?
The PLUS filters do not guarantee an ethically-sound decision. They merely ensure that the
ethics components of the situation will be surfaced so that they might be considered.
How Organizations Can Support Ethical Decision-Making
Organizations empower employees with the knowledge and tools they need to make ethical
decisions by
 Intentionally and regularly communicating to all employees:
 Organizational policies and procedures as they apply to the common workplace ethics
issues.
 Applicable laws and regulations.
 Agreed-upon set of "universal" values (i.e., Empathy, Patience, Integrity, Courage
[EPIC]).
 Providing a formal mechanism (i.e., a code and a helpline, giving employees access to a
definitive interpretation of the policies, laws and universal values when they need
additional guidance before making a decision).
3.8. Communicating Decisions taken in a timely manner

11
It’s not enough to make the right decision. You have to ensure that decision is properly
communicated if you want it to be successfully implemented. The bigger the decision, the more
rigorous you have to be in communicating it. Here are 5 keys to communicating that decision
well.
At some point in your career, you’re going to have to “make the call.” You’ll make a big
decision that will affect a lot of people. Some will be happy. Some will be bent. If you want your
decision to be successful, you’ve got to dedicate a significant amount of thought to how you’re
going to communicate the decision to the organization.

There are five keys you should think about as you’re making big decisions:
Clarity- First, be clear about the call being made. Tell people exactly what the decision is. The
crisper you are in explaining the decision, the higher the likelihood that they’ll carry it out.
Documentation- Document that decision so you have something to true back to. Remember, big
decisions can take a long time to make. The results of those decisions can take a long time to
mature and for you to see what happens. You’ll want a document to go back to and say “Here’s
the decision we made and here was the underlying rationale.” It will help you and your
successors understand why the decision was made. If things go awry, people can dissect the
original rationale and understand what mistakes were made so those mistakes can be avoided in
the future.
Rationale- Lay out the rationale for making the decision. Include the assumptions you made, the
facts you were using to make the decision, and the sources of the information you used for
making the call. When things change, you can go back to that rationale and find root errors in the
data you had. You can understand how the market has changed from when you originally made
the decision. You might find new opportunities to make a better decision. Business cases and
“board decks” are good documentation vehicles for laying out the rationale for the call that
you’ve made.
Dissemination- When making the call, do so in writing and disseminate your decision broadly
across the organization. Avoid the most common problem that happens when people make a
decision: misinterpretation. Many times, if you announce your decision verbally, the game of
telephone occurs. Somebody who was there heard it firsthand. They heard the rationale but they
interpreted it slightly differently than you meant to say it. Then they tell the members of their
team and the rationale you shared changes slightly. Then those team members tell the members
of their team and the rationale changes even more. By the time it gets disseminated across the
entire organization, your rationale can be completely twisted. Sometimes folks will even
communicate a decision contrary to the one you made. By documenting your decision in writing
and making sure everybody gets the same information, the decision and your rationale for
making it will be clear and consistent.

Inclusion- When you announce major decisions, do so in a group forum and give people time for
Q & A. This is a solid approach for understanding what their concerns might be. Let people
know how the decision was arrived at and who was involved in the decision making process.
This will help reduce execution risk. People might not support your decision if they think their
interests weren’t represented. When you explain who was involved, you can reduce the
possibility of people being resistant because they think “My voice was represented in this
decision, so I’m going to be more willing to support it.”
I know of an acquisition that was done, where when the acquisition was announced, the CEO of
the company performing the acquisition went to the company that was being acquired. The
acquisition was announced in a large group forum. He laid out “here’s why we’re doing this deal,
here’s how this deal is going to affect your daily life, here’s what’s going to change, and here’s
what’s not.” There was time allowed for Q & A. People had something they could true back to
because the entire organization heard that message from the decision maker at the same time.
After the meeting, an email communication went out to every associate. That email shared the
same information the CEO had shared in the meeting. Everyone got the same message and
understood why things were happening. It made the transition to being a combined company
much smoother than if the CEO had relied on “cascading” the information through the company.

Name: _________________________ Date: ________________________

1. Discuss the Characteristics of Data Quality

2. A Risk Management Plan must include the following criteria: state;
3. Discuss the Seven Steps to Ethical Decision Making


Information sheet-4 Disseminate information to the organisation
LO4: Disseminate information to the organisation
4.1 Undertaking of Research and consultation
At each major or significant organisational stage or proposal, assess whether you need to
communicate information to groups of staff or individuals (or a wider audience). Both can be
critical in making sure that you have communicated effectively.
Planning communication
When planning communication, remember to:
 build in opportunities for employees and volunteers to feed in their views
 ensure that all employees and volunteers can access information: if your only communication
method is by email, check whether everyone has regular access to a computer or a personal
email account
 deliver information via a variety of methods but consistently, so that people know what to
expect and where to obtain or access information
 maintain communication by regular and timely flows of information: try to avoid the last
minute ‘news scoop’
 Review your communication methods regularly and assess their effectiveness to ensure that
your messages are getting through.
Communication methods
When your message is really important, deliver it using more than one method. For example, you
could follow up a general staff meeting with an email, and then confirm the information in a
personalized letter to ensure that it has been received and understood. Possible communication
methods include:
 notice boards
 newsletters/in-house magazines/e-magazines
 letters to staff/volunteers
 press releases
 annual reports

 emails and intranets
 phone conversations
 presentations
 team briefings/group meetings
 focus groups
 face-to-face formal or informal meetings between managers and employees
 Consultation groups or staff forums.
Communicating through staff meetings
If you decide to hold a meeting (individual or collective), be clear about what you want to
achieve from each agenda item. The goal could be to:
 exchange information (report, update, inform or find out)
 solve a problem or find a solution
 make a decision
 plan
 evaluate
 supervise
 consult
 Review performance.
Challenge yourself when planning a meeting to check which is the best way to achieve your
overall purpose. Could another method be more effective? There is a wide range of potential
communications:
Reviewing the meeting process
At the end of a meeting, it is useful to have a ten-minute ‘process review’ either as a self review
or with the group. If you undertake a self review, questions you might ask yourself could
include:
 Did I get my message across effectively?
 How well did I listen to what was being said?
 What did I learn that I didn’t know before?
 How could the meeting have gone better?
 What do I need to do now?
 What will I do next time?

Appraisal meetings
One of the building blocks of communication and consultation with staff is the annual or
biannual employee appraisal or development review – providing it is set in the context of regular
supervision meetings.
4.2 Documented Advice/information needs
Anyone has a right to request information from a public authority. You have two separate duties
when responding to these requests:
 to tell the applicant whether you hold any information falling within the scope of their
request; and
 to provide that information
For a request to be valid under the Freedom of Information Act it must be in writing, but
requesters do not have to mention the Act or direct their request to a designated member of staff.
It is good practice to provide the contact details of your freedom of information officer or team,
if you have one, but you cannot ignore or refuse a request simply because it is addressed to a
different member of staff. Any letter or email to a public authority asking for information is a
request for recorded information under the Act.
This doesn’t mean you have to treat every enquiry formally as a request under the Act. It will
often be most sensible and provide better customer service to deal with it as a normal customer
enquiry under your usual customer service procedures, for example, if a member of the public
wants to know what date their rubbish will be collected, or whether a school has a space for their
child. The provisions of the Act need to come into force only if:
 you cannot provide the requested information straight away; or

 The requester makes it clear they expect a response under the Act.
This request handling flowchart provides an overview of the steps to follow when handling a
request for information.

What makes a request valid?
To be valid under the Act, the request must:
 be in writing. This could be a letter or email. Requests can also be made via the web, or even on
social networking sites such as Face book or Twitter if your public authority uses these;
 Include the requester’s real name. The Act treats all requesters alike, so you should not normally
seek to verify the requester’s identity. However, you may decide to check their identity if it is
clear they are using a pseudonym or if there are legitimate grounds for refusing their request and
you suspect they are trying to avoid this happening, for example because their request is
vexatious or repeated. Remember that a request can be made in the name of an organisation, or
by one person on behalf of another, such as a solicitor on behalf of a client;
 Include an address for correspondence. This need not be the person’s residential or work address
– it can be any address at which you can write to them, including a postal address or email
address;
 Describe the information requested. Any genuine attempt to describe the information will be
enough to trigger the Act, even if the description is unclear, or you think it is too broad or
unreasonable in some way. The Act covers information not documents, so a requester does not
have to ask for a specific document (although they may do so). They can, for example, ask about
a specific topic and expect you to gather the relevant information to answer their enquiry. Or
they might describe other features of the information (e.g. author, date or type of document).
This is not a hard test to satisfy. Almost anything in writing which asks for information will
count as a request under the Act. The Act contains other provisions to deal with requests which
are too broad, unclear or unreasonable.
Even if a request is not valid under the Freedom of Information Act, this does not necessarily
mean you can ignore it. Requests for ‘environmental information’, for example, can be made
verbally. You also have an obligation to provide advice and assistance to requesters. Where
somebody seems to be requesting information but has failed to make a valid freedom of
information request, you should draw their attention to their rights under the Act and tell them
how to make a valid request.

4.3 Information documented and data bases updated regularly
NEED FOR DATA MANAGEMENT

Decision making for fisheries policy-making, planning and management relies largely on
processed information, not raw data. Data have to be interpreted before they can be utilized. The
volume of raw primary data is often very large, and so can only be used effectively if held in a
Data Base Management System (DBMS). The functions of a DBMS are:
 to ensure data conform to standard classifications;

 to ensure validity of the data;
 to ensure data integrity and internal consistency;
 to secure and maintain primary data;
 to allow easy access to primary data;
 to process the data efficiently as required;
 to allow different data sets to be integrated, thereby increasing their overall
utility.
A fundamental principle is to hold all data as they were collected, in their primary form. This
allows flexibility in the way data can be processed (e.g. filtered, aggregated, transformed), and
ensures all calculations are reproduced from source data incorporating all revisions. Considering
the considerable investment in data collection and low costs storage and processing, there is little
reason for not holding complete data in its primary form.
Benefits of good Data Management
Data Management policies and procedures ensure that data on all media are treated as a valued
resource. Implementing such policies and procedures will give many benefits:
Benefits to Data Suppliers
• An increased confidence and trust that their data will be used according to their agreed
conditions of use, without risk to confidentiality, copyright or IPR, and in compliance with all
statutory and non-statutory obligations.
• Providing a clear understanding of the use of their data, formally documented in a
Memorandum of Agreement signed by both supplier and user.
• A fair return for the use of the data they have supplied.

Benefits to Data Brokers/Intermediaries
• Better quality, harmonized and coherent data from the use of common definitions, including
geographic references, formats, validation processes and standard procedures.
• Better care of the data holdings through the use of effective data policies and best practice
guidance.
• Better control over the data by the clear definition and use of the procedures for the care of
data.
4.4 design and test Systems to meet information requirements of

decision makers
The type of information required by decision makers in a company is directly related to:
 the level of management decision making

 the amount of structure in the decision situations managers face
The levels of management decision making that must be supported by information technology
in a successful organization (independently of its size, shape, and participants), are often shown
as a managerial pyramid.
Strategic management: As part of strategic planning process top executives:
i. develop overall organizational goals, strategies, policies, and

ii. monitor the strategic performance of the organization and its overall direction in
the political, economic, and competitive business environment
Tactical management: Business unit managers and business professionals in self-directed teams
i. develop short- and medium-range plans, schedules, budgets and specify policies,
procedures, and business objectives for their sub-units of the company, and
ii. Allocate resources and monitor the performance of their organizational sub-units,
including departments, divisions, process teams, project teams, and other
workgroups.
Operational management: Operating managers and members of self-directed teams

i. develop short-range plans (e.g. weekly production schedules), and
ii. Direct the use of resources and the performance of tasks according to procedures
and within budgets and schedules they establish for the teams and other
workgroups of the organization.
Decision makers need information products whose characteristics, attributes or quality are
having the three dimensions of time, content, and form
Decision maker at different levels of the organization are making more or less structured
decisions. Typically there are three types of decision structure:
Unstructured decisions (usually related to the long-term strategy of the organization);
Semi-structured decisions (some decision procedures can be pre-specified but not enough to lead
to a definite recommended decision);
Structured decisions (the procedure to follow, when a decision is needed, can be specified in
advance).
Earlier in this course we discussed the concept of system as a set of interrelated components,
with a clearly defined boundary, working together to achieve a common set of objectives. With
respect to the information system, it can be any organized combination of people, hardware,

software, communication networks, data resources, and policies and procedures that stores,
retrieves, transforms, and disseminates information in an organization (O'Brian, p. 4).
There are three vital roles that information systems can perform for a business enterprise: support
of business processes and operations, support of decision making by employees and managers,
and support of strategies for competitive advantage – see the figure below (O'Brien, p. 8).
The applications of information systems that are implemented in today's business world can be
classified as either operations or management information systems – see the figure, below
(O'Brien, p.13)

Operations Support Systems (OSS) produce a variety of information products for internal and
external use, such as processing business transactions, controlling industrial processes,
supporting enterprise communications and collaborations, and updating corporate databases
effectively. They do not emphasize the specific information products that can best be used by
managers. Further processing by management information systems is usually required.
In this course we are interested more on the Management Support Systems (Support of
Managerial Decision Making) and more specifically on the process of providing information and
support for decision-making by different levels of responsibilities of the managers and business
professionals. The management classifications of information systems can be structured in four
main groups of systems.
Management Information Systems (MIS): provide information in the form of reports and
displays to managers and many business professionals that support their day-to-day decision-

making needs. Usually the information has been specified in advance to adequately meet the
expectations on operational and tactical levels of the organization, where the decision making
situations are more structured and better defined.
Decision Support Systems (DSS) are computer-based information systems that provide
interactive information support to managers and business professionals during the decision-
making process. DSS use analytical models, specialized databases, a decision maker's own
insights and judgments, and an interactive, computer-based modeling process to support semi-
structured business decisions.
Executive Information Systems (EIS) or Executive Support Systems (ESS) are information
systems that combine many of the futures of MIS and DSS. Here the information is presented in
forms tailored to the preferences of the executives using the system, such as graphical user
interface, customized to the executives graphics displays, exception reporting, trend analysis, and
abilities to 'drill-down' and retrieve displays of related information quickly at lower levels of
detail.
Specialized Processing Systems (PS) are information systems characterized as functional
business systems, strategic information systems, knowledge management systems, and expert
systems.
It is important to realize that business applications of information systems in the real world are
typically integrated combinations of all these types of information systems. In practice, all these
different types and roles of information systems are combined into integrated or Cross-
Functional Business Information Systems that provide a variety of functions. Thus, most
information systems are designed to produce information and support decision making for
various levels of management and business functions, as well as perform record-keeping and
transaction-processing chores. Whenever you analyze or work with an information system, you
probably see that it provides information for a variety of managerial levels and business
functions. This will be explain and demonstrated in greater details in Lectures 7 to 12 of this
course.
The figure below illustrates the scope of the managerial challenges and opportunities facing
business managers and professionals in effectively managing information systems and
technologies.

4.5 Information is up-to-date, accurate and relevant and sufficient
for the recipient
The second of the principles covering information standards, principle 4 covers the accuracy of
personal data. The Data Protection Act imposes obligations on you to ensure the accuracy of the
personal data you process. It must also be kept up to date where necessary.
This requirement is closely linked with the requirement under principle 3 that personal data is
adequate. Ensuring the accuracy of personal data will assist you in complying with this
requirement as well.
In brief – what does the Data Protection Act say about accuracy and updating?
The Act says that:
Personal data shall be accurate and, where necessary, kept up to date.
This is the fourth data protection principle. Although this principle sounds straightforward, the
law recognizes that it may not be practical to double-check the accuracy of every item of

personal data you receive. So the Act makes special provision about the accuracy of information
that individuals provide about themselves, or that is obtained from third parties.
To comply with these provisions you should:
 take reasonable steps to ensure the accuracy of any personal data you obtain;
 ensure that the source of any personal data is clear;
 carefully consider any challenges to the accuracy of information; and
 Consider whether it is necessary to update the information.
When is personal data “accurate” or “inaccurate”?
The Data Protection Act does not define the word “accurate”, but it does say that personal data is
inaccurate if it is incorrect or misleading as to any matter of fact. It will usually be obvious
whether information is accurate or not. For example, if an individual has moved house from
Chester to Wilmslow, a record showing that he currently lives in Chester is obviously inaccurate.
But a record showing that he once lived in Chester remains accurate, even though he no longer
lives there. You must always be clear about what a record is intended to show.
Example
A journalist builds up a profile of a particular public figure. This includes information derived
from rumors circulating on the internet that the individual was once arrested on suspicion of
dangerous driving. If the journalist records that the individual was arrested, without qualifying
this, he or she is asserting this as an accurate fact. However, if it is clear that the journalist is
recording rumors, the record is accurate – the journalist is not asserting that the individual was
arrested for this offence.
What about records of mistakes?
There is often confusion about whether it is appropriate to keep records of things that happened
which should not have happened. Individuals understandably don’t want their records to be
tarnished by, for example, a penalty or other charge that was later cancelled or refunded.
However, the organisation may legitimately wish its records to accurately reflect what actually
happened – in this example, that a charge was imposed, and later cancelled or refunded. Keeping
a record of a mistake and its correction might also be in the individual’s interests.

Example
A mis-diagnosis of a medical condition continues to be held as part of a patient’s medical records
even after the diagnosis because it is relevant for the purpose of explaining treatment given to the
patient, or to additional health problems.
It is acceptable to keep records of events that happened in error, provided those records are not
misleading about the facts. You may need to add a note to a record to clarify that a mistake
happened.
Does personal data always have to be up to date?

This depends on what the information is used for. If the information is used for a purpose that
relies on it remaining current, it should be kept up to date.
For example, your employee payroll records should be updated when there is a pay rise.
Similarly, records should be updated for customers’ changes of address so that goods are
delivered to the correct location.
In other circumstances, it will be equally obvious when information does not need to be updated.
How does the general rule that information must be accurate apply to information we
compile?
Where you use your own resources to compile personal data about an individual, then you must
make sure the information is correct. You should take particular care if the information could have
serious implications for the individual. If, for example, you give an employee a pay increase on the
basis of an annual increment and a performance bonus, then there is no excuse for getting the new
salary figure wrong in your payroll records.
4.6 Develop Communication plans to provide for recipient

evaluation
Purpose of Communication Plan

The communication plan sets the standards for how and when communication takes place for the
project/program. Based upon understood stakeholder expectations (interest and impact), the

communications plan identifies communication objectives for the project/program, key messages
for important questions, how participants will communicate, and the timing of communications.
An effective communication plan introduces consistency to communications and messages,
assists towards managing stakeholders during execution, facilitates team development, increases
project/program performance, mitigates risks for a project/program, and is one of the most
important enabling tools towards project/program success. The communication plan must give
the different audiences what they want.
A communications plan is a living document that is created while the project/program is in
planning. It will be monitored (along with the stakeholder register) and executed during
project/program planning, execution, and closure.
Communications Plan Participants and Approvers
One of the most important sources of input is the stakeholder register, since it identifies
stakeholder interests and impacts pertaining to the project/program. This should drive the
content and timing of communication to stakeholders. Input into the communication plan may
also come from other project documentation, feedback from the sponsor and/or project owner, or
conversations with specific stakeholders about their communications needs and preferences.
The author is the Project Manager or Program Manager. There should be agreement with the
sponsor and project owner.
Instructions
1. Review project information by reading documentation (stakeholder register, charter,
project management plan), and discuss with the sponsor, project owner, and stakeholders.
2. Create the communication plan. Examples of information that needs to be communicated
on a regular basis may include risk, budget, schedule, status, key results, issues, and
messages for buy in. The green italic text contains instructions for filling out the
template and can be removed for the final version of the document.
3. Review with applicable stakeholders, project team, sponsor, and project owner for
accuracy and completeness.

4.7 Adhering Confidentiality in the transmission of information/advice
Purpose The purpose of this policy is to outline the principles that must be adhered to by all who
work within and have access to personal information and sensitive personal information.
Personal information incorporates the following factors:
 Surname, forename, initials
 Address, postcode
 Telephone number
 Date of birth (any other dates e.g. medical dates, dates of diagnosis)
 Occupation
 Sex
 National insurance number
 Sensitive personal information is data that contains details of a person’s:
 Racial or ethnic origin
 Political opinions
 Religious beliefs or other beliefs of a similar nature
 Membership of a trade union
 Physical or mental health or condition
 Sexual life, convictions
 Legal proceedings
Why Personal Information is collected Information is collected about patients to:
 Support patient care
 Improve health and social care services
Disclosure of Personal Information for Care Purposes Personal information can be shared
between healthcare professionals when it is in the best interests of an individual and they are
providing direct care.
INFORMATION SECURITY
 Physical Security Personal information must always be held securely. In any area which is
not secure, and which can be accessed by a wide range of people (including possibly the
public), such information must be locked away immediately after it has been finished with.

Where it is impractical for this to be achieved, access to the work area must be restricted.
Where it is necessary to take confidential information away from Trust premises in order to
carry out your duties (e.g. home visit to a patient), you must keep the information secure and
make every effort to ensure that it does not get misplaced, lost or stolen.
 Electronic Security You must lock your computer and mobile devices when unattended.
Always log off systems and do not leave your Smartcard unattended. Mobile devices,
memory sticks and laptops must be encrypted. Please refer to IT for further guidance.
Information should be held on the organisation’s network servers, and not stored on local
hard drives. Personal information stored on network shared drives should be restricted as
appropriate. IT can assist in establishing folder access rights. Information should not be
saved or copied into any PC or media that has not been approved by IT. Safe Haven folders
should have access restrictions imposed by the IT Helpdesk. The IT helpdesk should be
advised of new access requests for that location.
 Safe Transfer of Personal Information When transferring any personal information you
must:
 ensure the person is entitled to receive the information
 use the most appropriate method to ensure that the information is transferred securely
 limit the information to only what is required, irrelevant information must be removed
or redacted (blocked out) before the transferring
 ensure that you are sending information to the correct location
 ensure that no additional information is sent in error
 only send information to those who are entitled to receive it
 mark it ‘Private and Confidential’ Confidentiality and Security of Personal
Information Policy
 Incoming mail must be opened away from public areas.
 All mail must be checked before posting to ensure it is going to the correct address and
that nothing additional has been put in the envelope in error.
 All mail that contains personal information must be enclosed in a sealed envelope and
marked ‘Private and confidential’, addressed correctly.
 All mail containing sensitive personal information must be sent via Special Delivery
or by a courier (TNT)

 Bulk amounts of personal information must be sent via Special Delivery or by a
courier (TNT)
 Email
 You should put any confidential or sensitive information in an attachment and encrypt the
attachment with a password
 You should not set up your emails to be automatically forwarded to another account, you
should set up an out of office to identify who emails should be forwarded to
 For HDFT to HDFT or NHS.net to NHS.net
 You must check you are sending the email to the correct email address
 You must not send the password in the body of the email or a following email. You must
contact the person you are sending the email to and confirm the password. For HDFT to
any email address
phone the person you are sending the email to and confirm the password.
 Send the recipient the Encrypted Email Instructions before emailing them the confidential
or sensitive email
 Then type the word 'Encrypt' in the subject field on the email to encrypt the whole email
For NHS.net to any email address
contact the person you are sending the email to and confirm the password. Then follow
these instructions to encrypt the whole email Sender Guidance

 Verbal
 The identity of the enquirer must always be verified by checking the any relevant details,
for example if it is a patient asks them to confirm their date of birth, address, and
attendance dates etc. If the enquiry is via the phone, call them back so that the identity can
be fully verified. In the case of an organisation, the switchboard number must be used to
call back, not a direct dial number.
 If answering machines are used by departments they should be setup so that messages left
are recorded silently. This will ensure that no unauthorized personnel overhear confidential
messages whilst they are being recorded.
 Fax The fax machine should be sited in a secure location where access to the machine is
controlled. Sending
 By each fax machine there should be a laminated copy of the Fax. which acts a prompt to
follow the correct procedures when sending a fax.
 All external faxes must use the Trust’s Fax Cover Template
 All faxes, internal or external, containing patient information or other confidential
information must use the Trust’s Fax Cover Template
 Check the recipients fax number, memory alone must not be relied on when dialing. It is
acceptable to pre-programme commonly used fax numbers into the machine’s memory.
However, a list of speed dial numbers must be prominently displayed next to the
machine.
 Check if the fax machine is a Safe Haven. If it isn’t telephone the recipient of the fax let
them know that you are about to send a fax containing confidential information and ask if
they will wait by the fax machine whilst you send the document and acknowledge the
receipt of the fax.
 Dial the number carefully.
 Monitor the transmission.
 Stop the transmission if there appear to be any anomalies with the transmission.
 Obtain a printed record of the transmission where possible.
 No paperwork must be left unattended at the fax machine.

 If a published fax number turns out to be incorrect, inform all interested parties of the
error and amend the list as necessary. Receiving
 The recipient should remove the fax from the machine on receipt.
 Where necessary, the recipient should contact the sender to confirm receipt and that the
fax will be appropriately dealt with and safely stored.
4.8 Regularly reviewing and up-dating of Communication plans

Communications audit
In order to be able to plan, it is useful to have a clear understanding of what your current
communication channels are and how they are used. This should consider the following:
 Internal communication channels (intranet, staff briefings, and newsletters)
 Social media channels (Twitter, Face book, Instagram, LinkedIn)
 Website and any micro sites
 Stakeholder communication channels (newsletters)
Internal and external factors

It can be beneficial for the communications team to carry out exercises to look at internal and
external factors relating to area reviews. Two systems that can be used for this are:
 Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis
 Political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal (PESTEL) analysis)
This can provide the communications team with a full understanding of all of the issues, which
will be useful in developing tactics and approaches.
Audience
The following includes the core audiences you will need to consider with any communications
around area reviews. This is not an exhaustive list, and will have different local variations.
 Governors  Parents
 Staff  Employers/partners who work with the
 Unions college
 Students  Potential students
 Students Union  MPs

 Councilors  Trade
 Officers of the council  Local
 Other colleges  National
 Universities  Influential local people
 Schools in the area  Local enterprise partnerships
 Media  Chamber of commerce
Aims
From the outset you should have aims for the communication work. The following are
suggestions:
 Ensure that internal audiences are kept up to date with the area review process.
 Provide timely, accurate, consistent information to stakeholders.
 Develop a partnership working approach with other colleges for a strategic
communications approach.
Messages
Creating and maintaining a limited number of key messages promotes consistency across
audiences and channels, whether it is a media release, website update or staff meeting.
Contradictory statements weaken a college’s position and can lead to the perception that it is
hiding something and that nothing it says is to be believed.
It is therefore essential that messages are consistent, open and honest and the fewer people
involved in writing or delivering them, the stronger they will be. The below provide ideas of core
messages you may want to consider using for all communication activities.
When developing these, it is important to understand that negative messages may not be in the
best interest of the college.
How often should we update our communications plan?
Since a strategic communications plan is not a list of tactics, you need to know what you are
supporting so your communications plan can drive outcomes set forth in the business plan. Said
another way, update your communications plan when you update your business plan, ideally
annually. That will ensure you work smarter, not harder.
That doesn’t, however, mean it should collect dust throughout the year. Here are five simple but
important exercises to ensure your communications stay fresh:

1. Review your positioning & messaging, more as a reminder than a prompt to change. Your
messaging should remain consistent, customizing it based on your audience.
2. Review data. Take a look at whatever metrics are available to you, even if that is just website
analytics. What does customer behavior tell you? What communication is resonating? What is
causing your audience to act? Depending on the answers, do you need to adjust?
3. Revisit your target audiences, both general and specific. Invest the most time in the people that
matter the most. This could include customers, prospects, investors, industry influencers and/or
employees.
4. Do a website audit. Is your content still consistent with messaging? Is it current?
Comprehensive? Is it mobile-friendly?
5. If you don’t have a social media strategy, develop one. Even the skeptics have learned that
serious business can be done via social media, yet not all companies have a plan. You must have
a carefully designed strategy and supporting tactics, including a plan for sustainability, to make it
work. And doing what your competitors are doing is not a plan.
4.9 Technology utilization

Technology is increasingly becoming a fundamental part of our lives. Its adoption to the various
functionalities of a person’s life from childhood with playing toys to adulthood has made life
easier and complex at the same time. Its implementation is being advocated for yet its effects
seem to grow with each passing day. However, it is important to understand that its use is diverse
and the benefits associated outweigh the limitations and effects.
As a fact, technology utilization in a classroom is now being used in schools for different
learning activities. Today, many teachers have taken to issuing exam papers, results, reading
materials and other evaluation or learning equipment online. These are just some of the ways
that technologies revolutionize education. Without the proper technological knowledge, some of
the tasks expected of a teacher or student can be difficult to achieve. Therefore, technology is
perceived as annoying, irritating and to some extent intimidating. Well, here are seven ways that
you can use to implement or use technology in your classroom.
1. Social media

The social media is a major aspect of children in this era. Teachers can use this media or
platform to their advantage by becoming friends and sharing essential information through the
technological platform. Students, parents and their teachers can sign up for online conferencing
and hold meetings, give parents their children’s school progress, share learning materials etc.
Teachers, for example, can share unique students write ups with the rest of the class and or
solicit their opinion in regards to a topic or subject to be or already covered. For example,
through Twitter’s backchannel, teachers can obtain students feedback, share ideas or learning
materials. Furthermore, the student’s attention will be with you as all of them are quite fond of
the social media.
2. Blogs, Wiki and YouTube
Advanced level students can use these for learning purposes. This includes posting assessments
and evaluations and other important such as best write-ups that students have in a certain period.
The blogs can also be a strategic learning as well as a support initiative where students are
encouraged to be themselves. They can post their hand works online for others to see, evaluate
and rate or criticize for better growth. The teacher can also publish the best works by the students
on the same platform. This further encourages them and also sharing the information in class is a
major way of promoting and showing appreciation to the students.
3. Creating Google and Apple Apps
These are quite essential especially in sharing important and pertinent information with class,
parents and other stakeholders. Teachers can create school calendars, an app containing different
school materials to assist the students in reading on their own. In addition, the students can
use many forums in these apps for their own benefit and learning purposes. For example, an
educative and fun app for games is a nice way for the students to be engaged in a class. This is in
relation to games that are related to different games that are developed from a topic on the school
books or class subjects.
4. Video Streaming
Pictures, images or videos are quite fundamental in forming opinions and learning. It is said that
information tends to be imprinted into a person’s mind and are easier to remember for everyone.
Furthermore, they capture and entertain the students, which make learning fun. This is an
example that is being set by YouTube and other video facilities. With a step by step instruction
manual with pictures to illustrate it further, it becomes the most effective means of teaching and

for students, the easiest means to grasp and understand what is being taught. In addition, these
videos are already there on any subject and therefore, finding one that rhymes with your topic is
not that difficult.
5. Mobile devices
This is on an increasing trend especially in use inside the classrooms. It is evident that many
students use them for other purposes other than learning. Therefore, introducing class
assignments to be shared and distributed through the mobile devices e.g. WhatsApp. You can
create students groups and assign them various tasks that they will be required to full fill using
their internet or mobile connection. This ensures they pay attention to their learning and
education and creates cohesion among the students assigned a specific task. Also encourage them
to let others acquire reading materials by sharing them with others.
6. Video conferencing
This is one of the best means of teaching for both students and teachers. For students, it means
that their favourite teacher will be present even though he/she is in a different geographical
location. Video conferencing offers a platform for interactions between students and their
teacher. It can be used to issue the student’s instructions on their daily tasks, offer presentations
and much more.
4.9 Corporate knowledge maintaining and security ensuring

Every company needs to have a security program
Think you don’t have anything of value to protect? Think again. The key asset that a security
program helps to protect is your data — and the value of your business is in its data. You already
know this if your company is one of many whose data management is dictated by governmental
and other regulations — for example, how you manage customer credit card data. If your data
management practices are not already covered by regulations, consider the value of the
following:
 Product information, including designs, plans, patent applications, source code, and
drawings
 Financial information, including market assessments and your company’s own financial
records
 Customer information, including confidential information you hold on behalf of customers
or clients.

Protecting your data means protecting its confidentiality, integrity, and availability as illustrated
by the C-I-A triangle (Figure 1). The consequences of a failure to protect all three of these
aspects include business losses, legal liability, and loss of company
goodwill.
Consider the following examples:
 Failure to protect your data’s confidentiality might result in customer credit card numbers
being stolen, with legal consequences and a loss of goodwill. Lose your clients’ confidential
information and you may have fewer of them in the future.
 A data integrity failure might result in a Trojan horse being planted in your software,
allowing an intruder to pass your corporate secrets on to your competitors. If an integrity
failure affects your accounting records, you may no longer really know your company’s true
financial status.
Having a security program means that you’ve taken steps to mitigate the risk of losing data in
any one of a variety of ways, and have defined a life cycle for managing the security of
information and technology within your organization.
Hopefully the program is complete enough, and your implementation of the program is faithful
enough, that you don’t have to experience a business loss resulting from a security incident. If
you have a security program and you do experience a loss that has legal consequences, your
written program can be used as evidence that you were diligent in protecting your data and
following industry best practices.
Elements of a good security program
a good security program provides the big picture for how you will keep your company’s data
secure. It takes a holistic approach that describes how every part of your company is involved in
the program. A security program is not an incident handling guide that details what happens if a

security breach is detected. It’s also not a guide to doing periodic assessments, though it
probably does dictate when to do a security.
Your security program defines what data is covered and what is not. It assesses the risks your
company faces, and how you plan to mitigate them. It indicates how often the program will be
re-evaluated and updated, and when you will assess compliance with the program. The key
components of a good security program are outlined in the following sections.
1. Designated security officer
for most security regulations and standards, having a Designated Security Officer (DSO) is not
optional — it’s a requirement. Your security officer is the one responsible for coordinating and
executing your security program. The officer is your internal check and balance. This person or
role should report to someone outside of the IT organization to maintain independence.
2. Risk assessment
this component identifies and assesses the risks that your security program intends to manage.
This is perhaps the most important section because it makes you think about the risks your
organization faces so that you can then decide on appropriate, cost-effective ways to manage
them. Remember that we can only minimize, not eliminate, risk, so this assessment helps us to
prioritize them and choose cost-effective countermeasures. The risks that are covered in your
assessment might include one or more of the following:
 Physical loss of data. You may lose immediate access to your data for reasons ranging from
floods to loss of electric power. You may also lose access to your data for more subtle
reasons: the second disk failure, for example, while your RAID array recovers from the
first.
 Unauthorized access to your own data and client or customer data. Remember, if you have
confidential information from clients or customers, you’re often contractually obliged to
protect that data as if it were your own.
 Interception of data in transit. Risks include data transmitted between company sites, or
between the company and employees, partners, and contractors at home or other locations.
 Your data in someone else’s hands. Do you share your data with third parties, including
contractors, partners, or your sales channel? What protects your data while it is in their
hands?

 Data corruption. Intentional corruption might modify data so that it favors an external party:
think Trojan horses or keystroke loggers on PCs. Unintentional corruption might be due to a
software error that overwrites valid data.
3. Policies and Procedures
preparing your risk assessment hopefully gave you lots to worry about. The policies and
procedures component is the place where you get to decide what to do about them. Areas that
your program should cover include the following:
 Physical security documents how you will protect all three C-I-A aspects of your data from
unauthorized physical access.
 Authentication, authorization, and accountability establish procedures for issuing and
revoking accounts. It specifies how users authenticate, password creation and aging
requirements, and audit trail maintenance.
 Security awareness makes sure that all users have a copy of your acceptable use policy and
know their responsibilities; it also makes sure that your IT employees are engaged in
implementing your IT-specific policies.
 Risk assessment states how often you will reassess the potential threats to your IT security
and update your security program.
 Incident response defines how you will respond to security threats, including potential (such
as unauthorized port scanning) and actual incidents (where security has been compromised).
We discussed the importance of having an incident-handling guide in the Q1 2006 issue of
The Barking Seal.
 Virus protection outlines how you protect against viruses. This might include maintaining
workstation-based products and scanning email, Web content, and file transfers for
malicious content.
 Business continuity planning includes how you will respond to various man-made and
natural disaster scenarios. This includes setting up appropriate backup sites, systems, and
data, as well as keeping them up-to-date and ready to take over within the recovery time
you have defined.
 Relationships with vendors and partners defines who these organizations are, what kind of
data you might exchange with them, and what provisions must be in your contracts to
protect your data. This is an often-overlooked aspect of data security because your IT

organization probably has not had a lot of interaction with your legal organization over
vendor contracts. You may need to take measures such as evaluating your partners’ ability
to safeguard your data and insisting on having reasonable security practices in place.
4. Organizational security awareness

the security community generally agrees that the weakest link in most organizations’ security is
the human factor, not technology. And even though it is the weakest link, it is often overlooked
in security programs. Don’t overlook it in yours.
Every employee needs to be aware of his or her roles and responsibilities when it comes to
security. Even those who don’t even touch a computer in their daily work need to be involved
because they could still be targeted by social-engineering attacks designed to compromise your
physical security. In its Information Security Handbook, publication 80-100, the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) describes the importance of making all levels of
your organization aware and educated on their roles and responsibilities when it comes to
security (Figure 2). All users need to have security awareness training, while those involved with
IT systems need to have more role-specific training. Your IT organization, which implements a
continuous cycle of assessing, acquiring, and operating security-related hardware and software,

needs even a higher level of involvement, taking direction from your own security specialists and
those you hire as consultants.
5. Regulatory standards compliance
In addition to complying with your own security program, your company may also need to
comply with one or more standards defined by external parties. This component of your security
plan defines what those standards are and how you will comply. Regulatory standards that might
affect you include HIPAA (for patient information), PCI (for credit card processing), FISMA
(for governmental agencies and contractors, see The Barking Seal Q4 2006), Sarbanes-Oxley,
and Gramm-Leach- Bliley (for corporate financial management).
6. Audit compliance plan
this component of your security program dictates how often you will audit your IT security and
assess its compliance with your security program. As we discussed in the Q2 2008 issue of The
Barking Seal, there are aspects of your security that you will want to audit on a frequency
ranging from daily to annually. Periodic security assessments are important for finding out
whether your security has already been breached. They help you to stay on top of new security
threats with the right technology and staff training. And they help you make smart investments
by helping you to prioritize and focus on the high-impact items on your list.
A security program is never “done.” As Figure 2 illustrates, your IT organization is always in the
process of iterating through the program’s life cycle for all areas that it defines. You assess risks,
make plans for mitigating them, implement solutions, monitor to be sure they are working as
expected, and use that information as feedback for your next assessment phase. Likewise, your
security program document has this life cycle built into it, as it specifies how often you will re-
assess the risks you face and update the program accordingly.
Getting on the right footing
It doesn’t matter whether your security program is five pages (as are some we’ve produced for
clients) or 200 pages long (such as the NIST document cited above). The important thing is that
you have a security program and that you use it to address your company’s security in an
organized, comprehensive, and holistic way. You can adapt the above elements to create a
security program for your organization, or, if you need help, give us a call at 303.245.4545.
Everyone needs to have a security program because it helps you maintain your focus on IT
security. It helps you identify and stay in compliance with the regulations that affect how you

manage your data. It keeps you on the right footing with your clients and your customers so that
you meet both your legal and contractual obligations. Its life cycle process ensures that security
is continuously adapting to your organization and the ever-changing IT environment we live in.
And, of course, it’s the right thing to do because protecting your data’s security is the same as
protecting your most important asset.
Name: _________________________ Date: ________________________

1. When planning communication, remember to:
2. Possible communication methods include:
3. What makes a request valid?
4. The type of information required by decision makers in a company is directly related to:
5. When is personal data “accurate” or “inaccurate”?
6. What about records of mistakes?
7. Personal information incorporates the following factors:
8. How often should we update our communications plan?
Note: Satisfactory rating – 12points Unsatisfactory- below 12points


Reference
 ISMS-ISPS-004 Information Classification and Handling Standard Page 3 of 10 PUBLIC
Version:
 SensitivityAnalysis https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/
sensitivityanalysis.asp#ixzz5FAs6mOc1
 Guidance for designing, monitoring and evaluating peace building projects: Using theories of
change, CARE
 Change and Indicator Development in Conflict Management and Mitigation, USAID
 Published with permission from Cass Centre for Charity Effectiveness. This material is taken
from "Tools for Success: doing the right things and doing them right", published in October
2008. Download or buy your copy from Cass Centre for Charity Effectiveness.
 Chris Walden – Director of Public Affairs and Communications (chris_walden@aoc.co.uk)
 Andrea Jones – Senior Communications and Membership Manager
(andrea_jones@aoc.co.uk)
 Piran Dhillon – Public Affairs Manager (piran_dhillon@aoc.co.uk)
 Sarah Scott – Media and PR Manager (sarah_scott@aoc.co.uk)

Individual Assignment 30%
Directions: answer all the questions listed below
1. When planning communication, remember to: 5pts
2. Possible communication methods include: 10pts
3. What makes a request valid? 3pts
4. The type of information required by decision makers in a company is directly related to:
5pts
5. When is personal data “accurate” or “inaccurate”? example 3pts
6. What about records of mistakes? 1pts
7. Personal information incorporates the following factors: 2pts
8. How often should we update our communications plan? 1pts

Manage Knowledge Information System

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Manage Knowledge Information System

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Maichew ATVET College

Cooperative Marketing Management Level IV

Unit Title: Manage knowledge information system

Maichew, Tigray, Ethiopia

Maichew ATVET College Pby: Hagos G. 2010 E.C 1

At the end of the module the learner will be able to:

1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.

LO1: Obtain, classify and summarize information relevant to business issues..............................8

1.1. Gathering Information reliably sourced and efficiently...................................................8

1.2. Information Classification and summarizing....................................................................9

1.3. Business problems and issues.........................................................................................12

1.4. Information required to reach a decision on problems/issues.........................................13

1.5. Testing of Information for reliability and validity..........................................................14

1.6. Formal and informal networks........................................................................................15

LO2: Analyze information and knowledge...................................................................................17

2.1. Objectives for analysis to be clear, relevant and consistent...............................................18

2.2. Identify and interpret Patterns and emerging trends..........................................................20

2.3. Appropriate Utilization of Statistical analysis and interpretations.................................21

2.4. Taking Sensitivity analysis on any options proposed....................................................22

2.5. Reflection of logical approach with Documentation.....................................................23

A brief history of Decision Support Systems............................................................................24

2.7. Systems definition and description.................................................................................25

LO3: Take decisions on business issues identified........................................................................27

Maichew ATVET College Pby: Hagos G. 2010 E.C 3

3.2. Risk management plans..................................................................................................30

3.3. Quantitative methods outcomes......................................................................................33

3.4. Consult Specialists and other relevant groups and individuals.......................................34

3.5. Decisions taking..............................................................................................................35

3.6. Decisions reached in accordance with organization guidelines/procedures...................36

3.7. Implementing Decisions taken consistent with organization standards..........................38

3.8. Communicating Decisions taken in a timely manner.....................................................42

LO4: Disseminate information to the organisation...................................................................46

4.1 Undertaking of Research and consultation....................................................................46

4.2 Documented Advice/information needs..........................................................................48

4.3 Information documented and data bases updated regularly............................................50

4.6 Develop Communication plans to provide for recipient evaluation...............................58

4.7 Adhering Confidentiality in the transmission of information/advice.............................60

4.8 Regularly reviewing and up-dating of Communication plans........................................64

4.9 Technology utilization.........................................................................................................66

4.9 Corporate knowledge maintaining and security ensuring...............................................68

Maichew ATVET College Pby: Hagos G. 2010 E.C 4

Information Management vs. Knowledge Management

So what exactly is the difference?

Information and IM:

Maichew ATVET College Pby: Hagos G. 2010 E.C 5

Knowledge and KM:

 Focus on knowledge, understanding, and wisdom

Maichew ATVET College Pby: Hagos G. 2010 E.C 6

LO1: Obtain, classify and summarize information relevant to business issues

1.1. Gathering Information reliably sourced and efficiently

Strategies for Gathering Reliable Information

Maichew ATVET College Pby: Hagos G. 2010 E.C 7

Locating Useful Resources

Using Primary and Secondary Sources

Maichew ATVET College Pby: Hagos G. 2010 E.C 8

1.2. Information Classification and summarizing

Maichew ATVET College Pby: Hagos G. 2010 E.C 9

Maichew ATVET College Pby: Hagos G. 2010 E.C 10

Writing the Summary

Maichew ATVET College Pby: Hagos G. 2010 E.C 11

1.3. Business problems and issues

A problem statement' is a short description of the issues that need to be addressed by

Name: _ Date:

Name: _ Date:

Name: _ Date: