Plumbing Materials: H2O

Introduction

• Universal Solvent

• About 71 percent of the

Earth's surface

• Important natural
resource

Water is called the "universal solvent" because it is capable of dissolving more substances
than any other liquid. This is important to every living thing on earth, it takes along valuable
chemicals, minerals, and nutrients.

About 71 percent of the Earth's surface is water-covered, and the oceans hold about 96.5
percent of all Earth's water. Water also exists in the air as water vapor, in rivers and lakes, in
icecaps and glaciers, in the ground as soil moisture and in aquifers.

Water is an important natural resource and should be managed in a holistic and sustainable
way. Today, the threat of inadequate safe water supply is real. Water is a key development
ingredient and should be made available to every human being.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
Introduction
• Groundwater as common
source of water
Primarily used by 60% of households

• People use
water from the
nearby “poso”
or deep well.

In the Philippines, groundwater is the common source of water in cities, municipalities and
rural areas. Groundwater is primarily used by 60% of households, and in
communities without the convenience of piped water service from municipal or city water
districts, or Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) concessionaires,
people use water from the nearby “poso” or deep well.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
Introduction
• Average of 12 persons a day (or 4,200 deaths per year) die of
water-borne diseases – Department of Health

RA 9275, May 6, 2004

• Philippine Clean Water Act was enacted.
• Signed by Pres. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo
• To protect the country's water bodies from pollution
from land-based sources and by penalizing acts of
polluting them.

According to the Department of Health, an average of 12 persons a day (or 4,200 deaths
per year) die of water-borne diseases. Water is a major factor in ensuring the availability of
food, and the conditions in which people live.

In 2004, Republic Act No. 9275, or the Philippine Clean Water Act, which Legarda authored,
was enacted. The law aims to protect the country's water bodies from pollution from land-
based sources and by penalizing acts of polluting them. It also provides for establishing
multi-sectoral governing boards that manage water quality in local river bodies and other
water resources.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
Potable vs. Non Potable

• “POTARE” the Latin word • Not suitable for drinking

which means ‘to drink. but may still be used for
• Stored water that is other purposes
suitable for human
consumption

Potable water is stored water that is suitable for human consumption. Potable water has
more uses than just drinking, as it is the water that we use for washing our kitchen dishes
and utensils. For any purpose that might result in the ingestion of water or when water
comes into contact with the skin, potable water is used in these instances. The word
potable comes from ‘Potare’, the Latin word which means ‘to drink’. When water is not
labelled as potable is should not be drunk as this could be a hazard to your health.

Non-potable water differs from potable water in the way that it is not appropriate for
human consumption. Although non potable water is not suitable for human contact, it has
a wide variety of uses that are essential in our everyday lives from plumbing to gardening
applications. From washing machine water to toilet and urinal flushing, non-potable water
is also essential for many things that we do.

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Potable water is used for preparing food or beverages for human consumption, for washing
dishes and utensils that are used to prepare or consume food or beverages, for bathing, or
for any other purpose that might result in the ingestion of water or its contact with the
skin.

Potable water sources largely come from deep wells that tap into the aquifer or
from surface water sources that have been treated for contaminants.

Non-potable water sources can vary from shallower wells that don’t meet water
quality requirements but also applies to recycled (or reclaimed) water sources, by
definition.

Non-potable water is often a part of rainwater harvesting systems. With the increased
focus on environmental issues and sustainability, such systems are ideal for those who
want to save water.

Also known as greywater, harvested rainwater is often utilized for tasks such as washing
cars and clothes, flushing toilets, and watering gardens and crops. In fact, they’re suitable
for any application where the water won’t be drunk.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
Different Pipe Brands

The following are the different recommended brands. The most common and available in
the market is Moldex.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
Types of Fittings
A pipe fitting is used in plumbing
system to join multiple pipes of
same size or different sizes, to
regulate the flow or to measure the
flow.
vs. Types of Fixtures
Plumbing fixture is a part (such as
a sink, toilet, faucet, etc.) that is
attached to a system of pipes that
carry water or water-carried waste
through a building

A pipe fitting is used in plumbing system to join multiple pipes of same size or
different sizes, to regulate the flow or to measure the flow.

Plumbing fixtures means receptacles intended to receive and discharge water or

water-carried wastes into the sewer system with which they are connected.

The most common plumbing fixtures are faucets, sinks, bathtubs, showers, and
toilets. Each fixture should have a shut off valve, or stop valve, installed for each
water supply line that leads to the fixture

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O

uPVC
PEX

Types of Pipes
PPR CPVC
Copper
GI
HDPE

Several types of plumbing pipes can be used for residential homes or commercial buildings.
The decision between the two is based on their use and installation.
When it comes to water systems, we always look for piping material that is long-
lasting, durable, and suitable for the application. And over the years, certain pipes
have been designed to provide the most value and functionality for their price.

For water pipes, there are different types being used. Usually, we use uPVC and PPR. HDPE,
CPVC,GI. Copper and PEX pipes are used for special purposes.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O

uPVC
PEX

PPR CPVC
Copper
GI
HDPE

Water pipes have same dimeter size preference: the smallest is ½ inch(or 15mm), for sub-
branches or supply lines, we consider using ¾ inch(20mm), standard size for main line is 1
inch(25mm), then for special cases, we also use 1 ¼ inch(32mm), 1 ½ inch(40mm), 2
inch(50mm), 2 1/2inch(63mm), 3 inch(75mm), 4 inch(100mm), and 6 inch(150mm).

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O

uPVC
PEX

PPR CPVC
Copper
GI
HDPE

The Fixture Connection Schedule shows the preferred diameter sizes for Waste, trap, vent,
and cold water line with respect to the different common fixtures such as water closet,
urinal lavatory, sinks and hose Bibb.

Since we’re into water connection, our focus is the cold waterline.

Usually, the diameter size for main line is 25mm, but we can also consider the 32mm which
supplies water closets. For male urinals, we may use the 25mm branch pipe, and the rest
can be a minimum of 15mm diameter. However, the least available diameter size that our
market can offer is the 20mm diameter.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
• Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride
uPVC • No added plasticizers
• Long lifespan
• Low Maintenance, easy to install
• Affordable
• Lightweight
• Standard Length = 3m
• Must comply PNS 65, and ISO
1452(quality, pressure rating, and
dimensions)
• Schedule 40

UPVC or unplasticised polyvinyl chloride is a type of PVC that is produced without

any added plasticizers. (Generally, plasticizers are added to soften the PVC material
which is otherwise hard. The absence of plasticizer's makes UPVC a notably hard
variant of PVC pipes)

UPVC pipes are known for their long lifespan(On average, uPVC pipes can last for up
to 50 years or more if they are properly installed and maintained. However, certain
factors can affect their lifespan, such as: Exposure to sunlight: Prolonged exposure
to sunlight can cause uPVC pipes to degrade faster, which can reduce their lifespan.)

UPVC’s are also known for their low maintenance requirements, and affordability,
which make them a popular choice. These pipes have smooth inner surfaces which
prevent contaminant build-up.

Waterline pipes and fittings must comply to both local (PNS 65) and international
standard for quality, pressure rating, thickness, and dimensions.

Standard length for PVC water pipes is 3 meters excluding the hub. Hence, total

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length of the pipe (with the hub included) should be more than 3 meters.

UPVC pipes are extremely lightweight compared to metal, concrete and other plastic pipes.

PVC also comes in a variety of thicknesses, called schedules. Schedules 40 is common for
pipes used in water distribution.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
FITTINGS

WATERLINE fittings are pressure-tested against ISO 1452 standards to ensure no

water pipe failure, leaks and breakage. And because they follow ISO 1452
prescribed dimensions, you can get up to 20% better water flow and less operating
expense.

The fittings are as follows which could be interconnected together with the pipe
using a Teflon tape:

• Ball Valve(uses a hollow, pivoting ball to control the flow of a medium through
itself. If the hole of the ball is in line with the flow, the valve is open, and it is
closed when the valve handle has been used to pivot the ball ninety degrees)

• Coupling and coupling reducer(designed to connect two different PVC pipes and
fittings of varying thickness)

• 45 and 90 degree Elbow(Primary purpose is to change the direction of fluid's

flow in a plumbing system to avoid direct obstruction)

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• End Cap

• Cross tee, Equal Tee, Reducer Tee(designed to connect two separate lines to the
main supply line; has three ends; out of them, two ends are in line while the other
end is at a 90-degree angle.)

• Female and Male Adapter(their difference is their inside and outside threads)

• Female Elbow and Tee

• Bushing Reducer

• Union Patente(designed to connect/join two PVC pipes together without using

glued coupling or sealant. Difference of a union can be removed easily any time
while the coupling cannot. It comprises of a nut, female and male ended threads.

• Compression Coupling(also known as pipe repair coupling; is used in joining

different types of pipes and fittings while conducting a temporary repair)

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
• Polypropylene Random copolymer pipe
• Suitable for cold and hot water
PPR • Good corrosion resistance, sanitation
and non-toxicity, small expansion force
and firm connection
• Mainly white, gray, green and yellow
• White PPR fails to pass light detection
• Green PPR have longer life span and
prioritize health and safety.
• Pricey.

PPR is a polypropylene random copolymer pipe. They are suitable for cold and hot
water pressurized plumbing and mechanical systems.

While PVC pipes are tough with good ductility, PPR pipes are better for water supply
piping, are high-strength and have excellent processing performance, good creep
resistance at higher temperatures and the unique advantage of high transparency
of random copolymer polypropylene.

PPR pipes also have good corrosion resistance, sanitation and non-toxicity, small
expansion force and firm connection, which is more suitable for home improvement
and water supply.

PPR pipes are mainly white, gray, green and yellow. Consumers often think that
white is the best. In fact, color is not the standard for judging the quality. In fact, the
quality of PPR water pipes has nothing to do with the color of PPR water pipes.

The color and quality of PPR pipes are not necessarily related. However, there are more
cases where the white PPR fails to pass the light detection, while the green does not have

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these problems. Green light transmittance is not as good as white, so green PPR tubes are
not easy to breed with bacteria and the service life is longer.

Plastic Green PPR Pipe Fittings prioritize health and safety considerations.

However, the price is different, the general price of PVC is lower than PPR.

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Plumbing Materials: H2O

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Plumbing Materials: H2O

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
FITTINGS

Fusion Welding Machine is used to

connect pipe to fittings

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
FITTINGS

Fusion Welding Machine is used to connect pipe to fittings

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
• High-Density Polyethylene
HDPE • resistant to harsh chemicals
• does not leak or corrode.
• Durable
• Replaces obsolete concrete or steel pipes
• lifespan of 50-100 years
• Conserves energy, does not release
dangerous toxins into the air
• Cheaper than the production of metal pipes
• Mainly used in liquid and gas transportation
• Suitable for use with hot or cold water
• Length: 5.8m and 11.8m

HDPE pipe is a type of flexible plastic pipe made from thermoplastic HDPE (high-density
polyethylene) that is created by the copolymerization of ethylene and small amounts of
other hydrocarbons. This type of plastic pipe has strong molecular bonds and high
molecular density that makes it resistant to harsh chemicals. Also, it does not leak or
corrode and has many outstanding advantages in terms of durability and strength. Today,
HDPE pipes are used globally to replace obsolete concrete or steel pipes in a few industries.

The lifespan of HDPE pipes is longer than metal pipes (lasts only 20 to 50 years). It is
estimated to range from 50 to 100 years depending on different applications.

HDPE pipes are recognized as having a minimal impact on the environment. The production
of HDPE pipes takes less energy than non-plastic pipes and does not release dangerous
toxins into the air during manufacturing.

The cost of manufacturing and processing plastic pipes is cheaper than the production of
metal pipes. In addition, HDPE pipes are light in weight, so they save more on
transportation and installation costs.

HDPE pipes are mainly used in liquid and gas transportation because they are not corroded
by the chemicals present in the liquid or gas they transport. So they don’t cause leakage or

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blockage problems.

HDPE pipe can handle fluid and environmental temperatures ranging from -40°F to
140°F, making HDPE water pipe suitable for use with hot or cold water in many
different environments.

Length varies to 5.8m and 11.8m

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
FITTINGS

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
Connection methods
Socket Fusion Butt Fusion

Electrofusion Saddle Fusion

The principle of thermal fusion is to heat two HDPE pipe surfaces to a specified
temperature, and then fuse them by applying a sufficient force. This force causes
the molten pipes to mix together resulting in fusion.

There are four common HDPE pipe connection methods including butt fusion, socket
fusion, saddle fusion, and electrofusion.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
• Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride
• Cream-colored or off-white plastic
• Can withstand up to about 180 degrees Fahrenheit
• Can be used for both hot and cold water lines.
• Produced by the chlorination of the PVC polymer
• Chlorination of water makes it germs-free
CPVC • More flexible than UPVC or PVC pipes
• Suitable for both hot and cold supply of fluids
• “Self-extinguishing”, sometimes used for water sprinklers
• Available in 'Iron Pipe Size' (IPS) from 65mm (2 1/2") to
150mm (6"); Sched. 40 and Sched. 80, and standard
lengths of 3m and 5m.

The acronym CPVC stands for chlorinated polyvinyl chloride. It is often (but not always)
cream-colored or off-white plastic. This type of pipe can stand temperatures up to about
180 degrees Fahrenheit or so (this depends on the schedule), so it can be used for both hot
and cold water lines.

CPVC is a type of PVC that is produced by the chlorination of the PVC polymer.

Chlorination is the process of adding chlorine to any element to treat any impurities, for
example, the chlorination of water makes it germs-free.

CPVC pipes are more flexible than UPVC or PVC pipes. While a CPVC pipe has added
plasticizers, UPVC pipes do not contain any plasticizer. These pipes are made of
thermoplastics making them suitable for both hot and cold supply of fluids.

These pipes are self-extinguishing, it’s the reason why they’re sometimes used for water
sprinklers.

CPVC pipes are also available in 'Iron Pipe Size' (IPS) from 65mm (2 1/2") to 150mm
(6") in Schedule 40 and Schedule 80 series which meet the requirements of ASTM F

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441. These pipes are plain ended and are available in standard lengths of 3 and 5
meters with various pressure ratings.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
FITTINGS

CPVC Solvent Cement

The following are the fittings used for CPVC connection. As with uPVC, you we use
primer and glue or solvent cement when making joints. Also, make sure that can be
used on CPVC.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
• Galvanized Iron (GI) Pipes
• wrought steel pipes provided with zinc coating
• available in light, medium and heavy grades
• For a 15 mm GI pipe, the thicknesses are:
2.0, 2.65 and 3.25 for the light, medium and heavy
grades
• Medium grade pipes are used for internal plumbing
in building
• Widely used for conveying raw water & distribution of
treated water GI
• Commercial length varies from 3m to 12m, but
usually 6m.

These pipes are wrought steel pipes provided with zinc coating.

They are available in light, medium and heavy grades depending on the thickness of the
metal. For a 15 mm GI pipe, the thicknesses are 2.0, 2.65 & 3.25 for the light, medium and
heavy grades, respectively. Generally the medium grade pipes are used for internal
plumbing in building.

It was once the most common type of pipe for water supply lines, but because labor
and time that goes into cutting, threading, and installing galvanized pipe, it no
longer used much, except for limited use in repairs. However, galvanized pipe for
water distribution is still seen in larger commercial applications.

These pipes are widely used for conveying raw water & distribution of treated water
in majority of rural water supply schemes, where the requirement of water is less.

Commercial length varies from 3m to 12m, but usually 6m.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
FITTINGS

To join two galvanized pipes together, you can use threaded fittings such as
couplings, unions, or bushings. First, clean the ends of the pipes to remove any
debris or corrosion. Then, apply pipe joint compound or thread seal tape to the
male threads of the fittings.ng can cause damaging leaks, mostly due to the rough
edges most galvanized pipes have as a result of the zinc coating.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
• Commonly used for the supply of hot and cold water
• Easy to join by soldering
• Also durable and not prone to snapping or bacteria
growth
• Can be used outside as they are resistant to UV light
• Able to handle pressure of up to 1000 psi
• Average lifespan ranges from 50 – 70 years
• Less likely to freeze throughout the winter season Copper
• Resistant to corrosion
• Different types: K, L, and M
• Length varies to 12 feet or 3.65m
• Expensive

A commonly used pipe for the supply of hot and cold water and have been used in home
since the 1960’s. Copper pipes are easy to install and require less tools because copper is
easy to join by soldering. They are also durable and not prone to snapping or bacteria
growth meaning they last many years. Unlike plastic pipes, copper pipes can be used
outside as they are resistant to UV light.

This piping material is able to handle pressure of up to 1000 psi. The average lifespan of
copper piping will range from 50 – 70 years depending on variables such as the surrounding
climate, water quality, and operating patterns. This material is able to withstand the
demands of large to small families for a lifetime.

These pipes are less likely to freeze throughout the winter season when compared to other
materials. In addition, copper piping is resistant to corrosion from water and includes a
sufficient reactivity rate.

TYPES OF COPPER PIPES:

Type K copper pipe has the thickest wall of all the common types. It is used for
water distribution, fire protection, oil, HVAC, and many other applications in the

25
construction industry. Type K pipe is available in a rigid and flexible form and can be
used with flared and compression fittings. It is recommended for main water lines
and underground installations because its thickness helps it withstand the pressure
from backfilled earth in trenches. Type K pipe is not approved for use in natural gas
applications because the gas environment can damage the joints of the pipes.

Type L copper pipe is used for interior plumbing, fire protection, and some HVAC
applications. It is available in rigid and flexible forms and can be used with sweat,
compression, and flare fittings. Type L is considered the most common type of
copper piping, as it can be used in many more applications than Type K. Flexible Type
L copper can be used to repair or replace old water lines, although rigid tubing is
more durable. Type L also can be used outside the home where it will be directly
exposed. Type L copper is thinner than Type K but thicker than type M.

Type M wall is thinner than both type K and L copper. Sold in both rigid and flexible
forms, Type M is used most commonly for domestic water service and vacuum
systems. It can be used with sweat, compression, and flare fittings. Type M tubing is
favored for residential work for its relatively low price; a thinner wall means less
copper and thus a lower price. Type M copper is not allowed by plumbing codes in
all areas and applications. Always check with the local building authority for
restrictions on its use.

The standard length for copper pipe is 12 feet or 3.65m.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O

Brazing
FITTINGS

Soldering

Joining methods include soldering, brazing and electric resistance with Mapp Gas. Soldered
joints, with capillary fittings, are used in plumbing for water lines and for sanitary drainage.
Brazed joints, with capillary fittings, are used where greater joint strength is required or
where service temperatures are as high as 350°F.

Brazing is preferred, and often required, for joints in air-conditioning and refrigeration
piping.

Electric resistance joining is a flameless way to make soldered joints, although heat is still
generated.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
• Cross-linked polyethylene
• Due to its flexibility less fittings are needed
• Expandable, resistant to cracking
PEX
• Does not corrode
• Red is for hot water line
• Blue is for cold water line
• White or gray for either hot or cold water
• Inexpensive
• Noiseless but unsuitable for outdoor use
• Types: PEX A, PEX B, and PEX C

PEX, short for cross-linked polyethylene, is a flexible plastic used for plumbing.

PEX can be connected to existing copper and galvanized steel water supply lines with the
use of fittings—small pieces that link the two types of plumbing together.

Due to its flexibility less fittings are needed, unlike metal piping which cannot bend.

PEX is more resistant to cracking due to freezing thanks to its ability to expand.

Unlike copper and steel pipes, PEX does not corrode, avoiding both water contamination
and leaks.

Water travels noiselessly through PEX, which is not always the case with metal plumbing.

PEX is also an inexpensive option compared to copper.

• PEX tubing can be red, blue, white, or gray. Red signifies a hot water line, while
blue is used for cold water lines. White or gray PEX can be used for either hot or
cold water.

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Ultraviolet rays (from the sun) cause PEX to break down quickly, making PEX
unsuitable for outdoor use.

The three types of PEX all share a fundamental similarity, but they aren't exactly the same:

PEX-A
PEX-a is flexible and has essentially no coil memory, making it the most commonly
used tubing type with expansion fittings. It can also be used with push, crimp, clamp
and press style fitting; however it is normally the highest-priced PEX pipe type.
PEX-A can be used with:
Expansion fittings
Push-to-connect fittings
Crimp fittings
Clamp fittings
Press style fitting
PEX-B
PEX-b is the most commonly used PEX tubing in North America for over 40 years and
typically carries a 25-year warranty. It’s slightly more rigid than PEX-a, giving it a
higher burst pressure, and it has the highest chlorine resistance rating. PEX-b can also
be used for push, crimp, clamp and press style fittings and is the most price-friendly
PEX type available.
PEX-B can be used with:
Push-to-connect fittings
Crimp fittings
Clamp fittings
Press style fitting
PEX-C
PEX-c has less coil memory than PEX-b due to its manufacturing process. It’s
commonly used for supply lines from the supply stop to the fixture but is the least
commonly used product in behind the wall water distribution systems. It may also be
used for closed loop heating systems like radiant floor heating and snow melt
systems.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
Copper
crimping
FITTINGS

Steel
Clamps

Compression
Fittings

Copper crimping is one of the most popular methods to connect PEX. You’ll need copper
crimping rings and a PEX crimping tool. The copper ring slides over the end of the PEX
tubing, then a fitting is inserted into the PEX. The copper ring is moved to the end of the
tube over the fitting, so that the PEX crimping tool can crimp the copper ring and tube
snuggly in place.

Stainless steel clamps (SSC) is a method that involves using a ratchet clamping tool to
tighten stainless steel rings around PEX connections. The steel ring slides over the end of
the PEX tubing before the fitting is inserted, similar to the copper crimping method. Then
the ratchet clamping tool is used to squeeze a tab on the ring, tightening the ring around
the tube and fitting.

Compression fittings involve slipping a threaded brass nut over the PEX tube before
sliding a tapered plastic compression ring in place. Then a hollow brass tube is
inserted into the end of the PEX tubing. All of the above is inserted into the end of a
threaded fitting, and the threaded brass nut is screwed onto the end of the fitting.
The nut squeezes the plastic compression ring against the end of the brass fitting to
create a seal as it’s tightened.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
Connecting joints of similar size Connecting joints of same male threads
Coupling Long Nipple

Close Nipple
Connecting joints of dissimilar size

Hex Pipe Nipple

Adapter Bushing

Shoulder Pipe
Nipple

Connecting two different size PVC pipes can be done using a PVC coupling or
adapter.

A PVC coupling is used to connect pipes of the same size, while a PVC adapter is
used to connect pipes of different sizes.

A nipple is a fitting that is a short piece of pipe. A nipple is usually provided with a male
pipe thread (MPT) connection at each end of the fitting, which are used to make a
watertight seal when connecting piping to threaded fittings, valves or equipment. They are
mostly used in hoses and plumbing.

Pipe nipples are in lengths up to 12”, lengths over 12” are referred to as ready cut pipe the
thread specifications are identical however the tolerance on the length is less stringent on
ready cut pipe.

A close nipple has no unthreaded area which means that when two female fittings are
screwed tightly onto both ends of the nipple, very little of the nipple will still be exposed.
When ordering a close nipple, they are ordered by the diameter by close, for example 1/2"
x close.

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Shoulder nipples are longer than a close nipple and include a very short unthreaded space
between the threads. The unthreaded space is not large enough to fit a pipe wrench. When
two female fittings are screwed onto either end, a small piece of nipple will remain exposed.
A shoulder nipple is the first length of nipple that is available up from a close nipple.

A hex nipple gets it's name from the hexagon shaped middle section. The hexagon
shape allows for a wrench to grasp it securely. If you come across a hex nipple with
two different sizes on each end, it is referred to as a reducer or unequal nipple.

Bushings are used to combine pipes of different sizes together by decreasing the size
of the larger fitting to the size of the smaller pipe. Bushings are not always threaded
inside out and occupy very little space in comparison to a union or coupling used for
the same purpose.

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 Plumbing Materials: H2O
Connecting joints of
dissimilar materials

When you go to add or replace plumbing lines in a house that’s more than 10 years old,
chances are you won’t find new pipes that are the same kind as the old ones. Usually, a
variety of dielectric unions are used to join pipes made of different materials to avoid any
kind of galvanic corrosion between them. These pipe fittings comprise of a nut, female and
male ended threads.

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Plumbing Materials: H2O
Connecting joints of
dissimilar materials

31
 Sources of Water: Natural vs. Man-made

The water flowing from your tap may come from hundreds of miles away. Public water
systems are most often supplied by surface water or ground water. Large cities and towns
usually get their water from surface water supplies or a mix of surface and ground water
supplies. Some small, rural communities rely solely on ground water supplies, which may or
may not require treatment to meet drinking water standards.

If you do not get your water from a public water system, you most likely have a private
ground water well.

Source water refers to bodies of water (such as rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs,
springs, and ground water) that provide water to public drinking-water supplies and
private wells.

Water sources can include:

Surface Water (for example, a lake, river, or reservoir)
Ground Water (for example, an aquifer)

Freshwater sources include rivers, lagoons, lakes, wetlands, icebergs, glaciers,

groundwater, groundwater currents, aquifers, ice caps, and ice fields. These

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freshwater sources are characterized by a low concentration of dissolved salts, less
than 500 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved salts.

Fresh water can come from many different sources on earth. While a vast majority of
earth's water comes from the oceans that cover almost 70% of the planet's surface
and are too salty to drink, there are still plenty of places where fresh water occurs
naturally. Let us read ahead to know more about water, uses of water in our daily life
and what percentage of earth's water is freshwater.

Dams, reservoirs, and canals are three examples of man-made water sources.
Human-made sources, as opposed to natural resources like rivers, lakes, oceans, and
seas, are made by humans and are not found in nature. It is still unknown how much
natural renewal balances this usage and whether ecosystems are in danger. Both
natural and human-made sources of water are crucial as we cannot survive without
water.

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