Lecture 3 - Design Controls and Criteria

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Lecture 3 – Design Controls and Criteria
Dr. Muhammad Abdullah
Department of Civil Engineering

University of Management and Technology
Geometric Design of Highway Facilities
• Geometric design deals with the dimensioning of the

elements of highways (visible features of highways),
such as vertical and horizontal curves, cross-sections,
and parking facilities etc.
• A good geometric design has to balance operational

efficiency, comfort, safety, convenience, cost,
environmental impact, and aesthetics.
2
Visible Features of Highways
3
4
5
6
7
8
Factors Affecting Highway Design
9
Factors Influencing Highway Design

• Highway functional classification
• Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle composition
• Design speed
• Design vehicle
• Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders, and medians
• Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades
• Topography of the area that the highway traverses
• Level of service
• Available funds
• Safety
• Social and environmental factors
These factors are often interrelated
10
Factors Influencing Highway Design
• In most instances, the principal factors used to determine the

standards to which a particular highway will be designed are
• level of service to be provided
• expected traffic volume
• design speed
• and the design vehicle
• These factors, coupled with the basic characteristics of the

driver, vehicle, and road, are used to determine standards for
the geometric characteristics of the highway, such as cross
sections and horizontal and vertical alignments
11
Design Vehicles
12
Geometric Design of Highway Facilities > Factors Influencing Highway Design
Design Vehicles
• Given the wide range of vehicle types using street and

highway facilities, it is necessary to adopt standard
vehicle characteristics for design and control purposes
• Design vehicles are primarily employed in the design of

turning roadways and intersection curbs, and are used to
help determine appropriate lane widths, lane-widening
on curves etc.
13
Design Vehicles
• A design vehicle is selected to represent all vehicles on the highway.

• Process: Examine all vehicle types, establish general class groupings, and
select vehicles of representative sizes within each class for design use.
• For purposes of geometric design, each design vehicle has larger physical
dimensions and a larger minimum turning radius than most vehicles in its
class.
• The largest design vehicles are usually accommodated in freeway design.
• The vehicle type selected as the design vehicle is the largest that is likely
to use the highway with considerable frequency.
• Its weight, dimensions, and operating characteristics are used to establish the
design standards of the highway and
• To determine critical design features such as radii at intersections and
turning roadways as well as highway grades.
All parts of the street and highway network must be accessible to emergency vehicles 14
Design Vehicles
• Four general classes of design vehicles have been established:

• Passenger cars: The passenger-car class includes passenger cars of all sizes,
sport/utility vehicles, minivans, vans, and pick-up trucks.
• Buses: Buses include intercity (motor coaches), city transit, school, and articulated
buses.
• Trucks: The truck class includes single-unit trucks, truck tractor-semitrailer

combinations, and truck tractors with semitrailers in combination with full trailers.
• Recreational vehicles: Recreational vehicles include motor homes, cars with

camper trailers, cars with boat trailers, motor homes with boat trailers, and motor
homes pulling cars.
• In addition, the bicycle should also be considered as a design vehicle

where bicycle use is allowed on a highway.
15
Design Vehicles
• The following guidelines apply when selecting a design vehicle:

• A passenger car may be selected when the main traffic generator is a
parking lot or series of parking lots.
• A two-axle single-unit truck may be used for intersection design of

residential streets and park roads.
• A three-axle single-unit truck may be used for the design of collector

streets and other facilities where larger single-unit trucks are likely.
• A city transit bus may be used in the design of state highway

intersections with city streets that are designated bus routes and that
have relatively few large trucks using them.
16
Design Vehicles
• continued…
• Depending on expected usage, a large school bus or a
conventional school bus may be used for the design of
intersections of highways with low-volume county highways and
township/local roads under 400 ADT.
• The WB-20 (WB-65 or WB-75) truck should generally be the

minimum size design vehicle considered for intersections of
freeway ramp terminals with arterial cross roads and for other
intersections on state highways and industrialized streets that
carry high volumes of traffic and/or that provide local access for
large trucks.
17
Design Vehicles
Single Unit Trailer, WB-20 City Transit Bus
Conventional School Bus Large School Bus
18
Design Vehicles
• Design vehicle heights range from 4.25 ft for a passenger car to 13.5 ft
for the largest trucks
• Overhead clearances of overpass and sign structures, electrical wires, and other
overhead objects should be sufficient to allow the largest anticipated vehicles to
proceed
• As all facilities must accommodate a wide variety of potential emergency vehicles,
use of 14.0 ft for minimum clearances is advisable for most facilities
• The width of design vehicles, generally, ranges from 7.0 ft for passenger
cars to 8.5 ft for the largest trucks
• This should influence the design of such features as lane width and shoulders. For
most facilities, it is desirable to use the standard 12-ft lane width
• Narrower lanes may be considered for some types of facilities when necessary,
but given the width of modern vehicles, 10 ft is a reasonable minimum for virtually
all applications
19
Design Vehicles
• There are a number of critical vehicle properties that

must be accounted for in the design of roadways and
traffic controls. These include:
• Turning characteristics
• Low-speed turning characteristics
• High-speed turning characteristics
• Braking and deceleration
• Acceleration
20
Design Vehicles

• Acceleration
21
Turning Characteristics of Vehicles
• There are two conditions under which vehicles must make

turns:
• Low-speed turns (5 10 mi/h)
• High-speed turns (> 10 mi/h)
• Low-speed turns are limited by the characteristics of the

vehicle, as the minimum radius allowed by the vehicle’s
steering mechanism can be supported at such speeds.
• High-speed turns are limited by the dynamics of side friction

between the roadway and the tires, and by the superelevation
(cross-slope) of the roadway.
22
Design Vehicles

• Acceleration
23
Low-Speed Turning
• In designing for low-speed turns,

the minimum design turning
radius is the minimum centerline
radius plus one-half of the width
of the front of the vehicle.
24
Minimum Turning Paths of Design Vehicles
• The principal dimensions affecting design are:

• the minimum centerline turning radius (CTR),
• the out-to-out track width,
• the wheelbase, and
• the path of the inner rear tire.
• The boundaries of the turning paths of each design

vehicle for its sharpest turns are established by the outer
trace of the front overhang and the path of the inner rear
wheel.
25
26
27
28
29
30
Design Vehicles

• Acceleration
31
High-Speed Turning
• When involved in a high-speed turn on a highway curve, centripetal forces of

momentum are exerted on the vehicle to continue in a straight path. To hold
the curve, these forces are opposed by side friction and superelevation.
• Relationship defining the vehicle operation on a curve:
• e = superelevation rate, %
• f = coefficient of side friction
• S = speed of the vehicle, mi/h
• R = radius of curvature, ft
• g = acceleration rate due to gravity, 32.2 ft/s2
32
High-Speed Turning - Superelevation
• The normal range of superelevation rates is from a

minimum of approximately 0.5% to support side drainage
to a maximum of 12%.
• As speed increases, higher superelevation rates are used
• Where icing conditions are expected, the maximum

superelevation rate is generally limited to 8% to prevent a stalled
vehicle from sliding towards the inside of the curve
• Coefficients of side friction for design are based upon wet

roadway conditions.
33
• Example: If a roadway has a design speed of 65 mi/h, and

the maximum values are e = 8% and f = 0.11. Compute
the minimum radius.
34
• Example: If a roadway has a design speed of 65 mi/h, and

the maximum values are e = 8% and f = 0.11. Compute
the minimum radius.
35
Design Vehicles

• Acceleration
36
Braking Characteristics
• where: db = braking distance, ft

• S = initial speed, ft/s
• a = deceleration rate, ft/s2
• When speed is expressed in mi/h:
• In terms of coefficient of sliding friction (F):

a = deceleration rate, generally
11.2 ft/s2 on wet pavements
g = acceleration due to gravity,
32.2 ft/s2
37
• When the effects of grade are considered:
• where: G = grade, %
• initial speed, mi/h
• final speed, mi/h
38
• Example: Once the brakes are engaged, what distance is

covered bringing a vehicle traveling at 60 mi/h on a 3%
downgrade to a complete stop?
39
• Example: Once the brakes are engaged, what distance is

covered bringing a vehicle traveling at 60 mi/h on a 3%
downgrade to a complete stop?
40
Design Vehicles

• Acceleration
41
Acceleration Characteristics
• Passenger cars are able to accelerate at significantly

higher rates than commercial vehicles
• d = acceleration distance, ft
• S = speed at the end of acceleration (from a stop), mi/h
• a = acceleration rate, ft/s2
42
Driver Performance and Human
Factors
43
Driver Performance and Human Factors
• Consideration of driver performance is essential to

proper highway design and operation.
• The suitability of a design rests as much on how

effectively drivers are able to use the highway as on any
other criterion.
• When drivers use a highway designed to be compatible with their
capabilities and limitations, their performance is aided.
• When a design is incompatible with the capabilities of drivers, the
chance for driver errors increase, and crashes or inefficient
operation may result.
44
Road Users
• Human beings are complex and have a wide range of

characteristics that can and do influence the driving task
• Much of the task of traffic engineers is to find ways to
provide drivers with information in a clear, effective
manner that induces safe and proper responses.
• The two driver characteristics of utmost importance are
visual acuity factors and the reaction process
• Personality and psychology are also important, but are
difficult to quantify and dealt with primarily through
enforcement
45
Visual Characteristics of Drivers

• Acute or clear vision cone: 3o to 10o around the line of sight; legend can be read only
within this narrow field of vision.
• Fairly clear vision cone: 10o to 12o around the line of sight; color and shape can be
identified in this field.
• Peripheral vision: This field may extend up to 90o to the right and left of the centerline of
the pupil, and up to 60o above and 70o below the line of sight. Stationary objects are
generally not seen in the peripheral vision field, but the movement of objects through
this field is detected.
• In particular, the peripheral vision field narrows, as speed increases, to as little as 100o
at 20 mi/h and to 40o at 60 mi/h.
46
Perception-Reaction Time
• During perception and reaction, there are four distinct processes that
the driver must perform:
• Detection: In this phase, an object or condition of concern enters the driver’s field
of vision, and the driver becomes consciously aware that something requiring a
response is present.
• Identification: In this phase, the driver acquires sufficient information concerning
the object or condition to allow the consideration of an appropriate response.
• Decision: Once identification of the object or condition is sufficiently completed,
the driver must analyze the information and make a decision about how to
respond.
• Response: After a decision has been reached, the response is now physically
implemented by the driver.
• The total amount of time that this process takes is called the
perception-reaction time (PRT)
47
48
• Example: A driver rounds a curve at a speed of 60 mi/h

and sees a truck overturned on the roadway ahead. How
far will the driver’s vehicle travel before the driver’s foot
reaches the brake? Apply the AASHTO standard of 2.5 s
for braking reactions.
49
• Example: A driver rounds a curve at a speed of 60 mi/h

and sees a truck overturned on the roadway ahead. How
far will the driver’s vehicle travel before the driver’s foot
reaches the brake? Applying the AASHTO standard of 2.5 s
for braking reactions:
• d = 1.47 * 60 * 2.5 = 220.5 ft
• The vehicle will travel 220.5 ft (approximately 11-12 car

lengths) before the driver even engages the brake.
50
Highway Functional Classification
51
• Highways are classified according to their functions in

terms of the service they provide
• The classification system facilitates a systematic development of
highways as well the logical assignment of highway
responsibilities among different jurisdictions
• Depending on the area, highways and streets are

categorized as rural or urban roads
• This initial classification is necessary because urban and rural
areas have significantly different characteristics with respect to
the type of land use and population density
52
• Urban and rural highways are further categorized into the

following:
• Principal arterials
• Minor arterials
• Major collectors
• Minor collectors
• Local roads and streets
FHWA
53

• Urban Principal Arterial System:
• This system of highways serves the major activity centers of the urban area and
consists mainly of the highest-traffic-volume corridors.
• Urban Minor Arterial System:

• Streets and highways that interconnect with and augment the urban primary
arterials are classified as urban minor arterials.
• This system serves trips of moderate length and places more emphasis on land
access than the primary arterial system.
• Urban Collector Street System:

• The main purpose of streets within this system is to collect traffic from local
streets in residential areas or in CBDs and convey it to the arterial system.
• Urban Local Street System:

• The primary purposes of these streets are to provide access to abutting land and
to the collector streets. Through traffic is discouraged on these streets.
54
55

• Rural Principal Arterial System: This system consists of a network of highways
that serves most of the interstate trips and a substantial amount of intrastate
trips.
• Rural Minor Arterial System: This system of roads augments the principal
arterial system in the formation of a network of roads that connects cities, large
towns, and other traffic generators, such as large resorts.
• Rural Collector System: Highways within this system carry traffic primarily within
individual counties, and trip distances are usually shorter than those on the
arterial roads.
• Rural Major Collector System: Routes under this system carry traffic primarily to and
from county seats and large cities
• Rural Minor Collector System: This system consists of routes that collect traffic from
local roads and convey it to other facilities.
• Rural Local Road System: These roads serve trips of relatively short distances
and connect adjacent lands with the collector roads.
56
57
Volume
58
Volume
• Volume
• Number of vehicles passing a point during a specific period of time usually
expressed as veh/hour (vph) or veh/hour/lane (vphpl)
• Demand
• Number of vehicles, pedestrians, etc. that desire to travel between locations
during a specific period
• Frequently higher than volume during certain peak times
• Trips are diverted or not made when there are constraints in the system
• difficult to measure actual demand because capacity constrains the demand
• Capacity
• maximum number of vehicles that can pass a point during a specific period
• A characteristic of the roadway or facility
59
Volume
• Traffic volume is defined as the number of vehicles

passing a point on a highway, or a given lane or direction
of a highway, during a specified time interval
• Measured as vehicle per unit time: vehicles/day
• Rate of flow represents flows that exist for periods of time

less than one hour
60
Volume
• Daily volumes are used to document annual trends in highway
usage
• Four daily volume parameters are widely used in traffic
engineering:
• Average annual daily traffic (AADT)
• The average 24-hour volume at a given location over a full 365-day year
• Average annual weekday traffic (AAWT)
• The average 24-hour volume occurring on weekday over a full 365-day
year
• Average daily traffic (ADT)
• The average 24-hour volume at a given location over a defined time
period less than one year
• Average weekday traffic (AWT)
• The average 24-hour weekday volume at a given location over a defined
time period less than one year
61
Volume
• Illustration of daily volume parameters
62
Volume
• Daily volumes are useful for planning purposes but

cannot be used alone for design or operational analysis
purposes
• Volume varies considerably over the 24 hours of the day
• The single hour of the day that has the highest hourly
volume is referred to as the peak hour
63
Volume
• Traffic flow is highly variable and changes with time of

day, day of week, season, road characteristics and
direction etc.
64
Volume
• The traffic volume within peak hour is of greatest interest

to traffic engineers for design and operational analysis
usage
• The peak-hour volume is generally stated as a directional

volume
• Highways and controls must be designed to adequately

serve the peak-hour traffic volume in the peak direction
of flow
65
Design Hourly Volume (DHV)
• The design hourly volume (DHV) is the projected

hourly volume that is used for design.
• This volume is usually taken as a percentage of the expected
average daily traffic (ADT) on the highway.
• DHV is a representation of peak hour traffic, usually for

the future, or horizon year
A period of 20 years is widely used as a basis for design.
66
It is uneconomical to
select a DHV greater
than that which will be
exceeded during 29
hours in a year.
Thus, the 30th-highest
hourly volume is
usually selected as the
DHV.
DHV = Daily Hourly

Volume
Relationship between Highest Hourly Volume (HHV) and
percent of ADT in peak hour (referred to as K-factor)
67
• Excluding rural highways with unusually high or low fluctuation in

traffic volume, the 30th-highest hourly volume for rural highways is
usually between 12 and 18 percent of the ADT, with the average being
15 percent.
• The 30th-highest hourly volume should not be indiscriminately used as the
DHV, particularly on highways with unusual or high seasonal fluctuation in
the traffic flow
• The 30th-highest hourly volume may also be used as the DHV for
urban highways.
• It is usually determined by applying between 8 and 12 percent to the ADT
69
Directional Design Hourly Volume (DDHV)
• In rural areas, the flows in the opposing directions tend to

be similar in magnitude, with the difference between
them seldom being more than a 60:40 split.
• In urban areas, the split is dramatic with traffic inbound

towards the central business district (CBD) in the morning
peak periodically being brought to a standstill because of
congestion while the outbound traffic lanes are virtually
deserted.
70
Directional Design Hourly Volume (DDHV)
• D = Directional Distribution
• One way volume in peak direction (expressed as a percentage of
two-way traffic)
• It is given by multiplying AADT by K-factor and D-factor.
DDHV = AADT × 𝐾 × 𝐷
• Where: K = the proportion of AADT occurring in the peak hour, K-
factor.
• D = peak-hour volume proportion in the major direction, D-factor.
• DDHV = directional design hourly volume
71
Directional Distribution
• Reversible Lanes
72
73
74
• Percentage of Heavy vehicles

• Traffic streams comprising the entire spectrum of different vehicle types are
inconvenient to analyze.
• Highway Capacity Manual adopts the initial step of converting all the vehicles in
the stream to passenger car equivalents (PCE) or passenger car units (PCU) and
subsequent analyses are conducted on the basis of this homogeneous traffic
stream.
• Peak Hour Factor

• Flow is not uniform throughout an hour
75
• Example: If AADT is 3500 vpd and the 30th highest hourly

volume for the year is 420 vph what is the K-factor for the
facility?
• Example: If AADT is 3500 vpd, compute design hourly

volume for K-factor = 8% and 12%?
• Example: If traffic is directionally split 60/40, what is

directional distribution of traffic? Use DHV from previous
example.
76
• Example: The projected AADT of a proposed facility is

33,000 veh/day. If the proportion of AADT in the design
hour is 16 percent and the peak-hour directional
distribution is 65:35, compute DDHV.
77
• Example: If peak hour volume is 375 vph and peak 15-

minute flow rate is 600 vph, determine the peak hour
factor.
• Example: If peak hour volume is 375 vph and the peak

hour factor is 0.625, determine the design hourly volume
(DHV).
78
Level of Service
• The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) defines the quality of

traffic service provided by specific highway facilities under
specific traffic demands by means of a level of service.
• The level of service characterizes the operating conditions on the

facility in terms of traffic performance measures related to speed and
travel time, freedom to maneuver, traffic interruptions, and comfort
and convenience.
• The levels of service range from level of service A (least congested) to

level of service F (most congested).
79
Level of Service
80
Level of Service
81
Service Flow Rate
• The traffic flow rates that can be served at each level of service
are termed “service flow rates.”
• Service flow rate - The maximum hourly rate at which vehicles,

bicycles, or persons reasonably can be expected to traverse a point
or uniform segment of a lane or roadway during a given time period
(usually 15 min) under prevailing roadway, traffic, environmental, and
control conditions, while maintaining a designated level of service;
expressed as vehicles per hour or vehicles per hour per lane.
82
Design Service Flow Rate
• Design service flow rate is the maximum hourly flow rate

of traffic that a highway with particular design features
would be able to serve without the degree of congestion
falling below a pre-selected level ( “Acceptable Degrees of
Congestion”).
• The designed highway should be able to serve the design

service flow rate, which should be at least as great as the flow
rate during the peak 15-minute period of the design hour, but
not so great as to represent an extravagance in the design.
83
Speed
84
Speed
• The speed of vehicles on a road or highway depends, in addition to

capabilities of the drivers and their vehicles, upon five general
conditions:
• the physical characteristics of the highway,
• the amount of roadside interference,
• the weather,
• the presence of other vehicles, and
• the speed limitations (established either by law or by traffic control

devices).
Although any one of these factors may govern travel speed, the actual
travel speed on a facility usually reflects a combination of these factors.
85
Speed
• Highways should be designed to operate at a speed that

satisfies nearly all drivers.
• Because only a small percentage of drivers travel at extremely
high speed, it is not economically practical to design for them.
• On the other hand, the speed chosen for design should

not be that used by drivers under unfavorable conditions,
such as inclement weather, because the highway would
then be inefficient and may result in safety-related issues.
86
Speed
• Posted speed: speed limit
• Operating speed: Operating speed is the speed at which drivers are

observed operating their vehicles during free-flow conditions.
• Running speed: The speed at which an individual vehicle travels over

a highway section is known as its running speed.
• The running speed is the length of the highway section divided by the
running time for the vehicle to travel through the section.
• The average running speed of all vehicles is the most appropriate speed
measure for evaluating level of service and road user costs.
• Design speed: selected speed used to determine geometric design

features
87
Geometric Design of Highway Facilities > Factors Influencing Highway Design > Speed
Design Speed
Design speed is defined by the AASHTO Green Book as:
“the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a

specified section of highway when conditions are so
favorable that the design features of the highway govern.”
88
Design Speed
• Design speed is defined as a selected speed to determine

the various geometric features of the roadway.
• A design speed is selected to achieve a desired level of operation and
safety on the highway.
• It is one of the first parameters selected in the design process
because of its influence on other design variables
• Design speed depends on the anticipated operating speed, the

functional classification of the highway, the topography of the
area in which the highway is located, and the land use of the
adjacent area.
89
Design Speed
• For highway design, topography is generally classified into three
groups: level, rolling, and mountainous terrain.
• Level terrain is relatively flat. Horizontal and vertical sight distances are
generally long or can be achieved without much construction difficulty or
major expense.
In level terrain, the slope is considered to range from 0% to 8%.
• Rolling terrain has natural slopes that often rise above and fall below
the highway grade with occasional steep slopes that restrict the normal
vertical and horizontal alignments.
In rolling terrain, the slope is considered to range from 8.1% to 15%.
• Mountainous terrain has sudden changes in ground elevation in both
the longitudinal and transverse directions, thereby requiring frequent
hillside excavations to achieve acceptable horizontal and vertical
alignments.
In rolling terrain, the slope is considered to range over 15%.
Any reference to a slope shall mean the rise and fall on the grade measured both parallel and perpendicular to the centerline. 90
Design Speed
Level Rolling Mountainous
• The design speed selected should be consistent with the speed

that motorists will expect to drive.
• For example, motorists tend to drive at higher speeds rural collector
roads located in areas of flat topography
• The average trip length on the highway should also be
considered in selecting the design speed.
• In general, highways with longer average trips should be designed for
higher speeds.
91
Design Speed
• Since speed varies by drivers and vehicle types, design

speed should be selected such that it satisfy nearly all
drivers.
• However, a higher design speed increases the cost of

highway project.
• Hence, an 85th percentile design speed is normally

adopted.
• This speed is defined as that speed which is greater than the
speed of 85% of drivers.
• It may be as high as 95 to 98 percentile speed.
92
Design Speed
• Design speeds range from 20 mi/h to 70 mi/h, with intermediate
values of 5 mi/h increments.
• Design elements show little difference when increments are less than 10
mi/h but exhibit very large differences with increments of 15 mi/h or
higher.
• In general, however, freeways are designed for 60 to 70 mi/h, whereas
design speeds for other arterial roads range from 30 mi/h to 60 mi/h.
93
Design Speed
94
THANKS
95

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Lecture 3 – Design Controls and Criteria

Dr. Muhammad Abdullah

Department of Civil Engineering

• Geometric design deals with the dimensioning of the

• A good geometric design has to balance operational

Visible Features of Highways

Visible Features of Highways

Visible Features of Highways

Visible Features of Highways

Visible Features of Highways

Visible Features of Highways

Factors Influencing Highway Design

Factors Influencing Highway Design

• In most instances, the principal factors used to determine the

• These factors, coupled with the basic characteristics of the

• Given the wide range of vehicle types using street and

• Design vehicles are primarily employed in the design of

• A design vehicle is selected to represent all vehicles on the highway.

• Four general classes of design vehicles have been established:

• Trucks: The truck class includes single-unit trucks, truck tractor-semitrailer

• Recreational vehicles: Recreational vehicles include motor homes, cars with

• In addition, the bicycle should also be considered as a design vehicle

• The following guidelines apply when selecting a design vehicle:

• A two-axle single-unit truck may be used for intersection design of

• A three-axle single-unit truck may be used for the design of collector

• A city transit bus may be used in the design of state highway

• The WB-20 (WB-65 or WB-75) truck should generally be the

Single Unit Trailer, WB-20 City Transit Bus

Conventional School Bus Large School Bus

• There are a number of critical vehicle properties that

• High-speed turning characteristics

• Braking and deceleration

• There are a number of critical vehicle properties that

• High-speed turning characteristics

• Braking and deceleration

Turning Characteristics of Vehicles

• There are two conditions under which vehicles must make

• Low-speed turns are limited by the characteristics of the

• High-speed turns are limited by the dynamics of side friction

• There are a number of critical vehicle properties that

• High-speed turning characteristics

• Braking and deceleration

• In designing for low-speed turns,

Minimum Turning Paths of Design Vehicles

• The principal dimensions affecting design are:

• the out-to-out track width,

• the wheelbase, and

• the path of the inner rear tire.

• The boundaries of the turning paths of each design

Minimum Turning Paths of Design Vehicles

Minimum Turning Paths of Design Vehicles

Minimum Turning Paths of Design Vehicles

• There are a number of critical vehicle properties that

• High-speed turning characteristics

• Braking and deceleration

• When involved in a high-speed turn on a highway curve, centripetal forces of

• Relationship defining the vehicle operation on a curve: