CLIMATE TOPIC 1

What is weather?
- the state of the atmosphere at a particular place and time, described using variables
including:
→ air temperature
→ cloud cover
→ precipitation
→ wind speed
→ wind direction

What is climate?
- the average state of the atmosphere at a particular place over a long period of time,
typically 25 years or more
- there are many climate types around the world, including:
→ tropical equatorial climate
→ tropical monsoon climate
→ cool temperate climate

CLIMATE TYPE DESCRIPTION LOCATION

tropical equatorial climate • temperatures: • between 10°N and 10°S of

generally high all year the equator
round (~27°C) Ex:
• annual temperature • Havana, Cuba
range: • Singapore
small (~2-3°C)
• annual precipitation:
high (>2000mm)
• precipitation falls evenly
throughout the year

Tropical monsoon climate • temperatures: • between 5°N and 30°N of

generally high all year the equator and 5°S and
round (~25°C) 30°S of the equator
• annual temperature Ex:
range: • Chittagong, Bangladesh
small (~3-4°C) • Kochi, India
• annual precipitation:
high (~1500mm)
• distinct wet and dry
seasons
 cool temperate climate • four distinct seasons of
spring, summer, autumn,
fall
• annual temperature
range:
large (~21°C)
• annual precipitation:
between 300-900mm
• precipitation falls evenly
throughout the year
• between 45°N and 60°N
of the equator and 45°S
and 60°S of the equator
Ex:
• London, UK
• Paris, France

- climate types can be represented using a graph known as climograph → shows a place’s
average monthly temperature and rainfall over a year

What are climatic hazards?

- climates are changing due to natural and human-induced causes
- predictable weather patterns in many places → beginning to change and becoming
unpredictable
- extreme weather events (eg. heat waves, droughts, floods, cyclones, wildfires) →
expected to occur more often or with greater severity → impact natural and human
systems significantly

axis: invisible line that runs through the poles around which the earth rotates
longwave radiation: radiation emitted from the earth’s surface
shortwave radiation: radiation emitted from the sun
How and why does air temperature vary across time?
1. In a day
- mainly due to earth’s rotation on its own axis
- one complete rotation around axis (~24hrs)
- as earth rotates, the side of the earth that faces the sun → experiences day and solar
radiation → higher temperatures
- as earth continue rotating, this side will eventually fade away from the sun → experience
night time where it does not receive solar radiation → lower temperatures
- temperatures are different at different times of the day
1) Midday
→ sun is: directly overhead
→ due to earth’s spherical shape, solar radiation is spread over: a smaller area
→ solar radiation: more concentrated
→ temperature: highest in the day
Ex: midday temperatures in sg can reach between 31-38°C
2) Before/Aftter midday
→ sun is: not directly overhead
→ due to earth’s spherical shape, solar radiation is spread over: a larger area
→ solar radiation: less concentrated
→ temperature: lower than midday
Ex: temperatures before/after midday in sg can range from 25-31°C
3) Before sunrise
→ at night, the place does not receive solar radiation → loses heat in the form of longwave
radiation
→ temperature is lowest just before sunrise as place has lost heat for longest period of
time
Ex: temperatures before sunrise in sg can range from 23-25°C

2. Air temperature variations over time in

a year
- mainly due to earth’s revolution around the
sun
- earth’s axis is tiled at 23.5° angle
- as earth revolves around the sun →
hemispheres will receive diff. Amounts of solar
radiation across a year
- June:
→ northern hemisphere: leans more towards
the sun → more direct solar radiation → higher
temps
→ southern hemisphere: leans away from the
sun → less direct solar radiation → lower temps.
- December:
 → southern hemisphere: leans more towards the sun → more direct solar radiation
→ higher temps
→ northern hemisphere: leans away from the sun → less direct solar radiation →
lower temps.
- March and September:
→ neither hemisphere leans towards the sun → moderate temps

→ northern hemisphere: spring in march, autumn in september

→ southern hemisphere: autumn in march, spring in september
- tropics, which are located close to the equator: direct or near-direct solar
radiation throughout year -> high temps. throughout the year

How and why does air temperature vary across places?

1. Latitude
- latitude: distance of a place north and south of the equator
- global scale: temperatures are lower at higher latitudes
- due to Earth's spherical shape → angle at which sun's rays strike the Earth's surface
(solar angle) varies at diff. parts of the Earth
- higher latitude → smaller solar angle → solar radiation is less direct, spread over a larger
area → less concentrated → lower temps.
Ex:
→ Beijing, China (40°N of equator) avg temp: 12°C VS SG (1°N of equator) avg temp: 29°C

2. Altitude
- higher altitude: air is less dense → air pressure is lower as gravity pulls most air
molecules towards ground surface → fewer air molecules → lower ability to absorb and
radiate heat → lower temps.
- lower altitude: air is more dense → air pressure is greater → more air molecules → higher
ability to absorb and radiate heat → higher temps.
Ex:
→ Genting Highlands (altitude of 1700m above sea level) avg temp: 21°C
→ Surrounding areas which are at sea level avg. temp: 32°C

-
Other factors affecting air temperature at specific sites
1. Type of surface
- dark surfaces (eg. exposed soil and forests): absorb more solar radiation & radiate more
heat → higher temps
- light-coloured surfaces (eg. clouds & snow): reflect more solar radiation & radiate less
heat → lower temps.
- urban areas tend to have higher temps. than surrounding rural areas as:
→ comprise larger areas of dark surfaces (eg. roads) → absorb more solar radiation &
radiate more heat than forests and water bodies
→ glass-covered skyscrapers reflect sunlight to ground surface → increases absorption of
solar radiation and heat radiation by ground surfaces
Ex: night-time temps at SG's Central Business District were found to be 2°C warmer than
area near Macritchie reservoir (dense vegetation)

2. Distance from the sea

1) Coastal areas
- summer and winter temps: due to maritime effect → cooler summers and warmer
winters
- annual temp. range: lower
- explanation:
→ sea heats up and cools down more slowly than land
- winter: sea is warmer than land → warms air along coastal areas
- summer: sea is cooler than land → cools air along coastal areas
2) Inland areas
- summer and winter temps: due to continental effect → warmer summers and cooler
winters
- annual temp. range: higher
- explanation:
→ inland areas do not experience this moderating influence of the sea, and instead
experience the continental effect
- maritime effect: effect that large bodies of water such as oceans have on the climate of
coastal areas → causes coastal areas to have a smaller temp. range
- continental effect → effect that continental surfaces have on the climate of inland areas
→ causes inland areas to have a larger annual temperature range

What is the water cycle? How does water move on and below the Earth’s surface?
1. water vapour enters atmosphere through evapo-transpiration
→ sun's heat causes water from water bodies to evaporate → form water vapour
→ plants give out water vapour
2. water vapour rises → cools → condenses into tiny water droplets at dew point temp. →
forms clouds
3. water droplets in clouds become big and heavy enough → fall to the ground as
precipitation (rain or snow)
4. water on ground surface infiltrates the subsurface soil and rock
5. water flows over the ground surface as surface runoff and enters body of water
6. below Earth's surface, water moves horizontally above impermeable rock as
groundwater flow

- speed of water moving on and below Earth's surface depends on different factors
1) Type of soil
- infiltration rates and groundwater flows: faster in soil that has larger pores (eg. sandy
soil) than in soil that has smaller pores (eg. clayey soil)
- larger pores → allows more water to infiltrate → water moves much more quickly
2) How built-up an area is
- infiltration rates: lower in built-up areas where ground surfaces are covered in concrete
which have tiny pores
- speed of surface runoff: higher on smoother ground surfaces such as roads/pavements
in built-up areas → fewer obstructions and lesser friction
3) Presence of natural vegetation
- infiltration rates and groundwater flow: faster where there is vegetation as the roots of
plants loosen the soil → create more open spaces in the soil for water to pass through
- speed surface runoff: lower on vegetated areas as stems and roots of grasses and plants
act as barriers → increase surface roughness
How does temperature affect relative humidity of a place at a specific time?
- relative humidity formula:
3
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑔/𝑚 )
Relative humidity = 3 x 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑔/𝑚 )
- units: %
- when temp. increases → amt. of water vapour that air can hold increases → relative
humidity decreases
- relative humidity is at 100% when air holds the max. amount of water vapour → air is
saturated
- when relative humidity exceeds 100% → condensation occurs
- can occur when:
→ more water vapour is added to the air through evaporation
→ air temp. drops
How are clouds formed?

1. air rises up in the atmosphere → cools → reduces amt. of water vapour it can hold
2. eventually, amt. of water vapour in air exceeds max. amt of water vapour can hold
(relative humidity = 100% & air is saturated)
3. at this temp. (dew point temp.) → air condenses into water droplets on condensation
nuclei
4. condensation nuclei (eg. dust and ash particles from volcanoes) → provide surfaces
where water vapour can change into water droplets or solid ice crystals → form clouds

How is rain formed?

1. water droplets in the clouds collide and coalesce → become bigger and heavier
2. water droplets fall to the Earth as raindrops once they are large and heavy enough.
sometimese these droplets break apart as they fall

1) Convectional rain
1. heat from sun is absorbed by land → air
above it gains heat
2. warm air rises → cools → condenses on
condensation nuclei at dew point temps. →
form clouds
3. water droplets in clods collide and
coalesce → become large and heavy enough
→ fall to the ground as rain
Ex: frequent afternoon thunderstorms in sg
 2) Relief rain
1. prevailing winds pick up moisture over
the sea → push the moist air up the
windward side of a mountain
2. rising moist air cools → condenses on
condensation nuclei at dew point temps.
→ form clouds
3. water droplets in the clouds collide
and coalesce → become large and heavy
enough → fall to the ground as rain on
windward side
4. most of the moisture has fallen on the
windward side → leeward side
experiences dry descending air and is
thus dry
Ex:
Sierra Nevada mountain ranges, USA
→ windward side: higher rainfall → lush
forests
→ leeward side: hot and dry → Death Valley desert

How are winds formed?

- wind is the horizontal movement of air across
the Earth's surface
- occurs due to the unequal distribution of air
temp → results in uneven distribution of pressure
gradients
→ places with higher temps: air is heated → less
dense → rises → results in void and lower
atmospheric pressure
→ places with lower temps: air cools → becomes
denser → sinks → results in higher atmospheric
pressure
- difference in pressure between the two areas →
forms a pressure gradient → air moves from area
of higher pressure → lower pressure → fill in the
void → form wind
What determines the speed of wind?
1. Strength of pressure gradient
- smaller pressure gradient: smaller diff. in pressure between two areas → slower wind
speeds
- larger pressure gradient: bigger difference in pressure between two areas → faster wind
speeds
2. Friction
- moving air comes in contact with variations in Earth's topography → experiences
frictional drag → reduces wind speed
- effect of frictional drag is greatest where there is uneven relief & rough surfaces on land
(eg. valleys & mountains)

Why does wind direction vary across Earth’s surface on a local scale?
- occur on a local scale, as a result of difference in air temperature between land and sea

1) Land breeze
1. at night, both land and sea lose
heat through longwave radiation
2. sea and air above it lose heat slowly
→ warmer air is less dense → rises →
forms lower pressure over sea
3. on the other hand, land and air
above it lose heat quickly → cooler air
is denser → sinks → forms higher
pressure over land
4. air moves from area of higher
pressure over land → lower pressure
over sea → form land breeze

2) Sea breeze
1. at day, heat from sun is absorbed by
both land and sea through shortwave
radiation
2. land and air above it gain heat
quickly → warmer air is less dense →
rises → forms lower pressure over land
3. on the other hand, sea and air
above it gain heat slowly → cooler air
is denser → sinks → forms higher
pressure over sea
4. air moves from an area of higher
pressure over sea → lower pressure
over land → form sea breeze
Why does wind direction vary across Earth’s surface on a regional scale?
- unequal distribution of air temps. across Earth's surfaces -> results in varied pressure
zones
- air moves across Earth over diff. regions from high pressure -> low pressure zones
- when winds travel over large distances -> deflected by Coriolis force -> occurs due to
Earth's rotation
1. northern hemisphere: winds deflect to their right
2. southern hemisphere: winds deflect to their left
- regional winds:

*left: northeast monsoon, right: southwest monsoon

1) Formation of Northeast monsoon
- season and temperature:
→ from oct to feb, Northern Hemisphere experiences winter and cooler temps
→ Southern Hemisphere experiences summer and higher temps
- pressure difference:
→ Northern Hemisphere: air cools → sinks → forms an area of higher pressure over Central
Asia
→ Southern hemisphere: air warms up → rises → forms an area of lower pressure over
Australia
- wind direction and Coriolis effect:
→ in winter, air over Central Asia is cold → create an area of high pressure
→ in summer, air over Austalia is warm → create an area of low pressure
→ air moves from Central Asia (high pressure) → towards Australia (lower pressure)
→ as winds travel towards India → deflected to their right due to Coriolis effect → form
Northeast monsoon → experienced by countries like India, SG, Msia
- effect on climate:
→ Northeast monsoon is dry and cool → as little moisture is picked up from Central Asia →
India experiences little rain
→ as winds blow over the South China Sea → winds pick up moisture in the form of water
vapour → brings heavy rain to areas such as SG
→ as winds cross over into Southern Hemisphere → deflect to their left → continue to pick
up moisture over the Indian Ocean → brings rain to countries like Indonesia and Australia
2) Formation of Southwest monsoon
- season and temperature:
- june to sept: Northern Hemisphere experiences summer and higher temps
- june to sept: Southern Hemisphere experiences winter and cooler temps
- pressure difference:
- northern hemisphere: air warms up → rises → forms an area of lower pressure over
Central Asia
- southern hemisphere: air cools → sinks → forms an area of higher pressure over Australia
- wind direction and Coriolis effect:
→ in winter, air over Asutralia is cold → create an area of high pressure
→ in summer, air over Central Asia is warm → create an area of low pressure
→ air moves from Australia (high pressure) → towards Central Asia (lower pressure)
→ when the winds cross into the Northern Hemisphere → deflected to the right → form the
Southwest monsoon → experienced by countries like india, sg, malaysia
- effect on climate:
- as winds move over Indian Ocean → pick up moisture over Indian Ocean → bring heavy
rain to India