Stem Cells

Stem cells are the foundational starting point of all specialised cells in the body, as they give rise to
various cell types during development and tissue maintenance. Due to their undifferentiated
qualities, stem cells offer many incredible opportunities in regeneration of tissues or replenishing of
depleted cell numbers in a person.

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells, this means that they have not yet obtained a specialised role in
the body, e.g., a red blood cell. Stem cells undergo mitosis whilst reproducing into daughter cells to
be used in the body, by keeping the identical chromosomes they don’t cause differentiation in
regeneration and development of the body (Gonneau, 2013). This allows them to retain all their
genetic structure, which is key to their regenerative purpose, to replace damaged or missing
specialised cells, since if they went through meiosis they would differentiate from the original cell.
This is why they are used, they can easily regenerate and become various cells in the body to aid
someone who requires them (Gilchrist, 2023).

Stem cells come in 4 main variations, these consist of embryonic stem cells, somatic stem cells,
perinatal stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells (Frequently asked questions about stem cell
research, 2022). Each of these stem cells are capable of turning into specific specialised cells based
on their variation.

Embryonic stem cells sourced from fertilised 3–7-day old human embryos contain on average 150
embryonic stem cells which are pluripotent, meaning they can become any specialised cell in the
body (Wu, 2013). The stem cells are sourced from the inner cell mass of the human blastocyst of the
embryo (Hildreth, 2019).

Somatic stem cells (hematopoietic, mesenchymal, neural, and epithelial stem cells) exist in small
numbers in most adult tissues such as bone marrow, organs, or fat. Excluding satellite and progenitor
stem cells which are sourced from muscles and specific organs like the liver or pancreas, all somatic
stem cells are multipotent (Gleichmann 2020). Multipotent means they can only turn into the tissue
they were sourced from or similar tissues, for example hematopoietic stem cells can become
terminally differentiated cells such as a red blood cell, white blood cell, or a platelet (What are stem
cells? 2019). Despite this, stem cell fusion allows pluripotent stem cells to be fused with multipotent
stem cells to allow for all the fused cells to become pluripotent, or they can be clinically reverted to
an embryonic-like stage of development again making them pluripotent(Kim et al., 2011).

Perinatal stem cells are sourced from amniotic fluid and umbilical cord blood, and they can become
most specialised cells, though they are marginally more mature than embryonic stem cells, so they
are considered intermediate pluripotent. Meaning they only lack the ability to develop into a small
number of cells (Sigma Aldrich, 2021).

Induced pluripotent stem cells are somatic cells sourced from an adult donor from tissues or blood.
They then go through a clinical process of forced gene expression to revert them to a pluripotent
embryonic-like stage (Ye, Swingen & Zhang, 2013). They are then placed in a requiring recipient for
use.

Stem cells are essential in research and medicine due to their ability to adapt into specialised cell
types. They offer potential for regenerating tissues and organs, benefiting conditions like heart
disease and spinal cord injuries. In research, they enable disease modelling and drug screening by
watching how they mature and interact with diseases (University of Nebraska 2018). Additionally,
personalised medicine usage is another significant feature of stem cells, since they can be derived
from a patient's own tissues or blood, reducing the risk of immune rejection from a donor increasing
the success rate.

With the significant application of stem cells, every day there are more and more breakthroughs in
the study of them. On August 30th, 2023, a group of 17 scientists at the Francis Crick Institute
discovered new capabilities of stem cells in the thymus for the first time. The thymus is responsible
for the production and maturation of immune cells, including white blood cells. This makes it crucial
to immunity through life. However, it does experience age related atrophy which weakens the
immune system. This study found that the thymus can regenerate using stem cells (Ragazzini 2023).
Due to the thymus suffering minor damages from illnesses and diseases, the thymus could
regenerate in an adapted form and be immune to more attacking cells. By identifying specific
epithelial cells inside the thymus, they have found they share traits with the stem cells that form skin
and can renew extreme amounts of times (Eckford 2023). This means they could create new lineages
of these stem cells and expose them to specific damaging cells allowing them renew and adapt
similar to the process of vaccinations.

Another major breakthrough was made regarding induced pluripotent stem cells in August 2023. The
induced pluripotent stem cells are somatic stem cells with clinically forced gene expression. This is
how they become pluripotent. Although, LSD1 is a protein in the cell that regulates gene expression
and allows the cells to possibly retain information about their somatic origins. If a stem cell can
retain information about it’s origin this could lead to damaging effects down the line. Such as, illness
rapidly spreading, cell mutation or organ failure (Scientists Find a Way to Wipe a Cell’s Memory to
Better Reprogram It as a Stem Cell 2023). These all stem from inadequate or dysfunctional use in the
wrong areas of the body, caused by the cells retaining their origin and adapting to that. For example,
a cell harvested from bone marrow being used to treat someone with lung damage not adapting to
the right area could be damaging. Scientists at University of California discovered that by clinically
removing the LSD1 protein the stem cells become safer and more efficient to use.

Stem cells are part of the body, and are therefore sourced from the body. This leads to the moral
questions of whether stem cells are ethically sustainable. The main issues are raised by the collection
of embryonic stem cells and genomic abnormalities. Firstly, thousands to millions of stem cells can be
required for various uses, such as donations or growing an artificial organ(Mayo Clinic Staff, 2022).
Since the most potent stem cell is an embryonic stem cell, they are often used, with 150 cells coming
from each embryo. This means that scientists must halt the development of an embryo which has
the potential to be a human, and then destroy it for cells. This means that many embryos would
need to be destroyed. Despite embryonic stem cells’ ability to reproduce, at a certain point they
develop genetic mutations which could be dangerous to their recipient. This is where somatic cell
nuclear transfer factors in. Banned in many countries, the process of taking the planned recipient’s
somatic stem cell’s nucleus and placing it in an ovum and then fertilising the ovum allows for the
creation of a special line of cells (Mayo Clinic Staff 2022). This lowers the risk of rejection and is
therefore the most viable option in a transfer. However, this process again creates the potential for a
human to simply destroy it. The next large concern regarding stem cells comes from genomic
abnormalities. These can occur in embryonic stem cells that have over-reproduced or somatic stem
cells that either form a mutation or don’t match with the recipient, or cells that have been influenced
by their environment and cultures. These abnormalities can cause illnesses and diseases that
wouldn’t have existed without the mutated stem cells. Genomic abnormalities, such as mutations or
chromosomal rearrangements, can occur in stem cells during the process of cell division or as a
result of various external factors. These abnormalities can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and
division, which can potentially lead to cancer (Wang et al., 2019). This raises the question of whether
it is worth it, with the destruction of embryos and the potential risks.

Stem cells offer many exciting and useful applications in the world of science, yet they come with
some ethical concerns. On the affirmative side of using stem cells, there are various benefits. Recent
research demonstrates the potential of stem cells to treat various diseases and conditions effectively,
such as heart failure or Alzheimer’s disease. With the research also showing how many alternatives
there are to embryonic stem cells, which are the source of most ethical concerns surrounding stem
cells.

On the negative side, it is still very hard to go through the all the clinical processes of using stem cells
other than embryonic, which is why they remain used. It could take many years to stop the usage of
embryonic stem cells which is destroying many potential humans. When it comes to the potential
downside once a transplant has occurred, and potential issues that may arise, they are often
disputed by the seriousness of the requirement for the transplant.

Overall, I personally believe that the vast benefits of stem cells outweigh the potential issues they
may cause. Being able to solve so many medical issues and aid in research, stem cells are extremely
important. They can help save many lives and revolutionise medical care, mitigating the ethical
dilemmas, and rare occurrences of unsuccessful treatment.
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