CSS 243

CSS 243 Principles of Security Practice and Management
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: CSS 243
COURSE TITLE:
PRINCIPLES OF SECURITY PRACTICE AND MANAGEMENT
1
COURSE
GUIDE
CSS243
Course Developer: Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali

University of Ibadan
Ibadan, Oyo State
Course Writers: Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali

University of Ibadan
Ibadan, Oyo State
Abisoye M. Alesinloye
O.C.E. Institute, Ibadan,
Ibadan, Oyo State.
Course Editor: Prof. P.E. Agbebaku

Department of Political Science
Ambrose Alli University
Ekpoma, Edo State
2
National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
14 / 16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu. ng
URL: .nou.edu.ng
National Open University of Nigeria 2008
First Printed 2008
ISBN:
All Rights Reserved
Printed by
For
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Unit 1: Meaning of Security……………………………………………..1-10

Unit 2: Discourse on Violence & Violent Crime………………………..11-21
Unit 3: Domestic Violence………………………………...…………….22-33
Unit 4: Theories of Violence………………………………..…………...34-43
Unit 5: Theory of Crime Control …………………………44-52
Unit 6: Approaches to Security Management…………………………..53-62
Unit 7: Meaning of Intelligence………………………………………...63-72
Unit 8: Intelligence Collection and Disciplines……………………...…73-82
Unit 9: Intelligence Analysis and Evaluation………………………...…83-93
Unit 10: Counter-Intelligence and Intelligence Security Management….94-102
Unit 11: Security Personnel Management I…………………………...103-117
Unit 12: Security Personnel Management II…………………………..118-124
Unit 13: Management of Job Stress Among Security Personnel…...…125-135
Unit 14: Trauma Management in Security Career: REBT………….....136-148
Unit 15: Public Relations Management in Security Sector.……...……149-160
Unit 16: Operational Management & Capacity Planning in Sec. Sector 161-168
Unit 17: Issue of Asymmetric Aggression in Strategic Planning……...169-178
Unit 18: Guerilla & Tactical Measures to Counter-Guerilla………......179-191
Unit 19: Relevance of Fortification Tactic in Security Management…192-198
Unit 20: Maneuver Tactic in Defence & Security Management……...199-205
4
CONTRIBUTION
Abisoye Alesinloye wrote unit 3 in module 3: “management of job stress among

security personnel” while other nineteen units were written by Monsuru
Adegboyega Kasali.
Introduction
CSS 243: Principles of Security Practice and Management is a 3-credit unit course. It
is a compulsory course for all postgraduate students of Criminology and Security
Studies of the University. The course is recommended for any other student(s)
particularly those in the School of Arts and Social Sciences, who may have interest in
secur ity studies. The course can also be taken as elective or required course by other
students whose main field(s) of discipline is not Criminology and Security Studies.
The Course shall consist of 20 units, which include the meaning of security, discourse
on violence and violent crime, domestic violence, theories of violence, theory of
crime control, approaches to security management, intelligence cycle, security
personnel management, and management of job stress among security personnel and
trauma management in security career: REBT. Other areas of discourse are public
relations management in security sector, operational management and capacity
planning, issue of asymmetric aggression in strategic planning, guerilla and counter-
guerilla, fortification and manoeuvre tactics in defence and security management.
The course material draws its major case studies from the Continent of Africa with
particular reference to Nigeria with the aim of ejaculating the students’ desire towards
developing viable analytical and conceptual framework for addressing the security
problems in Nigeria and elsewhere.
The course has no compulsory pre-requisites for it to be registered for. The course
guide informs us on what this course is all about, what student should appreciate in
each unit, what text materials we shall be using and how we can make best use of
these materials. The course guide also discerns the need to take tutored marked
assignments so seriously by student. However, necessary information on tutored
marked assignments shall be made known to students in a separate file, which will be
sent to each student. This course is also supported with periodic tutorial classes.
What you will learn in this course
The overall aim of CSS 243: Principles of Security Practice and Management is to
introduce you to the principles of security management and practice by looking at the
meaning of security and other prominent areas of inquiry and issues in the discourse
of security management. Your understanding of fundamentals in security
management will enable you to explain some basic concepts and approaches security
5
studies.
In fact, the course will also expose you to various relevant issues in the study of
security management as well as techniques, approaches and challenges to effective
security management and strategic planning. CSS 243 is a very interesting course as it
stimulates our understanding about security practice and management. It helps to
expose us to some of the fundamental ways through which effective security
management can be actualized.
Therefore, this course is so significant as it shows how violence both domestic and
non-domestic constitute act(s) of criminality. The study also draws a line in the
relationship between intention and justifiability of a violent act by examining the
positions articulated by relevant theories on the subject. The study also examines how
intelligence can impact on effective security management. In carrying out this task a
number of issues on intelligence cycle will be discussed such as meaning of
intelligence, its collection and disciplines, its analysis and evaluation as well counter-
intelligence and intelligence security.
Owing to the importance of public relations in security business, the study also
explains the roles and the impact that public relations activity can have on any
security organization especially as it concerns attaining its overall goals. Prior to
discourse on public relations management in security sector, this study has found it
pertinent to focus on a number of issues that bother on personnel management and the
ways to assist security personnel to have a healthy and fulfilled work life, so that they
can carry-out their functions effectively.
However, this study cannot be complete if we fail to discuss the relationship between
operational management and security management. Security business is a very
challenging one. Necessary equipment will need to be provided by security employer
to assist the employees to be functional. We shall also focus on a number of other
issues and tactics that relate to security management.
Course Aims
The main aim of this course is to expose you to the basic concepts, issues, approaches
and practice that have attracted a great attention among scholars and policy makers in
security management.
The study also throws its search-light on the issues in security discourse, which have
continued to attract growing attention among scholars in security studies. These
issues have remained subjects, which have been baptized with several conceptual and
theoretical positions of scholars.
This course also x-rays a number of security challenges that nations face in the
contemporary time as well as a shift from the traditional security management system
to non-traditional order. Several (inter) governmental and non governmental
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organizations have continued to advocate for replacement of the traditional coercion

and deterrence system of security management to a more effective non-traditional
approach, which focuses on human development measures such as socio-justice,
provision of employment opportunities, social secur ity among others. In this course,
you should be able to:
• Describe security and its types;

• Explain violence and violent crimes;
• Discuss domestic violence and ways to address it;
• Examine the theories of violence;
• Analyze the theory of crime control;
• Examine the various approaches to security management;
• Describe intelligence cycle
• Suggest counter-intelligence measures to prevent or mitigate attack from the
foreign intelligence service;
• Illustrate the relationship between security personnel management and ability
of security organization to meet its overall goals;
• Stress the importance of effective trauma management in security career;
• Clarify the impact of job stress on security personnel especially as it relates to
service delivery;
• Discuss how REBT can help in managing trauma among security employee;
• Demonstrate the relevance of public relations in security business;
• Appreciate the importance of effective operational management and capacity
planning in security sector;
• Analyze the growing security threat that assymetric aggression constitute and
how it affects strategic planning;
• Evaluate the methods that can be adopted to counter guerilla threat; and
• Examine the relevance of fortification and manoeuvre tactics in security
management.
Course Objectives
With utmost desire to achieve the aims set out above, the course has some set of
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objectives as demonstrated in all the units of the course. Each unit has its own
objectives. Objectives are always included at the beginning of every unit to assist the
student in the appreciation of what he or she will come across in the study of each
unit to facilitate his or her better understanding of the course-CSS 243 (Principles of
Security Practice and Management).
Student is therefore advised to read these objectives before studying the entire unit(s).
Thus, it is helpful to do so. You should always look at the unit objectives after
completing a unit. In this way, you can be sure that you have done what was required
of you by the unit.
Stated below are the wider objectives of this course as a whole. By meeting these
objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the course as a whole.
At the end of the course, you should be able to:
• Describe security and its types;

• Explain violence and violent crimes;
• Discuss domestic violence and ways to address it;
• Examine the theories of violence;
• Analyze the theory of crime control;
• Examine the various approaches to security management;
• Describe intelligence cycle
• Suggest counter-intelligence measures to prevent or mitigate attack from the
foreign intelligence service;
• Illustrate the relationship between security personnel management and ability
of security organization to meet its overall goals;
• Stress the importance of effective trauma management in security career;
• Clarify the impact of job stress on security personnel especially as it relates to
service delivery;
• Discuss how REBT can help in managing trauma among secur ity employee;
• Demonstrate the relevance of public relations in security business;
• Appreciate the importance of effective operational management and capacity
planning in security sector;
• Analyze the growing security threat that assymetric aggression constitute and
8
how it affects strategic planning;

• Evaluate the methods that can be adopted to counter guerilla threat; and
• Examine the relevance of fortification and manoeuvre tactics in security
management.
Working through this course
In completing this course, student is required to study the whole units, and try to read
all (or substantial number of) the recommended textbooks, journals and other reading
materials including electronic resources. Each unit contains self assessment
exercise(s) and student is required to submit his or her assignment for the purpose of
assessment.
At the end of the course, student(s) shall be examined. The time of the final
examination and venue shall be communicated to all the registered students in due
course by relevant school authorities-study centre management. Below are the
components of the course and what you are required to do.
Course Materials
Major components of the course include:
1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Textbooks
4. Assignments File
5. Presentation Schedule
It is incumbent upon every student to get his or her own copy of the course material.
You are also advised to contact your tutorial facilitator, if you have any difficulty in
getting any of the text materials recommended for your further reading.
Study Units
In this course there are twenty units, which include:
Unit 1: Meaning of Security

Unit 2: Discourse on Violence & Violent Crime
Unit 3: Domestic Violence
Unit 4: Theories of Violence
Unit 5: Theory of Crime Control
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Unit 6: Approaches to Security Management

Unit 7: Meaning of Intelligence
Unit 8: Intelligence Collection and Disciplines
Unit 9: Intelligence Analysis and Evaluation
Unit 10: Counter-Intelligence and Intelligence Security Management
Unit 11: Security Personnel Management I
Unit 12: Security Personnel Management II
Unit 13: Management of Job Stress among Security Personnel
Unit 14: Trauma Management in Security Career: REBT
Unit 15: Public Relations Management in Security Sector
Unit 16: Operational Management and Capacity planning in Security Sector
Unit 17: Issue of Asymmetric Aggression in Strategic Planning
Unit 18: Guerrilla Warfare and Tactical Measures to Counter-Guerilla
Unit 19: Relevance of Fortification Tactic in Security Management
Unit 20: Manoeuvre Tactic in Defence and Security Management
The first five units are centered on the meaning of security, violence, theories of
violence and theory of crime control. The second set of units explains approaches to
security management, intelligence cycle and intelligence security management. The
following set of five units focuses on principles, approaches and strategic issues in
security personnel management and public relations management in security sector.
The last five units emphasize on the importance of operational management and
capacity planning in security management, the growing threat of asymmetric
aggression to inter (national security, counter-guerilla (insurgency) techniques, and
fortification and manoeuvre tactics in security management.
In each segment of each unit, you have at least one self assessment exercise, which
helps you to know how far you have progressed in understanding the content of each
unit. These self assessment exercises and tutor-marked assignments create a great
opportunity for student to achieve the overall objectives of the course.
Set Textbooks
The following textbooks are recommended to each student taking the course. The first
four textbooks are compulsory for your study of this course.
1. Teriff, Terry et al (1999), Security Studies Today, Massachusetts Blackwell

Publishing
2. Lipschutz, Ronnie D. (ed.) (1995), On Security, New York: Columbia
University Press.
3. Tickner, J.A. (1994) “Re-visioning Security” in Ken Booth and Steve Smiths
(eds)., International Relations Theory Today,
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4. Smith, Steve (2000), “The Increasing Insecurity of Security Studies:

Conceptualizing Security in the Last Twenty Years”, in Stuart Croft and Terry Terrif
(eds.), Critical Reflections on Security and Change, London: Frank Cass.
5. Hannah, Greg et al (2005), Intelligence for security Legislation for Security

sector Reform, RAND.
6. Kent, Sherman (1965), Strategic Intelligence, Archon, Books
7. Imbus, Michael T. (April 2002), Identifying Threats: Improving Intelligence

and Counterintelligence Support to Force Protection. See
.au.af.mil/au/awcgate/acsc/02-059.pdf. Retrieved on 3rd Nov. 2007.
8. Wisner, Frank G. (22 Sept. 1993), On “The Craft of Intelligence”, available

on .cia.gav/library/center-for-the-study-ofint elligence/Kent-CSI/doc/V081a07p-
0004.htm. Retrieved on 3rd November, 2007
9. Armstrong, M. (1981), A Handbook of Personnel Management Practice,

London: Kogan Page Ltd.
10. Federal Bureau of Investigation (2004), Crime Reporting Handbook. Also

available on .fbi.gov/ucr/handbook/ucrhandbook04.pdf.
11. Goode, William (1971), “Force and Violence in the Family”, Journal of
Marriage and the Family, 33.
12. Indik, A. P., Seashere O. T. et.al. al., (1964), “Occupational Stress, its Causes
and Consequences for Job Performance”, Journal of Applied Psychology. 71.
13. Ellis, Albert (1975), A Guide to Rational Living, Wilshire Book Company.
Cutlip, Scott M., Allen H. Center & Glen M. Broom (1994), Effective Public
Relations, 7th Edition, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. A Simon and
Schuster Company.
14. Krajewski, Lee J., & Ritzman, Larry P. (2005), Operations Management:
Processes and Value Chains, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall
15. Giap, Vo Nguyen (2001), People's War, People's Army, Honolulu, University
Press of the Pacific.
Assignment File
In this file, you will find the necessary details of the assignments you must submit to
your tutor for assessment. The marks you get from these assignments will form part
of your final assessment in this course.
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Presentation Schedule
The Presentation Schedule included in your course materials gives you the important
dates for the completion of tutor-marked assignments and attending tutorials.
Remember, you are required to submit all your assignments by the due date. You
should guard against falling behind in your work.
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of the course. First are the tutor-marked
assignments; second, there is a written examination. In tackling the assignments, you
are expected to apply information and knowledge acquired during this course.
The assignments must be submitted to your tutor for assessment in accordance with
the deadlines stated in the Assignment File. The work you submit to your tutor for
assessment will count for 30% of your total course mark. At the end of the course,
you will need to sit for a final three-hour examination. This will also count for 70% of
your total course mark.
Tutor Marked Assignments
There are twenty tutor-marked assignments in this course. You need to submit four
assignments out which the best three will be used for your assessment. These three
assignments shall be 30% of your total course mark.
Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the Assignment
File. You should be able to complete your assignments from the information and
materials contained in your set textbooks, reading and study units. However, you are
advised to use other references to broaden your viewpoint and provide a deeper
understanding of the subject.
When you have completed each assignment, send it, together with TMA (tutor-
marked assignment) file to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment gets to your
tutor on or before the deadline. However, in case of being unable to complete your
work on time, contact your tutor before the submission deadline of assignments
elapses to discuss the possibility of an extension.
Final Examination and Grading
The final examination of CSS 643 will be of three hours’ duration and have a value of
70% of the total course grade. The examination shall consist of questions which
reflect the type of self-testing, practice exercises and tutor-marked problems you have
come across. All areas of the course will be assessed.
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You are advised to revise the entire course after studying the last unit before you sit
for the examination. You will find it useful to review your tutor-marked assignments
and the comments of your tutor on them before the final examination.
Course Marking Scheme

This table shows how the actual course marking is broken down.
Assessment Marks
Assignment 1 – 4 Four Assignments are to
submitted,
of which the three best shall be
considered at 10% each, maki
30% of
the overall scores
Final Examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks
Table 1: Course Making Scheme
Course Overview
This table brings together the entire units contained in this course, the number of
weeks you should take to complete them, and the assignments that follow them.
Unit Title Week’s Assessment

Activity (end of unit)
Course Guide
1
1 Meaning of Security 1 Assignment 1
2 Discourse on Violence & Violent Crime 2 Assignment 2
3 Domestic Violence 2 Assignment 3
4 Theories of Violence 3 Assignment 4
5 Theory of Crime Control 4 Assignment 5
6 Approaches to Security Management 5 Assignment 6
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7 Meaning of Intelligence 6 Assignment 7

8 Intelligence Collection and Disciplines 6 Assignment 8
9 Intelligence Analysis and Evaluation 7 Assignment 9
10 Counter-Intelligence and Intelligence 7 Assignment 10
Security Management
11 Security Personnel Management I 8 Assignment 11
12 Security Personnel Management II 9 Assignment 12
13 Management of Job Stress among 10 Assignment 13
Security Personnel
14 Trauma Management in Security Career: 11 Assignment 14
REBT
15 Public Relations Management in 11 Assignment 15
Security Sector
16 Operational Management and Capacity 12 Assignment 16
planning in Security Sector
17 Issue of Asymmetric Aggression in 13 Assignment 17
Strategic Planning
18 Guerrilla Warfare and Tactical Measures to 14 Assignment 18
Counter-Guerilla
19 Relevance of Fortification Tactic in 15 Assignment 19
Security Management
20 Maneuver Tactic in Defence and 16 Assignment 20
Security Management
21 Revision 17
22 Examination 18
Table 2: Course Overview
How to get the best from this Course
In distance learning the study units replace the university lecturer. This is one of the
great advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially
designed study materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suit you best.
Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer.
In this same way that a lecturer might set you some reading to do, the study units tell
you when to read your set of books or other materials. Just as a lecturer might give
you an in-class exercise, your study units provide exercises for you to do at
appropriate points.
Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to
the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other
units and the course as a whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives
shall let you know what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the
unit.
14
Thus, you should use these objectives to guide your study. When you have finished,
the units you must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If
you make a habit of doing this you will significantly improve your chances of passing
the course. The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from
other sources.
Reading Section
Remember that your tutor’s job is to assist you. When you need help, don’t hesitate to
call and ask your tutor to provide it.
1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.
2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the ‘Course overview’ for more details. Note the
time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments related to the
units. Whatever method you chose to use, you should decide on and write in your
own dates for working on each unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick to it.
The major reason that students fail is that they get behind with their course work. If
you get into difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too
late for help.
4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is given in
the ‘Overview’ at the beginning of each unit. You will almost always need both the
study unit you are working on and one of your set books on your desk at the same
time.
6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a
sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit you will be instructed to
read sections from your set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your reading.
7. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them. If
you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study material or consult your
tutor.
8. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives, you can then start
on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so
that you keep yourself on schedule.
9. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for its
return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is
returned, pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the tutor-marked
assignment form and also on what is written on the assignment. Consult your tutor as
15
soon as possible if you have any questions or problems.
10. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final
examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning
of each unity) and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).
Tutors and Tutorials
There are between eight and 12 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course.
The dates, time and venue of these tutorials shall be communicated to you. The name
and phone number of your tutor will be made known to you immediately you are
allocated a tutorial group.
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your
progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you
during the course. You must mail your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well
before the due date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by
your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to contact your
tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board if you need help. You will definitely
benefit a lot by doing that. Contact your tutor if:
• you do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings,
• you have difficulty with the self-tests or exercises,
• you have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor’s
comments on
an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.
You should make an effort to attend the tutorials. Thus, it is the only opportunity you
have to enjoy face to face contact with your tutor and to ask questions which are
answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the course of your
study. To gain the maximum benefit from course tutorials, prepare a question list
before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in discussion actively.
Summary
CSS 643 aims to expose you to basic principles, approaches, theories and efforts in
security practice and management. As you complete this course, you should be able
to answer the following questions:
• How do you describe security?

• What is violence?
• What are the theories of violence?
• How do you explain theory of crime control?
• What are the approaches to security management?
• How do you describe the relationship between intelligence cycle and security
management?
16
• What are the measures to counter-intelligence?

• How can you explain security personnel management?
• What are the principles of managing security personnel?
• What are the tasks to manage job stress among security personnel?
• In what way(s) can REBT help to address the problem of trauma among
secur ity employees?
• What are the roles of public relations management in security management?
• Is there any significant impact played by operational management and
capacity planning on security management and the ability of any security
organization to attain its overall goals?
• How does assymetric aggression constitute threat to security?
• What are the measures that can be adopted to counter guerilla?
• What is the importance of fortification and manoeuvre tactics to security
management?
Finally, you are advised to read the course material appreciably well in order to
prepare fully and not to be caught pants down by the final examination questions. So,
we sincerely wish you success in your academic career as you will find this course
(CSS 643) very interesting. You should always avoid examination malpractices!
17
CSS643
Course Developer Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali

Institute of African Studies,
University of Ibadan.
Ibadan, Oyo State.
Course Writers Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali

Institute of African Studies,
University of Ibadan.
Ibadan, Oyo State
Abisoye M. Alesinloye
O.C.E. Institute, Ibadan,
Ibadan, Oyo State.
Course Editor Prof. P.E. Agbebaku

Department of Political Science
Ambrose Alli University
Ekpoma, Edo State
18

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
National Open University of Nigeria 2007
First Printed 2008
ISBN: 978-058-949-X
All rights reserved
Printed by----------------------
For
19
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Unit 1: Meaning of Security……………………………………………..1-10

Unit 2: Discourse on Violence & Violent Crime………………………..11-21
Unit 3: Domestic Violence………………………………...…………….22-33
Unit 4: Theories of Violence………………………………..…………...34-43
Unit 5: Theory of Crime Control …………………………44-52
Unit 6: Approaches to Security Management…………………………..53-62
Unit 7: Meaning of Intelligence………………………………………...63-72
Unit 8: Intelligence Collection and Disciplines……………………...…73-82
Unit 9: Intelligence Analysis and Evaluation………………………...…83-93
Unit 10: Counter-Intelligence and Intelligence Security Management….94-102
Unit 11: Security Personnel Management I…………………………...103-117
Unit 12: Security Personnel Management II…………………………..118-124
Unit 13: Management of Job Stress Among Security Personnel…...…125-135
Unit 14: Trauma Management in Security Career: REBT………….....136-148
Unit 15: Public Relations Management in Security Sector.……...……149-160
Unit 16: Operational Management & Capacity Planning in Sec. Sector 161-168
Unit 17: Issue of Asymmetric Aggression in Strategic Planning……...169-178
Unit 18: Guerilla & Tactical Measures to Counter-Guerilla………......179-191
Unit 19: Relevance of Fortification Tactic in Security Management…192-198
Unit 20: Manoeuver Tactic in Defence & Security Management……...199-205
20
MODULE 1
Unit 1:Meaning of Security

Unit 2:Discourse on Violence & Violent Crime
Unit 3:Domestic Violence
Unit 4:Theories of Violence
Unit 5: Theory of Crime Control
Unit 1
MEANING OF SECURITY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Definition of Secur ity
3.2 Types of Security
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutored Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading
1.0. INTRODUCTION
Security has been a subject that has attracted a rapidly growing interest and
concern among the scholar in social science in which a wide spectrum of issues
on the subject – security has remained persistent in which new breakthroughs and
findings are still being made, showing the strategic importance of security in the
development of nations and actualization of peace and order in all levels of
human relations.
It is no surprising that the increasing research attention given to the concept and
practice of research attention given to the concept and practice of security has
brought about invocation of different types, dimension of analytical explanations
and theoretical approaches. In this unit, we shall be focusing on the meaning of
security. It is our belief, that, it is when we do this, that other issues or topics of
discourse can be meaning fully appreciated by the reader (student).
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
21
Define the term security and

Discuss types of security
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Definition of Security
A layman definition of security is the protection of life and property of a person.

The concept of security has undergone a transition from traditional
conceptualization to a non traditional meaning, Traditionally, security
management was the unilateral function of the state especially if we consider the
intellectual view(s) of some political theorists like Thomas Hobbes who argued
that the essence of a state is to provide law and order, which are attained through
(effective) security management.
However, in an attempt by the state to actualize the purpose of its creation

(through social contract), it has found it necessary to acquire legitimate use of
force (violence). This idea has made security issue a function of effective
monopoly of violence, which the state applies to engender strict conformity and
complaisance to state laws by the peoples for effective security management.
But, in contemporary time, definition of security goes beyond the traditional

military ways of protecting the state against internal and external aggression. The
fact is that since the end of the cold war, security management has assumed a new
dimension, external threat to security resulting from international hostilities and
aggression that characterized the cold war era has been replaced with non-
traditional security threats like information warfare, drug trafficking, nuclear
pollutions, disease epidemics like HIV-AIDS, corruption, human trafficking,
(internal) insurgency among others.
Nevertheless, this situation has led to multidimensional approach in security

discourse and management. Now, governments have now realized that they can
no longer monopolize the business of security in local domains as well as the
world at large. This has led to extending the security community to include
private players in security business, NGOS and above all the civilians take the
centre stage in security management. This we shall discuss further in the
subsequent segment of this unit. Well, on the question of definition of the term
security, it is not a mischief to say that there are various definitions of the term
(security) without any
consensus among scholars in their conceptualization. And thus, to some, security
can be defined as:
--------an all-encompassing condition in which individual citizens live in

freedom, peace and safety; participate fully in the process of
governance; Enjoy the protection of fundamental rights; have Access to
22
resources and the basic necessities of life; And inhabit an environment

which is not detrimental to their health and wellbeing (see South Africa
White Paper on Defense, 1996).
Not only in terms of the internal security of the State, but also in terms
of secure systems of Food health, money and trade (Tickner, 1994:180).
Exercise
Define the term Security.
3.2 Types of Security
As we have pointed out earlier, security covers a wide-range of issues both

traditional and non-traditional which go beyond describing security as protection
of life and property of an individual, but it also covers measures to mitigate (to
avoid) the effects of other threats like environmental pollution, terrorism, shortage
of water, HIV-AIDS etc, on man and the state. It is against this background that it
is pertinent to discuss various types of security, to stimulate our better
understanding of the subject. They include the following:
(a) Food security: This underscores the strategic importance that self sustenance
in food production has on the security of any nation. Though, the interdependence
that dominates relations among nations also covers food. This is because there are
particular types of agricultural items that cannot be acculturated in one country or
the other.
Notwithstanding, some normal food items like rice, millets and others need to be
made available to the people, even at cheap rate, because food is no luxury but a
necessity. Secure society will always adopt strategy to produce its food locally,
trying as much as possible to avoid importing the food items it can produce
locally. Nigeria began to experience deepened crisis and insecurity since the
emergence of oil boom in the 1970s, when our problem was not basically how to
generate funds but how to spend it.
Thus, the situation brought about by the petrol-dollar regime led to the demise of
productive agricultural activities in the country Nigeria. Nigeria that used to be
one of the greatest food baskets and a major exporter of agricultural products
overnight became a perpetual importer of food items. The agricultural sector has
however become moribund. More than 70% of urban dwellers go about in cobra
face (fierce looking), eating thrice a day becomes a very difficult task. A hungr y
man is an angry man! There is palpable tension every where, creating a high
degree of insecurity both in public and private domains.
The strategic importance of food was played up in northern Nigerian, resulting

from astronomical increase in the prices of essential commodities like food stuffs.
The situation deepened the agony of the Almajirai, and migrant and unemployed
23
youths in the region, which has been one of the factors responsible for the culture
of religious crises among these diverse people (Lubeck, 1991:186).
(b) Health Security: This involves safety against HIV-AIDS pandemics and other
diseases like malaria that accounts for a very high mortality rate. It is part of
government responsibilities to provide health security for its citizens, knowing the
impact that good health condition(s) can have on the development of any country.
That is why in advanced countries, government provides platform to promote
healthy living among the people.
Health security is very crucial to national development, and that is the reason why
countries like the United States have created opportunity for people to access
national health insurance scheme, in which everybody will make contribution
(premium) to the scheme. When they fall sick, there is insurance cover that will
take care of their hospital bills according to their policy type(s).
In addition, most governments usually have some strategic interventions to

respond to pandemics. One of such interventionist techniques is awareness
programme by educating the people about the danger of the outbreak of some
diseases particularly those that are infectious like HIV/AIDS, SARS, and
Tuberculosis among others. Enlightenment also helps to guide people against
reckless lifestyles that can aid pandemics.
Also, in most states sanitation officers are appointed by government to ensure

strict compliance of environmental and sanitation laws among the people not only
in ensuring good sanitation behaviour but also to guarantee the health security of
the state.
Another way of providing health security is by putting in place free health

services for the people. Though this kind of programme is very expensive, there
are some governments that still take up the responsibility of providing both
quantitative health care to citizens at low cost. The purpose of doing this is to
provide health security for the people.
(c) Economic Security: This can be described as a way of putting in place

measures and strategies that will ensure that every individual in the state is not
only entitled to employment but also has the right to a living wage. In advanced
countries, government often puts in place social security for citizens who are out
job, in which stipends are provided for the citizens to keep body and soul
together.
But, it is quite unfortunate that in most developing countries, unemployed people

are left to their own fate, such that nothing is done to ameliorate any economic
misfortune being experienced by the citizens. The people who have jobs don’t
have any job security as several employees are cheated and underpaid by their
employers. This situation has therefore been one of the major factors responsible
24
for the increasing criminality and criminal activities among the people especially
the youths.
The problem of economic deprivation has been a major source of violence in

Nigeria. The major issue is poverty and it is no surprising that the life expectancy
of Nigerians has fallen to between 46 years and 50 years while their counterparts
in developed countries have life expectancy that stand at 70 years or more.
(d) Environment Security: The concept of environment has begun to dominate

international discourse. The issue of environmental pollutions has continued to
attract attention among the individuals, Non-Governmental organizations
(NGOS), nations as well as international organizations.
Within the world body (the United Nations), efforts are being made through its
relevant agency – the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), to monitor
environmental issues, and make reports and plans for such issues and to act and
promote legal instruments on environment.
By and large, environment can be described as the total surrounding or external

conditions within which an organism or a community exists” (Adeboyejo, 1994:
74). And if we want to talk about environmental security, our focus shall be on
atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. People now talk about issues
like ozone layer damage, water pollution environmental degradation, to mention a
few.
Environment has great impact on, which has led to increasing interest of state and
non-state actors on environmental protection and security. The growing interest
since 980s on environmental security has also attracted a number of international
agreements aimed at protecting the environment see table 2.1 for the list of some
of such agreements and when they were signed.
Table 2.1 International Agreements on the Protection of Environment
Agreement Year signed or in effect

Convention on the conservation of
Antarctic Marine living Resources 1980
Lima convention for the protection
of the marine Environment and
coastal Area of the South East 1981
Pacific
United Nations Convention on Law
of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982
Jeddah regional Convention for the
Conservation of the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden Environment 1982
Cartegena Convention for the
25
Protection and Development of the

marine Environment of the Wider
Caribbean Region 1983
Vienna Convention for the
Protection of the Ozone Layer 1985
Nairobi Convention for the
Protection, Management, and
Development of the Marine and
coastal management of the Eastern 1985
African Region
US – Canada Pacific Salmon Treaty 1986
Convention on Early Notification of
a Nuclear Accident 1986
Convention on Assistance in the
case of a Nuclear Accident or
Radiological Emergency 1986
Resources and Environment of the
South Pacific Region 1986
Protocol on the Reduction of
Sculpture Emission or Their Tran
boundary Fluxes by at least 30 1988
Percent 1985
Protocol concerning the control of
Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides 1988
Wellington Convention on the
Regulation of Antarctic Mineral
Resources 1988
Basel Convention on the control of
Tran boundary Movement of
Hazardous Water and their Disposal 1989
Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer 1987 - 1990
Protocol on Reduction of Voluble
Organic Compounds 1991
Bamako convention on the Ban of
import into Africa and the control
of Tran boundary movement and
management of Hazardous Wastes
which Africa 1991
Espoo convention on
Environmental impact Assessment
in a Tran boundary context 1991
Protocol on Environmental
Protection, Antarctica 1991
Convention on Biological Diversity 1992
Convention on Climate Change 1992
26
Convention on the prohibition of

the Development, Production,
stockpiling, and use of Chemical
Weapons and on their destruction 1993
United Nations Resolution Against
Drift-Net Fishing 1993
Reflecting on the foregoing table, no less than twenty agreements were reached in
thirteen years. This shows that protecting environment has become a key element
of strategic planning among various nations. Insecure environment is more
susceptible to natural disasters. The damage inflicted on the ozone layer by
several environmental pollutions has been responsible for the change in weather
in which tropical areas like Africa now experience increasing hotness in weather
Apart from that, deforestation has also constituted a great security thereat to
several nations attracting incidence of drought (by making the soil to dry out
faster). Bush burning can lead to economic calamity and environmental
degradation. The issue of oil spillage can also be a source of environmental
image.
This is often experienced in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria, where oil spillage
usually pollutes the waters and killing the fishes, attracting (violent) conflicts
between the local people and oil companies engaging in exploration in the region.
One basic fact that I will like to bring out at this juncture, is that securing
environment is the beginning of wisdom, so you are admonished to always protect
the environment.
(e) Personal Security: This is type of security which involves protecting every
individual from any physical violence. Therefore both the state and other entities
like any other people or group or people, member(s) of the person’s immediate
family are barred by the law to carry out any action(s) that can cause injury or
death against that individual.
Here the individual is protected against domestic and non-domestic violence.

Personal security also prevents the individual from physical aggression against
himself or herself. He/she is therefore not allowed to cause injury (deliberately)
against himself/herself. And the issue of killing oneself is regarded by the law as a
criminal offence
(f) Community Security: This form of security engenders the need to respect
traditional relationships and social values of the people by protecting the people
from losing such communitarian values. Therefore several international and
national institutional frameworks are put in place to ensure freedom of the people
to association (s) does not constitute a security threat), religion etc; and no
violence should be directed to him/her by another person or group of person.
27
(g) Territorial Security: This denotes protecting the state against any internal
and external aggression. This is one aspect of the United Nations mandate, which
the world body has found crucial to the maintenance of global peace and security.
Exercise
Discuss any five types of security.
4.0 CONCLUSION
There is a new meaning of security since the end of sold war. The world has
realized the need to peopling security, such that management of security has
became a subject of how much a state caters for the wellbeing of its people.
During the cold war, a majority of wars at that time were international but now
political strife, insurgencies and civil wars plague most of the countries. The truth
is that most of these internal wars are created by economic deprivation, (inter)
religious violence, ethnic rivalry, maladministration among others.
Nonetheless, state and non-state actors have a new twist to security discourse by
tracing major threats to security of a nation to its domestic domain rather than
external environment. The use of violence by the state has proved less effective in
the management of security, as focus in now being shifted to providing
empowerment opportunities for such economic security, human rights for the
people as the alternative strategy.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to explain the meaning of security. We began our
discourse by looking at various definitions of the term. Various scholars have
however defined the concept (security) differently. But most of these definitions
have demonstrated the importance of providing a viable network of opportunities
in terms of protection of human rights, good governance, access to basic needs,
social justice, accountability etc, to people, as the best form of secur ity.
We also discussed various types of security. It is my belief that you have found
this unit interesting. But, if you have any problem in understanding any segment
(or part) of this unit feel free, to consult your tutorial facilitator. Thank you very
much for your great attention.
6.0 TUTORED MARKED ASSIGNMENT

(i) What is secur ity?
(ii) Discuss any four types of security.
7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
28
Adeboyejo, Thompson A. (1994) “Man’s Physical Environment System”, in S.K.

Balogun (ed).) Basic Concepts in Society, Government and Economy, Ibadan:
Sam Bookman.
Henk, Dan (2005) “Human security: Relevance and Implication,” Parameters,

Vol. 35.
Lubeck, Paul M. (1991), “Islamic Protest Under Semi Industrial Capitalism”, in

Olupona, J.K. and T. Falola (ed), Religion and society in Nigeria: Historical and
Sociological Perspectives. Ibadan Spectrum Books Limited.
Okafor, S.I. (1988), Introduction to Man–Environment Interaction, Ibadan:

External studies Programmes Series.
South African White Paper on Defence (1996), Pretoria: Department of Defence
Tickner, J.A. (1994) “Re-visioning Security” in Ken Booth and Steve Smiths
(eds). International Relations Theory Today.
Ukeje, Charles (2001), “Youth, Violence and the Collapse of Public Order in the
Niger-Delta of Nigeria”, Africa Development, Vol. XXVI, No. 1 & 2.
Unit 2
DISCOURSE ON VIOLENCE AND VIOLENT CRIME
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Defining Violence
3.2 Discourse on Justification of Violence
3.3 Forms of Violent Crimes
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The concept of violence has been a complex one. It can be applied to the
disruption of the peace of any community, as it can also be used to maintain peace
and security. It has continued to be a regular feature in the history of human
civilization. It is exhibited in every level of human relations, from intra-personal
to global. It is no news that violence is sometimes perpetuated against oneself as
evident in some religions where aggression against oneself is seen as a form of
29
spiritual cleansing or upliftment. According to the World Health Organization

(WHO), it is estimated that yearly almost 1.6 million people die due to violence.
In this unit, we shall be focusing on the subject (violence). Now, let us quickly
browse through the objectives of this unit before we begin the discourse of the
day. Thank you as you pay attention.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define the term violence;
Discuss the justification of violence; and
Explain forms of violent crimes.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Describing Violence
Violence is a concept that has attracted huge attention among the scholars in
peace and conflict studies, criminology and security studies as well psychology.
Consequently, a lot of definitions have emerged. One of the scholars who have
contributed on the subject (violence) is Arendt who described violence basically
by focusing on its characteristics rather than conceptual definition. She therefore
stressed that “violence” interprets itself basically through the way it “harbours
within itself an….element of arbitrariness….this intrusion of the utterly
unexpected….” (Arendt, 1968: 4).
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) on its part defined
violence as “Injury inflicted by deliberate means”, which includes assault, as well
as “legal intervention, and self-harm”. Other definitions of violence may include
the following:
A situation or event is violent to the extent that a sudde n and drastic increase
occurs in the scale of negative values at stake. The more drastic and rapid the
increase the more the negative, and the more people who experience this
increase, the more violent is the situation or event (Lustick, 2006: 6).
Any form of behaviour directed toward the goal of harming or injuring

another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment (Baron, 1997).
The intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against

oneself, another person or against a group or community, that either results in
30
or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm,

maldevelopment or deprivation ( Repo rt on Violence and Healt h, 2002).
Violence is aggressive behaviour that may be physically, sexually or

emotionally abusive. The aggressive behaviour is conducted by an individual
or group against another, or others. Physically abusive behaviour, is where a
child, adolescent or group directly or indirectly ill treats, injures, or kills
another or others. The aggressive behaviour can involve pushing, shoving,
shaking, punching, kicking, squeezing, burning or any other form of physical
assault on a person(s) or on property. Emotionally abusive behaviour, is where
there is verbal attacks, threats, taunts, slagging, mocking, yelling, exclusion,
malicious rumours. Sexually abusive behaviour is where there is sexual
assualt or rape (Nov.AS. R.E.S.).
Actions that inflict, threaten, or cause injury. Actions may be corporal, written
or verbal. Injuries may be corporal, psychological, material, or social
(Jackman, 2002: 20).
Violence is the exertion of physical force so as to injure or abuse. The word is

used broadly to describe the destructive action of natural phenomena like
storms and earthquakes. More frequently the word describes forceful human
destruction of property or injury to persons, usually intentional, and forceful
verbal and emotional abuse that harms others
( .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/violence).
Exercise
How do you define violence?
3.2 Discourse on Justification of Violence
Exlusive right of government to the use of violence thesis: There is a great debate
on the issue of justification of violence or violent actions. Some scholars believe
that it is only the government that possesses rights to the application of violence.
According to these theorists or simply members of this school of thought the
essence of a state is to regulate the human conduct for the purpose of maitaining
law and order.
How do you feel if you find yourself in a society, which has no laws or agency to
enforce the laws? There is tendency that there will be breakdown of law and order
if not perpetually but such misnormal is bound to occur occassionally. Even in
places where there are laws and (effective) regulatory agencies, some deviant
members of such societies will still break the laws.
However, one of the responsibilities of government is to make laws and ensures

strict compliance of the people to the laws of the land. Knowing that the
31
fundamental basis of law is to check the excesses of man especially as it concerns

the issues of violence and violent crimes, having the enforcer of the law remains
very important.
Nevertheless, the importance of government in the maintenance of law and order

cannot be overemphasized. This explains why people, in the state of nature, had to
submit their individual sovereignty to the state according to the intellectual
articulations of Thomas Hobbes. Here, Hobbes claimed that the absence of
government in the state of nature accounted for various unspeakable atrocities that
dominated the affairs of men, such that the life of man was not only “solitary” but
also “poor, nasty, brutish and short”.
There is doubt that the character of the modern state will definitely
generate conflicts particularly as it relates to control of resources, which demands
great competition. One of the sources of this competition is Population. It was
ppopulation growth that attracted the evolution of agrarian societies into ones that
are more politically organized. People began to accumulate greater information
exchange, which brought about innovations and skills to invent, increasing
resources, as societies began to live beyond agriculture (Christian, 2004: 146–
147). It is against this background that:
……it appeared pertinent to bring a political authority or government into

force because of the danger that conflicting interests could pose to
mankind. Thus, a body of people, to regulate the behaviour and activities
of people, was set up, in whom the people would surrender their individual
power. And as a sovereign power, the government in turn would provide
them with public order and security, and make binding decisions on the
people (Kasali, 2008: 6).
On the question of justification of violence, Max Weber argued that the power of
the state include the monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force or violence
within its defined territory. This is to say no government has right to extend its
power beyond its territory, and thus it is illegitimate and criminal to apply force or
violence on the citizens of another country outside your domain. This issue is a
very controversial one considering the power-play among nations in the world
politics, which does not fall within the scope of this lecture (unit).
Moreover, power is so fundamental to the business of governance. Even as a

parent, you need some power to be able compel your children to respect the rules
of the house. At levels of leadership, power plays a very important role to ensure
that the followers comply with the rules and regulations guiding their relations
within and outside the organizations. I therefore concur with the intellectual
submision of Kasali (2008) on the relationship between the government and
power, and it goes thus:
32
……the impact of power on governmental operations is so enormous, as

also evident in the divine origin of state theory. In this theoretical
proposition, people were said to have cried on to God for assistance when
the world was in a state of nature. They said: “we are perishing, give us a
chief whom we shall worship in concert and who will protect us.” In this
case, obedience of one’s government appears to be religious and civil duty
of every citizen (Kasali, 2008:11).
Owing to the need to guarantee law and order, the state exercises its power by
applying sanctions against lawbreakers or deviant members of the society. The
government fulfills this task by putting in place law enforcement mechanisms
(Police, Customs Service, Immigration Service etc) that ensure strict compliance
of the people to the laws of the land through the use of violence.
Additionally, there are legal systems which contain the rules, regulations and laws
that govern the conduct of each individual and public officer. The laws are
itemized and codified with relevant penalties particularly in penal codes and other
relevant documents of law. The scholars like Max Weber who argue that, it is
only government that has the right to the use of violence also claim that in
anticipation to maintain law and order in a given state, the government has the
power to apply some considerable amount of violence through the use of the
police and military.
Just Application of violence by ind ividu al(s) is Legitimate thesis: There are a
number of scholars and philosophers who believe that it is not only the
government that has right to the legitimate use of violence. The legitimacy of any
violent action is a function of its justification. Take for instance, if somebody is
being attacked by people possessing some dangerous weapons, one thing that will
come to the mind of such person is that the armed attackers should either be
armed robbers or hired killers. Dangerous weapons are neither toys nor pleasant
objects but they are objects of destruction and harm.
Therefore, the person in question will have two options. The first may be to
surrender to fate while the second option will be to resist the attack by fighting
back. If the person chooses the second option, then we arrive at the issue of self-
defence. In someone’s attempt to defend himself against any harm from an
attacker or a group of attackers, he/she kills or injures the attacker(s) or some of
the attackers, has he./she committed an offence for doing so? Or the person
should, in order not to violate the laws, accept to be harmed (or killed) by the
assailants?
Nevertherless, the law allows anybody to apply violence if it is for self defence.
According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), homicide can be
classified into two, which include criminal homicide and justifiable homicide
(e.g. self defense).
33
Another factor that can justify any perpetuation of violence by an individual

against any other party(ies) is when such individual has become mentally ill to the
extent that he cannot control his actions.
However, this is ascertained through psychiatric examination. It is the report of

such test that show if truly the suspect was mentally unstable at the time he
carried out the violence. One of the factors that can make somebody lose his
mental stability may be finding his/her spouse with a boyfriend/girlfriend having
canal pleasure right in their matrimonial home. In such case the law may be
lenient with the perpetrator of violence but not in all cases.
Another factor that make individual(s) carry out a just violence is if the
government is repressive and does not respect the natural rights of the people. The
people have justification to wage violence against such government because their
natural rights are fundamental to their human existence, and nobody including the
government should deny them such rights.
Additionally, people can also carry-out violence if the government fails to meet
their yearnings, which form the basis of the social contract between them and the
government. But it is always advisable that violence should be the last resort.
People should explore the pacific means in getting government to do their bid.
From all we have discussed so far, it is not only government that enjoy legitimate
use of violence, individual(s) can also enjoy such legitimate right if there is
justification for exhibiting the violent behaviour. The same rule goes to state
(government) because if the state exercises this power in an unjust way, the
people have the power to resist such state or government. Justification of violence
goes beyond the principle of the end justifies the means. This is because if the
means are evil, the end will definitely be evil.
Exercise
Discuss what are the factors that justify act of violence by an individual.
3.3 Forms of Violent Crimes
Violent crimes are any aggressive actions which are outlawed or prohibited by the
law. Anybody who engages in any of such actions has committed a serious
offence. Thus such a person shall be punished by the law based on the grativity of
his/her offence. Violent crimes can be classified into two: domestic and non-
domestic. There are many forms of violent crimes and they include the following:
a) Abuse: This involves any action targetted towards wrong or improper use of
another person. There are several types of abuse that can be committed. One of
such is child abuse - unkind and/or brutal treatment of children especially those
under the age of 18 years. Child sexual abuse is another form of abuse
34
committed agaisnt children by adult(s). This involves indescent sexual actvity

against a child but it does not always mean that the offender must have had sex
with the victim before this kind of offence would have been committed.
The act of child sexual abuse can also come in form of playing with sexual organ
of the child among others.Emotional abuse is not usually regarded as a criminal
act but it has the tendency to bring the sufferer or victim of such abuse to
aggressive behaviour leading to crime.
We usually hear cases of people harming their love partners because they’re jilted
by their partners. The point we are trying to make is that jilting can cause
emotional abuse but it is not a crime. But the act of jilting can make the victim,
after considering all he/she has done for the partner either in monetary terms etc,
to embark on actions that may be considered criminal.
Sexual abuse is unwanted sexual activity like touching some sentive parts of the
victim. It can also involve subtly compelling the victim into a sexual activity;
b) Assault and Battery: Assualt is a form of violent crime, which involves unlawful
attack aimed at causing bodily injury to another party or person. Battery is illegal
beating that may lead to injuring another person. This is usually evident in most
homes in Africa where parents use objects such as cane and horse-whip to
discipline their children or someone else. Now, let us quickly talk about different
types of assualt. These include aggravated assualt (a form of assault that involves
the use of weapons or violently attacking another person beyond ordinary assualt),
and sexual assault that involves making violent sexual advances on a person;
c) Homicide: This violent crime involves the killing of another person. This criminal
offence is often perpetuated with levity in most of our tertiary institutions in
Nigeria in the name of secret cultism. Many husbands have committed this
violence against their wives, several wives have been reported doing same. This
crime is one of the violent crimes that carry great penalties ranging from long
imprisonment terms, life jail term, to even death penalty;
d) Murder: It can be regarded as homicide in certain proscribed conditions. But, it is

act of killing another human being with pre-meditated malice. Research findings
have shown that murder accounts for several deaths. It has been estimated on
annual basis that no less than 55,000 murders are recorded in Brazil, while
30,000 in Russia, 25,000 in Columbia (see
.news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/5024428.stm) , 20,000 in South Africa,
15,000 in Mexico, 14,000 people are murdered in the United States
( .users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstar8.htm#Murders) etc.
e) Rape: The offence is also very criminal. It is an unlawful act of engaging another
preson in sexual intercourse through the use of physical force. It is a focible and
unlawful carnal knowledge of a person. The offender can be male or female. It
35
was in the olden days that men were thought of capable of committing such
offence but now females too can be culprits;
f) Property-Damage and Arson: Property-damage is also a violent crime in which a

person damages or destroys another person’s property by breaking, burning, or
any other forms of destruction or impairment. Arson is a malicious burning of
another person’s house. This offence also involves a person burning his/her own
property usually house that’s insured with the aim of defrauding the insurer(s);
g) Crue lty to : This kind of violent crime is not usually crime per se in Nigeria and
some other places. But in the Western world, animals have a number of rights,
which their governments protect. It is therefore criminal to perpetuate any brutal
act against an animal. So, those who usually hunt birds or stoning another
person’s dog(s) or commit any other form(s) of violence against animals should
be warned to desist if they are visiting or relocating permanently to any part of the
Western world where governments protect the rights of animals. In Africa,
protecting animals rights looks absurd in the face of growing abuse of the
fundamental rights of the people. Human beings never get their protected rights
let alone animals; and
h) Domestic Vio lence: This is form of violent crime in which a person carries out
violence against another person within the same household. This form of violence
is so rampant to the extent that we have at least 30 cases in every minute in
Nigeria and many of which have remained unreported. It is therefore pertinent
that we use a whole unit to discuss it. We shall therefore be focusing on this
subject (domestic violence) in the next unit, so that we can develop an analytical
insight on the subject aimed at providing recommendations through which this
violence can, at least, be reduced if not eradicated completely.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The issue ofviolence has continued to attract growing interest among scholars,
policy-makers as well as human rights advocates. The negative consequences of
violence on mankind has necessitated a quite number of international
organizations and the United Nations to come out with polict frameworks to
address the problem of violence.
Violence is often defined as human attack targetted at harming another human

being. This definition is rather too fluid because it is not only the humans that
perpetuate violence. There are non-human violence, such as attack from the
animals or natural disaster. Natural disasters too can be violent, causing injury,
damage, even death to human and other animals. What most governments do to
avoid violence from natural disaster is to put in place viable early warning
mechanisms that alert the relevant agencies of the government on the possible
occurrence of a partiocular natural disaster or the other.
36
In Africa, we still lack such mechanisms and our response to emergency is

phlegmatic or lackadaisical. There is no doubt in human civilization, violence has
interpreted itself in various forms, such as do mestic violence and non domestic
aggression i.e war, riot, armed robbery, assassination, arson, among others. In
spite of its negativity, it remains part of human civilization.
Exercise
Explain forms of violent crimes.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have focused on a number of issues concerning the subject of

violence. We began our journey into the subject matter by looking at various
definitions of violence to alert our conceptual minds.
Thereafter, we discussed the justification of violence. Here, we looked at whether

it is only the government that enjoys legitimate use of violence or individuals too
can enjoy such right (legitimate violence) provided there is justification for such
aggressive behaviour.
Third area of discourse on the subject was explaining some of the various forms
of violent crime. I hope that you have found this unit (very) interesting and self-
explanatory? Meanwhile, if you have problem to decipher any segment of this
unit, you are advised to consult your tutorial facilitator or share your problem with
your study group. Thank you for your attention.

What is violence? And explain the various forms of violent crimes.
Arendt, Hannah (1968), On Violence. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
Baron, R.A. (1997), Human Aggression, New York: Plenum
Christian, David (2004), Maps of the Time. Los Angeles, California: University of
California Press.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (2004), Crime Reporting Handbook. Also

available on .fbi.gov/ucr/handbook/ucrhandbook04.pdf.
Jackman, Mary R. (2002), “Violence in Social Life”, Annual Review of Sociology,

Vol. 28.
37
Kasali, Monsuru Adegboyega (2008), POS 113: The Organisation of

Government, University of Ibadan for Distance Learning Centre, University of
Ibadan.
Lustick, Ian S. (2006), Defining Violence: A Plausibility Probe Using Agent-

Based Modelling, Paper prepared for LiCEP, Princeton University, May 12-14,
2006. Also available on .psych.upenn.edu/sacsec/abir.
NoV. R.E.S., European Commission on Education and Culture Connect Program.
Peterson, Dale & Richard Wrangham (1997), Males: Apes and the Origins of
Human Violence, Mariner Books.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Also avalaible on
.cdc.gov/ncipc/wisqars/nonfatal/definitions.htm#violence. Retrieved on the 20th
April, 2008.
Report on Violence and Health (October 3, 2002). Also available on

.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/en. Retrieved on 30th June, 2007.
.boston.com/news/world/latinaamerica/articles//2006/09/25/brazil_murder_rate_s
imilar_to_war_zone_data_shows/. Retrieved on 17th of April 2008
.en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/violence. Retrieved on 23rd of April 2008.
.news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/5024428.stm. Retrieved on 20th of April

2008.
.users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstar8.htm#Murders. Retrieved on 16th of April

2008.
38
39
Unit 3
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Defining Domestic Violence
3.2 The Cycle of Domestic Violence
3.3 Sources of Domestic Violence
3.4 Solutions to Domestic Violence
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The issue of domestic violence has been a subject of great debate. This is as a
result of the way in which various scholars, policy makers as well as institutions
(governmental and non-governmental) have conceptually defined the subject.
There is no doubt that the “patriarchal violence” model has attracted a great
criticisms by conceptualising domestic violence as that one which only produces
male paerpetrator(s) and female victims(s).
Experience has shown that it is not only men that are perpetrators of this violence,
there have been cases where women have been reported to be culprits. Even
within the same-sex households, the situation is not in anyway different. The
subject has attracted a phletora of literature in which several definitions have
emerged in the conceptualization of the term (domestic violence) by scholars,
policy-makers and non-governmental organizations working in the field.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define the term domestic violence;
Describe the cycle of domestic violence;
Explain sources of domestic violence; and
Identify ways to address the scourge of domestic violence in (y)our society.
40
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Defining Domestic Violence
Domestic violence is often referred to as a form of violence involving child abuse,

elder abuse, other forms of aggressive behaviour between two or more people
within the same family (or household) (Wallace, 2004: 2). The term domestic
violence goes beyond, in its conceptual meaning, aggressive behaviour between
husband and wife. The victim may not be married to culprit but they may only be
living in this same household (Waits,1985: 267-330).
According to the U.S. Office on the Violence against Women (OVW), domestic
violence can be defined as a:
pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one

partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate
partner ( .usdoj.gov/ovw/domviolence.htm.).
The Children and Family Court Advisory and Support Service through its
Domestic Violence Assessment Policy described domestic violence as:
Patterns of behaviour characterised by the misuse of power and

control by one person over another who are or have been in an
intimate relationship. It can occur in mixed gender relationships
and same gender relationships and has profound consequences for
the lives of children, individuals, families and communities. It may
be physical, sexual, emotional and/or psychological. The latter
may include intimidation, harassment, damage to property, threats
and financial abuse
( .cafcass.gov.uk/English/publications/consultation/04DecDV%20
Policy.pd f).
Exercise
Define the term domestic violence.
3.2 The Cycle of Domestic Violence
Domestic violence has the tendency to keep recurring in homes. This form of
aggression has been experienced, especially those families where the couples and
other members of the households often use offensive or rather abusive language.
In relationships where there is manifest exhibition of abusive behaviour, the
probability that domstic violence will erupt between partners or members of the
household is usually high.
In his model of cycle of violence, Lenore Walker presented three phases to

explain the impact that a domestic violence will have on the relationship between
the perpetrator and victim. The basic truth is that violence seems to have epochal
41
effect on the relationship between the affected parties. Let us consider a situation
where a victim of domestic violence loses one of his/her eyes at the time the
perpetrator exhibits his/her aggressive behaviour against him/her. How do you
think that their relationship will not be affected? Unless, there is geniune
transformation of their conflict relation through the peocesses of healing and
mutual recognition of each other’s need and interest, violence will keep recurring
in their relationship.
In an attempt to illuminate or shed light on the patterns of behaviour of the parties

in relation to domestic aggression that has existed between them, that Walker has
brought an analytical framework, to explain the recurrence of aggressive
behaviour in affected families or households. Now, let us quickly look at the three
basic phases.
Honeymoon Phase
In this phase, there is tension freezing. The atmsphere is rented with affection,
apology, an end to the violence. The perpetrators of the violence usually
demonstrate a sense of regret for the aggressive behaviour exhibited by them
against the victims. But, it is not in all cases that we have parpetrators showing
affection to the victims, as some (perpetrators) will rather leave the scene.
However, it is important to note that, not in all cases that domestic violence is
negative. This is because some couples are deriving pleasure in such abnormal
behaviour. I could remember hearing a lady saying that it was after her husband
battered her that she began to know that the man really loved. To her domestic
violence is a way of showing love and affection. I have the feeling that the lady in
question must have hidden some other vital information, which made her to think
that way.
Nevertheless, I suggest that the husband realized, after the violence, that what he
did was wrong. He therefore apologized to the wife and showered her with love
and affection which climaxed in love-making. The lady might have really enjoyed
the way the husband made love to her that night more than any other time. In
situation like this, there is tendency that the lady will try the repeat of the violent
situation to actually know if the husband will always satisfy her better sexually
under such aggressive condition. If the result of the subsequent incident of
domestic violence is the same with the previous event, I have no doubt, that
domestic violence will become habitual in that kind of family.
Tension Building Phase
This phase is greeted with break-down in communication as tension and fear of

violent outbursts will rent the air. At this stage the victim will try to appeal to the
perpetrator to be calm and reason along with him/her to find solutions to their
conflict relations.
42
In several situations of do mestic violence, the victims might be the ones who
actually started situations, which led to the exhibition of aggressive behaviour by
the culprits. A number of wives are used to nagging and such an act is capable of
producing emotional abuse that tends to activate the other party’s anger. The
anger is likely to produce aggressive or violent behaviour, which the culprit is
likely to direct against the victim.
Communication break-down usually creates misunderstanding between parties. If

care is not taken such situation will most likely generate tension in the conflict
relation between the parties. If the parties fail to allow the tension to fizzle out by
maintaining decorum and avoid further exchange of hot words or they walk away
from each other (for a while), the probability that confrontation will set-in is very
high.
Acting-out Phase
In this stage, there is evident consequence of communication break-down. This

consequence is outburst of violent and abusive behaviour. The parties will engage
each other in physical violence, and efforts will be made by each of them to have
a strategic advantage over each other in their violent conflict relation. Though, it
is not in all cases that you will find the victims and perpetrators of domestic
violence in engage each other in a fight. The victim may simply avoid engaging
the perpetrator in any physical combat but the perpetrator may insist prevailing on
the victim by applying domestic violence. A good example is a man bringing to
his matrimonial home a girlfriend to sleep overnight. The wife may (peacefully)
kick against such plan, and consequently a serious argument may ensue between
them. In order to prevail on the wife to accept his plan, the husband way use
violence against wife.
Exercise
How do you describe the cycle of domestic violence?

3.3 Sources of Domestic Violence
There are many different causes that accounr for domestic violence. In this
segment of the unit, we shall be focusing on these causes. Now, let us discuss the
causes one after the other.
a) Sensit ive Nature of One’s Job: Resulting from the sensitive nature of one’s job,
there is tendency that one’s partner may wish to capitalize on it to make some
extraneous demands from the person. Such demands are most likely to get the
person infuriated. For instance, the wife of a pastor may decide to make a request
from him. And if he fails, the wife can resolve to shout on him, knowing that the
man will like to protect his image, having no other option other than yielding to
her request.
43
In a situation that the poor pastor decides otherwise, the possibility that tension
will emerge is apparent. If the man becomes angered and can no longer control
his temper, he may have no other option but to use (domestic) violence against the
wife.
Meanwhile, it is not the sensitive nature of one’s job that makes one to perpetuate
violence within the family but a member of the family may wish to capitalize on it
by making inconsiderate demands. It is the reckless attitude of the victim that
would force the culprit to consider aggression against him/her;
b) Personality Traits and Mental Characteristics: According to Psychological

theorists of domestic violence, the personality traits and mental characteristics of
the offender are responsible for his/her domestic violent behaviour. Examples of
personality traits may include high temperament or getting angry much quickly,
and low self esteem. Nonetheless, several other personality disorders and
psychopathology can also lead to aggressive behaviour.
Take for instance, the children of homes that frequently experience domestic
violence, there is great possibility that when such children become adults, they
will exhibit some domestic violent behaviour. Again, children that are abused are
very much likely to be violent when they become adults. Some research findings
have also shown that men who frequently abuse their wives have borderline
personalities (between psychotics and neurotics), which they have developed in
their early life (Dutton, D. G. & A. J. Starzomski ,1993: 327-337);
c) External Factors: Here, we are talking on how some enviromental factors

contribute to the habit of domestic violence. One who goes out with friends who
often perpetrate aggression against their spouses or any other members in their
families may (un)consciously internalize or cultivate such aggressive behaviour.
So, with little misundestanding with another person in his household, he/she may
then exhibit the learnt or acquired value of domestic violence.
The structure of one’s family can also play a role in his/her acquisition of violent
behaviour. If someone has a misunderstanding some certain (extended) family
member(s) may incite one to perpetuate violence against his/her partner or any
other person in the family. Additionally, if one comes into a family that is violent,
there is tendency that such person will also exhibit violent attitudes when he/she
also has his/her own family;
d) Resources: Resources are said by Goode (1971), to be some of the fundamental

sources of domestic violence especially in a family where it is only one of the
partners that provides the needs of the family. There is possibility that, if that
person who unilaterally povides the family’s needs is always confronted with
financial burden to the extent that he/she becomes frustrated, there will be anger.
If the other partner is found by him/her to be wasteful, the erupt ion of violence is
44
very likely. This explains why most homes where it is one of the (intimate)
partners is responsible for the family’s needs, often collapse when the bread-
winners begin to experience the problem of dwidling resources.
Research findings have shown that couples that both provide the needs of the
family on equal terms experience less incidence of violence. But the problem of
control and power may likely provoke situation of conflcit in the family, which
can even to abuse (Kurz, 1992).
Here, the man will claim to be the leader of the house. And where the wife thinks
that she can be at the same level with the husband, considering the equal
contribution they make in terms of providing for the needs of the family, there is
likelihood that any good relation between the couple may become severed and
domestic violence may be brought to bear to settle the power tussle between
them;
e) Social Stress: There are so many factors that can cause stress. These may include
inability of someone to pay his/her house-rent, unemployment, loss of job,
childlessness, financial problems, inability of one to meet his/her desired goals,
among others. All these and more can actually lead a person to stress. These
stressors can increase situation of tension in the family.
Though, violence is not caused by stress most times, it can lead some people to
anger (Seltzer & Kalmuss, 1988: 473-491). If one is not able to dispose off the
anger, it can lead to aggressive behaviour. This situation is likely to lead to
transferred aggression. The major environment where transferred aggression often
takes place is the home.
f) Social Learning or Modelling: Another source of domestic violence is social

learning. According to environmental psychologists, it is believed that any violent
behaviour exhibited by a person must have been acquired from external forces,
and such behaviour and any other behaviours are not innate.
Therefore, it is through socialization that we cultivate habits, values and ideas,

which mould our behaviours. A child that is raised in a peaceful home will hardly
exhibit any domestic violent behaviour. But most children that are brought up in
homes where domestic violence has been a common phenomenon, there is
possibility that most of such children would have imbibed the culture of domestic
violence.
g) Alcoho l: Heavy consumption of alcohol can easily lead to domestic violence

(Jewkes, 2002: 1423-1429) . The situation of do mestic violence is rampant among
the families where one of the partners indulges in very high comsupt ion of
alcohol. After the incidence of violence, if asked the reason for the aggressive
behaviour when they are no more under the influence of alcohol, most of the
culprits would tell you that they never knew what they were doing; and
45
h) Hard Drugs: Hard drugs may include cocaine, heroine, marijuana (weeds), to
mention a few. These are also potential sources of domestic violence. In most
homes where you people taking hard drugs, the situation of domestic violence
will not be far from them. This is because, many times persons taking hard drugs
will find it difficult to have control over their emotions and behaviour.
For instance, if a member of a particular family is indulging himself/herself in

cocaine consumption, what will be paramount to him is to have money to take his
drugs. If he/she does not have money to buy the ‘stuff’,that house is in great
danger. This is because he/she will look for means to get money in the house if no
alternative means outside. The person may resort to use of domestic violence if
he/she cannot get the money peacefully. Etc.
Exercise
What are the sources of domestic violence?
3.4 Solutions to Domestic Violence
a) One of the ways to eradicate or limit the incidence of domestic violence is to

articulate for combined action between law enforcement agencies, the courts,
social service agencies and corrections/probation agencies. Each of these agencies
should take pro-active measures within constitutional ambits to bring the problem
of domestic violence to public view. This is because the problem of domestic
violence especially in Africa is seen as family matter, which needs to be
addressed privately.
Police is usually relunctant to facilitate the arrest of the culprits in most cases
except there is a reported case of homicide. May be the reason for that, is the way
society as whole sees domestic violence as normal and private issue. This
partially explains why domestic violence is regarded by the law as a misdemeanor
offence;
b) There should be adequate medical interventions for the victims of domestic

violence. After the treatment, it is expected that the victims should be advised by
the medical personnel or doctors to visit relevant agencies that can help to counsel
the victims and culprits to ensure transformation of their conflict relation. This
process can assist the victims and culprits to improve the communication break-
down and healing through apology and forgiveness;
c) Apart from attending to the victims, medical professionals should also endeavour
to assist the culprits by providing medical inteventions that will enable the
perpetrators to control their violent behaviour. Application of drugs like
clozapine, Lithium and anticonvulsants can be very helpful to control aggressive
behaviour.
46
d) Provision of Standard Operations Procedures for Arrest of Culprits is essential. In

making a warrantless arrest, there is a need for Standard Operations Procedures
(SOP), which must be considered and observed by the Law enforcement agents.
To make any arrest of perpetrator(s) of domestic violence, certain questions need
to be answered. They include:
• Are there signs of physical abuse?

• Were there witnesses?
• Is it recent?
• Was the victim assaulted by the alleged suspect?
• Who is the primary aggressor?
• Could the victim be lying?
• Could the suspect be lying?
(see .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_violence);
e) Criminologists often find it difficult to understand why detterence measures

have not actually prevented the occurrence of domestic violence up till now. One
of the reasons for the continued occurrence of such ugly incidence is the
phlegmatic or relunctant posture being articulated by most prosecutors to bring
the culprits to justice. Even, when the perpetrators of domestic violence are
prosecuted, they get minor jail sentence. On several occassions, the court(s) give
many of the culprits option of fine. In order to reduce to a bearest minimum the
incidence of domestic violence, there is need by the government to make the
offence attract steep penalties; and
f) Efforts should be made towards reconciliation and conflict Transformation. These

peace tasks can also be performed by law enforcement agents as well as the
court(s) to assist the parties (victim and offender) to appreciate the need to restore
their severed friendship and recognize the needs and interests of each other. This
is why it is pertinent for the government to provide a platform for restorative
justice. The criminal justice focuses on retributing the offender(s) while
restorative justice system deals with ways to restore and improve the cordial
relationship that formerly existed berween the parties before the incident of
domestic violence.
Exercise
What are your recommendations for addressing the problem of domestic
violence?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Domestic violence is experienced in every part of the world irrespective of class,

age, sex, profession, culture, race, etc. It is a common phenomenon, especially in
societies where there is increasing poverty, unemployment, absence of socio-
justice. Most definitions of the term domestic violence center on the violent
relations between husband and wife.
47
But domestic violence goes beyond violent behaviour between couple(s), and it
also involves a member of a family aggressing against another person within the
same household. The victim may be a child or cousin or sister (inlaw) or brother
(inlaw) or uncle or aunt or nephew or mother (inlaw) or father (inlaw) to the
perpetrator of a do mestic violence. Woman and girl-child have remained the
greatest victims of domestic violence but this does not mean that we don’t have
female perpetrators of domestic violence. In several households, we can find
women who are husband beaters
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have tried to discuss a wide range of issues concerning domestic
violence. We bagan our academic task in this unit by looking at some of the
available definitions of the subject (domestic violence). Thereafter, our attention
was drawn to expaining the cycle of domestic violence. We also recognized the
need to discuss the various sources of domestic violence, which we accomplished
in the segment succeeding the one we focused on the cycle of violence. The last
but not the least area of discourse was exploring ways to address the problem of
domestic violence. I really appreciate your attention, and if you have any problem
in deciphering any segment of this unit, please consult your tutorial facilitator.
Thank you and God bless.

I. Define the term domsetic violence.
II. Discuss any four sources of domestic violence.
Bowen, Erica, Len Brown and Elizabeth Gilchrist (July 2002) , “Evaluating
Probation Based Offender Programmes for Domestic Violence Perpetrators: A
Pro-Feminist Approach”, The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 41(3).
Bowker, L.H., Arbitell, M.,& Mcferron, J.R (1988), “On the Relationship
Between Wife Beating and Child Abuse”, in K. Yllo & M. Bograd, Feminist
Perspectives on Wife Abuse, Sage.
Children and Family Court Advisory and Support Service, Domestic Violence
Assessment Policy. Available on
.cafcass.gov.uk/English/publications/consultation/04DecDV%20Policy.pdf
Retrieved on 16th June, 2007.
Dutton, D. G. & A. J. Starzomski (1993). "Borderline Personality in Perpetrators

of Psychological and Physical Violence". Violence and Victim
48
Dutton, D. G. & S. K. Golant (1995). The Batterer: A Psychological Profile.

Basic Books.
Follingstad, D.R., L.L. Rutledge, et al (1990), “The Role of Emotional Abuse in

Physically Abusive Relationships”, Journal of Family Violence.
Goode, William (1971), “Force and Violence in the Family”, Journal of Marriage
and the Family, 33.
Jewkes, Rachel (April 20, 2002), “Intimate Partner Violence: Causes and
Prevention”, The Lancet 359. pp. 1423-1429.
Johnson, M.P. (2000), “Conflict and Control:Images of Symmetry and

Asymmetry in Domestic Violence”, in Booth, A., A.C. Crouter, and M. Clements,
Couples in Conflict. Erlbaum.
Kurz, D. (1992), “Battering and the Criminal Justice System: A Feminist View”,
in Buzawa, E.S., C.G. Buzawa, Domestic Violence: The Changing Criminal
Justice Response, Auburn House.
Office on Violence Against Women. .usdoj.gov/ovw/domviolence.htm. Retrieved

on 13th June, 2007.
Renzetti, C. M. and C. H. Miley (1996), Violence in Gay and Lesbian Domestic

Partnerships. Haworth Press.
Seltzer, Judith A.& Debra Kalmuss (December 1988), “Socialization and Stress
Explanations for Spouse Abuse”. Social Forces 67(2).
Straus, M. A. (1980), “A Sociological Perspective on the Causes of Family

Violence”, in Green, M. R.(ed.), Violence and the Family, Westview.
Waits, Kathleen (1984-1985). "The Criminal Justice System's Response to

Battering: Understanding the Problem, Forging the Solutions". Washington Law
Review 60.
Wallace, Harvey (2004). Family Violence: Legal, Medical, and Social

Perspectives. Allyn & Bacon.
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_violence. Retrieved on 8th of April, 2008.
Unit 4
49
THEORIES OF VIOLENCE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 The Malthusian Theory
3.2 Youth Bulge Theory
3.3 Historical Theories
3.4 Hobbesian Theory
3.5 Rousseauen Theory
3.6 Political Science Theory
3.7 Marxist Theory
3.8 Rationalist Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the discourse of violence, various theories have been presented to explain its
causes. Some scholars are of the view that violence is a subject of nature while
other scholars see it as a function of nurture. The debate on the causes of violence
has generated heated argument among scholars in the fields of criminology,
psychology and other related disciplines. The view that holds that cause of
violence is embedded in nature of man is rather insufficient owing to the fact that
there are some non-natural factors that produce aggressive or violent behaviour in
man. Relying on nurture as the main cause of violence is also inadequate to
explain the cause of violence. One basic truth that has emerged is that there are
many causes of violence, which can be explained by both variables: nature and
nurture. In this unit, various theories of violence shall form the basis of our study.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Identify the theories of violence; and
Explain various theories of violence.

3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 The Malthusian Theory
50
Thomas Malthus, the proponent of this theory, presented essentially different

approach in the study of the causes of violence. This theory focuses basically on
the grand function of violence rather than the origin of violence or the relationship
between the human nature and war or violence. The conscious and deliberate
motive behind aggressive behaviour of man is basically to check the growing
population, which available resources cannot take care of. Malthus (1766–1834)
wrote that populations will continue to increase until they are limited by war,
disease, or famine.
Members of this school of thought opinionate that the essence of violence or war
is to decimate or reduce the rising population, such that population outburst can
be prevented with the aim of preventing the available resources from being
overstretched. Malthus maintained that violence or war is of greater function,
which is not intentionally articulated by man due to its invisibility but it is
deliberately engineered by God to check population outburst.
Nevertheless, this function of violence or war is cosmic, in warfare remains the

plan of God and nature to reduce any population outburst at necessary intervals.
The examples include ancient Stoics and Renaissance neo Stoics who had the
belief that warfare is a product of a providential scheme designed to keep
populations from outgrowing their food supply.
Malthus also argues that the situation of or human aggression or war is beyond
human comprehension and it is also not part of human intentions but a grand
function designed by God to regulate human population. Men, however, are ‘only
puppets manipulated by the transcendent laws of demography, which when
population reached a certain point would pull on the strings of gain and safety,
honour and glory’ (Dawson, 1996: 3).
However, this theory inspired a large of the 19th century philosophers in

supporting the importance of war in human civilization within the context of
demographic contradictions. Human aggression or war helps to keep human
population below the available resources.
The theory underscores the necessity of violence or war to adequately address the
problem of population outburst. Counter-factually, in the history of human
population and war, statistics has shown that death rate is far below. The average
death rate is 5% of the population of the warring parties. This theory has been
considered as a subject of intellectual absurdity.
3.2 Youth Bulge Theory
This is another demographic theory, which is different from the Malthusian

theory. Though, they both believe that high birth rate is the major source of
violence or war but their views are (slightly) different from each other.
Malthusian theory sees inadequate supply of food to meet the challenge(s) of a
population outburst as the main source of human aggression or war where war is
51
used as a function to reduce the growing population so that food supply will be
adequate to cater for the existing people who are able to survive the war.
On the other hand, Youth Bulge theorists blame human aggression or war
situation on a disparity between the numbers of well educated, well fed, angr y
"fighting age" young males (2nd, 3rd, and 5th sons) and the number of positions
available to them in society as a primary source of violence. The members of this
include Jack Goldstone, Gunnar Heinsohn, and Gary Fuller among others. War is
not basically a function of disproportion in population outburst and the available
(scarce) food per se but the inability of parents to provide for the children who are
of fighting age. Thus according to Huntington (2001):
Generally speaking, the people who go out and kill other people
are males between the ages of 16 and 30.
Youth Bulge theory holds that youth bulge is the main source of war. Youth bulge
arises when 30 to 40 percent of the males of a state are found within the fighting
age of between 15 and 30 years of age. It will follow periods with average birth
rates as high as 4-8 children per woman with a 15-29 year delay. Youthfulness of
the people within this age bracket makes them to easily get angry and violent
when they are unable to meet their expectations like access to medical care,
employment, quality education among others more than other age brackets.
Exercise
Distinguish between the Malthusian theory and Youth Bulge theory.
3.3 Historical Theories
This is another level of macro-level theory of violence, which explains cause of

violence in the context of war. In the historical theories of violence, historians
seem to be wary of making any sweeping explanation for all wars. Historical
theorists like A J P Taylor often see wars as traffic accidents. There are some
circumstances and situation that make the occurrence of wars more likely, but
there can be no system for predicting where and when each one will occur.
This theoretical approach is criticized by Social Scientists basically because

political leaders sometimes make careful decision before adopting a war policy. A
good example is the Iraq war where the US government made conscious efforts to
consider the available options in addressing (perceived) Iraqi aggression in the
Middle-East and the world at large due to the alleged production of the weapons
of mass destruction (WMD).
Though, the US may be having a clandestine motive not declared to the world
public other than the WMD allegation. The war later erupted. It can never be
proven that the war in Iraq is accidental. From available facts, the war was
carefully planned by the US, and so it was intentional. Accidental dimension of
52
war demands that a hostile situation will just happen without any previous plan in
carrying out such action.
However, one can still argue that war on occasional basis happens purely by
accident. War may sometimes erupt without any previous intention. A good
example was the Biafran War. The Eastern Nigeria or the Federal Military
Government never had any previous intention to go into war in the real sense of it.
The war just erupted when it was least expected.
Hobbesian Theory
In early modern Europe, it was believed that violence was inherent in mankind,
meaning that aggression formed part of human nature. The experience of war in
civilized states is being an offshoot of the wars of savages. This view is expressed
in the Hobbesian theory. This theory is credited to the intellectual artistry of
Thomas Hobbes. What we mean is that this theoretical proposition was
propounded by Hobbes.
Meanwhile, Thomas Hobbes in his theoretical construction articulated through his

social deterministic description, that man by his nature is violent. Man is egoistic,
and he is controlled by an animus dominandi consisting of three passions. Hobbes
drew his theoretical inspiration from Thucydides. According to him (Hobbes):
“……..in the nature of man, we find three principal causes of

qua rrel. First, competition; second, diffidence; thirdly, glory (see
Slomp, 1990:565-586).
These three passions are responsible for the rivalry among men as each tries to
gain relative advantage over the other, which often results in violent hostilities.
The scenario is evident in his state of nature, which was a “state of warre”. This
theory stresses the importance of violence in the maintenance of peace and
security of any state. It is expected of every state to uphold the principle of
defensive violence such that before the enemy carries out its attack, the state
should act fast to undermine the threat or military capability of the enemy. Thus,
the theory advocates for the “principle of first attack” as a secur ity strategy.
Exercise
What is Hobbesian theory?
3.5 Rousseauen Theory
This theory was propounded by J. J. Rousseau. Rousseau contributed on the

subject of social contract where he presented an opinion contrary to the one
provided by Thomas Hobbes about the prevailing situation on the state of nature.
According to Rousseau, man cannot be said to be naturally violent, and the state
of nature was very peaceful, no aggression among men. He also claimed that
53
every man went about his/her normal business and social engagement without
being harassed physically by any other person(s).
The affairs of the people were regulated by ‘golden’ rules and there was peace
among them. Ovid and Seneca: the primitive and natural state was a peaceful
golden age where general good of the people was the order of the day.
Meanwhile, violent hostility and warfare erupted in human social intercourse
when there was rise or introduction of (individual) property acquisition and
inequality.
The rise of property and inequality propelled the situation of war and violence
among men against communal philosophy and absolute pacifism that
characterized the golden age. Rousseau, therefore, concluded that violence is not
inherent in human nature. Man has only cultivated the habit of violence as a result
of the emergence of modern state. The main factor responsible for man’s
inhumanity against fellow man is not located in human nature but in human
nurture.
3.6 Political Science Theory
There is a variety of international relations theory schools. One of the notable

schools is political realism, which articulates that violence is a veritable
mechanism in the actualization of the prominence or superiority by any state in
military and security power relations within the global environment.
The members of this school are of the view that military power determines the
relevance of any state in international relations. They also believe that the most
viable way of dealing with state deviance in international relations is through the
use of violence or force.
This school became popular consequent on the eruption of the 2nd world war,
which negated the importance of democratic peace theory in the maintenance of
peace and security. Democratic Peace Theory (DPT) makes us to understand
that democracies don’t engage themselves in violent hostility or war. It (DPT)
advocates for the promotion of democracy and its norms like equality, rule of law
(rather than rule of force), socio-justice, collectivism among others as
fundamental to effective security management.
Political realism argues that there is no way states will absolutely uphold the
principle of collectivism due to the individualistic nature of state behaviour in
international relations. Thus, national interest plays a prominent role in the action
of any state within international environment. Consequently, there is no “born-
againism” in international relations. Every nation places more priority on
achieving its self interest above global interest.
54
This view is one of the sources of militarism and arms struggle in the post World
War II global environment where the use of violence has become very attractive
in the relations among states. Therefore, military capability and mobility as well
technological advancement of a state basically determine its influence and
relevance in international relations. Military power is more important than any
other form of power (i.e. economic power etc).
Power Transition theory is another major theory in international politics.

Violence is a source of power transition such that the differentials between the
power capabilities narrow between the advanced (strong) and disadvantaged
(weak) nations. Here, the disadvantaged states are often more aggressive with the
aim of becoming great powers. They challenge the existing powerful nations to
facilitate their transition from the weak to strong or powerful, which is mostly
achieved through war.
Again, power transition theory reminds us of the (important) roles that economic
resources play in power transition. This is because there is tendency for a state to
move to a greater level when it experiences economic growth. Hence, the
economically weak state cannot fulfill its adventure very well in power transition.
Thus, economic growth can lead a state to aggressive behaviour.
Another major school is cyclical theory of war. This school is of the opinion that
violence is not necessary but absolutely inevitable. Every century produces World
Power, which monopolizes military power and viable economic base to maintain
its hegemony. No hegemonic power can retain its power status for more than four
decades. The emergent challenger will come on stage, and in the process of well
articulated aggression policy, the delegitimatization and redistribution of the
existing system power may become manifest.
However, the challenger may eventually become the dominant power and the
cyclical process emerges again till its displacement by another power (country).
This school also argues that there will always be eruption of violence despite the
presence of any (long) period of peace due to the behaviour of states in
international relations. This is because weak nation(s) would like to displace the
strong one(s) to enjoy hegemony.
Exercise
What are the schools of thought in Political Science theory?
3.7 Marxist Theory
The Marxist theory of violence is of the view that violence is a function of class
struggle. It sees violence as imperial instrument to increase the power of the
ruling class and divide the proletariat of the world through divide and rule
strategy, causing confusion and enmity among them (proletariat).
55
The dominant powers use deceptive formula such as religion, nationalism, among
others to continue in enjoying their hegemony over the proletariat world public, to
prevent any anticipated challenge by the latter, undermining any solidarity among
the proletariat. Violence is a natural consequence of the free market and class
system, and will not disappear until a world revolution takes place.
3.8 Rationalist Theory
Rationalist theory argues that perpetrators of aggression are rational. Here, the
aggressor uses violence as a platform to meet his goals. Therefore, each party that
engages in violence tries as much as possible to minimize the loss of life and
property in its own camp while trying hard to outsmart the other party in
achieving the best outcome for itself.
Violence, according to the rationalist theorists, operates largely on the corridor of

reciprocity. What we mean here, is that violence is a situation where each party
tries to attack the other party while at the same time trying to defy other party’s
attack or control the offensives coming from the other party.
This theoretical position has become; popular in international relations in the

explanation of war, since the writing of Carl von Clausewitz on war. Then, one
may ask that when parties are aware of the nature of attacking and defensive
variables in the articulation of violence, then why don’t they empower themselves
to focus mainly on the possible outcome of war rather than engaging in
aggression?
The rationalist theory presents three reasons why some states cannot take solace
in bargaining or diplomatic settlement but to resort to violence. These reasons
may include issue-indivisibility, information asymmetry with incentive to
deceive, and the inability to make credible commitments (Fearon, 1995: 379-
414).
The issue of indivisibility arises when parties in conflict fail to prevent their
conflict relation from degenerating into violence. They will fail to adopt
diplomatic bargaining because the thing, over which they are struggling with each
other, cannot be shared between them. In this case, it is one of the parties that can
have control of the object(s) of conflict. In Nigerian societies and elsewhere, if
there is conflict between two men over a woman, the custom will have that it is
only one of them that can eventually have the woman.
The problem of information asymmetry with incentives to deceive involves a

situation whereby the parties in violence don’t bother to appreciate diplomatic
alternative. This is because each of them has (mutual) conviction about the
possibility to have a favourable violence outcome.
56
In international arena, each of these parties believes that through the military
secrets of its capabilities and the need to maintain such secrecy, it is unnecessary
to adopt bargaining. This is because such diplomatic bargaining is capable of
exposing its military strength to the enemy.
Nonetheless, the enemy party can capitalize on the situation, if it appears that she
enjoys strategic advantage over the other party. Sometimes, a state may call up a
large number of its civilian population and dress them like normal and regular
soldiers when a potential enemy state representative is visiting her. During the
visit, the perceived enemy state representative may be requested to see her
standing army (with overwhelming population) not for any other reason(s) but to
deceive the other party about the size of its army. Seeing a large number of
regular soldiers may make the enemy party to concede.
The inability of a state to make bargaining may fail due to the states' inability to
create credible commitments. During a process of bargaining, one of the parties is
likely to feel that it is not getting enough from the diplomatic process. If the
attitude of great commitment to mutual recognition of interest and need is not
reinforced in the peace process among the parties, the one with strong bargaining
capability may likely consider its diplomatic advantage as an incentive to take
undue advantage over the other party, even in the nearest future.
This kind of attitude is capable of germinating violence among the parties because
the party with weak bargaining power may decide to adopt violent means to settle
their conflict especially when it discovers that it also enjoys military advantage
over the other party.
Exercise
Explain the Marxist and Rationalist theories of violence.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Several theories have presented various sources of violence. The causes of

violence are both defined in nature and nurture of man. Some of the theories have
shown that violence and violent crimes can be said to be products of the inherent
nature of human aggression. Thus man is by nature a violent being and his violent
nature explains why aggression dominates the affairs of man. Nurture on the other
hand, holds that man is not violent naturally but only learns violent behaviour in
the course of his experience about the world he lives. Meanwhile, both schools of
thought have been able to present necessary facts to support their positions, but
the basic fact is that both nature and nurture viewpoints can be used to explain the
violent behaviour among men.
5.0 SUMMARY
57
In this unit, we have been able to discuss several theories of violence in

stimulating our understanding of various causes of violence. Some of the theories
treated in this unit include the Malthusian theory, youth bulge theory, historical
theories among others. Congratulations for successfully completing this unit. If
you don’t understand any aspect of this unit, please contact your tutorial
facilitator. Thank you.

Discuss any five theories of violence.
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READING
Fearon, James D. (1995), "Rationalist Explanations for War" International

Organization, 49(3).
Fuller, Gary (1995), "The Demographic Backdrop to Ethnic Conflict: A

Geographic Overwiew", in: CIA (Ed.): The Challenge of Ethnic Conflict to
National and International Order in the 1990s, Washington.
Goldstone, Jack A. (1991), "Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern

World", Berkeley.
Huntington, Samuel P in an interview. See The Observer, Sunday October 21,

2001.
Powell, Robert (2002), "Bargaining Theory and International Conflict." Annual

Review of Political Science.
Slomp, Gabriella (1990), “Hobbes, Thucydides and the Three Greatest Things”,
History of Political Thought, 11.
58
59
Unit 5
THEORY OF CRIME CONTROL
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Marxist Theory
3.2 Environmentalist Theory
3.3 Realism
3.4 Social Democratic Positivism
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The experience of the world the end of World War II has shown that incidence of
crime has been on the increase. Even those countries that initially experienced
very low rate of crime have become plagued with crime. Every-time, new forms
of criminal behaviour are emerging.
This situation has really undermined the efficacy of the traditional deterrence and
coercive techniques of crime control. The criminal justice system has begun to
undergo some reforms in several countries in an attempt to fine-tune it to meet the
challenges of modern time as relates to crime control.
According to Garland, no less than 2 million people are in prison in the United
States while in this same country at least two condemned prisoners are executions
on weekly basis. The dynamics of crime have necessitated proliferation of
intellectual inquiries and a plethora of literature on the subject of crime control. A
number of theories have been developed to address the problem of crime and
recommend measures that can be adopted in crime control. In this unit, we shall
be exploring some of the theories. Thank you for
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Identify a number of crime control theories;

Explain Marxist theory of crime control;
Discuss environmentalist theory of crime control;
60
Describe the realist theory of crime control; and

Illustrates the position of social democratic positivism on crime control.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Marxist Theory
This is one of the theories of crime control. The theory describes the causal
relationships between society and crime. According to this theory, the source of
crime can be traced to the introduction of private ownership of property in the
evolution of state.
The members of this school of thought are of the view that the disrupt ive
character of industrialized societies can be said to be responsible for criminal
behaviour. The state is stratified where people belong to one class or another
based on their position in the equilibrium of power, wealth and prestige.
Therefore, it is the class that controls the mode of production that will determine
not only the economy and polity but also the law that regulates the conduct of the
people in a given society. This view is nonetheless shared by Chambliss (1971:
3), and according to him:
The shape and character of the legal system in complex societies

can be understood as deriving from the conflicts inherent in the
structure of these societies which are stratified economically and
politically
This theory presents a theoretical foundation for intellectual articulation, which

describes the structural make-up of a state within the context of the intercourse
between the economic power and the political power. The relation explains the
way society is structured in class arrangement such that the few who control the
mode of production (bourgeisie) are those who decide on the laws and the legal
machinery of the state with the aim of protecting their property.
The Marxist theory further holds that capitalist contradictions have forced
majority (proletariat) into structural relegation. This situation has created
conditions, which have hitherto given rise to a climate of crime and criminality in
the society. Willem Bonger also believes that it is the class system that
characterizes the modern state that is responsible for criminal behaviour.
Bonger drew a nexus between crime and economic and social conditions. He
however argued that crime is social in foundation and an actual reaction to the
existing cultural order. The primitive societies discouraged the habits of
selfishness while the relationship among the people were guided by altrustic ethos
in where selflessness was the order of the day.
61
But when societies began to move beyond agrarian production, the improved
exchange of information gave birth to growing technology and people started
producing for commercial purposes. This situation led to the introduction of
private property ownership.
Then, modern state emerged to reinforce the selfish motives, which casualize the
criminal subjugation of the majority by the few economically and politically. This
school of thought affirms that it is the socio-economic deprivation suffered by the
majority and the attempt by them to address the structural inequality that explain
the acts that the state regards as criminal. The poor would engage in crime out of
frustration and perceived injustice.
Nevertheless, the modern state enables the rich to control the power and they are
the ones who also have the right to impose punishment for any acts they consider
as criminal. On the issue of stealing, such a criminal act if perputated by the poor,
it attracts more noise but if committed by the rich, it carries little or no noise.
However, the theory concludes that control of crime can only be facilitated if the
state assumes the exclusive control of the means of production and ensure the
enthronement of a classless society. There should be socio-economic justice
among the people such that no one will feel a sense of deprivation. It is only when
these are put in place that the state will be able to address the problem of crime.
Again, according to Milton Mankoff, the much lower incidence of crime in

Western Europe than in the United States is because Europe is more ‘Socialist’
than America. The position of the Marxist theorists is that the only remedy to the
problem of crime is to institutionalize socialism in the state, such that everyone
will be catered for by the state according to his needs.
Exercise
What is theory Marxist theory of crime control?
3.2 Environmentalist Theory
The environmentalist theory was popularized by Paul and Patricia Brantingham in

the 1980s. They argued that there are some fundamental factors responsible for
criminal behaviour. According to them, these factors include space (geography),
time, law, offender, and target or victim.
This theory opines that crime control can be carried out through the application of
large pin maps to illustrates the areas where crimes occurred. The art of mapping
and analysis of crime has reached a new stage, resulting from the emergent
information revolut ion. Therefore, there are computerized mapping systems,
which police and the scholars working in the area of criminology can use to
appreciate the dynamics of crime in a given place.
62
This theory underscores the importance of using the character of any environment
in strudying its pattern of crime. This theory is also of the view that
environmental factors are always taken into consideration before anybody can
take to crime. According to Bartol and Bartol (2006), geographic profiling is
based on the notion that perpetrators of crime often consider environmental
factors in their decision to commit crime, and they will prefer to do so in the
societies that are environmentally vulnerable.
In the control of crime, the environmentalist theorists argue that a great practical
application must be put in place such as Crime Prevention through Environmental
Design (CPTED). This theory holds that environmental situations like poor
lighting, high presence of uncompeted buildings, overgrown bushes, poor space
management among others account majorly for crime incidents in any given
society.
It is against this background, that environmentalist theory holds that CPTED

measures can help to address or control the incidence of crime in one’s
neighbourhood. These measures include adequate lighting (installing street lights
etc), effective space management, cutting of overgrown weeds, avoiding
proliferation of abandoned buildings among others.
Exercise
Explain the environment theory of crime control.
3.3 Realism
Conventionally, coercive and deterrence measure s are put in place to regulate

human conduct and control crime in the society. Laws are made to outlaw some
acts, which are considered to be criminal. Punishment or sanctions are meted-out
on the offenders of crimes without looking at the nature and the impact of such
criminal acts.
But according to the realist theory, the best way to control crime is to examine the
nature of the crime, the conditions that produce such crimes as well as the impact
of the crimes. Therefore, the effective way to control crime in any society is to
ensure that the control measures which are being provided can respond effectively
to the nature of crime.
Exercise
Discuss realist theory of crime control.
3.4 Social Democratic Positivism
This is a form of positivist theory, which blames incidence of crime and acts of
criminality on (socio) injustice. The main source(s) of criminal behaviour cannot
63
be basically found in abject poverty or inadequate housing or unemployment. All

these factors are the manifestations of deprivation.
The main source of crime, according to this theory, is unjust and unfair
distribut ion of wealth in the society. In societies laws are made and deterrence
measures are put in place to discourage people from engaging in acts considered
to be criminal. Yet, sanctions and punishment have appeared to be ineffective in
the control of crime in most societies.
However, people conform to the norms and rules (laws) of their societies based on
how they see justice in the distribution of wealth, such that no section of the
society(ies) is deprived economically. But, if there is a sense of relative
deprivation by any segment of the society, there is tendency for the perpetuation
of crime(s) by those who are deprived.
There is general consensus on the causality between the conditions one faces and
his/her resolve to commit crime. Unfavourable and poor situations can force one
into acts of crime.
There is a general belief that crime cannot be controlled if the conditions that
make people to engage in crime in the first instance, are not changed. It is
however unethical to sanction offenders of crime without addressing the
conditions, which lead them into perpetuation of acts considered to be criminal.
This task of juxtaposing the circumstances and crime is hardly accomplished in
developing countries like Nigeria.
There is no doubt that many of the people going into crime are victims of
circumstances, with conditions that are beyond their control. How do you feel, if
as a graduate, you have remained jobless for more than five years and the people
who have less qualifications are economically favoured just because they have
some godfathers or godmothers somewhere?
The socio-economic depravity dominates the affairs of people in Nigeria where

there is no just and equitable distribution of state wealth. The endemic poverty,
massive unemployment and absence of social security have forced a lot people
into crime. Crime has become alternative route through which people can meet
their needs.
The pauperization of workers in Nigeria is one of the reasons why corruption and
other fraudulent practices are on the increase among the workers. The structural
injustice that characterizes wage system in the country is a veritable source of
crime. Just consider a situation where two friends attended the same university,
having the same qualification and class of degree in the same course, but
incidentally in seeking for employment, one of them is employed in an oil
company, and after a long search the other friend only manages to secure job in
64
the civil service. The person working in an oil company earns more than 5 times
of what is being earned by the other friend. They both go to the same market to
purchase their food items and other daily needs.
Considering the foregoing scenario, you may agree with me that the other friend
working in the civil service may have two options: resign to fate or look for
alternatives (often through corrupt practices) so that he/she can meet his needs.
There is no doubt that wage system in Nigeria and monetization culture that exists
among the people coupled with the problem of high unemployment, and endemic
corruption and stealing among the ruling elites in the country, can be attributed to
be major sources of growing rate of crime in Nigeria.
The dimension that the situation of crime has reached constitutes a great security
threat to the nation at large. In attempts to survive, even at marginal level, people
seek for a lot of means most of which are criminal or criminal tendencies. We
now hear strange news like parents selling their children to human traffickers or
ritualists to meet their basic needs. Cyber-crime has become a fancy among large
segment of the public. Commercial prostitution has been on the increase with
social and health implications, for example the HIV-AIDS pandemics.
Again, bank robbery, kidnapping and other terrorist acts have become
phenomenal in recent time. Criminalization of the police and other law
enforcement agencies appears very evident. The coercive deterrence has failed to
control the growing crime rate in Nigeria and elsewhere.
Nonetheless, this theory holds that rather than focusing on how to mete out
punishment or sanctions on offenders of crime, our attention should center on the
conditions that bring about a person’s resolve to take to crime. In countries like
Nigeria, a major reason why people take to crime is inequitable distribution of
state wealth where the ruling elites and their cronies who constitute less than 10%
of the entire population allocate to themselves more than 85% of the national
resources. The middle class is obliterated in Nigerian society. Therefore, we only
have upper and lower classes of people such that the richer get richer while the
poor get poorer.
Moreover, the supporters of this theory are of the view that focusing on the
offender of crime and coercive deterrence cannot adequately control incidence of
crime in any society. Therefore, our attention should be geared towards changing
the conditions that actually force people into crime. In Nigeria, the socio-
economic conditions of the people must be improved through provision of social
security, employment opportunities and fair wage system.
Above all, there should be value orientation; the society should go beyond the
present monetization culture. Man should be honoured not according to how
much he/she has but based on his/her community development efforts, integrity,
honesty, hard work, and contribution to knowledge. In managing the nation’s
65
security, law enforcement agencies only need minor coercion to control crime
among the people, if there is fair distribution of state wealth.
Exercise
Discuss social democratic positivist theory of crime control.
4.0 CONCLUSION
There is emerging discourse on this distinction between applying sanction on

criminals and the control of crime (Garland, 2001:120). The power to met-out
punishment on offenders of crime largely lies in the state. As you may know, one
significant feature of the state is the legitimate use of violence in the maintenance
of law and order in any given society.
On the other hand, the business of crime control goes beyond the domain of the
state. It involves partnership between the state and the people. This view partly
explains the holistic approach that many countries are now adopting in the control
of crime in their doorsteps. The policy of state as it relates to crime control is one
way or the other informed by theoretical connectivities.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to explore a number of the existing theories of
crime control. The theory we focused on was Marxist theory. Thereafter, we
discussed environmentalist theory of crime. Other theories we explained in this
unit include realist and social democratic positivist theories. You are hereby
advised to source for other theories of crime control not discussed in this study.
You can get a number of literature that deal with various theories of crime control
to widen your knowledge of crime control. Thank you for your patience and
attention.

Explain theories of crime control.
Bartol, Curt R. & Anne M. Bartol (2006), Current Perspectives in Forensic

Psychology And Criminal Justice, Sage Publications.
Bonger, Willem. (1905), Criminality and Economic Conditions. Available on

.marxists.org/subjects//economy/authors/bonger//present-system.ht m. Retrieved
on 6th of April, 2008.
Brantingham, P. J. & Brantingham, P. L. (1991), Environmental Criminology.

Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
66
Chambliss, W. (1973) , “Elites and the Creation of Criminal Law”, in Chambliss,

W. (ed.), Sociological Readings in the Conflict PerspectiveI, Reading, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley.
Chambliss, William J. & Mankoff, Milton (eds.) (1976), Whose Law? What
Order? A Conflict Approach to Criminology, New York: John Wiley.
Chambliss, W & Seidman, R. (1971), Law, Order, and Power. Reading, Mass:
Addison-Wesley.
Garland, D. (2001) The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in

Contemporary Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Owen, Tim (2007), “Culture of Crime Control Through A Post-Foucauldian
Lens”, Internet Journal of Criminology. Also available on
www.internetjournalofcriminology.com
Quinney, Richard. (1974), Critique of Legal Order: Crime Control in Capitalist

Society, Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmetal_criminology. Retrieved on 6th of April,

2008.
MODULE 2
Unit 1:Approaches to Security Management

Unit 2:Meaning of Intelligence
Unit 3:Intelligence Collection and Disciplines
Unit 4:Intelligence Analysis and Evaluation
Unit 4:Counter-Intelligence and Intelligence Security Management
Unit 1
APPROACHES TO SECURITY MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Approaches to security Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
67
Security management requires more than application of coercion in the

actualization of law and order both at national and international levels, the
experience of world nations since the collapse of Berlin Wall has evoked further
complexities and challenges in security management. The search for stable
security order appears to be elusive, considering the dimension that insecurity and
criminality has taken in recent time.
Rather than the traditional insecur ity that pervaded the relations among nations in
the cold war era, most states are now plagued with international armed struggle
and organized crime such as terrorism by non-state actors. In Nigeria, armed
robbers in the olden days usually carried out their nefarious activities in the
middle of the night. But nowadays, the men of the world do not only rob their
victims in broad day light, but they have also extended the coverage area (for their
operations) to police stations and several other government institutions. This
situation has however posed some intellectual questions and policy concerns
about the efficacy of various approaches to security management. In this unit, we
shall be exploring various theoretical approaches to security management.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Explain major theoretical approaches to security management
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Approaches to security Management
Managing security has remained an activity that requires the stakeholders to

develop connections and relationships in theoretical terms, which assist, policy-
makers to explore a wide range of policy options, assessing their strengths and
weaknesses in addressing the (complex) political, socio-economic and
environmental threats to security. Some of the approaches to security
management may include:
(a) Idealism: This is a theoretical approach that emerged in the 1920s, as

formulae to guarantee the world peace and security. This approach opines that
security can best be managed through non-coercive or non-violent process, owing
to the fact that violence would only give birth to further violence. The use of force
or violence within national or international environment cannot guarantee any
security.
The members of this school hold that security can best be managed if government
at all levels (from local to world) ensure that a security system ‘based on
development of civic culture on inter(national) agreements and treaties, stress on
68
depolarization, demilitarization, transcendence of enemy imaging, and solidarity

(Kasali, 2003: 43). This approach is also of the view that democratic governance
is the ultimate mechanism for effective security management.
Meanwhile, the emergence of World War II had undermined the relevance of this
approach in the management of international security particularly as it concerned
the issues of democratic order. The experience of the world population has not
only shown that democracy could not guarantee peace and security but some
democracies can carryout offensive capable of jeopardizing national and
international (security;.
(b) Realism: This is another traditional approach to security. It is a response

to the failure of idealist approach in preventing the outbreak of the World War II.
The members of this school of thought agree that it is only through the use of
coercion and deterrence that international security can be maintained. They also
stress that apart from security, peace habit can only be engendered through
judicious application of force or violence, which will generate effective dispute
settlement and international security.
This approach ensures management of security based on balance of power and

multi-deterrence mechanisms. From the realist view point, states make decision in
the attainment their self – interest agenda, by evaluating available policy options
and see how each of those options can fulfill or meet their secur ity objectives.
However, in the attempt to managing national security every country has begun to
invest in the purchase of weapons to resist not only external security threats but
also internal aggression. In this case, coercive power and military force play
fundamental roles in the management of security. They will ensure compliance of
state and non – state actors to the laws in the maintenance of world security.
Also, in the management of internal security, state should ensure that its
legitimate use of violence is reinforced by adequate military capability and
mobility. This situation tends to lead to rapidly growing military expenditure.
The amount of military hardware and personnel according to this approach, will
determine how secure a nation will be. Realist model, therefore, led to arms race,
in which states drastically increased their military expenditure in the defence of
national sovereignty.
In developing countries, increase military budget has created internal tension and
structural violence in which the local people have often lacked basic necessities,
making them to survive marginally. On the African continent, this problem has
attracted deepening political crisis, military coups and counter-coups, inter-ethnic
violence, religious bestiality among others.
The bottom line is that, rather than accumulating military wares for the protection
of their various countries against the attacks from external forces, most
69
governments in developing countries use the arms against their own citizens for
variety of reasons. Some of the reasons may include tenure elongation, racial
discrimination, ethnic rivalry, religious chauvinism etc. One good example was
the application of hydrogen gas chemical weapon against some of its own citizens
by the government of Saddam Hussein where several innocent civilians including
women and children were killed.
The violence experienced in Rwanda and Burundi made Africa a true reflection of
Hobbesian state of nature. The madness that pervaded Hutus–Tutsi rivalry was
monumental with high degree of bestiality. The violence was a nightmare!
Nevertheless, foreign enemies can partner with local insurgents to undermine

internal security of any nation as experience has shown since the end of World
War II. The experience of the cold war era made a great number of world states
to align along the West –East polarity. Even, those countries that were not aligned
(Non Aligned Movement) were still mingling between the East and West blocs.
Since the end of cold war, the world has recorded more internal armed conflicts
than international wars or aggressions, making it necessary to seek for another
approach that can address the problem of increasing local insurgency in Africa
and elsewhere;
(c) Pluralism: Pluralist approach emerged in the 1960s. This approach was a
departure from the state-centered security system that dominated the world system
during the early cold war era. Pluralists articulated that balance of power, a key
element of realism had not only failed to protect human race against insecurity but
it had also aggravated pains that accompanied such insecurity.
The world began to experience a security dilemma resulting from the emergent
danger posed by the politics of balance of terror where proliferation of weapons
has become the order of the day. This approach explains why regional and world
organizations have mandated their various agencies to carry-out programmes that
can influence international security policies, which may affect the self-interest of
some (member) nations. This will bring us to the question of which national
interest policies are internationally moral? Pluralists admonish states to
discountenance any of their self interest policies that are considered to be immoral
or capable of undermining international security;
(d) Marxism: This approach became popular in security studies in the 1970s.
According to this approach, economic factors and struggle for the control of state
resources are the bases for security relations among states. Within the structure,
the struggle for the control of means of production can lead to violent conflict
situation between the proletariat and bourgeois.
Marxist approach therefore, opines that the state should control the economy and
abolish private ownership of property and every individual should be catered for
70
according to his/her needs. If the state unilaterally controls the economy, selfish
pursuits, which form the larger security threat, must have been addressed. The
issue of selfish accumulation of wealth would not arise if private ownership of
property is discouraged. The crimes and threats that crop-up through struggle for
the control of resources would have been eliminated, if no individual is allowed to
own a property.
Nevertheless, struggle for the control of the state resources by individual actors
tends to generate tension in the polity and those who perceive exclusion can resort
to violence and other forms of criminality like armed robbery, terrorism, and
insurgency. Weak nations or developing countries appear to be most palpable
victims of such structural tension.
In the process, the insurgents engage government forces in armed struggle and in
replenishing their armoury, insurgents and government often use valuable
resources (they are fighting over) in the purchase of weapons, most of which
come from developed. In this case, powerful nations derive enormous economic
benefits from such situations of violence and insecurity in the weak states.
(e) Social Constructivism: This is another approach to security, which

emerged in the 1990s, immediately after the collapse of the Berlin Wall (the end
of the Cold war). This approach advocates for more cultural understanding to
security studies. In international relations as well as national politics, the self-
interest of any nation is paramount, and it is considered as the driving force of its
policy directions particularly as it relates to meeting its security goals.
State actors have now realized the need to pursue regional interest, even above
their own national interests. This approach underscores the emerging interest
nations are having towards collective security. This has created a new
understanding in security relations among states. State actors have begun to show
deep concern in the spill-over effect(s) of any insecurity in their neighbouring
countries, on their own internal security. One of the reasons why Nigeria
intervened and ensured the resolution of the armed conflicts in the region, i.e.
Liberian and Sierra Leonean crises, was the negative impact those violent
conflicts would have on her internal security.
The civil wars that plagued Sierra Leone and Liberia generated large amount of
refugees in the sub-region, and Nigeria was one of the host countries, that
accommodated those refugees. Many of the refugees hosted by Nigeria were not
properly disarmed. Some of them came in with arms, which found their way into
the hands of some local criminals, who used the weapons to further terrorize the
nations. This situation has posed a great security threat to the nation.
Apart from the weapons exchanged for money, some of the refugees joined some
local criminal gangs to engage in armed robbery and other violent crimes,
constituting a threat to national security. The experience of the countries in the
71
Great Lakes was horrendous as the region did not only generate the highest flow
of refugees, but armed conflict also became an infectious disease that plagued a
great number of countries in that region.
Moreover, in combating crime, several countries have formed international police

(INTERPOL) community to arrest and prosecute or even repatriate criminal
suspects who are creating security problems to any of the member nations. Few
years ago, a notorious trans-border bandit operated along with other members of
his gang, to rob people of their valuables especially cars in Nigeria. After robbing
their victims, the bandits usually crossed to the neighbouring country, Republic of
Benin where the group resided. The cooperation between the police authorities in
Nigeria and Benin paid off, leading to the arrest of the suspect(s) in Benin. The
suspect was therefore repatriated to Nigeria where he is currently facing trial.
By and large, nations now appreciate taking regional approach in the management
of their internal security. This is as a result of the (negative) impact that
breakdown of order or insecurity in a country can have on its neighbouring
countries. It is against this back-drop that countries sometimes sacrifice their
national interests for regional interest. It is on record that the rising wave of crime
and insurgency in Nigeria can be blamed largely on maladministration, but the
upsurge of political strife in Liberia played a part in the security dilemma that
Nigeria has since been experiencing;
(f) Human Security: There is no doubt, that the decade preceding the year
2000 witnessed a lot of contradictions and negativities in terms of war, which
posed a great threat to national and international security. The spread of HIV-
AIDS was rapid during this period. Global warming has emerged as a
cankerworm ready to destroy the human race, and volcanic nationalism that
greeted post-cold war era has become a major source of state collapse. The
subject of legitimate use of violence by the state has attracted a great debate,
especially as we consider the unjustifiability in the exercise of power by some
governments.
By the 1990s, the attention of the world population has shifted to redefining
security and look for the best approach that can guarantee effective security
management, different from the traditional ones that have failed to address the
increasing security threats. The search for the best approach led to the emergence
of the term human security.
This approach advocates for a paradigm shift. Rather than allowing the state to
continue to define security, people who make up the state should be the ones to
define their own security. Therefore, it is not the function of the state (or
government) to determine security imperatives for the people; it is the people who
decide their own security.
72
So, the state traditional security measures of coercion and deterrence are
moribund or outdated. Hence, policy-makers in several countries have adopted
this approach as the guiding principle of their security laws. The consensus of
state and non-state actors is now geared towards appreciating “any security issues,
including without limitation those of a political, strategic, economic, social, or
ecological nature” (Vale, 1992: 100).
Nevertheless, the theoretical ingenuity brought about by the United Nations

Development Program (UNDP) in its “Human Development” Report popularized
the concept of ‘human security’ among the scholars and practitioners in the field
of security studies and management (see Henk, 2005: 2). It’s no surprising then
that in its publication, the UNDP reaffirmed that:
The concept of security has for too long been interpreted narrowly: as
security of territory from external aggression, or as protection of national
interests in foreign policy or as global security from the threat of a nuclear
holocaust. It has been related more to nation-state than people…..forgotten
were the legitimate concerns of ordinary people….for many of them,
security symbolized protection from the threat of disease, hunger,
unemployment, crime, social conflict, political repression, and
environmental hazards (see UNDP Human Development Report, 1994:
22).
Since 1990s, this approach has not only become the priciest bride among the state
actors but several non-state actors including the Non Governmental Organizations
(NGOs) that have acted spontaneously in the popularization of human security as
an approach to security. One of the leading NGOs advocating for the global
adoption of this approach is the Human Security Network. The organization has
been championing the need to “energize political processes aimed at preventing or
solving conflicts and promoting peace and development” (see
.humansecur itynetwork.org/network-e.php).
It is no news that several nations have articulated the relevance of human security
approach in the formulation of their security policies. For example, in South
Africa defined its national security in its “White Paper on Defence”, which was
published in 1996. It states that:
In the new South Africa national security is no longer viewed as a

predominantly military and police problem. It has broadened to incorporate
political, economic, social, and environmental matters. At the heart of this
new approach is a paramount concern with the security of people.
Security is an all-encompassing condition in which individual citizens live

in freedom, peace, and safety; to participate fully in the process of
governance; enjoy the protection of fundamental rights; have access to
resources and the basic necessities of life; and inhabit an environment which
73
is not detrimental to their health and well-being (South African Department

of Defence, 1996).
Similarly, Canada has also incorporated human security approach into its foreign
policy formulation process(es). The country has redefined the concept of security
from the traditional one to that which guarantees “safety for people from both
violent and non-violent threats…..characterized by freedom from pervasive
threats to people’s rights, their safety, or even their lives” (Department of Foreign
Affairs, Canada, 1999: 5). The country has also backed its new commitment,
expending huge national resources in the promotion of human security worldwide
especially in form of aids (see .humansecurity.gc.ca).
Exercise
Explain approaches to security management.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Before the collapse of the Berlin Wall, scholars and practitioners in security had
been confronted with problem of identifying which of the available approaches
was the best in the management of security nationally and internationally.
Basically, various traditional approaches have focused exclusively on the secur ity
relations among state actors, relegating the relevance of individual people in
security affairs. The traditional coercion and deterrence techniques are becoming
moribund and ineffective in security management.
Non-state actors are becoming more visible in national and international theatres
of violence, such that some individuals or groups have become more powerful
than the state. A good example is Hezbollah (militant group) that is considered in
several quarters as more powerful than the government of Lebanon. One of the
reasons is that its (Hezbollah’s) membership extends beyond Lebanon. It
members scatter across and beyond the whole Middle East.
Al-Queda taught the whole world that commercial planes could be used as the
weapon of mass destruction as in the 9/11 incident where thousands of people
were massacred by crashing planes at the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon.
There is need for world governments to adopt the new non-traditional approach,
human security to address the structural security threats that bedevil most
countries in the world.
The issues of hunger, poverty, proliferation of weapons, landmines,

authoritarianism, environmental pollution and degradation, social injustice,
political exclusion, crime, human rights abuse, illiteracy, economic deprivation,
militarism, and maladministration, which human security seeks to solve, must be
critically addressed in making security decisions. It is heartwarming that several
states have started adopting this approach.
74
On the question of, if Nigeria will soon join the league of countries having human
security as the foundation of their security agenda, it is only times that will tell. It
is only time that will tell, if the country will move beyond its traditional AK-47
coercion and deterrence approach, which is state-centric. Human security
approach is most effective approach to security management. Apart from other
reasons, it allows people to deliberate and decide their own security matters.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, our focus has been on various approaches to security management.
The first five are traditional approaches while the last approach is non-traditional,
which advocates for paradigm shift in security management. Human security
advocates for ‘peopling’ of security in which the people define security matters
rather than the state.
The writer will wish to remind you that there are other non-traditional approaches,
which are not covered in this unit. You are hereby advised to search for other non-
traditional approaches to security management in the library or on the internet.
Did you find this unit interesting? If yes, bravo! And in case you have difficulty in
understanding any segment of this unit, please contact your tutorial facilitator or
other student(s) in your study group. Good luck.

Briefly explain the following approaches: Idealism, Realism, Marxism, Social
Constructivism and Human Security.
Anderson, B (1987), Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and

Spread of Nationalism, London: Verso.
Canada Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (1999), Human

Security: Safety for People in a Changing World, Ottawa: Department of Foreign
Affairs.
Henk, Dan (2005), “Human Security: Relevance and Implications”, Parameter,

vol. 35.
Hobbes, Thomas (1962), Leviathan, New York: Collier.
Kasali, Monsuru Adegboyega (2003), The Pacific Settlement of International

Disputes in International Law: Origin and Dynamics of Diplomatic-Legal
Manoeuverings to Bakassi Question, an M.Sc Dissertation, University of Ibadan,
Ibadan, Nigeria.
75
Lipschutz, Ronnie D. (ed.) (1995), On Security, New York: Columbia University

Press.
Morgenthau, Hans (1976), Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and
Peace, 5th Edition, Alfred A. Knopf.
Smith, Steve (2000), “The Increasing Insecurity of Security Studies:

Conceptualizing Security in the Last Twenty Years, in Stuart Croft and Terry
Terrif (eds.), Critical Reflections on Security and Change, London: Frank Cass.
South African White Paper on Defence (1996), Pretoria: Department of Defence.
Teriff, Terry et al (1999), Security Studies Today, Massachusetts: Blackwell

Publishing
UNDP, Human Development Report (1994). Also available on

.hdr.undp.org/reports/global/1994/en. Retrieved on 10th January, 2008.
Vale, Peter (1992), “Can International Relations Survive?” International Affairs

Bulletin, Vol. 16, No. 3.
.humansecurity.gc.ca. Retrieved on the 10th January, 2006.
76
Unit 2
MEANING OF INTELLIGENCE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Defining Intelligence
3.2 Dimensions of Intelligence
3.3 Categories of Intelligence
3.4 Sources of Intelligence
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The experience of the world since World War II has shown that security
management is a very serious business. It is no surprising that the security sectors
both nationally and internationally have undergone a number of reforms aimed at
addressing security challenges and threats that bedevil the world population.
There is no doubt that one of the security areas or fields receiving rapidly growing
interest and attention, not only among the security practitioners, but also the
academics and policy makers, is intelligence.
Nonetheless, intelligence has become one of the key elements of security sector
reform. This explains why state and non – state actors currently invest huge
amount of resources both in human and material terms on intelligence owing to
the strategic roles it plays on (effective) security management in public and
private environments.
It is against this background that we find it important or germane to use a number

of units in this course to conceptualize intelligence and to look at its practical
application, dimensions, categories, collection, analysis, evaluation among others.
In this unit, we shall be drawing our search light on the definition of intelligence
and some other uses of discourse. Now, let’s quickly browse through the
objectives of this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
77
Define the term intelligence;
Discuss the dimensions of intelligence;
Explain the categories, of intelligence; and
List the source of intelligence.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Defining Intelligence
The term intelligence is often mistaken for information or data. This is because
most people (or simply the laymen) usually describe it to mean information. Well,
the truth of the matter is that intelligence is different from (ordinary) information
but it is a form of information, which has been ingrained with added value
through analytical and evaluative instrumentation. Intelligence is a refined,
analysed and evaluated information or data gathered through either overt (open)
or clandestine (secret) means or both.
The conceptual differentiation between information and intelligence can be

described “….. along a continuum, with data at the far left and intelligence at the
far right, as one moves from left to right additional value and context is added to
discrete or posited facts to provide enhanced meaning to an ultimate consumer”
(see .Fas.org/sgp/crs/intel/RL33616.pdf). As I have rightly said in the
introductory segment of this unit, intelligence has attracted growing interest
among scholars and security corporations. Thus, various intellectual efforts and
articulations by these groups of people have yielded fruits in academic discourse
and one of such is conceptualization of the term (intelligence). Therefore, several
definitions have emerged among which include the following:
Intelligence ------ is not only about spies and satellites. Intelligence is about
the thousands and thousands of routing everyday observations and activities.
Surveillance, interactions – each of which may be taken in isolation as not a
particular meaningful piece of information, but when fused together, gives
us a sense of the pattern and the flow……….. ( .Fas.org/sgp/crs/Intell/RL
33616.pdf).
Intelligence is knowledge, organisation and activity (Kent, 1965).
Intelligence ……… is the product resulting from the collection, evaluation,

analysis, integration, and interpretation of all available information which
concerns one or more aspect of foreign nations or areas of operation which
immediately or potentially significant for planning (see the Dictionary of
United States Military Terms Joint Usage).
78
Intelligence is a special kind of knowledge, a specialized subset of

information that has been put through a systematic analytical process in
order to support a state’s decision and policy makers. It exists because some
states or actors seek to hide information from other states or actors who in
turn seek to discover hidden information by secret or covert means (Hannah
et al, 2005, iii).
Intelligence can also be described as what a ‘state must possess regarding other
states in order to assure itself that its cause will not suffer nor its undertakings fail
because its statesmen and soldiers plan and act in ignorance (Kent, 1966: 3).
Additionally, according to Wilson (2004; 5) the term intelligence denotes:
Production of unbiased information about threats to the national vision.

Considering the foregoing definitions, you may agree with me that
Intelligence has not only become a key element of security management but also
the heartbeat of security in modern time. This is because its impact on security
cannot be under-estimated. In the next segment of this unit we shall be looking at
the various dimension of intelligence.
Exercise
How do you define intelligence?
3.2 Dimensions of Intelligence
As we have been able to demonstrate in the preceding segment of this unit,

intelligence, conceptually, interprets itself in various forms, according to how
each individual or state perceives it. The British intelligence officials are used to
saying that “intelligence is about secrets, not mysteries” (see Davies, 2002). By
and large, intelligence involves analyzing and evaluating information collected
through open and secret means. In intelligence community, interpretation of
gathered information for intelligence purposes usually exhibits itself in three
dimensions which include:
(a) Intelligence as a process: Here, intelligence is described as a process

through which information is collected or gathered. After information has been
collected and collated, such information will then be subjected to systematic
analysis and evaluation. Intelligence process is very important, as it allows us
after collecting the raw data, to separate the information that is useful from those
that are not useful.
During this process, values are added to information which make it (information)
refined “into a usable form for decision makers” (Hannah et al, 2005: IV). There
is no doubt that, it is often said that “the relationship between processes and
structure … determines the successful outcome of the intelligence activity” (Ibid);
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(b) Intelligence a structure: This is all about the agency or agencies and
institution(s) charged with the responsibility of intelligence sourcing for consumer
i.e. the government. The institutions (often referred to as intelligence services), in
carrying out their intelligence activities, are influenced by a number of factors.
According to Hannah et al, 2005: iv), these factors may include:
• The roles and mandates adopted by one or more services (i.e. are there different
agencies for both the domestic and foreign role?) – as well as understanding
overlaps between intelligence agencies and other players (such as law
enforcement) in the security community;
• The shape of any central analysis and / or assessments mechanism to process

collected intelligence;
• The need to ensure central control and coordination of and accountability for, the
intelligence community; and
• The need to ensure pubic oversight of the intelligence community.
As you may be aware, there are several overlapping aspects, or rather types of
intelligence such as security intelligence, domestic intelligence, military
intelligence, to mention a few, which according to each nation, maybe separated
by delegating different agencies with different categories of intelligence. In this
case, each intelligence agency will be tasked with a category of intelligence. In
Nigeria, the intelligence unit of the Nigeria Police is mandated by the law to carry
out home security intelligence while the Directorate of Military Intelligence
(DMI) performs the task of providing military and strategic intelligence.
By and large, countries decide on the (possible) framework to adopt in

intelligence activity. Some countries divide various intelligence roles to be played
by different intelligence services that operate independent of one another but
within the approach of complementing functionality. What we are trying to say is
that despite being independent of one another, the intelligence services or
institutions must act to complement one another’s roles for system maintenance.
On the other hand, there are countries where there exists only one intelligence
agency, which performs all intelligence activities ranging from domestic to
foreign, at the same time. A good example was the KGB in the defunct Soviet
Union. A caution has to be exercised here, and this is because having one
intelligence service or agency performing all intelligence functions does not
always mean that there exists only one intelligence service. The number of
available intelligence services varies from country to country.
Sometimes, there may be plurality of intelligence agencies in a state, and among

them, there may be a single agency that can perform all intelligence activities.
80
For instance, in the United States, in practical terms, there are several intelligence
outfits or agencies that perform various intelligence functions but the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) performs all functions ranging from do mestic,
paramilitary to foreign intelligence.
However, the art of separating various forms of intelligence functions (domestic,

military foreign etc) demands that there should be proper coordination of such
tasks among various agencies particularly as it concerns the cross border security
threats such as Cyber war, terrorism and others. In some cases, intelligence
services, though separate from one another, may be mandated to perform all
intelligence activities and functions. Thus there will be a body that will
coordinate, collate and synthesize various intelligence reports coming from all the
intelligence services through (scientific) analysis and evaluation of the
information collected. On the question of accountability, in some countries, the
intelligence services are answerable to the legislature while in some political
systems like Nigeria, the executive controls the intelligence service;
(c) Intelligence as a product: The intelligence services undergo the process

of collecting information, which will be analysed and evaluated. After analysis
and evaluation, the information gathered will become refined, and ready to be
used by the consumer to meet its short and long-term goals. It is worth-nothing
that, in contemporary time, intelligence consumers are not only governments.
This is because corporate individuals and organizations can also seek for the
services of intelligence agencies in the provision of some specific intelligence,
which may be strategic to their decision–making and security.
Meanwhile, as we have earlier mentioned, the outcome of any intelligence

activity is determined by the relationship between the process and structure. Here,
the outcome is the product of the intelligence. According Hannah (2005)
intelligence–product is aimed at assisting the consumer(s) to address ‘foreign or
external threats’, threats to national security’, as well as providing ‘advice on
policy and decision–making’.
Exercise
Discuss the dimensions of intelligence
3.3 Categories of Intelligence
There are several categories of intelligence and these include the following:
(a) Security Intelligence: This form of intelligence, according to Kent (1965:209-

210) can be described as:
…..the intelligence behind the police function …... the knowledge

and the activity which …… defensive police forces must have
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before they take specific action against the individual ill-wisher or

ill doer.
Security intelligence usually involves collecting, collating, analyzing, evaluating

and disseminating information that can protect a nation against internal threats.
(b) Criminal Intelligence: This is a kind of intelligence activity or function

carried out by the relevant service or intelligence agency to provide evidence in
support of prosecution of any criminal suspects. Take for instance, before a
suspect can be arraigned in court by the Police, it is expected that enough
intelligence must have been collected, analysed and evaluated, which will help the
court (as the consumer) to make a decision on the suspects.
In fact, lack of adequate criminal intelligence has been a great challenge to the
prosecution of criminal suspects in Nigeria. It is a shame that the Nigeria police
and State Security Service (SSS) have failed to bring any of the perpetrators of
political assassination which the country has recorded in the last eight years to
book. Several suspects have been prosecuted in court(s) but nobody has been
indicted, since there is no sufficient criminal intelligence to nail the perpetrators.
(c) Home security or National Intelligence: It is that intelligence, which

involves gathering, collating, analyzing and evaluating as well as disseminating
information within a given state for the effective management of national security.
The national intelligence is reinforced by integrating intelligence within a wide
spectrum of national strategy mechanisms that go beyond unilateral competences
or needs of a single department’ (Hannah, 2005:2).
(d) Foreign Intelligence: This is a traditional form of intelligence in which

the intelligence activity takes place outside the home country. The importance of
this intelligence to the strategic intelligence of any nation cannot be over
emphasized. This explains why Ambassador John Negropontes, in his speech
before the United States Chamber of Commerce submitted that “what happens
abroad can kill us at home”.
I quite agree with Negropontes, considering the emergent ‘villagelization’ of the

world system where globalization has broken the (traditional) barrier among
nations not only in geographical terms, but also economically, politically and
socially. Thus the world has become a global village! Foreign intelligence allows
a country to have strategic information about foreign nations’ activities and how
such activities constitute a threat to her security, as well as what counter –
measures can be adopted to any external threats.
(e) Strategic Intelligence: This category of intelligence tends to focus

basically on gathering, analyzing and evaluating about the capabilities,
vulnerabilities and aims of foreign countries. In doing this, the country will have
an opportunity to identify its strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats
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(SWOT Analysis) in the time of peace and provides a platform to develop a

framework for strategic military operations in case there is war in the nearest
future.
It’s on the basis of the strategic intelligence outcome that the policy and decision
makers will resolve on which programme(s) to adopt. Net assessment can be
adequately conducted by any country or party, if there is strategic intelligence,
which will help decision-makers to take into account fundamental uncertainties
about the future. I know that many of us may be wondering and seeking to know
what net-assessment is all about. Well, net assessment involves developing an
analytical framework that takes into account the strategic goals, doctrines,
operational concepts and strategic military capabilities of competing countries,
alliances as well as several other international actors.
(f) Tactical Intelligence: This involves devolut ion of responsibility among

the hierarchy of personnel in an intelligence service such that information are
collected, collated, analysed and evaluated for the use by the leadership or top
management for short term policy agenda.
(g) Counter-intelligence: This involves measures to counter any foreign

intelligence activities, capable of constituting a threat to national security
(Ramsokn, 1958). It also includes launching intelligence operations to arrest or
destroy the human intelligence capabilities of the enemy states (hostile countries).
Exercise
List and discuss any five categories of intelligence.
3.4 Sources of Intelligence
(a) Member(s) of the public;

(b) Foreign governments;
(c) Intelligence personnel;
(d) Communication technologies;
(e) Open sources like newspapers, academic journals, unclassified government
documents, treaties etc.;
(f) Internet; and
(g) Government institutions, etc.
Exercise
Highlight any five sources of intelligence
4.0 CONCLUSION
83
Intelligence has remained crucial in security management. Since the end of World
War II, intelligence has assumed a new dimension, and it has formed the large
part of strategic planning and securitization agenda of the world powers
particularly as it relates to prevailing ideological polarity. Providing adequate and
effective intelligence can assist an organisation or country with a wide range of
opportunities, including assessing the risk and threats and they can undermine the
internal security of that organisation or country. Due to the strategic importance
of intelligence, it is quite paramount for services to conduct regular intelligence
reform to meet the challenges of modern security sector.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have focused on the meaning of intelligence. We began the study
by defining the term intelligence. Therefore, we discussed the various dimensions
of intelligence. In the following segment, our analytical compass was drawn on
explaining categories of intelligence. The fourth subject of discourse was
highlighting the sources of intelligence. Thank you for your attention. I strongly
believe that you’ve found this unit very interesting too. But if you have problem
understanding any segment or the whole of this unit, feel free to consult your
tutorial facilitator who will help to illuminate on areas of difficulty, if there are
any.

(i) What is Intelligence?
(ii) Discuss any four categories of intelligence.
Davies, Philip H. J. (2002), “Ideas of Intelligence: Divergent National Concepts

and Institution”, Intelligence, Vol. 24 (3), Fall. Also available on
.harvardir.org/articles /1064 131. Retrieved on 8th April, 2008.
Hannah, Greg et al (2005), Intelligence for security Legislation for Security sector
Reform, RAND.
Kent, Sherman (1965), Strategic Intelligence, Archon, Books
(1966), Strategic Intelligence for American World Polity, New Jersey:

Princeton University Press.
Lowenthal, Mark (2000), Intelligence from secrets to Policy, Washington DC; CQ

Press.
84
Michael Chertoff (2006) Remarks at the Bureau of Justice Assistance and

SEARCH symposium on “Justice and Public safety information sharing” on 14th
March, 2008. Also available on .fas.org/spg/crs/intel/RL 33616.pdf. Retrieved on
12th March, 2008.
Ramson, Harry (1958), Central Intelligence and Nations Security, London:

Oxford University Press.
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence. Retrieved on 6th March, 2008.
Unit 3
INTELLIGENCE COLLECTION AND DISCIPLINES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Defining Intelligence Collection
3.2 Disciplines of Intelligence Collection
3.3 Means of Intelligence Collection
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Intelligence has several aspects and one of them is information collection.

Therefore, intelligence officers are divided along the aspect(s) of intelligence they
will perform. The foundation of any intelligence work or production is found in
collection of raw data which the (intelligence) analysts will refine and be turned
out as intelligence product. In intelligence community (IC), efforts are made (in
an attempt to produce intelligence) to look for data that will assist so as to come
out with intelligence product. The process of collecting information for
intelligence purposes is known as intelligence collection. In this unit, we shall be
85
focusing on intelligence collection, and we shall fulfill this task by discussing a

wide range of issues concerning intelligence collection. Thank you.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

Define intelligence collection;
Identify various disciplines of intelligence collection; and
Explain means of intelligence collection.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Defining Intelligence Collection
Information is very crucial to carrying out intelligence tasks. This means that the
art of collection of information must first be considered, in intelligence business.
Then, what is intelligence collection? It can defined as “the procurement of
information believed to be pertinent to decision-maker (sometime referred to as
‘raw’ intelligence data)” (Hannah et al, 2005:1)
Intelligence collection can also be described as a process of gathering and

assembling information through several methods for the purpose of producing
intelligence.
3.2 Disciplines of Intelligence Collection
In intelligence community, there are several intelligence collected discipline that

assist professionals in the collection of intelligence aimed at providing support for
policy makers in the choice of a particular policy direction. Intelligence collection
disciplines can be divided into two: technical and non-technical means. The
technical forms of intelligence disciplines include Signals intelligence (SIGNIT),
Imager of Intelligence (IMINT), and measurement and signatures intelligence
(MASINT). On the other hand, non-technical intelligence disciplines include
Human Intelligence (HUMINT) and Open Source Intelligence (OSINT). Now let
us explain them one after the other.
Technical Intellige nce Collection Disciplines
- Signals Intelligence (SIGNIT): This involves gathering intelligence through

interception or seizing of electronic communications;
86
- Imagery Intelligence (IMINT): This involves the use of satellite images for
the collection of intelligence. It is a method of collecting information through the
use of snapshots to provide security; and
- Measurement and Signatures Intelligence (MASINT) is scientific and

technical intelligence. Here, information is gathered through “quantitative and
qualitative analysis of data (metric, angle, spatial, wavelength, time dependence,
modulation, plasma, and hydromagnetic) derived from specific technical sensors
for the purpose of identifying any distinctive features associated with the source,
emitter, or sender and to facilitate subsequent identification and/or measurement
of the same” (see .fas.org/irp/program/masint.htm). There are several forms of
MASINT, and they include:
Radar Intelligence (RADINT);

Acoustic Intelligence (ACOUSTINT);
Nuclear Intelligence (NUCINT);
Radio Frequency/Electromagnetic Pulse Intelligence (RF/EMPINT);
Electro-optical Intelligence (ELECTRO-OPTINT);
Laser Intelligence (LASINT);
Materials Intelligence;
Unintentional Radiation Intelligence (RINT);
Chemical and Biological Intelligence (CBINT);
Directed Energy Weapons Intelligence (DEWINT);
Effluent/Debris Collection; and
Spectroscopic Intelligence (ibid).
Non Technical Intelligence Collection Disciplines
- Human Intelligence (HUMINT): This involves covert or secret collection of

intelligence through human sources. A good example is espionage; and
- Open Source Intelligence (OSINT): It involves collection of intelligence

through public sources like archival resources, government documents, academic
and professional materials, media etc. This collection discipline gathers
information through non-secret sources, and it also plays a crucial role in the
production of intelligence.
87
Marl Lowenthal, in his work, Intelligence: from Secrets to policy, argued that
“Despite the fact that OSINT has always been used, it remains undervalued by
significant segments of the intelligence community”.
Exercise
Explain the disciplines of intelligence.
88
3.3 Means of Intelligence Collection
a) Espionage: This usually involves the art of covertly or secretly collecting

information through the use of human sources. According to the United State
Department of Defense (DoD), espionage refers to “the act of obtaining,
delivering, transmitting, commenting or receiving information about the nation
defense with an intent, or reason to believe, that the information may be used to
the injury of the United State or to the advantage of any foreign nations” (US
Dept of Defense, 2007).
Spying or espionage is a traditional intelligence system in which some individuals

are appointed on full time or part time basis, to work for some government(s) or
intelligence agencies (either private or public) to steal valuable or important
information from enemy targets with the aim of having strategic advantage over
them. The set of people used for espionage include:
Agent: Agents are also known as assets. They are spies who gather information.
They are involved in all sorts of clandestine reporting, sipping (or stealing), and
illegitimately breaking into the information (systems) of their target parties, i.e.
nations, business organizations, security agencies among others;
Case Officers: The business of spying is structured in a cell form. Spies are
grouped in small units, and spies can only know other spies in their cell(s) or
unit(s). it is the case officer who recruits his/her own spies. He/she must
demonstrate some level of competence, understanding and professional matur ity.
He/she must also be a good team coach, having mentoring potentials to be role
model to the spies or agents working under him/her and
Courier: Couriers are suppo rt personnel who assist the spies in managing their
clandestine communication by securing them (the communications) against
enemy’s interceptions or detection;
(b) Black bag operations: These are clandestine or secret) ways of making
(illegitimate) entry into the information facility (ies) of any target party for
intelligence purpose(s). the methods may include lockpicking, safecracking,
finger-printing, electronic surveillance, mail manipulation, forgery among others.
:
© Interrogation: This involves putting questions to person(s) with the aim

of getting information which can help, which can aid intelligence collection.
There are various ways through which person(s) can be interrogated. These
methods of interrogation include:
- Suggestibility: This a kind of interrogation technique in which people or

person being interrogated is (is) subjected to sleep deprivation or exposed to
continual loud sound, etc.
89
- Reid: This technique involve interrogators watching the body language of the
person(s) (or suspects) being interrogated. This method is questionable because it
is (very) difficulty to read the mind of man through his/her face or the so called
body language;
- Deception: Here, the interrogator applies deceptive mechanism or lie to

confuse and make the suspect to vomit information that may assist in producing
criminal intelligence. The investigator may lie to the suspect that he/she had been
implicated by some other person(s) and there is need for him/her (suspect) to
assist, sometimes, interrogator promises the person being interrogated heaven and
earth, just to deceive the suspect in order to get information from him/her; and
- Torture: This is a process of interrogating a person (suspect) to getting

information from him/her through infliction of extreme physical pain. Law
enforcement agencies often apply torture technique on suspects to make
confessions. Torture includes severe beating jaw breaking, head breaking, face
and/or body mutilation, rib-crushing among others. This technique is obsolete and
not effective because of the tendency of the person being tortured to make false
confessions (or give false information) due to the extreme physical pain he/she
suffers. Even if one is innocent or does not have (the needed) information, in the
face of torture, the person may resolve to give false information as to escape
further torture.
(d) Number Stations: These are (covert) short wave radio stations. The
voices that are heard on these stations are often created mechanically in various
languages. The voices on the radio can be generated to represent or look like
those of women or men as well as adult or children. Number stations are used to
pass instructions or messages to spies or used to deceive the public or the
government (management) of the target countries (organizations);
(e) A One-Way Voice Link (OWVL): It’s another form of shortwave radio
in which transmission is targeted towards aiding communication flow between the
spies or agents working on the field and their respective intelligence agencies
(employers). This system allows the spies to transmit already recorded message
without having to stay on air for so long;
(f) Steganography: The term steganography emanated from the Greek word,
meaning “covered or hidden”. This technique that involves sending information to
the recipient in a hidden way. Here, the messages are concealed in such a way that
they are hardly noticed. Examples of steganography include invisible ink,
chaffing and winnowing etc;
(g) Cryptography: This is art and process of writing in secret characters. This
technique is different from steganography because the message is not hidden but
90
it is the meaning of the message that is coded while steganography primarily deals
with the writing of hidden messages.
(h) Concealment Devices: These are devices that we can secretly hide
information or things (i.e paper) and they will look kike ordinary object. Example
of these are (special) books (especially the religion materials), candles, coin, etc;
(i) Diversion Safe: This is device which can be left open while concealing
some information materials in its hidden compartment that can be hardly noticed
by anybody;
(j) Eavesdropping: This is a method which involves one secretly listening to

a private conversation or discussion. People often do this by pretending as if
they’re deeply asleep but listening to conversation between some other parties.
Eavesdropping occurs everywhere. Some people may deceive other people as if
they have left but only to hide in a corner with the aim of listening to the
conversion of other people secretly;
(k) Surveillance: This is the act of watching people or objects. In

contemporary time, the art of surveillance has gone beyond observing or watching
(closely) the movement or behavior of people through human monitoring. It also
includes monitoring through electronic gadgets and (other) technological and non-
technological methods. Technological methods include telephone tapping, closed-
circuit television, reconnaissance aircraft, internet and computer surveillance,
GPS tracking, binoculars, postal interception, bugs (covert listening devices), etc.
There are several other types of surveillance and these include:
Biometric Surveillance: It is the use of technologies to measure and study the

physical and behavioral features of person(s) for the purpose of authentication,
identification or screening. The physical features that (some of) these
technologies analyze include eye retinas and irises, DNA fingerprints etc. The
behavioral features may include signature, voice, gait etc. It is important to note
that biometric surveillance is still a subject of further research; and
Natural Surveillance: Such models like crime Prevention through Environmental

Design (CPTEI) and Defensible Space. This technique underscores the
importance of the character of any society in influencing the behavior of anybody
attempting to commit crime. It is popularly believed that people are often
skeptical of going into crime, if there is high risk, and ‘natural surveillance occurs
by designing the placement of physical features, activities and people in such a
way as to maximize visibility and foster positive social interaction’
(see .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_surbveillance );
(l) Pseudo Operations: These operations are often targeted towards collecting
strategic information for intelligence purposes. They are usually adopted by states
(nations) to locate and break into the insurgent areas by sponsoring a number of
91
state agents who will pretend to be sympathetic to the cause of the insurgents.
These state agents (defector) deceive the insurgents by fighting along with them,
the anti-government forces (Cline, 2005).
Basically, the aims of carry-out pseudo operations may include collection of vital
information for long term or short term intelligence, or covert activities like
assassination of palpable foes or decimation of the enemy’s ranks etc. Law
enforcement agencies particularly the police usually apply this technique by
sponsoring defectors to enemy’s camp and pose as if they are also anti-
government;
(m) Political Campaigning: This is another means through which intelligence

can be collected. In several societies like Nigeria, a number of people who are
supporting a candidate may decide to pose as some of the admirers of the
opponent candidate with the intention of getting information that can nail or deny
the opponent of the anticipated victory. All the decision secretly arrived at in the
opponent’s camp are revealed to their camp. The people who’re used to carry out
such intelligence task can be regarded to as “Straw men”.
I could remember in 2003 gubernatorial election in one of the state in Nigeria, the
leading opposition party was alleged of planning to kill some thugs with po lice
uniforms with the aim of snatching the ballot boxes and filling them with
unlawful ballot papers. The ruling party, later, intercepted a vehicle, in the
company of law enforcement agents, and after searching that vehicle, they saw
thumb printed ballot papers, just few weeks to the election.
Also, a raid was conducted in a public school where police uniforms and ballot
papers already thumb printed for the opposition party and a lot of dangerous
weapons were found. One important thing to note is that it’s likely that the ruling
party positioned some “straw men” (its agents) among the ranks of the opponent,
collecting intelligence which can be used to monitor or identify the weakness of
the opponent, or even implicated the opponent for the purpose of having strategic
advantage over the enemy party;
(n) Sex and Honey pots: How will you feel, if you find a poster or in the
media, the picture of a deceased man whose family is announcing his demise, and
in the course of the public announcement, it is said that the man died after having
a (marathon) sex? I know many people will burst into laughter considering the
novelty or strangeness of the content of that announcement. This is because most
families would rather put it as: ‘he died after a brief illness’.
For better, for worse sex has remained one of the effective means of intelligence
collection. Several kingdoms and empires have collapsed to evils that sex is
capable of evoking in intelligence collection; sex is a very good tool in
information supping. The law enforcement agents use it to gather information,
which can assist them to arrest some criminal suspects. Criminals suspects also
92
apply it to get valuable information from security chiefs by trapping with women
particularly those considered as ‘women rapper” (womanizers), to escape arrest
by the law enforcement agents.
There are two basic ways that this technique can be facilitated: Internal and
external. The external sources appear to be more effective than the internal. The
external may include commercial sex workers specific, female members of the
group (or agency, girl friends (or boy friends) etc. The internal may include one’s
spouse, and among those that commit incest, we may have daughters, female/male
cousins, parent, mother (in-law) or father (in-law) among others.
The internal source(s) usually has (have) emotional attachment to the target
person(s) which can make it a great risk using the internal sources for intelligence
task. This is because, there is tendency that such people will give false
information (due to the bond or blood ties they have with the target persons. But,
there are some exceptions.
The external sources appear to be more productive in intelligence collection, due

to the unscrupulous nature of the relationship between the target persons and their
sex partners. The basis for such relationship may only be material concern or
mere canal pleasure or clandestine reporting etc; and
(o) Walk-ins: walk-ins also play great role(s) in intelligence collection. Walk-
ins are those that voluntarily give information to law enforcement agents. But, it
is quite important that the information must be subjected to scrutiny and analysis
to know if it is aimed at assisting the security operations in the combat of crime or
meant to deceive security personnel.
Exercise
Explain various means through which intelligence can be gathered.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Intelligence collection is that art and science of information gathering for

intelligence activities. In an attempt to carry out investigation, there is need for
security personnel to consider utmost how to gather information that will assist in
crime detection, and even prevention of act(s) that can constitute a threat to
national security e.g. terrorism, insurgency etc.
Therefore, intelligence is not only collected to detect crime and identify the
offender, but also to prevent crime and insecurity. The intrusive nature of
intelligence collection has become a subject of (great) debate. This is because
most intelligence collection methods can undermine the right to privacy of
individual(s). Some of the means through which intelligence is collected have also
brought up the issue of moral question. This is because they are capable of
93
undermining the fundamental rights of the people. It is therefore necessary to put

in place control measures in the collection of intelligence.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to cover a wide spectrum of issues in our
discussion on the subject of intelligence collection. We began our academic
journey into the subject (of the day) by considering some of the available
definitions of intelligence collections for conceptual purpose(s). Thereafter, we
focused on various disciplines of intelligence collection. The third (and last) area
of discourse was the means of intelligence collection. I strongly believe that you
have found this unit interesting.

i. What is intelligence collection?
ii. State any four intelligence collection disciplines.
iii. List any four means of intelligence collection
Cline, Lawrence E. (2005), Pseudo Operations and counter insurgency: lessons

from other countries, Strategic Studies Institute.
Hannah, Greg; Kelvin A. O’Brien and Andrew Rathmell (2005), Intelligence and
Security legislation for Security Reform, Technical Report for the UK’s security
Sector Development Advisory Team, RAND Corporation.
Monahan, Torin (ed) (2006), Surveillance and Security: Technological Politics

and Power in Everyday life, New York: Routledge.
Silverstein, ken (200), “Sex and the CIA” Harpers Magazine, April 17, Also
available on .harpers.or/archive/2007/04/sb-sex-and-the-cia. Retrieved on 1st
January, 2008.
The US Dept of Defense (12 July, 2007) Joint Publ ication 1-02 Dept of Defense
Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-
styd y-of-intelligence/kent-csi/docs/vo8ila02p-0002.htm. Retrieved on 8th
January, 2008.
.en.wikipedia.org.wiki/black-Black-Bag-Operations. Retrieved on 7th April,

2008.
.en.wikipedia.org/wili/intelligence-collection.Retrieved on 7th April, 2008.
://www.fas.org/irp/program/masint.htm. Retrieved on 6th March, 2008.
94
.militera.lib.ru/reseaech/suvorov8/16html. Retrieved on 4th April, 2008.
95
Unit 4
INTELLIGENCE ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Defining Intelligence Analysis
3.2 Pillars of Intelligence Analysis
3.3. Steps in Intelligence Analysis
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Collecting information for intelligence purpose(s) is not sufficient enough to

become intelligence products. This is because it is not all information gathered
that have equal importance in intelligence planning. Some information may even
be totally discarded for lack of merit. Then, how do we identify information that
are important and those that are not? Well, in intelligence community the process
of identifying the information that is relevant for one intelligence initiative or the
other is directed by analysis.
Therefore, the process of analyzing intelligence is very crucial in determining the

quality of any intelligence products. Here, there is application of knowledge in the
evaluation of the collected information, which is refined and made useful for
(Security) intelligence. In furtherance of (our) discourse on intelligence, and our
attempt to show how it impacts on security practice and management it is
important in this unit to illuminate on how intelligence are analyzed. Thank you
as you stay with me in exploring the subject of the day.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

Define the concept, intelligence analysis;
Explain the pillars of intelligence analysis; and
Discuss steps in intelligence analysis.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Defining Intelligence Analysis
96
This is the process of determining out of the available information, the ones that
are useful in producing intelligence. The truth is that it is not all information
gathered for intelligence will be useful, particularly as they relate to human nature
analysis can also be described as:
---the process taken to know information about situations and entities of

strategic, operationally or tactical importance, characterizing the known,
and with appropriate statements of probability, the future actions in those
situation and by those entities. The descriptions are drawn from what may
only be available in the form of deliberately deceptive information; the
analyst must correlate the similarities among deceptions and extract a
common truth ( .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_Analys is)
---a way of reducing the ambiguity of highly ambiguous situations, with

the ambiguity often very deliberately created by highly intelligent people
with mindsets very different from the analysis
( .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_Analysis).
However the services of knowledgeable persons are often required for intelligence
analysis, considering the task of revealing the facts from available information,
often through systematic evaluation or assessment. As you are expected to know,
dealing with human-beings, one needs to be very alert mentally. This is because
man may be sometimes mischievous and will try to hide the truth by giving you
false information.
As a security operative, you need to be very vigilant. There is no doubt (effective)

intelligence analysis is generally missing in our security sector in Nigeria. May
be, that is one of the factors responsible for ineffective security management. This
also explains the problem of incapacitation of various security agencies to provide
substantial evidence (criminal intelligence) in the prosecution of suspects. One of
the examples of such inefficiency interpreted itself in the decision of the Lagos
High Court to discharge and acquit the former Chief Security Officer to the late
Head of State, General Sanni Abacha, of the allegation of trying to overthrow the
government of the erstwhile President (Olusegun Obasanjo–1999 to 2007), for
lack of evidence to show that the accused person actually committed the offence.
Moreso, the Nigeria Police is also bedeviled, in its operations, with the problem of
ineffective intelligence analysis or intelligence misanalysis. The second problem
is very fatal, that is having security personnel acting on information without
considering the merit of the less professional men and officers of the police
institution, and this shows that the recruitment process(es) in the appointment and
placement of people into its fold is (are) questionable. Do you know how many
innocent people have been killed, maimed or wrongly prosecuted by the Police in
Nigeria?
97
I directly have a chat with one policeman, who told me that they shot some
young-men to death at the back of their station. The policeman informed me that
an elder brother to one of the guys visited the police station, and reported that he
was suspecting his younger brother and his friends were into armed robbery. He
asked the police to swing into action.
Though, the action of the police to burst the target place was commendable but
later actions were unprofessional and criminal. So, they searched the whole place,
and found some incriminating objects like arms and ammunition. Thereafter, the
young-man who was reported by his brother as well as other friends and visitors
were taken to the station. The suspects pleaded innocence to the police. In a
regular extra-judicial jingoism and killing by most security personnel in Nigeria,
the boys (suspects) were brutally murdered by the police personnel in question.
One fact must be noted here, the police agents failed to do their job (investigation)
as demanded by the law while exchange of fire should be in self-defense, and
shooting to death any suspects (or convicts) can only be ordered by the court (of
competent jurisdiction). The concerned police staff that carried out that dastardly
action failed to subject the information given to them by an elder brother to one of
the slain victims (suspects), to critical analysis to know if the information was
genuine or deceptive.
Now, just imagine a situation where two brothers are fighting each other over the
property left by their late father (or mother), and the elder one having the belief
that he can cheat his/her younger one. But the younger one can resist his/her
brother’s (or sister’s) attempt,. Hence, in a situation of conflict between the two
particularly when the elder one is greedy may take any dimension. The conflict
may involve the use of thugs or supernatural attacks or even clandestine tactics
such as the use of hired killers, set-up etc.
What I have gathered from my inquiry is that the policemen failed to build any
scenarios about the information they were about to act on. Even, after arresting
those boys, one would expect them (the police) to take time in investigating the
matter. They only swung into killing of the boys without ascertaining their guilt
(or innocence). What a barbaric way of security management?!
By and large, analysis is a very vital element of intelligence planning and

production. The technical nature of this process demands that resourceful and
intelligent people should be those in charge of intelligence analysis. Anybody can
be mandated or employed to collect information but the work of intelligence
analysis is special and can only be managed by competent people who have inner
eye (intuition and insight).
It is no surprising that, due to the importance of intelligence analysis in security

management and crime detection and prevention, a number of countries have
specifically created schools to teach and impart to the people the skills of
98
intelligence analysis. One of such schools is Mercy-Hurst College Institute for

Intelligences Studies. Even several intelligence agencies have training centres for
developing or improving among other things the skills of (a number of) their
intelligence officers in intelligence analysis. A good example is the Directorate of
Intelligence (DI), a subsidiary of the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
Exercise
Define the term intelligence analysis.
3.2 Pillars of Intelligence Analysis
As I have mentioned earlier (in the last segment of this unit), analyzing
intelligence is a very challenging task. This is because the analysts are confronted
with a number of issues that can affect the outcome of the analysis. One of such
factors that can mitigate or undermine intelligence analysis is value. Value tends
to create identity and imaging in the mind(s) of (any) analysts.
In sharply ethnically divided countries like Nigeria, the probability of having

distorted intelligence analyses will be high. This is because ethnicity often creates
problem of identity and (enemy) imaging in the minds of the people. This
problem covers all professions, segments and classes in Nigerian society,
including the ruling elites and security personnel. “No be your brother dey for
government” (is it not your brother who is in government? Standard English) has
become regular phrase in Nigeria in which people express their opinion(s) about
one regime or the other based on ethnic identification. So, a situation like this
leads to give ethnic legitimation to political leadership. Thereby, the shortcomings
of any political leader are ascribed to his/her ethnic group.
However, it is pertinent for intelligence analysts to avoid those turning their back
to the pillars of intelligence analysis, which are the factors that can promote
effective intelligence analysis, and these include:
(a) Boldness and Honesty: Honesty, they say, is the best policy. It is expected
that for effective discharge of his/her duties, intelligence analysts must not only
be honest but must also show to be honest. Analyst should not allow some
extraneous variables or selfish motives affect his/her job. And in maintaining
honest posture and resilience against distortion of facts, analyst will need to be
bold, thus:
…believe in your own professional judgments. Always be willing to listen

to alternative conclusions or other points of view, but stand your ground, if
you really believe the intelligence supports a certain conclusion. Just
because someone is your boss, occupies a higher grade, or has been around
longer than you does not mean he or she knows more than you do. You are
the one who reads the traffic everyday and who studies the issue --- It is
better to be mistaken than wrong (see Watanabe, 1997).
99
Reflecting on the last statement “It is better to be mistaken than wrong” in the
above comment made by Watanabe, you may agree with me that the fear often
exhibited by policy makers, from being found wrong in the choice of policy
options, usually accounts for the ill-advice they get here and there. It is
unfortunate that these ill-advice, most times influence their policy direction(s).
Therefore, it is important for policy makers to have intelligence advisors and there
should be significant amount of trust in their relationship. Also, the intelligence
advisors are advised not to misinform the policy makers or the executive whom
they are working with for any reasons, and there must be honesty;
(b) Goal Setting: This is a crucial aspect of intelligence analysis. It is paramount

to the goals of the intelligence consumer and needs of the consumer (like
government, corporate organization etc). And it is most important to complement
what the consumer has with the knowledge of the intelligence being analyzed. It
is by doing this that you will be able reconcile and synthesize various information
available to you, and bring out those that the consumer does not have any
previous knowledge of and which can also meet the overall goal agenda of the
consumer;
(c) Appreciating the Consumer’s View and Expectations: It is important for

analysts to appreciate the views and expectations of the consumer(s). Sometimes,
you may prepare intelligence for a particular consumer or the other, and you are
further requested to provide an intelligence that is more detailed than the one you
brought. For instance, you may prepare an intelligence based information
gathered by human sources (HUMINT) and your customer may ask you to
provide more detailed one which may require considering other sources like
imagery intelligence (IMINT), signal Intelligence (SIGINT) etc.
As an analyst, you need to comply with your customer’s demand and make sure
that intelligence is produced in a very interactive and self explanatory way, such
that the customer will find it easy to understand. Therefore, you need to consider
the educational background of your customer, and simplify the technical words to
carry him/her (customer) along;
(d) Organizational of Information Available: Analysts get a lot of information

from various sources of intelligence collection. It is the job of an analyst to
identify the information that are important and those that are not to the task before
him/her. He/she should also ensure that the information that is true should be
separated from the false ones. In some intelligence institutions, information are
sorted or arranged with the use of standard code according to the probable worth
of confidence of the information and its collection source.
The intelligence analysis (IA) professional is confronted each day with high
demands for rapid, yet accurate assessments that require discovery and
100
marshalling of evidence, integration and synthesis of data from disparate

sources, interpreting and evaluating data and information that are constantly
changing, and making recommendations or predictions in the face of
inconsistent and incomplete data.
(Greitzer, 2005: 1).
In addition, after organizing the information, the process of evaluation will take
place to assess the value of each of the information and the analyst will come up
with some hypotheses; and
(e) Team playing: Analyst needs to demonstrate at least a minimum degree of

partnering with some other team players in the field. He/she should not see them
as rivals but should regard them as colleagues. It is only when this is done that
he/she can work with others conveniently. Therefore, analysts need to adequately
motivate the intelligence collectors who provide them with information to carry-
out their work. As an analyst, you need to always appreciate the work of the
intelligence collectors and endeavour to feed them back. This is because “if you
are not frequently tasking collectors and giving them feedback on their reporting
you are failing to do an important part of your job” (Watanabe, 1997).
Exercise
Explain the pillars of intelligence Analysis
3.3. Steps in Intelligence Analysis
There are various steps analysts take, in the performance of their official
assignments, to analyse intelligence. Though, there is no consensus on any
particular process to adopt by analysts. They often adopt different approaches not
only in the collection but also in analyzing the intelligence. Nonetheless, various
steps in the process of intelligence analyses may include:
(a) Definition of the Problem: analysts will need to know the questions in the
minds of their customers which bother on their intelligence requests. If the
questions are unclear the analysts will need to demand for further clarification to
illuminate the thinking of the customer;
(b) Developing Hypotheses: Hypotheses are statements, which are developed to

predict the relationship between two variables. For instance, if you a customer one
of the major players in banking industry in the country to provide an intelligence
on how she can attract people to her loan facilities. You are likely to come up
with some statements (hypotheses) like these:
(i) Lesser the rate of a loan facility, the higher it becomes attractive to people
(customers and prospective customers).
101
(ii) Lesser the conditions attached to the access of the loan facility, the more the
people get attracted to seek for loans from the bank
(iii) it is better to concentrate more or low income earners than high income
earners considering their population. Etc.
Analysts generate hypothesis by tasking their brains to identify various probable

variables, which can have impact in addressing the problem of the intelligence
sought by the customer;
(c) Data Collection: Analysts require information to do their work. In the case of
case of not having information, already the analyst requests for the services of
human intelligence collectors like spies or agents. They also rely on other sources
of data collection communication interception, satellites. But these tasks (of
intelligence collection) are carried out by intelligence collectors. Sometimes,
analysts rely on information gotten through newspapers, public records, or archive
etc;
(d) Evaluation of Information (sources): Analysts should have an assessment

test on the information available to him/her and the sources of such information.
This is because distortion of information or deception cannot be ruled out in data
collection. It is therefore important to evaluate how accurate each information is,
through which you identify those that are useful and those that are not;
(e) Evaluate (Test) Hypotheses: This is the most crucial stage of intelligence
analysis. Analysts should ensure that they carry out a comparative analysis
between the gathered evidence and their formulated hypotheses, with the
application (or use) of different analytical tools and methods like Analysis of
competing hypotheses etc. This process will enable us to identify the hypotheses
that are not useful or irrelevant, which may be thrown-out
(f) Production and Packaging: After evaluating the hypotheses, analyst will
come up with (intelligence) findings which he/she considers in packaging the
intelligence product. In the production of intelligence, three issues usually come
to bear, and these include:
Timeliness: Timeliness includes not only the amount of time required to deliver
the product, but also the usefulness of the product to the customer at a given
moment.
Scope: Scope involves the level of detail or comprehensiveness of the material
contained in the product; and
Periodicity: Periodicity describes the schedule of product initiation and generation
( .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_Analysis)
Intelligence product is packaged either by written presentation or oral or electronic

presentations (or both). In some organizations, request is made for intelligence,
demanding the analyst to present the product in written and oral forms;
102
(g) Peer Review: There is general belief that two good heads are better than one.
After the production of intelligence, it is advisable for analysts to seek for
comments from their colleagues in intelligence community who may identify
area(s) of deficiency in the intelligence product. This view is also shared by the
United States Department of Defense (DoD):
Coordination with peers is necessary ----if you think you are right and the
coordinator disagrees, let the assessment reflect that difference of opinion
and use a footnote, called a reclama (see .dt ic.mil/do ctrine/jel/new
pubs/jp102.pdf).
Exchange of ideas is very essential in the production of intelligence. As an

analyst, there may be some flaws, which you may not identify. But bringing on
board some other colleagues of yours in intelligence business, you may be alerted
about such flaws or errors. You must also be humble enough to entertain
criticisms and see how various comments made can be catalogued, ranked and
applied to improve your intelligence product.
Also, as an analyst you should always have it at the back of your mind, that no
man is an island (of knowledge). For this reason, it is important that one should
choose among his/her colleagues those to work with as a team. In this case good
human relation and trust-building are essential; and
(h) Customer Feedback and Production Evaluation: After delivering the

intelligence product to your customer, you are also expected to always meet your
customer and ask question about the product. The questions may include: Has the
intelligence been effective enough or useful to meet the customer’s goals? Does
the customer find the intelligence product easy to use? Etc. Analysts and their
customer (policy makers, corporate organizations, individuals, security agencies
etc.) must make regular contact to discuss the efficacy or ineffectiveness of the
intelligence products with the aim of fathoming ways to refine and put more life
into them (intelligence products). So, by doing these, it will be easy to meet the
expectations of the customers.
Exercise
How do you explain various steps to be undertaken in the production of
intelligence?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Intelligence analysis is the process of putting information in the right perspective

by removing that information that is not useful as well those that are distorted or
false in intelligence planning and production. It is a very technical aspect of
intelligence work which demands that anyone who wants to undertake such task
should demonstrate high sense of intelligence and must be knowledgeable.
103
The analysts usually apply some specific methodologies in the conduct of

intelligence analysis and they’re often referred to as analytic tradecraft. In the
business of intelligence analysis, you are expected to understand the nature of the
business by professionally identifying the needs of the customer and the questions
he/she want to solve with the use of your intelligence product. Therefore your
product must be problem-solving by providing the customer with an array of
options that he/she can use to meet his/her goals.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at a wide range of issues concerning the subject
matter: intelligence analysis. We set out in our academic adventure by first
looking at some of the many definitions of the term, intelligence analysis.
Thereafter, we drew our searchlight on the various pillars of intelligence analysis.
And the last area of inquiry was highlighting various steps of intelligence
analyses. Thank you for your attention.

(i) What is intelligence analysis?
(ii) Explain steps in intelligence analysis.
Central intelligence Agency, Directorate of intelligence (Feb, 1997), A

Compendium of Analytic Tradecraft Notes;
.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/cia/tradecraft_notes/contents.htm. Retrieved on 23rd of
October 2007.
Davis, Jack (1995), “A policymaker’s Perspective on Intelligence Analysis”,

Studies in Intelligence, No 5. Also available on .cia.go v/library/centre-fo r-the-
study-of-intellige nce/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/95unclass/Davis.htm.
Greitzer, F.L. (March 2005), Methodology, Metrics and Measures for Testing and
Evaluation of Intelligence Analysis Tools, Pacific Northwest Division of Battelle
Memorial Institute.
Heuer, Richard J. Jr. (1999), Psychology of Intelligence Analysis Chapter 8:

Analysis of Competing Hypotheses, available on
.au.af.mil./au/awc/awcgate/psych-intel/art10.html.
Johnston, R. (2003), “Developing A Taxonomy of Intelligence Analysis

Variables”. CIA: Studies in Intelligence, 47(3). Also on
http://www.cia.gov/csi/studies/vol47no3/article05.html.
104
Krizan, Lisa (June 1999), Intelligence Essentials for Everyone, Joint Military
Intelligence College. Also available on .scip.org/2_getintel/ess.php.
US Department of Defense (12 July 2007), Joint Publication 1-02 Department of

Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms. Available on
.dt ic.mil/dotrine/jel/new_pu bs/jp1_02.pdf. Retrieved on 1st of October, 2007.
Wakanabe, Frank (1997), “Fifteen Axioms for Intelligence Analysts: How to

Succeed in the DI {Directorate of Intelligence}”, Studies in Intelligence. Also
available on .bss.sfsu.edu/fischer/IR%20360/Readings/15%20axioms.htm.
Retrieved on 23rd of October, 2007.
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_Analysis. Retrieved on 20th April, 2008.
105
Unit 5
COUNTER-INTELLIGENCE AND INTELLIGENCE SECURITY

MANAGEMENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Definition of Counter-Intelligence
3.2 Aspects of Counter-Intelligence
3.3 Protective Disciplines and Counter-Intelligence
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last three units our focus was on the meaning of intelligence, intelligence
collection and analysis. Every nation usually develops mechanisms and
establishes institutions that engage in intelligence activities and it assisting her to
have strategic relevance in the world polity. In achieving the overall security
agenda, nations do not only focus on how various intelligence activities can
enhance their internal security, they also consider creating measures and
platforms that can counter any intelligence (or security) threats emanating from
both the local and external enemies which are capable of undermining the national
security.
It is against this background that counter-intelligence has become a key element

of security management. Counter-intelligence is part of intelligence cycle and its
coordination must also include the security issues that border on the protection of
intelligence personnel, their facilities as well as operation. These shall form the
bases of this unit. Now, let’s quickly browse through the objectives of this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

Define counter intelligence;
Explain aspects of counter-intelligence; and
Discuss protective disciplines for counter-intelligence.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Definition of Counter-Intelligence
106
Counter-intelligence has become a rapidly growing intellectual area of inquiry in

security studies. It enables us to appreciate the need to look at intelligence from
dual perspective: our strengths and vulnerabilities or weaknesses. It is only when
we can identify our weaknesses that we can fathom ways through which we can
secure our intelligence community and counter other security threats. On the
definition of counter intelligence, we can consider the following:
Information gathered and activities conducted to protect against

espionage, other intelligence activities, sabotage or assassinations
conducted for by or on behalf of foreign government or elements
thereof, foreign organizations or foreign persons, or international tourist
activities (see
.fas.org/sgp/crs/intel/RL33616.pdf).
Counterintelligence (JC) refers to efforts made by intelligence

organizations to prevent hostile or enemy intelligence organizations
from successfully gathering and collecting intelligence against them.
Many governments organize counter-intelligence agencies separate and
distinct from their intelligence collection services for specialized
purposes (see
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/counter-intelligence).
According to the United States Army in its-manual of counter intelligence, our

conceptual definition of counter-intelligence cannot be adequate if we fail to
consider two basic tasks performed by counter intelligence in our conceptual
clarification of the term, CI. And these include:
(i) Developing, maintaining and disseminating multi-discipline threat data

and intelligence files on organizations, locations, and individuals of CI interests.
These include insurgents and terrorist infrastructure and individuals who can
assist in the CI mission; and
(ii) Educating personnel in all fields of security. A component of this is

the multidiscipline threat briefing. Briefings can and should be tailored, both in
scope and classification level. Briefings could then be used to familiarize
supported commands with the nature of the multidiscipline threat posed against
the command or activity (US Dept of the Army, 1995).
However, in several countries intelligence services are given separate mandates,

and therefore counter intelligence institutions operate independently of other
intelligence agencies. For instance, in Britain, there exists an independent
security organization which is known as “security service” or “MI-5, having no
police powers but it is mandated by the law to have a good or collaborative
working relation with the law enforcement agency known as the “Special
Branch”. MI-5 performs counter intelligence functions and through the special
107
Branch, she can effect arrest or interrogate or facilitate a search warrant (on) the
suspected enemies or intelligence threats.
In the United States, the Federal Bureau for Investigation (FBI) appears to be the
major counter intelligence agency in the country. In Nigeria, there is clear cut
separation of functions among the intelligence agencies in the country. What I
mean is that there is no actual intelligence organization that is basically mandated
by the law for counter intelligence only.
3.2 Aspects of Counter-Intelligence
In this segment of the unit, we are going to look at various aspects of counter
intelligence, though there may be more aspects than the ones we are providing in
this study due to the dynamics of counter intelligence activities and studies.
Notwithstanding, we shall be focusing on four major aspects of counter
intelligence. These include:
(a) Defensive counter intelligence: This aspect draws its attention on identifying
vulnerable areas in one’s intelligence organization(s) which can be explored by
foreign intelligence services (FIS). The term, FIS in (modern) counter
intelligence goes beyond foreign countries or agents in its meaning. It therefore
refers to opposition, either internal or external.
Defensive counter intelligence activities should cover defending one’s nation or

organization against any threat that can undermine its security as well as
protecting the friendly nation against enemy’s attack, which may be as a result of
the diplomatic suppo rt your nation enjoys from the friendly nation, making the
enemy-party dissatisfied. In one of the broadcasts made by Osama bin Laden, the
leader of Al Queda network, he called on the members of his group and his
sympathizers (lovers) to carry out insurgent actions to destroy the United States
and its allies.
This explains some of the covert suppo rt being received by some local insurgents
in a number of countries from Al Queda network, to fight their governments who
are considered to be pro-West by Al Queda and the likes. The pro-American
posture of the Iraqi government (majorly controlled by Shiites) has attracted
insurgent condemnation not only from the Sunni dissidents but also violent threats
from the Shiites militants.
The Shiites insurgency in Iraq has added a new twist to be post-war Iraq
discourse. This is because most people would think having Shiite led
government, the majority Shiite population would welcome it and give her
necessary support to succeed. But the event has turned out to be contrary,
resulting from the fact that more aggression comes from the Shiites rather than
Sunnis.
108
Well, one important revelation is that the aggression is more likely to be

sponsored by Iran in evoking its defensive counterintelligence, considering the
threat in the US sojourn in Iraq could constitute against its national security. The
covert support, Iran gives the Shiite insurgents in Iraq is overwhelming, with the
aim of forcing the US and allies to consider the option of leaving Iraq. If this is
achieved by Iran, the US will not have access to Iraq as its military base through
which it can launch a military invasion of Iran, in stopping her (Iran) from further
developing nuclear power or any others weapons of mass destruction (WMD);
(b) Offensive Counter intelligence Operations: These include all activities that are
targeted towards arresting the mischief of the enemy-parties. It is important to put
in place measures that will undermine the structure and personnel of hostile
intelligence organizations (Wisner, 1993). This aspect is also known as counter
espionage. Here, efforts are made towards identifying and arresting the agents of a
foreign intelligence services or enemy parties. If the hostile agents are diplomats,
the friendly nation or host country should declare them personal non grata, and
facilitate their immediate repatriation.
The hostile agents who are not diplomats are to be arrested by law enforcement
agents, and be prosecuted. In some countries, if a spy is caught within or outside
their intelligence domains working for foreign interests, usually face highest
penalty (death sentence) while some other countries only have them imprisoned.
Intelligence services can also subject the detained hostile spies to torture, forcing
them to reveal their planned clandestine actions for the purposes of liquidating
such plans and prevent similar threats from any other hostile spies in the nearest
future. Recently, Nigerian government through its security operatives arrested
some people alleged to be foreign spies and their local co-conspirators who were
accused of espionage;
(c) Counter intelligence Protection of Intelligence Services; Intelligence services

don’t only guard the states against external infiltrations and (internal) attacks but
they also undertake some (defensive) counterintelligence actions or measures to
protect themselves from attacks or threats from the enemy or hostile party (ies).
Therefore, there is need for intelligence agencies to evaluate the source of,
methods and resources they use in intelligence activities. There is also need by
services to conduct risk assessment on its operations with a view to identify
appropriate counterintelligence measures to the risks in its operations; and
(d) Counter intelligence Force Protection Source Operations (CFSO): These

involve human source operations in which Clandestine activities ‘are conducted
abroad ….. intended to fill the exiting gap in national coverage, as well as the
combatant commander’s intelligence requirements’ (see
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/counter-intelligence; and US Dept of the Army, 1995).
Exercise
Discuss aspects of counterintelligence?
109
3.3 Protective Disciplines and Counter-Intelligence
These disciplines don’t actually have any direct relationship with intelligence
activities but only play some complementary roles. They assist to reinforce
counterintelligence measures to undermine enemy’s attacks on the intelligence
community and nation at large. They include the following:
(a) Physical Security: It is the dut y of intelligence services to ensure protection of

their physical infrastructure against attacks by enemies that operate within and
outside. Apart from that, efforts are made to secure the civilian and government
facilities against the infiltrations and attacks from mischievous elements (or
foreign intelligence services).
Infrastructures like building require measures than can counter any threats from
the enemies. The enemies can make use of tall buildings; after gaining access to
it, to monitor the movement of the occupants of another building being targeted.
Consequently, after collecting intelligence, the enemies will then identify the
vulnerable areas, and strike. This can explain, the tactics adopted by the Al
Queda network in the planning and execution of the carnage (Sept 11 incident)
that visited the United States. The enemies studied the US and geography,
noticing that there had been tight security at its borders making it difficult to
smuggle in explosives into the country.
But the attackers chose to hijack commercial aircrafts to hit them against target
building(s). The US intelligence community failed to mount surveillance on the
Arab immigrants who pretended to be students, enrolled to study the art of
piloting. One would expect the immigration service to have alerted the
intelligence community to mount a close watch on the suspected immigrants, and
plant electronic bugs at their residence.
Physical security may include fortifying infrastructures and building with security
gadgets and other measure like the use of window blind. The use of window
blind will deny the enemies seeing your activities in the room through the
windows. Intelligence facilities need to be protected by putting in place high
construction standards that are capable of mitigating enemy’s attacks and ‘might
slow down, but certainly not stop, a determined entry attempt that used
explosives’ (see .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-int elligence);
(b) Personnel Security: Sometimes foreign intelligence services use some of the
trusted people in an organisation or state to unleash their terror or attack. FIS can
decide to buy over some of the people working for your organization or home
government who have access to some secrets that may be useful to FIS. In order
to avoid a situation like this, intelligence services will need to put in place
security clearance system (or positive vetting) to ascertain if a person within the
organization, holding sensitive position can still be trusted or not.
110
The services will have to conduct periodic clearance on the people holding
sensitive or strategic positions. One of the ways to do this is secret monitoring of
one’s spending as against his/her income. If one spends far above his/her
legitimate earnings, such a person needs to be scrutinized. There must be
electronic reviews of one’s financial records, and it is also important to examine
the lifestyle of each staff to identify the areas of vulnerability of each of them, and
apply measures that can limit or curb possible compromise among (the)
personnel;
(c) Operations Security (OPSEC): This underscores the relevance of information,

which is very crucial to the future operations of any organization or country, and,
how ‘planning activities’ should be shaped to:
• Identifying those actions that can be observed by adversary

intelligence systems;
• Determining indicators that adversary intelligence systems might

obtain that could be interpreted or pieced together to derive critical information in
time to be useful to adversaries; and
• Designing and executing measures that eliminate or reduce to an

acceptable level the vulnerabilities of friendly actions to adversary exploitation
(see .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/intellige nce-cycle-secur it y).
Operations security usually involves-taking some measures like counter imagery,

cover, concealment and deception to identify the interests and needs of the
adversary in its (hostile) relation towards the friendly service (or country) as well
as discovering critical clues about the services, which the enemy can collate,
analyze and synthesize for (strategic) intelligence viewpoints, which can be used
to identify or detect the vulnerabilities of the friendly service in its desires to
carryout its threats. It is therefore, necessary to develop measures that can
mitigate the enemy’s threat by adequately addressing the problem of
vulnerabilities being encountered by the friendly service; and
(c) Communication Security (COMSEC); This is also germane to

counterintelligence. In intelligence activities, communication plays a great role,
and that is why both the friendly service and enemy often extend their intelligence
aggression to communication (environment). Therefore, security of one’s
communications and interception of the enemy’s has become one of the foremost
principles in intelligence community (IC). Communications security is geared
towards:
…preventing an adversary to intercept sensitive information that is

transmitted, especially through free spaces, but also through wired networks
capable of being wiretapped. It includes several disciplines, including those
111
for protecting the hostile acquisition of information either from the patterns
of flow of messages, or the content of messages… (ibid).
Communication security is a key element of counterintelligence. That is why it is

essential for security organizations including the military to provide secure
communications and guard against interception by the FIS (or enemies). Some of
the counter measures against any specialized technical interception from the
enemy may include encryption, traffic flow security, steganography etc. The
intelligence services are also expected to shield their office buildings against any
electronic attack
Exercise
Discuss the protective discipline for Counterintelligence
4.0 CONCLUSION
Counter intelligence activities have become widened in recent time due to

emergent (non traditional) security threats that characterize national and
international politics. In the olden days, security threats often emanated from
another country but now local dissidents constitute greatest security threats,
undermining national security, and many of whom are even working for foreign
interests. Compromise (to enemy’s influence) has become a major challenge in
intelligence community in which intelligence officers sell (or give) some
classified information or secrets of their services (employers) to Foreign
Intelligence Services (FIS).
The level of sophistication of modern communication technologies has also made

friendly intelligence service vulnerable to technical interception and attacks of the
enemies. These and other factors have necessitated the need to put in place
measures by intelligence community, to mitigate (reduce) or prevent threats from
the enemies. Counterintelligence activities should ensure not only to counter the
attacks coming from the enemies but also to protect intelligence personnel,
facilities, resources as well as operations. It is by doing all these that effective
counter intelligence can be actualized.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to discuss a number of issues of regarding counter
intelligence. We began our intellectual discourse by looking at some of the
available definitions of the term, counterintelligence, in the actualization of our
task of conceptualization. Thereafter, we explained various aspects of
counterintelligence. The third and the last subject we treated was discussing the
major protective disciplines for counterintelligence. I wish to congratulate you
for successfully completing another unit in the course. Thank you for your
attention.
112

(I) What is counterintelligence?
(II) How do you explain various protective disciplines for counter-intelligence?
Archick, Kristen (2006), European Approaches to Homeland Security and

Counterterrorism, Congressional Research Service (July 24). Also available on
.fas.org/spg/crs/homesec/RL33573.pdf. Retrieved on 5th Nov. 2007.
Dulles, Allen W. (1977) , The Craft of Intelligence, Greenwood
Imbus, Michael T. (April 2002), Identifying Threats: Improving Intelligence and

Counterintelligence Support to Force Protection. See
.au.af.mil/au/awcgate/acsc/02-059.pdf. Retrieved on 3rd Nov. 2007.
US Department of the Army (3 October 1995), Field Manual 34-60:

Counterintelligence, available on .fas.org/irp/doddir/army/fm34-60
Van Cleave, Michelle K. (April 2007), Counterintelligence and National

Strategy, School for National Security Executive Education, National Defense
University (NDU).
Wisner, Frank G. (22 Sept. 1993), On “The Craft of Intelligence”, available on

.cia.gav/library/center-for-the-study-ofintelligence/Kent-CSI/doc/V081a07p-
0004.htm. Retrieved on 3rd November, 2007.
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-intelligence. Retrieved on 4th of April, 2008.
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/intelligence-cycle-security. Retrieved on 5th April, 2008.
.fas.org/spg/crs/intel/RL33616 .pdf. Retrieved on 5th April, 2008.
113
MODULE 3
Unit 1:Security Personnel Management I

Unit 2: Security Personnel Management II
Unit 3: Management of Job Stress among Security Personnel
Unit 4: Trauma Management in Security Career: REBT
Unit 5: Public Relations Management in Security Sector
Unit 1
SECURITY PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT I
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 3.1 Definition of Secur ity Personnel
3.2 Causes of Trauma
3.21 Job Design
3.22 Staffing
3.23 Training and Staff Development.
3.24 Performance Appraisal
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Security organizations, public and private, carry out their functions and
responsibilities within the scope of what laws allows them to do. Apart from the
scope of their operation, one thing that is very important, and what that
determines their success is the nature or quality of their staff or personnel.
The truth is that if you do not have the right staff for the right positions, there is
the likelihood that the inputs which such staff will provide for the organization
will be ineptitude. In situation like this, meeting the overall goals of the
organization will be difficult. Therefore, it is pertinent to focus on the concept and
practice of personnel management as it impacts on securitization.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
114
Define personnel management; and

Explain various principles of personnel management.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Definition of Personnel Management
There has been a consensus among scholars and practitioners in management that
the heartbeat of any organization, be it security, finance, insurance, media etc, is
the quality of the human elements within its fold. It is no surprising that
management theorists have also agreed that of all the resources available in any
organization, it is only man that grows and develops. Some of the definitions of
personnel management may include:
Personnel management is hat part of management concerned with people

at work and with their relationship within an enterprise. Its aim is to bring
together and develop into an effective organization the men and women
who make up an enterprise and having regard for the well-being of the
individual and of the working groups, to enable them to make their best
contribution to its success (Institute of Personnel Management, quoted on
.webird.tcd.ie/bitstream/2262/5139/1/jssisiVolXXIIPartV_3677.pdf).
Personnel management is also concerned with the human and social

implications of changes in internal organization and methods of working,
and of economic and social changes in the community (Institute of
Personnel Management, 1968).
Personnel management can also be described as:
How the efforts of the people who make up the enterprise can be so
organized and developed in order to attain the highest level of efficiency,
adaptability and productivity (Barber, 1970).
3.2 Principles of Personnel Management
There are several principles of personnel management. They include the

following:
3.21 Job Design
Security job is a very challenging one, considering the conditions attached in the
recruitment of personnel. Apart from having mental stability and alertness,
secur ity personne l must also be physically fit. But, for them to perform their
functions effectively well, there must be job design in the first instance, which
will serve as a manual that specified “the content, method and relationship of jobs
115
in order to satisfy technological and organizational requirement as well as social

and personal requirement of the job-holder” (Olise, 2005: 56). Again, according
to Olise (2005), there are aspects of job design, and these include:
a) The productivity aspects: These are aimed at meeting the goal of the organization
as its concerns productivity. Therefore, it is pertinent in security business for the
management (or government for public security outfits) to pay huge attention on
‘operational efficacy’ targeted at achieving greater results. Thus, quality inputs
often lead to quality outputs;
b) The job-holder’s aspects: The rationale behind these is geared towards satisfying
the needs of each staff particularly as it concern his/her interests, challenges and
achievements.
Olise (2005) goes further to illuminate the ‘complexity’ orbit that exists in the
relationship between the two set aspects of job design as elaborated above.
According to him:
………to achieve the organizational goals, it is necessary to meet the

individual goals. Consequently, the overall objective of a job design
programme will be to integrate the individual needs with those of the
organization (Olise, 2005: 57).
Considering the foregoing, we may be wondering on how an organization, in its

efforts to meet its corporate goals, can be able to harmonize the variety of
individual goals of its personnel, even considering the politics of human nature
(one’s man meet is another’s poison).
However, job design must first draw the content of the job by enunciating various
work tasks or activities, which the organization demands from its personnel to
perform for the ultimate purpose of achieving its overall goals. In attempts to
integrate the individual goals of the personnel within an organization, a number of
stages need to be considered. These we shall be looking at in the next segment.
3.211 Stages of Job Design
(a) Job Analysis: This is the process through which security organization (or
any other organization) gives a detailed explanation and catalogue of the
purposes, expectations, duties, features, behaviours and relevant skills that a
particular job evokes on the job-seekers. Olise (2005) describes job design as”
………a systematic investigation of job content, the physical

circumstances in which the job is carried out, the qualification
needed to carry out the job responsibilities. Job analysis is
considered to be the foundation or building block for most resource
system.
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By and large, job analysis is a very essential element of job design because it
serves as a platform that enables any organization to accomplish other principles
of personnel management such as recruitment, selection, training among others,
which are very necessary for delivery of quality services by the employees for
organizational development and attainment of the overall goals of the
organization. In our focus on analysis as a key element of job design, it is
pertinent we quickly look at various features of job analysis and these include:
The purpose of the Job: The rationale behind the inauguration or establishment
of any security organization is not without a purpose. For example, the
establishment of the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) by the
Act of parliament are basically to prevent, alleviate or reduce or eliminate (if
possible) all offences relating economic and financial crimes like advanced fee
fraud, money laundering, diversion and looting of public funds by public
official(s) and their private co-conspirators among others.
The government realized that there’s inherent danger in activities of economic

and financial crimes, capable of undermining the security and development of the
nation, which culminated in the establishment of the EFCC. Therefore, it is
incumbent or simply important to indicate the purpose which necessitates the
creation of a security establishment with the intent to meet the goals of the
organization;
Content: This can be described as the totality of what the job entails. Therefore, it
under scores the nature and scope of job especially as it concerns work task,
functions, obligation, duties and operations to perform. If the content of any job is
– well spelt out, every employee with find it easy to identify the task he or she is
to perform and the quality of the inputs from the employees has direct impact on
the outputs which determine the ability of the organization to meet its
fundamental goals.
Accountabilities: The essence of every work task is to promote the effective

performance and productivity of the organization. Job analysis should specify the
tasks to be undertaken by each of the personnel and they (employees) must
account for the various functions they perform. That is why there is hierarchy of
responsibility in personnel management.
For instance, in Nigeria Police, there are several police stations cutting across –
every community in the federation, and they are managed by a number of officer
sand men of the police institution and each of the stations is led by a divisional
police officer (DPO). The activities of the police personnel in each station as it
concerns the delivery of their statutory functions and duties must be accounted
for.
The police personnel cannot go to the armoury to fetch some ammunition without
documentation. No policemen or officer can shoot in the public or elsewhere
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without accounting for such action. In an attempt to uphold the principle of

accountability, there is decentralization of authority in security community such
that every security employee will have a superior officer to report to.
Again, in Nigeria Police, police personnel in various stations report to the DPOs
or their representatives, the DPOs report to the Area Commander who also report
directly to their respective commissioners of police. The Commissioners of Police
report to their zonal heads (who are usually on the rank of Assistant Inspector
General of Police). The AIGs report to the inspector General of Police (IGP) or
his representative(s) who often are superior officers (DIGs). The IGP is also
answerable to the executive (the presidency) or relevant minister.
This chain of authority allows for easy identification of the staff that should
account for any deficiency recorded by the force in its performance of its statutory
duties and operations for satisfying the goals of the police organization.
Performance criteria: It is necessary for security organization to have standards of

measurement to judge the performance of its personnel. Currently in Oyo State,
the police community usually gives awards monthly to the best performing
officers in the commands that have fought situation of crime to a barest minimum.
They measure the performance based on the number of arrests of criminals,
intelligence breakthroughs crime prevention measures, the level of maintaining
the peace and order in their various territories among others;
Responsibilities: In the course of carrying out your official duties as security men
(or offices), it is incumbent on you to exhibit substantial level of mental alertness
or ability. In performing your functions as security employee two issues come to
your mind in making decisions. These include.
Programme Decision making, and

Non Programme Decision making.
Then, what is the relationship between job analysis and the decision-making
models relating to responsibilities in the discharge of official assignment? Well,
the relationship is that the programme decision making involves the process of
itemizing rules and procedure that guide one’s operational decision making. For
instance, some of the operational rules of a private security firm may include
searching of persons and vehicles that go in and outside of their places of
operation and arrest those found going out with company’s property and find out
if the management is aware of it or not. Therefore, if the security operatives work
within the codified and written operational rules of the organization, the
organization shall be responsible for such actions.
Meanwhile, non-programme decision making can be adopted if you find it

necessary to apply your own iniative to perform the task before you as a security
employee. Consider this scenario as a police officer leading a team of other police
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personnel to arrest a gang of trans-border armed robbers that has been threatening
the internal security of the country, after having an intelligence report that the
robbers are still operating in a particular locality.
On getting there, the robbers resist arrest and engage your team in gun battle. And
through your superior fire power, the armed robbers ran into a vehicle containing
some civilians and the civilians are therefore held hostage by the bandits. The
bandits driving in the snatched vehicle (containing some civilians) and heading
towards the border to escape.
Here, you may consider the elusive nature of the criminal gang and its destructive
antecedents. And you may also find yourself in the waters of dilemma, if you are
also aware that similar tactic had been used by the robbers twice previously to
facilitate their escape. Then, you may decide that there should be collateral killing
if it is the best option to hunt–down the robbers. When we are talking about
collateral killing, we mean is the adoption of an aggressive strategy in which
innocent people are not spared in an attempt to hit a target.
A good example of collateral killing was the US bombardment of Iraq in her

attempt to decimate the Saddam army and presidential guards in the wake of the
Iraq war, without considering possibility of having civilian casualties. Sometimes,
events may mandate you to take a personal decision in the performance of your
functions as security operative(s). but you will be responsible for such decisions
outside the operational rules of your organization..
Organizational factors: In security systems where offices are allocated to

individual staff based on patrimonial network, quality service delivery will be
lacking because most times, people will be assigned positions that are beyond
their individual capability.
(b) Job Description: This is the art of giving a detailed account of the task, which
a particular job demands. Somebody who is not physically fit cannot perform
effectively in security occupation. Though, such a person if he is very intelligent
and resourceful, security organizations may consider him as consultant. Job
Description involved providing brief explanation of what a job entails.
As you might have seen in some of the pages of a number of national dailies
(newspapers) or elsewhere, advertiser- organization- demanding some qualified
people to apply for some vacant positions in their organizations. Some of them
usually briefly explain the task(s) each position requires, the job location, whom
to report to among other variables are also captioned. The features of job
description include:
i. Job title: Job must be defined with a title for job-seekers to have an idea about
what the job entails;
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ii. Hierarchy: The employee will be answerable to a superior officer. As I have

mentioned earlier the DPOs report to the Area Commanders who in turn report to
the Commissioners of police etc;
iii. Job purpose and scope: The scope of the EFCC does not include making of
arrest of armed robbers or terrorists or homicide suspect but only to arrest and
prosecute the offenders of economic and financial crimes like money laundering,
stealing of public funds among others. The purpose of establishing the police is to
maintain law and order in the country. The purpose of creating the EFCC is to
provide institutional platform to limit or prevent the incidence of economic and
financial malpractices;
iv. Description of duties: Every employee has a role to play in the actualization of
the (ultimate) goals of the organization Considering security organization like
Police, there are many departments or units designed for the effective workability
of the institutions. In police, the personnel are given different tasks to perform;
some are in intelligence, some in transport and traffic management, some in
special anti robbery squad etc. These various segments have different job tasks. It
is pertinent to describe what each job task or duty entails for effective
performance; etc.
© Job Specification: This denotes mentioning of definite and complete

conditions attached to the job. These may include:
Bio Data
Academic Qualification;
Professional Qualification;
Years of Working Experience
Publications (where required)
Distinctions and Awards
Strengths and Weaknesses; etc.
Other stages of job-design include planning, executing and controlling.
Exercise
(i) Describe any two stages f job design
(ii) What are the features of job description?
(iii) What conditions are usually contained in job specification?
3.22 Staffing
This is another fundamental principle of personnel management. Who are the

individuals who should be considered for appointment into vacant security
positions? Can anybody apply irrespective of his sex, age educational
qualification, race, nationality etc, in as much that he/she is physically fit? I
believe, you will agree with me that not all security positions are open.
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Again, as a security organization, you may have a great number of modern

machines, tools and technologies available in the industry, but you cannot
accomplish the organizational goals without having the (right) personnel to utilize
such operational instrument in the actualization of the organizational goals. The
process of staffing is so essential because it has a great impact, with fundamental
elements which include recruitment and selection, interview, placement, transfer
and promotion.
3.221 Elements of Staffing
(a) The Recruitment and Selection: Here, we advertise the requisite conditions
which prospective employee must have before they can be considered for the
selection process (short listing). In every security organization, either public or
private, there are two basic levels of personnel: Senior (Officer) and junior (Men).
Apart from age, physical fitness, height and mental alertness; educational
qualification is a key condition that determines which level one can apply for. In
Nigeria, Short Service (Cadet) recruitment exercise in the Nigerian Army
demands that it is only people with tertiary qualification like the first degree and
(possibly) Higher National Diploma can compete for the vacant positions.
Attracting Candidates: The organizational culture has a very great impact on

recruitment process. This reason is that if the organization promotes patrimonial
ethos, there is tendency that the best candidates will not apply. But, if the system
promotes culture of merit not only in the recruitment of her personnel but also in
their promotion, there is possibility that several good candidates will be attracted
to such organization, and consequently, they will apply; and
Selecting candidates: The process of selecting candidates is very essential in

identifying those that are qualified for the job who are most likely to be short
listed for interview. In doing this, it is pertinent to distinguish between the
requisite conditions by identifying which of them are essential and those that are
considered desirable.
(b) Interview: It is a structured conversation designed to achieve a purpose. The

purpose ranges from (ordinary) information research job offer. But our attention
here is centered on selection interview for employment. Therefore, interview can
be described as a process of trading information between two parties in which one
(Interview (see) is seeker of job while the other (interviewer or interviewing
panel) is the giver of job. The giver of job may decide to offer or not to offer
while the seeker of job can also decide to accept if given or refused the offer
(Armstrong, 1981).
(c) Placement: In security organization, after reaching the stage of interview, the
shortlisted candidates apart from the oral and written interviews, may be asked to
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undergo a short physical test which is the main decider. After passing the
interview the successful candidates will undergo relevant training courses for a
specific period of time. For instance, in Nigeria Police, such training takes 18
months for cadet appointees while 6 months for the recruits. It is after the training
exercise that the newly employed personnel will be commissioned and placed in
various units. Some will go into intelligence unit, some to traffic control, some to
maritime surveillance units. Some will be posted to anti robbery squad, some to
bomb detection unit, some to foreign missions etc.
(d) Transfer: Security job requires development of skills and potentials, and so
getting new ideas is highly encouraged as this is one of the reasons why security
personnel are moved from one department to another. It helps in skill
accumulation and improved knowledge through eclectic acquisition of ideas from
one department to another.
Again, the nature of security occupation also allows for the personnel to be
transferred from one locality to the other. Another reason for transfer may be due
to promotion. If a security operative is promoted and there is no office vacant for
him/her to occupy and there is vacancy somewhere then the management may
decide to transfer him/her to where there’s vacant office, and
(e) Promotion: This is a good jounce of motivation in which security personnel

have opportunities to move upwardly one rank to the other. But there is demotion
punishment for erring or ineffective security personnel in which they’re subjected
to downward movement from their (current) position to another one (less).
Exercise
Briefly describe staffing and its basic elements.
3.23. Training and Staff Development.
Security occupation is a very challenging one. It requires training and retraining

of personnel due to the dynamics of security threat and crime control.
Mischievous people often adopt new techniques to perpetuate their criminal
activities and so it is also incumbent on security operatives to adopt new crime
control interventions in the maintenance of security in any given place. So what is
training?
According to Olise (2005: 112):
Training is the systematic development of the attitude and skill behaviour

pattern required by an individual in order to perform adequately a given
task….Training is designed to change the behaviour of the employee in
the work place in order to stimulate efficiency and higher performance
standards.
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Bearing in mind the foregoing, you may agree with me that training is a key
element of staff development. New security technologies are invented and
manufactured from time to time. So, security organization must make sure it
updates its operational hardware i.e. weapons, vehicles, and other technologies,
information systems and intelligence, and building capacity for personnel
development.
It is no surprising that in Nigeria, Police go about in warlike style brandishing AK

47 riffles as if the country is under siege. Modern police system is doing away
with the traditional methods of policing that placed higher pr iority combativeness
of the force. We are now in the era of constructive policing and massification of
security management through sophisticated investigation techniques, human–
capital development, effective espionage and strategic intelligence among others.
However, there are various methods through which security personnel have their
training and these include:
On the Job training: This form of training i.e. acquired simultaneously as the
security personnel carry – out their duties. For instance, it is not obligatory on the
police authorities to provide the officers and men of the organization magical
power (Juju) to combat the armed robbers. But some of the security operatives
have learnt the relevance of traditional prevention and control mechanisms due to
the ugly experience they’ve had in their encounter with armed robbed in Nigeria.
Some of the bandits use Juju that protects them against bullet penetration of their
bodies. So, several police personnel now patronize traditional witch – doctors, not
only to be equipped with spiritual devices that liquidate the spiritual power of the
bandits themselves against bullet penetration, but also to protect themselves
against bullet penetration. There is no doubt that we learn new skills and ideas
due to some challenges we experience on the job;
Off the Job Training: Sometimes, we learn new skills off our regular duties by
going to the training college. This kind of training allows the personnel to be
temporarily out of duty posts for training purpose (s). In Nigeria, virtually all the
security agencies have their own training schools or centres. This is with the aims
of giving the employees opportunities to widen their horizon and acquire new
security skill and ideas for effective performance and quality delivery of services
aimed at attaining the overall goals of the organization, and
External Training: This form of training totally takes place outside the
organizational environment of the security personnel. For instance in an attempt
to fortify the efficiency of its personnel, the Nigeria Army can decide to send
some of its staff to National open University of Nigeria for a short course in
criminology and security studies in order to equip its staff with emergent strategic
planning and information system. Other examples of external training may
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include (International) seminars, strategic management workshops, NGO

organized conferences and technical assistance among others.
Exercise
How do you describe training?
3.24 Performance Appraisal
This is another principle of personnel management and the term refers to a system
that helps to evaluate the past and present behaviour of employees with the use of
systematic and standardized form which can be used in future by employee and or
the employer. According to Olise (2005:138), performance appraisal:
…is the formal assessment of how employees are performing

their jobs in relation to established standards. The implicit logic
in performance appraisal is that in order to get people to do what
is right, management must tell the employees what to do, judge
how well they have done and reward or punish them accordingly.
In addition, performance appraisal can also be described as the systematic

assessment of job in relation to strengths and weaknesses of any employee or
group of employees (Akinboye, 1999). It also means a systematic process of
gathering, checking, sharing, giving and using of systematic and standardized
form for the purpose of evaluating performance of people at work aimed at
improving their work performance (Ramdel et al, 1974). There are several
methods of carrying out performance appraisal in security industry and elsewhere,
which we shall be discussing subsequently.
3.241 Methods of Performance Appraisal
(a) Graphic Rating Scale: This method of performance appraisal or evaluation

mainly focuses on particular behaviour or act of employee (s) as it concerns job
performance. Here, there s a rater, which shows the level at which any employee
exhibits each behaviour act, which will assist us to assess his or her performance
at work;
(b) Written Assessment: This is also regarded as essay method. It is a

performance appraisal method that involves the employee’s supervisor describing
his or her (employee’s) performance at work in writing not without considering
some fundamental variables like the overall appraisal of employee’s performance,
employee’s promotability, and employee’s strengths and weaknesses;
(c) Behaviour Rating Scale: This involves rating of a set of attributes in relation
to the behaviour or act of an employee. These attributes have great impact on
his/her performance at work, as they can contribute to or undermine his/her
efficiency. It is often administered by the employee’s supervisor;
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(d) Management by objectives (MBO): It is a performance appraisal method

which addresses the problem of subjectivity that characterizes most of the other
methods. This is done by focusing on identifiable job result as the basis for
performance evaluation. Therefore, the results are ranked against standards of
performance not without considering the inherent challenge or difficulty of the
job task;
(e) Check List Method: Here, the behaviour of the employee is rated by drawing
a long list of positive and negative adjectives, and see how they apply to him or
her. And all the variables are to be given equal importance;
(f) Multi Raters: This method involves evaluating the employee’s behaviour or
act through several sources like supervisors, subordinates, colleagues,
himself/herself etc. It is also known as the 360o appraisal.
Exercise
What is performance appraisal?
What are the methods of performance evaluation?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In the management of personnel in security sector and elsewhere, it is very

essential in attaining the overall goals of the organization. This is because the
quality of service delivery by the personnel has a great impact on productivity and
efficiency of the organization. That is why many organizations both in security
banking, insurance etc. that are doing well in meeting their organizational goals
have continued to pay greater attention on the affective management of their
personnel.
Thus, disarticulated personnel can only guarantee disarticulated productivity (low

yielding result), which makes it difficult for any organization to meet its target
goals. Of course, it is garbage in, garbage out (GIGO) situation if we pay lip
service to the issue of personnel management in security sector and elsewhere. I
believe that is why most of the security agencies in Nigeria are not doing well.
The patrimonial nature of the nation’s polity has also worsened the situation,
where appointment and promotion of security personnel are based more on how
many patrons one has in the corridor of power. Our discourse on security
personnel management cannot be exhausted n this unit. Therefore, we shall
continue in the next unit, to discuss some other principles of personnel
management.
5.0 SUMMARY
125
In this unit, we have been able to describe the term personnel management and its
various principles have also been identified. Due to limited time and space in this
unit, we’ve been unable to exhaust the available principles of personnel
management but we shall complete our discussion on it in the next unit. The ones
we have been able to explain so far include job design, staffing training and staff
development and performance appraisal. I really appreciate your attention.
Meanwhile, if you have any difficulty in understanding any part of this unit,
please feel free to consult your tutorial facilitator. Congrats for successful
completion of this unit. Best of studying!
Define the following terms personnel management, job design, staffing, training
and performance appraisal.
Akinboye, J.O. (1999), “Performance Appraisal”, Nigerian Journal of Applied

Psychology, Vol. 5, Nos. 1&2.
Armstrong, M. (1981), A Handbook of Personnel Management Practice, London:

Kogan Page.
(1982), Personnel Management: A Handbook for Employees and

Line Managers, London: Kegan Paul.
Barber, David (1970), The Practice of Personnel Management, London: Institute

of Personnel Management.
Olise, Fidelis (2005), Human Resource Management: Tradition, Transition and

Trend, 2nd Edition, Emmanuel Concept Ltd.
Ubeku, Abel K. (1984), Personnel Management in Nigeria: Principles and

Practice, Macmillan.
.webird.tcd.ie/bitstream/2262/5139/1/jssisiVolXXIIPartV_3677.pd
f). Retrieved on 30th January, 2008.
Unit 2
SECURITY PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT II
CONTENTS
126
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Compensation and Reward
3.2 Job Satisfaction
3.3 Leadership
3.4 Communication
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1. O INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we began our discourse on security personnel management

with the definition of the concept of personnel management. Thereafter, we
focused on a number of other issues particularly its key elements or principles
such as job design, training among others. The preceding unit has also afforded us
a great opportunity to identify the importance of the various principles of
personnel management particularly as they affect utilization and productivity in
organizations.
The long-list of the personnel management principles could not be exhausted in

the preceding unit and it would amount to a mischief if we close our discourse on
the subject matter without explaining some other principles which are equally if
not more important. It is against this background that n this unit, we shall continue
from where we stopped in the last unit. Therefore, we shall introduce and explain
other principles and see how they impact on the performance of security
personnel in relation to meeting organization goals.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Explain some other principles of personnel management
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Compensation and Reward
There is a consensus that the two concepts (compensation and reward) are
very strategic in the effective management of (security) personnel or employees.
Conceptually, according to Funk and Wagnall’s standards Dictionary,
compensation can be described as “the act of compensating – to make suitable
amends to or for; requite, remunerate”. To counterbalance or make up for;
127
offset….”, while reward may mean something given or done in return; especially,
a gift, prize, or recompense for merit, service, or achievement’.
Drawing our analytical minds to the foregoing, you may agree with me that if we
conduct a dissection on the two concept for conceptual anatomy (meaning), what
we will see are: to make for any damage suffered by any employee in dispensing
his/her official duties (compensation) and recognizing the good efforts and
contributions made by an employee to the development of the organization by
giving him an award or gift or promotion to encourage him/her to make more of
such noble contributions and admonish other employees to borrow a leaf from the
awardee’s success or elevation.
It is no gainsaying to stress at this juncture that the two concepts are very
important in promoting culture of hard work and diligence among the employees
in security sector. One may continue to wonder why our police personnel in
Nigeria are not performing like their counterparts in the United States and other
developed countries. Let’s begin our response to such a question by looking at the
issue of compensation.
In Nigeria if a policeman or officer dies in the course of carrying out his/her

national duties, very little or nothing is paid (as compensation) to the family of the
deceased, and most times, no government officials attend the funerals of deceased
security personnel that died on active duties. But in the United States, the
President or head of the state executive (or representative) will personally attend
the funeral of any public security operative who died in the course of national
assignment, and the family of the deceased will be promptly and adequately
compensated.
Considering the foregoing, you’ll then understand while American security

personnel are always eager to carry-out their official duties even in the face of
great danger, because they know that if they die in serving the nation, they would
be celebrated as national heroes and their families would be adequately
compensated. The children of the deceased security personnel have automatic
scholarships, free medical services and their late parents on the roll of honour.
But in Nigeria, contrary is the case. Even when compensation is to be paid for
permanent disability or death of any security personnel (both public and private),
the families of the affected employees and even expected to give bribe (monetary
or/and in kind). Some widows may even be asked to sleep with certain officers
before they can be ‘helped’ to get the paltry compensation.
The reward system in Nigeria of security personnel is ridiculous considering the

nature of security personnel in the developed world who receive more than 10
times of what their counterpart in Nigeria and Africa are earning. Yet, the level of
inflation particularly on basic needs such as food is far higher in Africa (including
Nigeria) than the developed world. What a double dilemma?! In Africa small pay
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is given to security personnel (and virtually all workers), and there is very high
cost of living. This situation is capable of inhibiting the progress of any nation or
organization especially as it relates to security management.
Nonetheless, people have begun to see corruption as the means to augment their
poultry wages (that are not promptly and regularly paid) to improve their marginal
survival. There is no doubt that a system like this will definitely popularize crime
and criminality both in public and private places, and the security personnel also
become criminalized. Let’s us quickly look at the elements of compensation and
reward.
3.11 Elements of Compensation and Rewards
(a) Salary: It is referred to as weekly or monthly or yearly payment made to

employee for the service rendered;
(b) Wage: This is hourly pay made to any employees for the work done;
(c) Incentives: These include rewards provided by organizations to encourage any

employees in form of profit sharing, bonus etc, in recognition of their
contributions towards the growth of the organization;
(d) Benefits: These are (additional) monetary privileges being enjoyed by

employees in form of allowances like meal subsidy, housing allowance, and
transport allowance among others. The main reason behind giving personnel these
benefits is to create a sense of comfort and job satisfaction for them, so that, their
performance at work can increase. The more your employees are motivated, the
more they will perform at work; and
(e) Insurance: This enables the employee to have a sense of security, which will
make him in the case of any eventuality like death or permanent disability to have
the hope that either him/herself or families will be taken care of.
Exercise
Briefly explain compensation and reward, as well as their basic elements.
3.2 Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction can be defined as correlation between what an employee desires

from his/her job and the extent at which the needs of the employee are met (Kahn,
1990). In job satisfaction discourse, five principle models come to our minds and
these include:
(a) Need fulfillment Model: Here, job satisfaction is a function of the degree at
which an employee is allowed by organizational behaviour, to meet his/her
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individual needs or desires. This explains why most of the security personnel
(both in public and private practice) have found it difficult to meet their individual
needs and suffer deepening dissatisfaction at work. One of the reasons is that
many of them found their ways into security occupation for lack of alternatives,
resulting from job drought and high unemployment. Anybody in that category of
people may not see his/her occupation satisfactory considering insufficient
motivation, hazards, public hostility paltry take home pay, inadequate operational
tools and machineries, etc;
(b) Discrepancies Model: This denotes that job satisfaction is a subject of Met
Expectations. Met Expectations can be described as the difference between
employee’s expectation from the organization (in terms of remuneration
emoluments and other incentives) and what he/she actually gets from the
organization;
(c) Equity Model: This means that employee gets job satisfaction based on how
much he/she is being treated fairly at work. No one like to work in a place where
he will be cheated or shot-changed by the employer (or management);
(d) Trait/Genetic Components Model: In this model, job satisfaction is derived by

an employee provided that the job conforms to his or her traits. For instance, a
kleptomaniac employee will always find satisfaction in his job, if the behaviour of
the organization provided him/her avenues to steal. That is the reason why you
see some people exhibit high desire, but the secret may be, the work conforms
with their traits; and
(e) Value Attainment Model: This explains job satisfaction in terms of how much
employees are allowed by the organization to meet their work values: personal
belief and principles. For example, an honest man will find it difficult to attain
any job satisfaction in an organization that institutionalizes act of corruption
(either overtly or covertly).
Exercise
Describe job satisfaction
3.3 Leadership
According to Robbins (2001), leadership can be defined as.
…..the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.
Leadership involves the process of directing the affairs of any organization,

coordinating and controlling the personnel towards working to realize the overall
goals of the organization. In personnel management the term, leadership has
attracted great debate particularly as it concerns what (best) method can be
130
adopted to identify who is a leader at a work place. According to Gibson et al

(1997), there are three dimensions of leadership, and include:
(a) Effective application of influence;
(b) Excellent interpersonal relations and ability to (re)mould the motivation and
(occupational) behaviour of other people in the same organization;
(c) Leadership involves intent for change; and
(d) The basis of leadership is attainment.
Exercise
Describe the term leadership
3.4 Communication
Communication can be defined as the “transmission of information and

understanding the use of common symbols” (Gibson et al, 1997). It is a process of
sending and receiving information as well as getting feedback. In personnel
management, the issue of communication is important. This is because the
management often allocates functions or duties to the (other) employees and this
process can only be enhanced through communication.
Thus, this involves the process of message encoding, which is passed to the
employees, and if the message is not carefully coded, decoding it may be a very
difficult task. The content of any message is the function of the sender’s thoughts
feeling and perceptions. It is important to note that encoding of message should
not be applied wrongly while decoding should also be rightly applied for the
message to have a meaning to the receiver. In security organizations,
communication should consist of certain elements which include:
(a) Presence of clear and formal channel of communication among the personnel in
the organization;
(b) Authentication of communication;
(c) The course of communication should be direct and short. The use of extremely
technical terms should be avoided as mush as possible; and
(d) Competent staff should man or be in charge of the organizations communication
facilities, with good knowledge of security codes and language etc.
Exercise
Describe communication.
131
Define the following terms: Compensation Reward, Job satisfaction, Leadership

and Communication.
Armstrong, M. (1981), A Handbook of Personnel Management Practice, London:

Kogan Page.
------------- (1982) Personnel management: A Handbook for Employees and Line

Managers. London: Kogan Page.
Funk and Wagnall Standard Dictionary International Edition (1962).
Gibson, I. et al (1997), Organization, Bahaviour, structures and processes,

McGraw Hill.
Kahn, W.A (1990) , “Psychological Condition for Personal Engagement and

Disengagement at Work”, Academy of Management Journal, 33.
Olise, Fidelis (2005), Human Resource management Tradition, Transition and

Trends, (2nd Edition) Emmanuel Concept Ltd.
Robbins S. (2001), Organizational Behaviour, New Delhi: Prentice Hall.
Ubeku, Abel K. (1984), Personnel Management in Nigeria: Principles and

Practice, Macmillan.
132
Unit 3
MANAGEMENT OF JOB STRESS AMONG SECURITY PERSONNEL
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Defining of Job Stress
3.2 Causes of Job Stress
3.3 Effective Management of Stress Among Security Personnel
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Every job, ranging from menial jobs, helping, academic and security profession
has its own hazards, or simply ‘stress’. The term job stress has become a global
phenomenon. In 1992, the United Nations submitted that job stress is “The 20th
Century Disease”. Not too long, the World Health Organization also argued that
job stress had become a worldwide Epidemic. Due to the negative effects that
stress may have on any employee, it is important that we discuss the subject in
this unit.
Stress often leads to physical and psychological discomforts in (security)

employees. These discomforts could be short or long term. The short-term
physical symptoms include tense muscles, rapid breathing and increased
sweating. The long term physical symptoms are fatigue, headaches, back pains,
133
digestive problems and sexual disorders. There are also short term effects on the
performance such as inability to make good decisions, damages to positive frame
of mind needed for high quality work and also consumption and diversion of
mental energy to frustration, anxiety and temper.
Stress also has effects on behaviour and these include bad moods, reduced
personal effectiveness, changing work habits and increased absenteeism. Such
experiences do harm employees’ health and ability to perform qualitatively and
quantitatively which even affect the optimal profitable productivity of the
organization and the nation in general.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

Define the term job stress;
Discuss the causes of job stress among security personnel; and
Explain ways to manage job stress among security personnel.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Defining Job Stress
The concept of job stress is often confused with challenges at work, but they are
different concepts. Challenge(s) energizes and propels individuals physically and
psychologically. It motivates us to learn and acquire new skills, and to be
competent in our various chosen jobs. Since we feel relaxed and satisfied after
overcoming challenges, it is thus an important ingredient for healthy and
productive work –life. these challenges could therefore be perceived as “good
stress” that is needed.
Job stress on the other hand, is that which poses significant threat to employee’s
health and consequently to the health of an organization. According to the
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, commonly termed NIOSH
(1999) defined job stress as the harmful physical and emotional responses that
occur when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources,
or needs of the employee.
Wendy Boswell held that in some cases, stress can be desirable to both an
organization and individua ls. In their stress models, Boswell et al., identified
stress as challenge-related or hindrance-related. The former is defined as work
demands, although potential gains for individual while the latter is defined as job
demands that tend to constrain or interfere with an individual’s work
achievement, and which do not tend to be associated with potential gains for the
individual. Examples are lack of job security and role ambiguity.
134
However, stress can be positive, some time galvanizing, energizing and propelling
one to reach optimum potentials. Some stress is therefore needed because it adds
flavour, opportunity and challenges to work-life so as to jeer up workers’ optimal
performance on their jobs.
Stress as a phenomenon has been defined by Cooper, Arnold and Robertson

(1995) as any force that pushes a psychological or physical factor beyond its
range of stability, producing a strain within the individual. It does constitute threat
to the equilibrium of the individual.
Caplan, Cobb, French, Van Harrison and Pinneau (1975) defined stress as any
characteristic of the job environment, which poses a threat to the individual.
Beehr and Newman (1978) extensively defined job stress as a condition wherein
job related factors interact with the worker to change (disrupt or enhance) his or
her psychological or and physiological conditions such that the person (mind and
or body) is forced to deviate from normal functioning. This definition buttressed
the fact that stress is not usually negative, thus there is positive stress termed
Eustress. Stress is not a distress; it only becomes one when the body can no longer
cope with the demands made on it. (Afolabi and Oviasuyi, 2001).
Hans Seyle(1956,1956) , defined stress as the stereo-typed response of the body to

exerting tasks such as changes, which occur when an individual has to cope with
any type of situation. His General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) describes the
three stages an individual encounters in stressful conditions.
1. Alarm Stage, in which the body respond when it becomes aware of stress or
threat. The individual’s resistance is lowered here;
2. Resistance Stage describes the phase where the individual’s defense

mechanism becomes active. There is maximum adaptation and,
hopefully successful return to equilibrium for the individual; and
3. Exhaustion Stage involves the collapse of adaptive mechanisms which results to

physical and psychological discomforts. Cummings and Cooper (1979) looked at
stress as resulting from a misfit between an individual and his or her environment.
This is why one person seems to flourish in a certain setting while another suffers.
Stimuli that serve as challenges for positive outcomes for Mr. A might represent
stressor to Mr. B. This also points to the fact that the coping abilities of
individuals vary, based on certain factors in similar situations. So Mr. A may
perform excellently under a certain job setting while Mr. B would not.
Exercise
135
What is job stress?
3.2 Causes of Job Stress
a) Poor working condition: This includes the physical surroundings, inadequate

operational equipments, among others. Poor mental health was directly related to
unpleasant working condition, the necessity to work fast and to expend a lot of
physical effort and inconvenient work schedule being experienced by many
security employees can lead to stress. In the course of performing their official
functions, security employees are sometimes exposed to environmental hazards
like inhaling poisonous gases. Arnold et al., (1995) maintained that the incessant
routine nature of these activities combined with poor working condition such as
being exposed too long to poisonous gases, excessive light rays, heat and noise
can lead to feelings of being trapped, and dehumanized.
(b) Shift work: This is the scheduling system of work, which impinges
excessive physical and psychological costs to the worker. Security business is one
that involves putting in place structures and personnel to work round the clock.
Thus, work shift is a regular phenomenon in the security sector. Shift work has
been found to affect blood temperature, metabolic rate, blood sugar levels,
mental efficiency and work motivation, not to mention sleep patterns, family and
social life, (Arnold et al., 1995) It should be noted that the difference between
working at night is not just that it is dark outside. The real difference is that there
are real impacts on employee’s performance, health, safety and quality of life
which if ignored could imperil employer and employee altogether.
(c) Long hours: Security job is a very difficult especially as it concerns work
schedule. Sometimes, as a security employee, your organization may send you on
special operations. These operations may take a lot of time. This can usually take
tolls on employees’ health. Breslow and Buell (1960) in their research study made
a link between long working hours and deaths due to coronary heart disease.
Apart from regular official assignments, several security employees still engage in
other commercial activities. This is because their salaries are not sufficient,
making them to look for some other businesses to complement their earnings from
security job. This situation can lead to stress. According to a research finding, no
less than 25% of young coronary patients had been working at two jobs, and an
additional 40 per cent worked for more than 60 hours a week (Russek and
Zohman, 1958). It has been generally acknowledged that working beyond 40
hours a week can lead to inefficiency.
(d) Risk and danger: Security employees that are constantly aware of potential
danger are usually prepared to react immediately. This makes them to be in a
constant state of arousal, which can result in higher stress levels. The resulting
adrenalin rush for flight, respiration changes and muscle tension are potential
threats to long term health of the workers. Though, individuals who face physical
dangers and are trained for such, experience less stress levels.
136
(e) New technology: The introduction of new technology into work setting has
required all workers to adapt to new equipment, systems and ways of working.
(Arnold et. al., 1995). Cooper (1984) found in his survey that in U.K., a high
percentage of managers said that keeping up with new technology was a great
source of pressure at work. Managers in developing countries felt pressure due to
the increasing emphasis on new technology, the need to deal with an adequately
trained workforce and the imposition of deadlines.
(f) Work overload: This occurs when an individual is faced with a set of
obligations, which when taken as a whole require him to do more than he is able
to in the time available. French and Caplan (1972) described work load in terms
of quantitative overload that refers to having too much work to do, as well as
qualitative overload that refers to work that is too difficult for an individual.
(g) Work under load: This refers to repetitive routine, boring and under
stimulating work and has been associated with ill health. Cox (1980) described
work under load as problem of not being sufficiently challenged by work.
(h) Role ambiguity: This exists when the job or role is poorly defined, there is
uncertainty about job expectations and where supervisory staff and their
subordinates have different expectations of an employee’s responsibilities. It is a
situation where, as Warshaw (1979) stated “the individual just does not know how
he or she fits into the organization and is unsure of any reward no matter how well
he or she may perform”. Stress indicators related to role ambiguity are depressed
moods, lowered self esteem, life and job dissatisfaction and low motivation to
work.
(i) Role conflict: This is a situation when an individual is torn by conflicting

role demands or by doing things he or she does not really want to do, or things,
which he or she does not believe are part of the job. Role conflict has undesirable
outcome for both the employee and the employer. The best documented outcomes
are job dissatisfaction and job related tension which have been isolated among a
variety of occupational groups (Beehr, Walsh and Taber, 1976; Arnold et.al.,
1995). Ivancevich and Matteson, (1980) found that role conflict can lead to
cardiovascular ill health risks.
(j) Responsibility: Cooper and Robertson (1995) categorized responsibility into

two: responsibility for people and for things like budget and equipment. The
former is found to be more stressful than the latter because of its nature,
particularly as it relates to the need to make unpleasant interpersonal decisions;
(k) Relationship with superiors: Buck (1972) focused on the relationship of

workers to an immediate boss and found that when a boss was perceived as
considerate’ there was friendship, mutual trust, respect and a certain warmth
137
between boss and subordinate. Workers who said that their boss was low on
consideration’ reported feeling of more job pressure.
(l) Relationship with subordinates: The manner of supervision of work of

subordinates by superiors could be a source of stress to him or her. Arnold et.al.
(195) suggested that the inability to delegate has been a common criticism leveled
against some superiors. Therefore today’s emphasis on the participation in the
work places can be a cause of resentment, anxiety, and stress for the superiors
involved.
(m) Relationship with colleagues or peers: The relationship among co-workers

can provide valuable support or cause high stress levels to the workers. French
and Caplan, (1972) found that strong social support, (good inter-relationship)
from co-workers eased job strain. This support also mitigates the effects of job
strain on cortisone levels, blood pressure, glucose levels, and the number of
cigarettes smoked.
(n) Career Development: Various issues can pose as a potential stressor or

stress factor throughout one’s work life. An impending re-organization and its
potential consequences such as job insecurity, fear of redundancy, obsolescence
or retirement, and numerous performance appraisals can cause pressure and strain.
Also, lack of opportunity for growth, advancement, or promotion, rapid changes

for which workers are unprepared for causes worry about future with the
employing organization and what will happen next to employees. Ivancevich and
Matteson (1980) suggested that individuals suffering from ‘career stress’ show
high job dissatisfaction, job mobility, burnout, poor work performance, less
effective interpersonal relationships at work and so on.
(o) Organizational Structure and Climate: Workers are found to usually

complain that they do not have a sense of belonging, lack adequate opportunities
to participate, feel their behaviour is unduly restricted, lack control over their
roles and are not included in office communications and consultations. Coch and
French (1948) reported that workers who were allowed more participation in
decision making produced more and had higher job satisfaction. Also, non
participation at work significantly predicted strain and job related stress, relating
to general poor health, escapist drinking, depression, low self esteem, absenteeism
and plans to leave work.
Employees who are unable to exert control over their lives at work are more likely
to experience more work stress and therefore more likely to have impaired health
(Sutton and Kahn, 1984; Saunter et.al, Al., 1989). Many studies had found that
heavy job demand, and low control, or decreased decision latitude lead to job
dissatisfaction, mental strain and cardiovascular diseases.
Exercise
138
Discuss the factors that can trigger stress among security personnel.
3.3 Effective Management of Stress Among Security Personnel
(a) Stress reduction: This aims at decreasing or minimizing the amount of

stress a person experiences. The first strategy is to avoid stressful events, if it is
not possible, then thorough planning and preparation should be made against
such. Perpetual blockage to negative aspect of one’s job and selective perception
of the positive aspect can help to reduce harmful effect of job stress.
Time management skills can also help workers to manage the multiple demands
that are often placed upon them in both work and non- work settings. This
includes reducing the number and length of meetings, reducing interruption when
working and limiting the length of telephone calls.
Avoidance of role over load by being assertive, to be able to say no to excessive

obligations. Decentralization of decision making by a manager is a good way to
reduce stress, (Cohen and Wills, 1985). Social support in terms of emotional,
appraisal, informational and instrumental supports from supervisors, co-workers,
family members and professional organizations can help in reducing stress
especially in cohesive groups faced with demanding task;
(b) Stress Resilience: This strategy helps employee to develop physical and
psychological stamina against potentially harmful stressors, and the most widely
recommended strategy include physical exercise, proper diet, and weight control,
(Champoux,1996). Physical exercises help in conditioning the body to be able to
face potential stressors with confidence. Stress resilience comes from the heart
and the lung conditioning, decreased blood pressure, and decreased serum
cholesterol. A balanced diet low in sodium and saturated fats help keep blood
pressure and serum cholesterols within acceptable bounds (Quick and Quick,
1984);
(c) Stress Recuperation: This helps people rejuvenate physically and

psychologically after exposure to severe distress. This strategy includes vigorous
exercises and positive thinking (Champoux, 1996). Physical and mental relaxation
is a natural process including decreased respiration, heart and metabolic rates. The
individual must be in a comfortable position in a quiet environment to elicit the
response desired. Meditation generally known as focused awareness in healthy
ways leads also to profound relaxation and rejuvenation from distress.
The most recent method of managing stress is the use of Heart or Emotional
Intelligence. Heart lock – in his or her homeostasis deliberately and consciously
so as to normalize the heartbeat and reduce distress. Another method of heart
intelligence is with the use of a technological tool called freeze–framer. This tool
helps individual to intervene by consciously disengaging from negative feelings
139
or emotional reactions caused by stress and try to reverse or convert to positive

feelings and mood (Akinboye, 2002).
Other forms of stress management for the individual include rest, vacations, being
with people that will make him or her happy. Psychotherapy, medical therapy and
Counseling are forms of stress recuperation;
(d) Stress Management: This involves programs that can teach each security
employees or other workers about the nature and sources of stress, the effects of
stress on health, and personal skills to reduce stress. The strategies may include
time management and relaxation exercises. Stress management training may
rapidly reduce stress symptoms such as anxiety and sleep disturbances; it is also
inexpensive and easy to apply. This training programs can also focus on job–
related training that improves a person’s ability to do a job;
(e) Jobs should be designed to provide meaning, stimulation, and

opportunities for workers to use their skills;
(f) Worker’s roles and responsibilities should be clearly defined;
(g) Workers must be given opportunities to participate in decisions and

actions affecting their jobs;
(h) Communication should be improved so as to reduce uncertainties about career

development and future employment prospects;
(i) Opportunities for social interaction among workers should be provided;
(j) Work schedules that are compatible with demands and responsibilities
outside the job should be established;
(k) Organizations should also design their selection and placement procedures
to improve person – job fit by identifying skill requirements and skill availability
among employees (Champoux, 1996); and
(l) Other elements of a healthy organization include, open communications,

employee involvement, health enhancing work environments, community
responsibility and institutional fairness. Security organizations can help their
employees resist the effects of stress by providing on–site space for physical
exercises and on–site massage therapists. It is quite unfortunate that most security
organizations, after recruiting their personnel, don’t regularly engage them in
physical exercise. Apart from the relevance of such physical exercise in security
job, physical exercise can also be therapeutic, an effective stress killer.
Exercise
Explain ways through which stress can be managed among security employees.
140
4.0 CONCLUSION
Due to the fact that job stress is estimated to cost billions of dollars or naira
annually as assessed by absenteeism, diminished productivity, employee turnover,
and consequently legal fees and insurance premiums, it is important for employers
to implement programs that promote low stress atmosphere so as to enhance good
job performance in the workplace. As a general rule, actions to reduce job stress
should be given top priority by the management of any security organization.
Considering the challenges of security occupation, it is essential that the

workforce be taught how to manage these work–related stressors and even the
non–work stressors in a manner that will enhance their efficiency, productivity,
and overall happiness.
5, 0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we began our discussion by looking at some of the available

definitions of job or occupational stress. Thereafter, we focused on various factors
that can trigger stress among security personnel. After identifying the causes of
job stress, we explained various ways or methods through which we can manage
stress. I hope that you have found this unit stimulating and thought-provoking?
Thank you.
i. Define the term occupational stress; and

ii. Briefly discuss any for ways to manage job stress among security employees.
Afolabi, A. O. and Oviasuyi, P. O. (2001), “Stress among Women Executives:

Causes, Reactions, and Management”, The Journal of Advanced Studies in
Educational Management. Vol. 1.
Akinboye, J. O. (2002), Success Without Stress. A Paper presented at the

Department of Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan on February 6th.
Beehr, T. A., (1976), “Perceived Situational Moderators of the relationship

between subjective role ambiguity and role strain”, Journal of Applied
Psychology. 61.
141
Beehr, T. A., Walsh J. T. and Taber T. D. (1976), “Relationship of Stress to

Individually and Organizationally valued status: Higher order needs as a
moderator”, Journal of Applied Psychology. 61, 468-472.
Blau, G. (1981), An Empirical Investigation of Job Stress, Social Support, Service

length and Job Strain: Organizational and Human Performance”, A Journal of
fundamental Research and Theory in Applied Psychology. 27, 279-302.
Caplan, R. D. C. (1983), “Person–Environment Fit; Past, Present and Future, in

Cooper G. L. (ed.), Stress Research, John Wiley and Sons.
Caplan, R. D. and Jones, K. W. (1975), “Effect of work load, role ambiguity and
Type A Personality in anxiety, depression, and heart rate”, Journal of Applied
Psychology 60.
Champoux, J. E. (1996), Organizational Behaviour. Integrating Individuals,

Groups and Processes, New York: West Publishing Company.
Cohen, S. and Wills T. A. (1985), “Stress, Social Support and the Buffering
Hypothesis”, Psychological Bulletin. 98.
French, J. R. P. and Caplan, R. D. (1972), Organizational Stress and Individual

Strain: The Failure of Success. New York.
Indik, A. P., Seashere O. T. et. al. (1964), “Occupational Stress, its Causes and
Consequences for Job Performance”, Journal of Applied Psychology. 71.
Jackson, S. E. (1983), “Participation in Decision making as a Strategy for

reducing Job Related Strain”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 68.
National Institute of Occupational Stress and Health, (2001), Job Stress, See
.cdc.go v/niosh/jobstress.ht ml .
Seyle, H. (1956), The Stress of Life, New York: Mc Graw Hill.
Sauter, S. L., Hurrell J. Jnr., and Cooper, C. L. (eds.) (1989), Job Control and
Worker’s Health, New York: Wiley.
Sauter, S. L., Murphy L. R., and Hurrell J. Jnr., (1990), “Prevention of Work
related Psychological Disorders”, American Psychologist, 45 (10).
Scheier, M. F. (1986), “Coping with Stress: Divergent Strategies of Optimists and

Pessimists”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51 (6).
142
Unit 4
TRAUMA MANAGEMENT IN SECURITY CAREER: REBT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 3.1 Trauma and Security Personnel
3.3 Emotional Effects of Trauma
3.4 Management of Trauma in Security Career: REBT
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Security profession attracts a lot of hazards. May be, that is the reason why
several families don’t usually support any members of their households to take
security appointment especially the police. Sometimes, in an attempt by one to
carry out his/her functions efficiently, as a security officer, he/she may be at
143
greater risk. This is resulting from the character of our society where one can be
persecuted for no just cause but because the person is doing his/her job well.
The mischief makers within the organization may look (or pray) for the fall of
such diligent officer. The criminals in the society who are bedeviled or prevented
by such diligent security officer(s) to continue their unlawful acts will also devise
methods to get back at or punish such good officer(s). Therefore, we will not be
wrong to say that experience of trauma can come from within and outside one’s
security organization.
Considering the challenges being faced in security career, and the susceptibility of
security personnel to traumatic experience, you may agree with me that our study
on Principles of Security Practice and Management cannot be complete without
looking on at least one of the ways we can manage trauma in security sector. In
performing this task, the writer will adapt one of his previous works on the
subject. Thank you as you pay great attention.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Describe the relationship between trauma and security personnel;

List various causes of trauma;
Explain emotional effects of trauma; and
Discuss the management of trauma in security career with the application REBT.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Trauma and Security Personnel
The writer could remember the time he was seeking for employment in Nigeria
Police as Cadet Assistant Superintendent of Police, and a great number of his
family members as well as friends were against his decision to seek for
appointment in the police. Their fear was not basically about the hazards in
security occupation per se but reputation problem that bedevils police as a
secur ity institution in Nigeria
Nevertheless, the reputation crisis being suffered by Nigeria Police due to the
activities of bad eggs in that (important) institution has actually made police job
much more hazardous. A quite number of police personnel, in the course of
protecting people’s lives and property, have either been injured or killed by
criminals.
144
Sadly, the society often feels no sympathy for the affected officers and men or
their families. The reason may be the evils, which society has also suffered in the
hands of Police, especially during the dark days of military regimes when it (the
police) was used to do all sorts of dirty job for the military tyrants. The activities
of the bad eggs in the police have also worsened the matter.
A situation like the foregoing can lead to trauma among security personnel
working in an institution that experience public resentment like Nigeria Police.
Thus, traumatic experience usually accentuates psychological disorder and shocks
with attendant mental problems or irrational feelings among the victims.
Security personnel encounter varying degrees of traumatic disorder after the

experience some of the hazards that plague the security career. The basic
functions of security personnel may include protection of life and property of the
client(s), combating acts and agents of criminality, respond rapidly to emergency
situation(s), among others. Responding to human and non-human security threats
by security personnel, they face a quite a number of risks including death.
However, those of them that are not lucky to survive the hazards test (those
harmed) may begin to experience a number of traumatic symptoms. And the
intensity and duration of the disorder also determine the level of their traumatic
attitude. Stress reactions will definitely surface ranging from general feelings of
confusion and fear to more specific symptoms of sadness, guilt, anger, depression,
anxiety and social withdrawal. In a situation where the traumatic experience
becomes very severe, symptoms can group together to form a condition known as
Acute Stress Disorder (ASD). If such symptoms are still being experienced within
the first four weeks, then there is Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) These
conditions require professional assistance and treatment.
Several factors can lead to trauma in security occupation. The death of a beloved
one(s) can lead to trauma especially if the death of such person(s) has a link with
the job of the security officer. A good example was the case of a police officer
working in the Special Anti-Robbery Squad in one of the Area Commands in
Lagos. The man was very brave and he had led his team to make a number of
arrests of armed robbery suspects in the state.
The officer’s diligence and commitment to his duties later made him the most
wanted man on the list(s) of several criminal gangs within and outside his area of
operation. Several attempts were made to get him assassinated but all failed. The
man never allowed threats to his life by some hoodlums deter him from doing his
job.
When it was clear to the hoodlums that the officer was a hard nut very difficult to
crack, the attention of some of the hoodlums shifted towards his family. Sadly, the
wife and children of the poor officer were massacred by the criminals. There is no
145
doubt that a situation like this can lead one to a great trauma. What can be more
traumatic than losing one’s entire family overnight just because one is doing
his/her job.
Economic and socio-political factors can also play a great role in manufacturing
or producing stress and traumatic disorder among security personnel. It is quite
unfortunate, owing to the risks that underlie security profession, security
personnel both in public and private sectors are extremely underpaid compared to
their counterparts in developed countries. Getting far less than the task one is
performing as a security employee in economic terms, can create a sense of
frustration that may quite lead to trauma.
The incidence of set-up is not alien to security profession. Setting-up a person can
come in different ways including creating artificial secur ity loopholes, hiring of
(external) individual(s) or group(s) of individuals to lie or give false witness
against a person, being trapped with money, among others. Set-up may come
from one’s subordinates, colleagues, superiors in the same security organization
or external forces. the external forces may include friend(s), clients, mischief
makers where one is posted to work, former lovers who feel jilted, etc.
If a person is set-up, and he/she is being told to face a disciplinary panel, one
thing that is sure is that the person will feel sad about the allegation leveled
against him/her. The possibility that such person will be let-off the hook is a
subject of chance. He/she may be lucky to be exonerated, and it is also possible
that sentence of guilt may be passed on him/ her.
In security sector and elsewhere, in the course of trial or investigation of such

person alleged of wrongdoing may also be incarcerated. A situation like this can
lead the victim of set-up to trauma. That is why every security employee must be
vigilante. There are several other causes of trauma, which we shall be
highlighting in the next segment of this unit.
Exercise
Describe traumatic disorder in security profession.
War/torture
Animal Bites and attacks
Assaults
Earthquakes
Falls
Fire
146
Motor vehicle accidents

Storms or floods Suicide
attempt Train/bus/plane
accidents Unemployment
Barrenness
Loss of job
Unfavourable political atmosphere
Socio-economic marginalization
Divorce and Marital Crisis
Death of a loved one(s)
Injustice
Sexual abuse
Examination failure
Business failure
Slavery
Job stress and job dissatisfaction
Shyness
Endemic poverty
Exercise
List any ten causes of trauma.
3.3 Emotional Effects of Trauma
Shock
- Victim is likely to be doubtful of the reality of the activating event like rape,
injury etc that propelled the traumatic experience.
- Victim will feel bewildered and bemused.
- Victim may suffer less sensation coupled with a sense of emptiness.
Fear
- Victim feels that such crime can still be perpetrated against him/her again -
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- Victim suffers persistent fear.
- Victim may seem to lose control.
- Victim may go mentally imbalanced, if adequate measures are not taken.
- When the situation is not checked, the victim may become mentally ill.
Anger
- Victim shows hatred towards the offender.
- Victim is displeased with the injustice and harm perpetrated against him/her.
- Victim demonstrates huge frustration that generates further resentment.
Sadness
- Victim feels dejected as he/she is full of pains agonies about the crime or
offence.
- Victim losses faith in the immediate environment where the harm was
perpetuated.
- Victim always feel grievous about the past crimes and losses.
- Crying will definitely rent the air where trauma-induced harm or crime is
carried-out.
Shame
- Victim undergoes some emotional stress, feeling depressed and appears

powerless.
- Victim shows a strange behaviour and feels alienated and uncomfortable.
- Victim seems to be an object of irrational beliefs and attitudes.
Need
- Victim needs support, assistance and couselling as well as encouragement.
- Victim always desires for public appreciation of their traumatic experience and
acknowledgment of the crime by the offender.
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- Victim hates loneliness and such loneliness will further aggravate their
conditions.
Guilt
- Patient may have a feeling of being responsible for the trauma by refusing to
do the right things at the right time, which may be the factor responsible for the
ills that he/she and/or other persons suffer. An example of this is a trigger happy
security employee who deliberately or accidentally killed an innocent civilian.
The security team rather telling the truth can decide to cover-up to save their
erring colleague from punishment. It is possible that such erring security
employee or any other member(s) of his team that had the knowledge of the ugly
incident will start having bad dreams and nightmares about the dead.
Exercise
Explain the emotional effects of trauma.
3.4 Management of Trauma in Security Career: REBT
Traumatic events like rape, murder, natural disaster, war-making and participation
in armed hostility, losing beloved one(s), false accusations etc are capable of
having some adverse effects on person(s). In ensuring the wellbeing of security
personnel, it is important to put in place viable framework through which any
experience of trauma by any of them can be managed.
It is worth-knowing that trauma management does not only involve counseling

intervention but also includes medical suppo rt. But in this study we shall be
focusing on a particular counseling method, which is considered very effective for
the management of trauma. The Counselling method is known as Rational
Emotive Behaviour Therapy.
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT)
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy is a humanistic perspective of

psychotherapy, which sees man as being responsible for any emotional or
psychological problem that disturbs him. It argues that not the event itself that
propels the emotional turbulence being experienced by man but his/her thinking
imperatives or thought- choice that actually triggers such traumatic experience.
This psychotherapy was developed by Albert Ellis who was born into a Jewish
family in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1913. His (Ellis’) development of REBT
was influenced by Stoic mythology. In Ancient Greece, the Stoics were of the
belief that our actions are not basically the product of the event we faced or
passed through but our interpretation or perception of what we experienced.
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The postulator of this radical psychotherapeutic approach recounted his

experience as a university undergraduate. He was a very shy person and always
afraid of approaching women. He eventually addressed that problem, by
(uncomfortably) mandating himself to approach women. He recounted how he
approached and talked with over hundred unfamiliar ladies at the Bronx Botanical
Garden, and out of them, he only succeeded to have a lady agreeing on a date with
him, but the lady never showed up.
REBT Assumptions on the Nature of Man
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy assumes that human being has capacities for
both rational or straight thinking and irrational or tricky thinking. Human being is
naturally endowed also with self preservation, happiness, thinking and
verbalizing, loving, sharing, growth and self actualization. The human being in
his/her freedom of will also possesses the powers to engage himself/herself in
negative actions-self destruction, avoidance of thought, procrastination, self-
blame and avoidance of fulfilling growth imperatives. So, let us now state the
basic assumptions of REBT one by one, to stimulate our better understanding of
the subject matter.
(a) Man causes himself/herself to undergo any traumatic experience he/she may
be through, rather than influence from external source (s);
(b) Man possesses the biological and cultural capabilities that allow him/her to
choose his/her course of actions and thought-direction (choice of doing right or
wrong);
(c) Man is capable of creating unnecessary beliefs that can subject him/her to
emotional disturbance;
(d) One unique quality of man is that he/she is capable of determining the course
of his/her cognitive, emotional and behavioural processes anytime, anywhere and
in whatever circumstances. Man can decide to be less anxious or disturbed about
events around him/her, if he/she has a strong desire to do so;
(e) Man is also self-talking, self-evaluating and self-sustaining. They often react
to their desires- they sometimes behave funny; and
(f) Man, by nature always aspires for success (growth) and actualization of
his/her dreams.
Again, according to REBT, man may adopt negative strategies in fulfilling his/her
ambitions (aspiration(s) while putting into play his/her crooked artistry to
outsmart any fellow man, if he/she perceives any stumbling block in (the)
realization of his/her ambition or in meeting his needs. REBT is a very good
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healing and anger management technique. REBT affirms that the feelings and
thought should be main points of focus by any therapist. See. Figure 2.1.
FIG. 2.1
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy Intervention
A B C
Counselling Intervention
D
Emotional Change
F
Healing
E
A – Activating Event.
B -- Belief / Irrational thoughts.
C - Consequences / Emotional disturbances.
D - Disputing (detecting, debating and discriminating)
E - Effective Philosophy.
F - A new set of feelings.
The activating event can be unemployment, loss of job, divorce, false allegation,
poor working condition(s), sexual assault, electric shock, dejection, conflict, non-
promotion, demotion, exam failure, loss of beloved one(s) and/or colleagues,
among others. This activating event has great impact on the affected person or
victim of such circumstance(s).
The rational or irrational ideas or thought(s) of the affected person determines the
emotional consequences which the affected person will face. For instance, the
security personnel who get injured in the course of engaging some criminals in
shoot-outs, and the injuries sustained lead them to permanent disability. Such
security employees will find it difficult to live a happy life again. There is the
likelihood that such people will experience more traumas in societies like Nigeria
where security employers (i.e. government) give less attention to the wellbeing of
their staff.
REBT makes us to understand that it is not the event itself that causes emotional
disturbances or trauma but rather, it is our irrational thought. Therapist is however
expected to adopt some scientific strategies to assist the client to overcome the
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challenges faced by the client resulting from his/her irrational beliefs. Thus, the
therapist will intend to achieve through:
(a) detecting: Here, the client is guided on how to detect his/her irrational beliefs;
(b) debating: After the therapist’s guidance and support for the client to detect
his/her irrational beliefs, the client should be allowed to debate his/her
dysfunctional beliefs by subjecting them to logical and empirical inquiry and
through this he/she (client) can free himself/herself from the crutches of irrational
thoughts and beliefs ; and
(c) discriminating: Here, the client must have learnt how to discriminate irrational
beliefs as he/she separates irrational beliefs from the rational ones.
After the disputing process (es), the client is expected to arrive at E where he/she
appropriates an effective and rational philosophy, which denounces irrational
beliefs. Through this, the client will arrive at F where he/she develops a new set
of feelings which produce healing, happiness, love, joy and self–satisfaction.
Therapeutic Strategies
The Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapists adopt a variety of cognitive, affective

and behavioural techniques, which conform to the needs of individual client.
These REBT strategies can be applied to various common clinical problems like
depression, anger, psychological stress, anxiety, among others. We are going to
discuss some of these REBT strategies:
(a) Disputing
The therapist assists the clients stem down the negative influence of their
thoughts, making them to know that their emotional problems are not hinged on
the activating events but rather on their irrational belief and dysfunctional
thoughts.
(b) Language Orientation

Rational Emotive Behaviour therapist helps the client to do away with foul
language, knowing fully well that language affects thinking as thinking affects
language. Client learns the grand rules of language orientation – a shift from
absolutistic preferences to non-absolutistic imperatives.
(c) Humour
Client is led by the therapist on the need to deviate from taking things too
seriously. Here, humour is employed as a counter–trauma measure, which helps
the client in the development of new philosophy of life and discourages any
tendency that enhances over-flogging of issues, which may lead to emotional
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disturbances. The therapist should bring the traumatized person and other victims
of trauma together, and encourage them to sing humorously and trivialize their
ugly experience(s ).Through humour victims of trauma become less serious, their
experience will become less painful, and their anxiety and depression will become
less visible. This approach is quite viable in giving succor and more fulfilled life
to any security employee experiencing trauma due to its healing quality.
(d) Rational Emotive Imagery

This involves an intense mental exercise aimed at creating new emotional
patterns. Therapist assists a client to imagine how he/she will think, feel and
behave if he/she finds himself/herself, in a particular circumstance. Through this
process, client is taught and equipped on how to face challenges he/she may
encounter resulting from a traumatic experience. Thus, this process will train
clients how to easily switch from irrational perceptions to rational beliefs as an
antidote to trauma.
(e) Role Playing

Here, the therapist performs an emotional and behavioural operation on the client
by interrupting the emotion session to find out if the client is responding to the
mental exercise to always work against any irrational thoughts and traumatic
feelings.
(f) Shame – Attacking Therapy

Through professional support of the therapist, clients develop the psychological
energies and zeal to combat shame in their thinking, feelings and behaviour.
Shame makes one who is undergoing a traumatic experience to feel more
depressed, more emotionally disturbed as irrational thought will likely be more
prominent in his/her actions, which may even lead to death. The art of combating
shame is very essential in the management of trauma and healing of victim.
Exercise
Explain the importance of REBT in the management of trauma.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Trauma is a regular feature in security and non-security sectors. Certain human

experience can also cause emotional problems, which can lead to trauma. The
incidence of traumatic disorder is usually on the increase in economically tensed
societies like Africa where poverty has become the second nature of man.
Necessary peacebuilding and crime prevention measures must be put in place to
reduce the incidence of trauma among the security personnel and other people.
The measures may include poverty alleviation or elimination programmes,
improved standard of living, skill development training, responsive leadership
strategy, community development, infrastructural development, creation of
incentives for direct foreign investment among others.
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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have described relationship between trauma and security

occupation drawing our case studies from Nigeria We also highlighted several
causes of trauma, even beyond that pertaining to security sector. We went further
to explain the emotional effects of trauma. The last area of discourse was the
management of trauma in persons working in security sector using REBT. I hope
you have found this unit interesting and interactive? Thank you for your attention.

i. What is trauma?
ii. What is Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy?
iii. List the therapeutic strategies to the management of trauma.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Ellis, Albert (1975), A Guide to Rational Living, Wilshire Book Company.
Ellis, Albert et al (2002a), Case Studies In Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

With Children and Adolescents, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall
Ellis, Albert (2002b), Overcoming Resistance: A Rational Emotive Behavior

Therapy Integrated Approach, (2nd edition). New York: Springer Publishing,
Ellis, Albert (2004), T.he Road to Tolerance: The Philosophy of Rational Emotive
Behavior Therapy, Prometheus Books.
.health.vic.gov.au/trauma/review99/1c1.htm
.traumamanagement.org/
Unit 5
PUBLIC RELATIONS MANAGEMENT IN SECURITY SECTOR
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Defining Public Relations
3.2 Relationship between Security Sector and Public Relations
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3.3 Approaches to Public Relations Management in Security Sector

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The growing attention being given to public relations in recent time in the security
sector can be said to be a response to the reshaping of the security community.
The widening space created by traditional security system posed several
challenges and incapacitations to major players in this important sector. One of
the problems was the deepening crisis that existed between the security
community and the public.
Security community in this context refers to public security institutions. The

lackadaisical and lukewarm attitude of the security community towards cross-
cultural exchange of expressions and opinions with the public was instrumental to
the communication gap that exists between the two. The “colonial epoch” fatality
which characterized the setting up of the public security sector by colonizers has
imbued a sub-culture of distrust and antagonistic polarity between the (public)
security community and the public.
The reason for this resentment is not far fetched. The colonizers created the
public security community to their interests only, and security personnel many of
whom were local people, were used to suppress the local public. The culture of
security management was basically to protect the interests of the colonial
authorities, which has since become the grand norm of security sector in post-
colonial Africa. The security continued to do the dirty job, they were
commissioned to do under the colonizers, for their new masters in post-colonial
Africa.
The antecedents of the security sector have created enmity between her and the
public. Since the end of the cold war, the security sector in developing countries
having been facing enormous challenges due to the dimension crime has taken.
The traditional coercion and deterrence techniques have failed to contain the
growing crime rate, insurgency, terrorism among other forms of violence being
perpetuated by individuals or group(s).
In an attempt(s) to address security threats that ravage most countries in the

world, each country now appreciates the need to explore non-traditional measures
in the management of its internal security. One of such measures is public
relations management, which forms the basis of this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
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Define public relation;
Explain the relationship between security sector and public relations;
Discuss various approaches to public relations management in security sector.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Defining Public Relations
Public relations has been an age long concept. In traditional African societies, the
monarchs usually, according to the customs of the land(s), constituted council of
chiefs. The chiefs were assigned different functions but it was incumbent upon all
of them to project the good name of their communities as well as launder the
image of the monarchs. They performed this utmost task through the use of
several channels.
However, one of the ways was through the open-door policy they advanced. Such
attitude made the public (or villagers) form good impression about the
(traditional) leadership as not only being accessible but also accommodating.
Being accommodating in this context does not mean that the leadership would
always consider the views of their subjects but allowing them to freely express
their (followers) minds sometimes creates healing.
In modern time, the term public relations was made popular by Thomas Jefferson,
a former U.S. President when he was addressing the congress in 1807. But his
meaning of public relations centered more on policy than as a communication
process (see Stuart, 2007). Edward Bernays was one of the early scholars in the
field of public relations, and according to him, public relations can be described
as:
--------a management function which tabulates, defines the policies,
procedures and interest of an organization followed by executing a
program of action to earn public understanding and acceptance (quoted on
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_relations).
Public relations can also be defined as:
…..a set of management, supervisory, and technical functions that foster an

organization’s ability to strategically listen to, appreciate, and respond to those
persons whose mutually beneficial relationships with the organization are
necessary if it is to achieve its missions and values (Health, quoted on
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_relations).
3.2 Relationship Between Security Sector and Public Relations
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The purpose of security is to safeguard the state or client’s safety against any
internal and external threats. The metamorphosis of modern security community
cannot be complete, if the relationship between her and the public remains hostile.
The history of police and the military in Africa has not been pleasant.
Law enforcement agents are often seen in several quarters as anti-people due to
their subservient posture, always allowing themselves to be used by the ruling
elites to suppress the public they are meant to protect. The situation has remained
the same from the colonial era till the present.
Security agencies in developing countries have continued the dirty job for the
ruling class to continue to perpetuate themselves in office. In the case of
Zimbabwe, it’s unethical and barbaric the way the police and the military deal
with the opposition groups and their leaders. The way they conduct themselves do
not only show that they are anti-people but also partisan. The repressive attitude
of the law enforcement agents towards the public is absurd and contradictory
(harming people you are paid by the state to protect).
The foregoing attribute of law enforcement agencies in Africa and elsewhere has
created a structural hatred between the security community and public. The
identity crisis that also dominates their relationship has also worsened the matter.
The “We” and “they” dichotomy, element of the identity crisis, also explains why
there is huge communication gap between the two.
Even, within the security sector in Nigeria, there is the same dichotomy problem
between the military and police, which has led to cases of blood letting and
differentiation where the former sees the latter as civilian. To add salt on injury,
the police appears to be the most despised, of all the law enforcement agencies, by
the public in Nigeria.
Every security agency has some overall goals that it wants to attain. To meet
these goals, the security agency will need to create a friendly impression in the
minds of the people or clients. This is the reason why various corporate
organizations have a special unit for public relations.
Public relations will not only assist the security sector to build a friendly profile
but will also enable her to meet its overall (organizational) goals. If the basis of
security sector is to provide safety and security of lives and property, it therefore
needs the support of the public in accomplishing this aim. A good example is a
society where the security sector is criminalized, and to combat crime effectively,
there must be adequate provision of (vital) information to the security community.
Nevertheless, the larger amount of information needed for securitization comes

from the public. This is because criminals are not spirits, and the public can
identify them. The security sector will definitely need the support of the public
particularly at it relates to provision of useful information considering the fact that
the security sector cannot know the hideouts of all criminals but the public knows.
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Here, you may agree with me that it’s quite imperative for the security sector to
ensure a harmonious communication relation between her and the public. It is not
surprising that in most places where the guerilla insurgents usually record success,
there is severed relation between the government and the people. In society
where public perception about the security sector is unfriendly, there is the
tendency that the public will cooperate with elements who are working toward
subverting the public order rather giving support to the security sector, which they
consider working (basically) for the interest of the rulers.
Therefore, it is essential that security organizations, both public and private to

setup machineries, which can help them to project a good image for their
organizations as well as creating cordial impression in the minds of the public
about their organizations. Apart from security organization, any other
organization, be it bank, Non Governmental Organization (NGO), media outfit
etc, there is need to put in place effective public relations plan ‘to communicate a
message that coincides with organizational goals and seeks to benefit mutual
interests whenever possible’ (see .enwikipedia.org/wiki/pu blic relations).
Any security organization that has bad reputation among the people should make
adequate efforts to change such impression, which portrays the organization as a
bad one. Public relations activity should be brought into play to change the
mindset of the people about such security organization, showing the public that
there is a good side of the organization, which the public is yet to know.
Through strategic public relations management, people will be made gradually to

change their enemy posture towards the (security) organization to a positive one
that engenders mutual confidence and cooperation between the security
organization and the public.
Moreover, the battered and negative image of the police in Nigeria has begun
improving for the better due to various public relations activities and programme
that the institution has embarked upon. The phrase “police is your friend”, which
has been an anthem in Nigeria, is basically designed by the police authorities to
change public attitude towards the organization and build a friendly reputation for
the institution.
The importance of public relations is so enormous in the relationship between the

security sector and the public. This (same) position is shared by a number of
scholars and practitioners in the security sector. I have no doubt in the
correctness of the intellectual submission made by Okere (1991:44), stressing
that:
Fortunately, the Nigeria police force has since recognized the need and at
present a formidable public relations department exists in the force. In this
department, officers work within a frame work that enables each one of
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them to continually strive to foster a cordial relationship between the force

and the public. The programmes adopted are not usually an ad hoc
propaganda or campaign but it is actually a planned operational procedure
aimed at specific results.
It is not only Nigeria police that is aware of the strategic importance of public
relations in meeting their organizational goals. Various public security agencies
have also embarked on aggressive public relations activities. The aim is basically
to manage the relationship that exists between them and the public, such that
public attitudes towards them will not only be friendly but also beneficial to the
organization.
By 1953, the Nigeria police moved beyond its traditional public relations system
in which the PR activities could be carried out by any officer(s). It was that year,
the office of the Public Relations officer was established, which marked the
turning point in public relations management in Nigeria police. Though, at the
initial stage, the basic duty of the PRO was to oversee the welfare of the personnel
in the force.
Later, the tasks to be performed by the PRO increased, and included planning and
managing the relations between the force and public particularly as it concerned
communication. The office of the Police PRO was not replicated in various
regions of the federation until 1964 when the Inspector-General of Police, Mr.
Louis Edet ordered the establishment of the position of public relations officer in
the capital of each of the regions (Enugu, Ibadan, Benin and Kaduna) while the
one in Lagos had already been in existence.
Due to the new political development at that time, regions were replaced with
states under the military government led by General Yakubu Gowon. That
development led to increase in the number of Police Public Relations officers at
the state level. The situation has remained the same up till now. The office of the
public Relations Officer exists in each of the 36 states of the federation and the
FCT (Abuja). These officers have their offices at various state commands while
the Chief PRO of the force is in the Nigeria Police Headquarters in the FCT
Abuja. The police PRO in the state (command) level and the force PRO at the
Police Headquarters must be officer not below the rank of Assistant
Superintendent of Police, and an Assistant Police Commissioner respectively.
Nonetheless, the art of public relations in recent time has been extended beyond
its traditional approaches through which communication was built for mutual
benefits of the security organization(s) and the public. The modern
communication technologies and sophisticated information mechanisms have
really affected public relations practice in security sector and elsewhere.
The introduction of internet, satellite communication, web casts, among others

has actually widened the scope of public relations. Rather than traditional library
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search approach, people now search for information about any security
organization electronically especially through the use of internet. Many
newspapers have gone electronic, which affords one an opportunity to read the
dailies through the internet rather than looking for newspapers vendor(s).
By and large, public relations can play a great role in the management of security,
and for that singular reason, many security organizations have taken PR activities
so seriously. Again, security organizations are now beginning to appreciate the
importance of creating good image and friendly relationship with the public. In
managing (effectively) their public relations, a number of approaches are
considered. It is these approaches that we shall be focusing on, in the subsequent
segment of this unit.
Exercise
How do you describe the relationship between security sector and public relations
in the management of security?
3.3 Approaches to Public Relations Management in Security Sector
There are several approaches adopted by security sector to do its public relations
task. In spite of the “closed system” philosophy being operated in security sector,
various security organizations still realize the need to ensure public awareness
about their activities, and also to seek collaborative partnership with the public for
mutual benefits.
Public relations activity usually begins with effective planning. That is the reason
why it is necessary to have qualified people as public relations officers. But how
do we identify people who are qualified? Should we appoint people into PR
position based on their academic qualifications in public relations and related
field like Journalism and Communication Arts? Or should we basically consider
the experience of the prospective candidates in public relations rather than their
academic qualifications? These questions and more will come to our minds when
we discuss the issue of appointing people into public relations positions in any
Most times, during the recruitment exercise, none of the public security
organizations actually shortlists any particular candidates for public relations.
May be, the idea is that any officer can perform the task of public relations.
Knowing that there is a lacuna to be filled in the management of public relations, I
presume, is responsible for the use of external public relations experts by law
enforcement agencies in Nigeria, to help in laundering their image. Nevertheless,
security sector does not rely on a single PR approach but considers a quite number
of approaches in the management of PR activity. These approaches include:
(a) Audience Targeting: The main targeted audience of the security sector is
the
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public. It will be mischievous to say that all the people in a given society belong
to the same public. This is because every society is stratified, and people don’t
belong to the same class. Therefore, in targeting the audience, there is need to
identify which of the publics we design a particular PR activity for. Within the
context of opinion making, there are three basic forms of public: the decision
making (e.g. party chieftains, etc), attentive (e.g. human rights activists, security
consultants, academics etc), and the mass public (i.e. those who are phlegmatic or
lukewarm or non-active in opinion making process.
Apart from the general public relations designed for the generality of people in
the society, security organizations should also endeavour to segmentalize the
audience in such a way that it can provide opportunity in attaining the
organizational goals. By doing this, you will also be able to tailor each message
in such a way that it will be appealing to each audience target.
Again, it will be ridiculous for police authorities to place an advert in a

newspaper, advising the people against patronizing illegal (unregistered) car
dealers in the purchase of their luxury vehicles. They may claim that it is such
patronage that is responsible for the growing incidence of car-snatching in the
country. The word ‘people’ is used here to mislead the people because it is only
‘rich people’ that can patronize the so-called unregistered car dealers. ‘Poor
people’ don’t buy luxury cars. Therefore, it is expected that security organization
should identify which of the publics a particular message is designed for, so that
the PR activity will be able to achieve the goals, it was created to actualize;
(b) The Use of Lobby Groups: Using lobby groups is another approach of
public relations, which enables the security sector to influence the opinions of the
people. Lobby groups as interest groups don’t only help to influence the opinion
of the public but also persuade the government in decision making. Several Non
Governmental Organizations have really helped to launder the image of the
Nigeria police in recent time by sensitizing the public on the need to cooperate
with the force;
© Spin: This is an approach which involves presentation of information in a

manipulative manner. Sometimes, you will hear a series of allegations being
leveled against the Nigeria Police. If you ask the Police PRO in any of the states
commands or at the Headquarters about the issue of collection of N20 on the
roads by policemen, the response of this officer (PPRO) will be framed in a way
that such allegation will lose its factual merit.
The police PRO will also go further to (deceptively) inform the public that most
of the people collecting N20 on the roads are not likely to be members of the
Nigerian Police. The point is that the police authorities are aware that some bad
eggs in the police are really perpetuating the shameful act of collecting N20 but in
building a good reputation, the authorities may decide to deny the allegation.
This is the act of spinning.
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Spin also includes the act of cherry picking, which means a method of selecting,
facts and quotes to buttress one’s argument. This assists in drawing the attention
of the people away from issues or events that are considered capable of putting
the name or image of the security organization in disrepute. Whenever the public
accuse the police of non-performance, the next day, you will see police patrolling
some suspects in the media, most of whom usually claim innocence of the
allegations leveled against them by the police.
Though, in most cases the action of the police is genuine, because periodic patrol
of suspects in its nets before the public is a regular routine in Nigeria Police.
Occasionally, the police use diversionary techniques to draw the attention of the
public from the news that can damage the reputation of the institution. This act is
also exemplified in the Nigerian Army, if the force is alleged of sending some of
its men to disrupt peace in a neighbourhood, what you will hear the authorities (of
the Army) say is that those people that invaded the place in question are
“unknown soldiers”.
Knowing the damaging effects that actions taken by some members of a security
organization on the reputation and the image of the organization, spin is usually
adopted by denying the allegation(s), not basically to allow the culprits go
unpunished but to protect the name of the organization. Later, there may be in-
house investigation into the matter as it is done in the police and elsewhere to
punish the culprits. But authorities of the security organization will first adopt the
principle of “non-denial denial” to avoid negative public perception about their
organization(s);
(d) Talk show Circuit: Security sector especially the police in recent time make
use of several talk shows to project the good image of their organization, sensitize
the public on security and safety, getting response from the public in the form of
questions, suggestions, commendation etc. This approach also enables the security
sector to get (useful) information from the public;
(e) Direct Communication: Security organizations also make use of direct

communication with the public. They perform this task through several means
like the distribution of newsletters, addressing assembly of people, the use of
public address system, among others;
(f) Community Development Activities: Security organization(s) can also

conduct public relations by carrying out a number of activities aimed at
development of community. One of the ways through this task is performed is
cleanness exercise. Here, you find some of the personnel of a security
organization, carrying out some environment sanitation exercise, including
sweeping the streets, removing the dirt in the drainage etc. Such exercise helps to
sensitize the public on the need to keep their environment clean and, more
importantly, to build a good public relation with the public.
162
(g) The Books: Security organization can carry-out laudable public relations
activity through writing of books, which explain its operations, its mission and
goals. The books may also show how the security organization aims to
accomplish her overall goals for the mutual benefits of the public and her. If the
public is aware that it is also going to benefit from the success of any security
organization, it will definitely arouse her interest in such organization;
(h) Informal Communications Channels: The use of informal channels or

means of communication is very important in societies like Nigeria. People rely
more on informal channels to gather information about events that happen around
them. The problems of high rate of illiteracy, epileptic power supply, high cost of
newspapers etc are responsible for the popular patronage of informal channels of
communication. Security organization(s) can also disperse its “foot soldiers” all
over the place to undertake some public relations task(s). But these security
personnel must blend with the civilians and hide their identity for effective
communication flow;
(i) The use of seminars, publicity events, mass media, personnel approaches,
among others can be very useful in the management of public relations by any
Exercise
Discuss approaches to public relations.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The importance of public relations is so germane to the success of any security

organization. This is because the ability of security organizations depends largely
on how they are enable to build mutual understanding, (effective) and
communication relation between her and the public.
Through the public, security organizations get vital information, which can help
them to meet their organizational goals. Therefore, there is need for security
organizations to take public relations activities seriously. In fulfilling public
relations task(s), a number of approaches can be considered. A single approach
cannot be sufficient, and it is pertinent to adopt a variety of approaches.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to demonstrate the great roles that public relations
plays in security management. First, to provide ourselves with conceptual energy,
we defined the term public relation, knowing that by doing so, other areas of
discourse could have meaning to us. We also explained the relationship between
security sector and public relations. Thereafter, we drew our attention on various
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approaches that can be adopted by security sector in the conduct and management
of its public relation. Thank you very much for your attention.
6.0 TUTORED MARRIED ASSIGNMENT

(i) What is public relations?
(ii) Discuss any four approaches to public relations
7.0 REFERENCES AN FURTHER READING
Center, Allen H. and Jackson, Patrick (1995), Public Relations Practices, 5th
Edition, Upper Saddle, N.J: Prentice Hall.
Cutlip, Scott M., Allen H. Center & Glen M. Broom (1994), Effective Public
Relations, 7th Edition, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. A Simon and
Schuster Company.
Ewen, Stuart (1996), PR! A Social History of Spin, New York: BasicBooks.
Levy, Stuart (2007), Public Relations and Integrated Communications, Lotus

Press
Okere, Ethelbert (1991), Nigeria: Agenda for A Modern Police Force, Lagos:
New Concept Media Limited.
Seib, Patrick and Fitzpatrick, Kathy (1995), Public Relations Ethics, Fort Worth:
Harcourt Brace and Company.
Wilcox, D.L., Ault, P.H., Agee, W.K., & Cameron, G. (2002), Public Relations
Strategies and Tactics, 7th Edition, Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_relations. Retrieved on April 20, 2008.
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MODULE 4
Unit 1: Operational Management and Capacity planning in Security Sector

Unit 2: Issue of Asymmetric Aggression in Strategic Planning
Unit 3: Guerrilla Warfare and Tactical Measures to Counter-Guerilla
Unit 4: Relevance of Fortification Tactic in Security Management
Unit 5: Maneuver Tactic in Defence and Security Management
Unit 1
OPERATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND CAPACITY PLANNING IN

SECURITY SECTOR
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Defining Operations Management
3.2 Principles of Operational Management
3.3 Capacity Planning in Security Sector
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Security business involves a wide range of issues and activities. Security includes
providing services for safety and protection of life and property of the
customer(s). In the context of public security sector, the customers are the people
while private security outfits deliver their services to their private customers.
Whether public or private, security organizations need to channel considerable

energy on operational management and capacity planning. Thus, the two concepts
determine the productivity level of any security organizations especially as it
relates to service delivery.
Apart from management of its personnel, every security organization needs to

develop strategies for effectiveness and efficiency in its operations. Effective
capacity is also important in security business. Through planning, you will know
if there is need to increase the number of personnel within your organization.
Introduction of new tips and ideas may assist in improving your services.
165
In this unit, we shall be focusing on operational management and capacity

planning in security sector and how they affect the productivity and effectiveness
in service delivery in security management. Let us browse through what we hope
to achieve in this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

Define operational management;
Explain the priniciples of operational management; and
Describe capacity planning in security sector.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Defining Operational Management
Operational management is an age long practice. It is a key element of security

management. It can be described as “…an area of business that is concerned with
the production of goods and services, and involves the responsibility of ensuring
that business operations are efficient and effective. It is the management of
resources, the distribution of goods and services to customers, and the analysis of
queue systems” (see .en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_management).
According to APICS Dictionary in its 11th edition, operational management

involves:
……..the effective planning, scheduling, use, and control of a

manufacturing or service organization through the study of
concepts from design engineering, industrial engineering,
management information systems, quality management, production
management, inventory management, accounting, and other
functions as they affect the organization (see
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APICS).
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In security sector, operational management is very essential. It involves the

effectiveness of security activities aimed at achieving the overall organizational
goals. Every security agency must definitely have an organizational policy, which
defines its tasks, mission and the vision it seeks to accomplish.
For any security outfit to attain its organizational goals, there must be effective
operational management system that ensures functionality in planning and
operational control and capacity-building.
Exercise
Define the term operational management.
3.2 Principles of Operational Management
Planning
There is a popular saying which goes thus “those who fail to plan, plan to fail”.
This aphorism forms an essential element of the philosophy of security practice.
Even, considering the nature of security business, you may agree with me that
planning is crucial to security operations. Every security task must be planned
well before implementation.
Definitely, adequate planning will assist security organization(s) to identify ways

through which it can accomplish its overall goals. Lack of proper planning has
been responsible for the failure of law enforcements in Nigeria in arresting the
growing security threat in the Niger Delta region. Security personnel are being
sent to the region without planning adequately on the possible ways to achieve the
operational goals in the area. Little attention is given to the terrain or topography
of the area to determine who among their personnel can explore the difficult
terrain to the advantage of the security organization(s).
However, it is wrong to send police personnel who don’t know how to swim to go
and maintain security and order in a riverine society. If the Nigeria Police does
not have enough personnel that can swim well, it is therefore necessary to send
many of its men and officers on a course in swimming. It is by doing this that the
drowning of security personnel drafted to the area can be reduced drastically.
Risk Management Attitude
It is essential for every security organization to cultivate the habits of managing.

Risk management is an element of security business. For effective risk
management, it is pertinent to have a separate unit within the organization to be
charged with responsibility of carrying out technical documentation of possible
risks and provide guidance for security operations.
167
There should be framework which will assist in profiling the existing risks and
those that can emerge later, to provide consistent safeguarding measures to guide
operations. This principle appears to be lacking in the operations of most law
enforcement agencies in Nigeria. The Nigeria Police’s failure to regularly conduct
risk assessment is responsible for its ineffective risk management.
Many of our policemen and officers have been killed through surprise attacks
from hoodlums. In the United States and other developed nations, police
personnel are adequately kitted by the government while virtually all of them are
given bullet-proof vests. The rationale behind such idea is to equip the security
personnel against any unexpected attack. Therefore, it is pertinent for security
organization to observe regular risk management.
Risk management in security sector actually includes such activities like Threat
and Risk Assessments, Privacy Impact Assessments, security investigations,
Vulnerability Assessments, self-assessments among others.
Operational Personnel
Security organization is a network of personnel who perform different tasks for

the functionality of the organization as well as working towards attaining the
overall goals of their employer. In security organization, we may have various
units like account unit, general administration unit, intelligence unit, among
others.
All these units have various operational assignments. For instance in the Nigeria
Police, there is Special Anti-Robbery squad fondly known as SARS. The basic
task to be performed by this unit is to make arrests and check the activities of
armed robbers within their respective jurisdictions. Some of the tasks performed
by operational personnel may include the following:
i. Observing security procedures and suggest measures that can be taken to improve
those procedures;
ii. Rapidly responding to security incidents;
iii. Assessing and installing security patches;
iv. maintaining or upgrading security facilities such as vehicles, armoury,

communication gadgets, information systems etc; and
v. preventing or guiding against electronic attacks and communication interception

etc
Threat and Risk Assessment
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Threat and Risk Assessment enables security organization to identify necessary

conditions, which must be considered in making security decisions. Threat and
Risk Assessment also helps in evaluating identified security threats as against the
vulnerability level of the organization.
By carrying out vulnerability assessment, any security organization will

appreciate the need to draw interventions and frameworks, which can assist in
preventing or mitigating the effects of threats to its operations. The Threat and
Risk Assessment can be short but must be concise.
It is also necessary to rank various threats identified according to the damaging

impact each of them can have on the organization. It is only when that is done that
we may come up with the methods that can be adopted to limit the negative effect
that any threat can pose to the security organization and its operations.
Incident Management
Incident management involves the activities aimed at managing incidents from

when they are discovered to the execution of interventionist solutions to the
problem or measures that can be applied to arrest the threat situations. This is a
fundamental element of strategic planning.
Vulnerability Assessment and Management
There is growing awareness among the security experts on the need to conduct on
regular basis vulnerability test on its operations. Through vulnerability
assessment, security organization will be able to discover possible threats. After
identifying the possible threats, the next step will be to fathom ways to address
the problem.
A number of approaches and methods will be considered to solve the problem.

Having a wide range of proposed solutions, it is imperative to subject each of
them to impact assessment to know how effective they are in addressing the target
threats.
A quite number of security outfits regularly simulate exercise to identify their

areas of vulnerability as well as the level of each identified vulnerable area. In the
United States, vulnerability assessment is a routine activity among the various
public security agencies. It is only when you discover your problem that you will
find ways to solve it. But what vulnerability management is making us to
understand is that you don’t need to wait for a threat to emerge before you plan. It
is better that you prepare ahead.
Patch Management
Prompt application of security-related patches is very essential in security

management. Therefore, there must be systematic and well articulated patch
169
management process. Necessary security-related patches should be brought to

bear timely. The success of patch management depends largely on how it is
effectively articulated.
Division of Responsibilities
Security personnel should be mandated to specific functions. Different functions

should be assigned to different personnel. Again, no individual should be allowed
to perform a task alone. Some other individuals should be assigned the same task
not only for completing purpose(s) but also as a security measure to prevent or
check system vulnerability.
If a task is performed by only one individual, there is possibility that enemy will
unleash threat on the system, even without being aware. It is even easier to buy an
individual within a system than a whole group of people.
Exercise
Explain the principles of operational management in security sector.
3.3 Capacity planning in Security Sector
Capacity planning can be described as “the process of determining the production

capacity needed by an organization to meet changing demands for its products”
.scrc.ncsu.edu/public/DEFINTIONS/C.html. It allows the management of a
security organization to identify the discrepancy between the capacity of an
organization and how the demands of its customers can lead to inefficiency on its
part.
This is because if adequate capacity is not built to meet the growing demands of
the custormers, there is likelihood that the security organization will experience
inefficiency in its operations. The growing incidence of security threat in Nigeria
and the inability of the law enforcement agents to arrest the situation has brought
a wide spectrum of criticisms about the competence and efficiency of the public
security agencies.
The main purpose of capacility planning is to address any deiscrepancy that may
emerge resulting from the growing demands of security services from the
custormers. Considering the increasing security threat in Nigeria, there is need for
capacity planning.
It is therefore important to increase the number of security personnel, so that the

problem of inadequate staffing can be addressed. After that, adequate training
must be provieded for the personnel to improve their skills and physical fitness.
Capacity planning also includes activities that are designed to improve services
and overall equipment efficiency.
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The ways to increase capacity in security sector include effective information

systems management, purchase of new equipments and materials, improved
intelligence collection and analysis, quality training of personnel, effective
personnel management, effective public relations and public awarenes, among
others.
Exercise
How do we carry out capacity planning in security sector?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Operational management and capacity planning are very crucial to the production
of goods and services. The goods and services within the security context are
different from the ones provided in non-security organizations. Some of the tasks
or functions performed by security personnel may include protecting the lives and
property of their employers’ customers, putting in place safety measures,
responding rapidly to emergency situations, management of disasters, counter
insurgency, policing, defence planning and management, intelligence reporting
for policy formulation among others.
None of the foregoing security functions can be adequately accomplished if there

is no efficient operational management and effective capacity planning. It is very
important for security organization to adopt effective planning approach by
studying its information systems management, service quality, general
administration, personnel management, quality control initiatives, inventory
management, equipment management among others.
More importantly, it is advisable for security organization(s) not to always day-

dream or rely on fortune-telling syndrome that characterize the operational
behaviour of most security outfits. It is no surprising that such security outfits
experience inefficiency in production and inadequate service delivery.
Therefore, there is need to always conduct risk assessment and management,

putting effective operational personnel strategies, patch management, capacity
planning among others. These processes will afford any security organization a
great opportunity to identify its areas of weakness or vulnerability and assess the
impact or effectiveness of each of the available solutions in addressing (possible)
threats.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, our attention was drawn to the relationship between operational
management and effective securioty management on one hand, and the impact of
capacity planning on the operational service delivery on the other. We bagan our
task in this unit by looking at some of the definitions of the term operational
management. Thereafter, we explained various principles of operational
171
management. The third and last area of discourse was capacity planning in
security sector. Thank you for your attention.

i. What is operational management?
ii. Explain any four principles of operational management.
Gunther, Neil J. (2007), “Guerrilla Capacity Planning”, Springer.
Krajewski, Lee J., & Ritzman, Larry P. (2005), Operations Management:

Processes and Value Chains, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Lazowska, Edward D (1984), Quantitive System Performance, Prentice-Hall
WIlson, James M. (1995), “An historical perspective on Operations Management”

Production and Inventory Management Journal.
://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity_planning . Retrieved on April 30, 2008.
.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_management . Retrieved on April 30, 2008.
.scrc.ncsu.edu/public/DEFINTIONS/C.html. Retrieved January 10, 2006.
172
Unit 2
ISSUE OF ASYMMETRIC AGGRESSION IN STRATEGIC PLANNING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Meaning of Asymmetric Aggression
3.2 Features of Asymmetric Aggression
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Owing to the growing threat that asymmetric aggression constitutes to inter

(national security, it is pertinent that we discuss it, so that we will be able to see
its impact on internal security. According to the Dictionary of Military Terms,
asymmetric aggression or warfare includes “threats outside the range of
conventional warfare and difficult to respond to in kind (e.g., a suicide bomber)”.
Asymmetric warfare involves an armed conflict between two or more parties

where one party is considered as inferior while the other is perhaps seen as
superior. The parties in conflict are not on the same level with each other, in terms
of quality and quantity of military power relation. This form of aggression has
emerged as the greatest security threat in post-Cold War era.
When going into war with Iraq, the US and allies could not have believed that the
greater military challenge would come from dissidents rather than the regular
troops of the Iraqi government under Saddam. Asymmetric aggression has been of
great concern in international politics. It permeates every level of conflict ranging
from international war to intra-state insurgency. In this unit, we shall focus on the
asymmetric aggression and tactical impact on strategic planning and security
management. I have no doubt that you will find this unit very interesting. So,
fasten you seat belt!
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able:
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Describe the meaning of asymmetric aggression; and

Explain the features of asymmetric aggression.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Asymmetric Aggression
Asymmetric aggression is basically that violent struggle between two or more

state/non state actors, or groups of actors, who possess a considerably level of
unequal relation in the power equilibrium. It is a form of hostile relationship
between two or more parties where a party is regarded as inferior, while the other
is superior. This kind of relationship has dominated every aspect of international
relations where countries are accorded influence and respect according to their
status in the power equilibrium.
This is instructive in the leadership role being played by Nigeria, not as a black
nation per se but as a regional power, which every African nation looks up to. Are
we to consider its (Nigeria’s) contribution to the anti-colonial struggle on the
continent of Africa? or the amount it contributes both in human and material
terms towards keeping peace in Africa? or the leading role it plays in the
popularization of African culture? or its kind gestures to sister nations who are in
needs both in financial, technical, spiritual and cooperative terms?
It is important to note here that it is not only the military superiority that
determines the status of a country in relation to any other nation(s). It is just one
of the elements that determine the weight a nation possesses among the comity of
nations. For instance when we talk about consistency of African nations as
regards stable experience of democratic governance to allocate power and
international influence to nations on the continent, Nigeria cannot be among the
ten leading countries due to its checkered history of military rule.
But in the determination of power and sphere of influence in international

relations, many other variables must come into reckoning such as population,
resources (both in tangible and intangible terms), technology, level of military
capability and mobility among others. Nigeria, being the largest in population on
the continent and considering the strength of its military in the region and the
various natural resources (in human and material terms) it is endowed with, one is
not making any mistake to say, truly that Nigeria is a power to reckon with on the
continent of Africa.
However, asymmetric aggression is that type of aggressive action in which at

least one of the parties in violent relationship may be regarded as partisans.
Partisan was derived from the Tuscan word, “partigiano”, which denotes a
member of a group of less professional or irregular troops that are assembled to
engage and launch a military assault on the enemy-party, which is more likely to
174
be superior to it in conventional terms.
Here, what we mean is that the former is weaker than the latter either in quality
and quantity in terms of military capability and mobility, or even in both
variables. What we should note here is that the recent experience in the modern
warfare has shown that population (quantity) is a determinant of military power
relations in international po litics. And military technological advancement as well
as trained military personnel with sound advantage in military strategy (quality)
can even play more prominent role in the determination of a country’s status in
international military power equilibrium. An example is China and the US where
the former enjoys population advantage while the other enjoys military superiority
in terms of technology and mobility.
This view dominated the violent proceedings that characterized the Korean War
where the US and its allies through the backing of the United Nations supported
the South Korea while China gave its military support to North Korea. Here, the
population of China played a very critical role, which forced the US and its allies
to sue for peace in the affected peninsula. It was a ceasefire arrangement that
temporarily ended the war, even till present.
In asymmetric aggression, the weak party usually adopts non-conventional tactics

and strategy to engage the strong party in arms struggle. Most times, the weak
parties usually adopt guerilla tactic in the perpetuation of their violent actions
against the enemy-party which is actually stronger. A good example is the Israeli-
Palestine armed conflict where the former, a strong party is engaged in violent
hostilities by the latter, a weak party not in the open battlefields per se but through
unconventional means like “terrorism” and guerilla engagement. The example of
the Israelis and Palestinians is a classic case of asymmetrical aggression. As a
matter of fact, the Palestinian dissidents and insurgents notable among them is the
Hamas which do not have a regular army in the real sense of it.
Meanwhile, these insurgents launch their offensives with small arms and light
weapons like Qassam rockets on Israeli targets, both civilian and military. On the
other hand, Israel has a standing (professional) army or military, which also
attacks the military and civilian formations in the Palestinian region. What is
important here is that the Palestinian insurgents usually engage the State of Israel
in violent hostilities through unconventional and asymmetric methods like suicide
bombing, ‘hit and run’ strategy and other guerilla approaches.
Israel, rather than adopting conventional war plan, it adopts counter-insurgency

approach to deal with the dissidents and the Palestine at large. But our recent
experience in the conflict between the Israel and Hezbollah insurgents (from
Lebanon) in recent time has brought a new dimension to asymmetric aggression.
Despite the asymmetric relation between the two sides, one thing to note is that
Israel is a State while Hezbollah is a group of non-state actors, demonstrating
their displeasure over the continued military superiority that Israel enjoys in the
175
Middle-East and the Israeli persecution of the Palestinians and the entire Arab
race.
Again, these insurgents are not in any way members of the Lebanese Armed
Forces, yet they waged an international war against Israel in 2006 with high
casualty rate from the side of Israel. They fired Katyusha rockets persistently into
Israel and also engaged the Israeli forces in open and conventional battles, which
forced Israel to adopt air raids, hitting some targets (incidentally, civilian
locations suffered more from the aerial bombings by Israel ) in Lebanon. On the
battlefield, Israel suffered a military fiasco in the hands of the Hezbollah
militants, which forced Israel to change its war strategies.
Moreover, military theorists have now articulated the need to widen or broaden
the conceptual meaning of asymmetric aggression or warfare to include a military
situation where two combatant-parties who possess unequal power relate and
endeavor to take advantage of their opponents' weaknesses. This interaction often
involves strategies and tactics outside the boundaries of conventional warfare.
The heart of this grand design is that "weaker" combatants will strive to use
strategy to make up for the deficiencies (in quantity or quality) it has. As we have
mentioned in the early part of this unit, the outcome of aggression is often
determined by quality and quantity of belligerent forces or the parties. One of the
parties may be mindful of the consequences of the violence and its cost.
Thus, one of the parties, after weighing the strength and weakness, gains and
losses that it is likely to derive from the aggression, a new strategy may be
adopted. A good example was the military offensive perpetuated against the
Nigerian forces on the Bakassi Peninsula by Cameroon. In 1981, Cameroon
launched an offensive against the Nigerian forces on the peninsula where five
Nigerian soldiers were killed while three other sustained serious injury (Day,
1982:97).
However, Cameroon later had a deep thought about its military offensive against
Nigeria, considering the asymmetric relation that dominated the power attributes
between her and Nigeria (a stronger party) and the consequences she may face in
the outcome of any eventual outbreak of conventional war. Cameroon had to
change its strategy to win the possession of the disputed peninsula from the
military campaign to legal combat at The Hague, which worked in her favour
consequent on the ICJ ruling on 10th October, 2002 (Kasali, 2003: 78-83)
Exercise
Describe asymmetric warfare.
3.2 Features of Asymmetric Warfare
(a) If the lesser party finds itself in a position of self-defense. And where its rights
176
are (or about to be) abused or its territorial sovereignty is being undermined by a
superior-imperial party, the weak party is more likely to adopt unconventional
tactics to defend itself. A good example was the activities of local insurgents in
Iraq against the US led Coalition forces. In the mid-July, General John Abizaid,
Commander of the US-Central Command (USCENTCOM), described the
volcanic violence that greeted the post-war Iraq as a guerilla war. According to
him:
(we are) picking up a lot of information that indicated that there were
significant terrorist groups and activities that we were having to be
concerned about, as well; most of all happening in what we call the
Sunni Triangle, that area vaguely described by Tikrit, Ramadi, Baghdad,
but often stretching up into Mosul.
…we’re fighting remnants throughout the country. I believe there’s mid-

level Ba’athist, Iraq Intelligence service people, Special Republican
Guard people that have organized at the regional level in cellular
structure and are conducting what I would describe as a classical
guerilla-type campaign against us. It is low intensity conflict, in our
doctrinal terms, but it is war, however you describe it. (Cordesman,
2003:518)
The local dissidents particularly Republican Guards that worked under Saddam
felt that the military superiority of the US and its allies could not be matched by
them considering the casualty rate of the Saddam army in the face of military
assault by the US led coalition forces on the battlefield. Thus, new tactic was
adopted by the local insurgents to continue the violent hostilities against the
coalition forces in Iraq.
Nevertheless, one would have thought that the capture of Saddam would mark the
end of the war, but even after the death of Saddam, the post war violence in Iraq
has claimed more lives in the ranks of the US army than recorded in the
conventional or open war that took place earlier. Pervasive insecurity has
dominated the entire post Saddam Iraq.
Guerilla strategy was adopted by the local dissidents particularly the Sunni
insurgents who have succeeded to reduce drastically the anticipated military
success of the US led Coalition forces in the jingoist invasion of Iraq under the
pretext of waging war against the development of weapons of mass destruction by
Saddam Hussein regime, in which the allegation has proved to be false. The local
insurgents have continued to protest militarily against the continued presence of
the US led Coalition forces in their country (Iraq), which they regard as a slap on
Arab nationalism.
The Sunnis who were favoured by the Saddam regime are disfavoured by the new
American arrangement and construction in Iraq, and the death of Saddam Hussein
177
in the hands of gallows-men in the name of justice was like adding salt on an
injury. The event precipitated a violent relations not only between the Saddam
sympathizers and the US led Coalition forces but had also overblown the violent
hostilities between the Sunni and Shiite Muslim blocs in the country.
It is quite imperative to note that the former has the larger followership in the
Muslim world than the later. Many Arab-Muslim countries detest the latter based
on ideological assumptions and religious philosophy. Meanwhile, the latter enjoys
more popular support in Iran than elsewhere. This is evident in the support the
Sunni insurgents are enjoying in the Middle-East in their violent articulations.
(b) Another feature that dominates asymmetric warfare is that one of the warring
parties has a significant amount of technological advantage over the other, where
party A uses its technological advantage to offset any numerical advantage that
the enemy-party might be enjoying. For example, the vast numerical superiority
of the Chinese forces dur ing their initial involvement in the Korean War weighed
down the technological superiority of the United Nations forces.
(c)The use of terrain also features in asymmetric warfare. Terrain can be used as a
force multiplier by the smaller force and as a force inhibitor against the larger
force. Difficult terrain can be great obstacle to any military campaign by (strong)
party against the other (weak) party that is more familiar with the terrain where
the armed confrontations is taking place. This is evident in the problem, the US
faced in the Vietnam War and presently in Afghanistan where the Taliban still
engage the US and its allies in a guerilla battle. The terrain of any country can
serve as an opportunity to a weak party and to the disadvantage of the strong
party.
(d) Training and tactics as well as technology can prove decisive and allow
smaller forces to overcome forces much larger than they are. Training and tactics
play very important roles in any military operations. For instance, the British
soldiers are not so many but they enjoy adequate training and have tactical
advantage more than virtually all the great powers in the world today. This is
instructive, in the change of strategy in the prosecution of Iraq invasion by the
Coalition forces in 2003 where the coalition met strong resistant soldiers from the
side of Iraq, which almost broke the military hegemony of the Coalition forces on
the (ground) battlefield, but the British tactical superiority saved the day for the
Coalition forces.
The war in Iraq confirmed the importance of training, tactics and technology in
the determination of success in conventional wars. After the liquidation of
Saddam’s draconian regime in 2003 due to the defeat of his army, Saddam went
into hiding. The remnants of his Gestapo and Guards removed their uniforms and
blended with the civilian population to escape the military offensives of the
coalition forces, which had already occupied the territory of Iraq. The dimension
of the military campaign by the coalition forces was phenomenal, such that:
178
the importance of speed, and the ability to get inside the enemy’s decision
cycle and strike before he is able to mount a coherent defense.
the importance of jointness, and the ability of US forces to fight, not as

individual de-conflicted services, but as a truly joint force-maximizing the
power and lethality they bring to bear;
the importance of intelligence-and the ability to act on intelligence rapidly,

in minutes, instead of days and even hours; and
the importance of precision, and the ability to deliver devastating damage

to enemy positions, while sparing civilian lives and the civilian
infrastructure (Cordesman, 2003: 2)
However, the war in Iraq moved into a different form of asymmetric aggression
where the coalition's use of superior conventional warfare training, tactics and
technology were of much less relevance in the prevailing post-war atmosphere.
The Coalition forces particularly from the side of the US troops, almost on daily
basis, face a huge military challenge from the various insurgent groups
particularly the Shiites. Indeed, the Iraqi insurgents have become increasingly
sophisticated, with fatal consequences on the Iraqi civilians and coalition troops.
(e) Tactics that are usually adopted by weak parties in Guerrilla warfare are often
used in asymmetrical aggression. In both cases, the forces and/or law enforcement
agents may need the support of a cooperating population that is ready to supply
useful information and intelligence about the difficult terrain for cover and
escape.
According to Mao Zedong the guerrilla forces must move amongst the people as a
fish swims in the sea. The population and terrain are often well-known to local
forces, who can use both to escape reprisal from conventional forces. A number
of insurgent groups in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria often use this tactic to
undermine counter-insurgency tactics of the government forces.
The use of asymmetrical tactics by outside forces often requires extensive

investigation to make use of terrain characteristics. The weak forces take more
interest in regions that provide a lot of cover and concealment, especially heavily
forested and mountainous areas. This tactic takes advantage of the relative
immobility of a larger army in such terrain. In urban areas they will mix with the
population and sometimes the weak forces rely on people’s support to conceal
their identity and hide-outs to prevent any reprisal attacks from the stronger
or/and larger forces.
(f) If the smaller power is in an aggressive position, however, and/or turns to

tactics prohibited by the laws of war-jus in bello, its success will largely depend
179
on the greater power's abstaining from similar tactics. For example, the Law of
land warfare forbids the use of a flag of truce or clearly-marked medical vehicles
as cover for an attack or ambush, but an asymmetric combatant using this
prohibited tactic depends on the superior power's obedience to the corresponding
law.
Similarly, laws of war bars fighters from using civilian settlements, populations or
facilities as military bases. But when a weak party uses this tactic, the justification
for such tactic will depend largely on whether the other (strong) is also culpable
of such unlawful and criminal tactic.
Exercise
How do you describe features of asymmetric warfare?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Asymmetric aggression has been phenomenal in contemporary global system.

Africa has had its own share in global history of asymmetric aggression or
warfare. In Zimbabwe, the ZANU party engaged the colonial authorities in
asymmetric aggression to the country’s independence. The violent attacks
perpetuated against the imperialist formations as well some other variables led to
the eventual transfer of power from the colonizer to the colonized where the local
elites therefore replaced the colonial rulers.
Similarly, this tactic was also adopted by nationalist insurgents in Angola, Guinea
Bissau, Mozambique among others in their anti-colonial struggles. In post
colonial Africa, asymmetric aggression is still experienced particularly in intra-
state armed conflict or civil war where the rebels or perhaps the so-called
marginalized people take to arms against the government and its forces. The
examples include the UNITA rebels vs. MPLA-Government in Angola; LURDS
Rebels vs. Government in Uganda; among others. The violent activities of the
ANC during the apartheid regime in South Africa were a true reflection of
asymmetric aggression between the ANC insurgents and the apartheid
government.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to discuss extensively on the concept and practice
of asymmetric aggression. Our discussion illuminates on the concept of
asymmetry as a tactic in modern conflict and its impact on (inter)national
security. We however began our discussion in this unit by describing asymmetric
aggression. We also examined various features of asymmetric aggression.

What are the features of asymmetric aggression?
180
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READING
Arreguin-Toft, Ivan (2005), How the Weak Win Wars: A Theory of Asymmetric
Conflict, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Barnett, Roger W (2003), Asymmetrical Warfare: Today's Challenge to U.S.

Military Power, Washington D.C: Brassey's.
Cordesman, Anthony H (2003), The Iraq War: Strategy, Tactics and Military
Lessons, Washington DC: Centre for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).
Day, Alan J (ed.) (1982), Border Territorial Disputes, in Kessing’s Reference

Publication.
Kasali, Monsuru Adegboyega (2003), “The Pacific Settlement of International

Dispute in International Law: Origin and Dynamics of Diplomatic-Legal
Maneuverings to Bakassi Question”, M.SC Dissertation, Department of Political
Science, University of Ibadan. Unpublished.
Poole, H. John (2004), Tactics of the Crescent Moon: Militant Muslim Combat
Methods, Emerald Isle, NC: Posterity Press.
Mack, Andrew J.R. (1975), "Why Big Nations Lose Small Wars: The Politics of
Asymmetric Conflict", World Politics, Vol. 27, No. 2 (January).
Mackey, Robert R. (2004), The UnCivil War: Irregular Warfare in the Upper
South, 1861–1865. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
181
182
Unit 3
GUERILLA WARFARE AND TACTICAL MEASURES TO COUNTER

GUERILLA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Meaning of Guerrilla Warfare
3.2 Tactics and strategy of Guerilla Warfare
3.3 Features of Guerrilla Warfare
3.4 Ethical Problems of Guerrilla Warfare
3.5 Counter-Guerrilla Tactics
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Guerrilla warfare is generally referred to low intensity war. The word guerrilla
was derived from a Spanish word guerra, meaning war. The word was coined in
Spain to describe the kind of resistant aggression against the French Empire under
Napoleon Bonaparte. Its meaning was broadened to mean any similar-scale armed
resistance.
By 1809, the guerrilla had become part of the English vocabulary, which basically
explained guerrilla warfare in terms of the fighters, not minding the tactics that
characterize its (guerrilla) operation. In this unit, our search light shall be centered
on the guerilla warfare, its impact on security and measures that can be taken to
counter it.
So, let us go to the next segment of this unit, the objectives the unit seeks to
achieve, to actually look at what the unit requires and its coverage areas. It is
quite imperative to know that, it is advisable for the student to engage
himself/herself in further reading because there is no way, we can exhaust all
aspects of the subject matter in this course material.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
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Explain the meaning of guerrilla warfare;

Discuss the tactics and strategy of guerrilla warfare;
Describe the Features of guerrilla warfare;
Evaluate the ethical Problems of guerrilla warfare; and
Examine the counter-guerrilla warfare.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Meaning of Guerilla Warfare
It is a type of warfare, which involves an irregular and independent band of

partisan soldiers. It is a type of war tactic, which is asymmetric in nature. It is
often adopted by inferior parties to armed conflict who might have weighed the
cost of engaging their opponent party(ies) who they consider superior in the
military power equilibrium, resolving that engaging such superior powers in open
or conventional warfare may seem to be a suicide mission. A good example is
Isreali-Palestinian conflict, where the latter has been waging a guerilla-type of
insurgency against the former. The reason for this is that if an insurgent
movement like Hamas leads the Palestine to engage Israel in conventional
warfare, it is not likely that the outcome of such tactical decision will favour
Palestine. This is because the Israel enjoys quality and quantity military
advantages over Palestine.
Thus, it is not surprising that the guerrilla tactic has been the most effective tactic
for Palestine, which has enabled it to enjoy international public attention and
sympathy on one hand, and military successes through their ‘hit and run’ tactic,
which has had huge adverse effect on the psychology of the Israeli civilians and
military formations. The people of Israel live in perpetual fear on daily basis,
boarding a bus, a visit to supermarket, sleeping at home, toasting a lady on the
street, attending a place of worship, going to school, even going to public toilet,
among others have become dangerous tasks in Israel because you don’t where,
when and how the Palestinian insurgents will strike.
Therefore, this violent strategy has made Israel very unsafe and which military
victory is greater than making your enemy to live, eat, drink, walk, sleep in
perpetual fear, where he becomes a victim of eternal trauma? The strategic
relevance that guerrilla warfare enjoys in breaking the ranks of the enemy-party
cannot be under-estimated. This view was shared by William Wordsworth, a Poet
as demonstrated in his pamphlet on the Convention of Cintra. According to him:
It is manifest that, though a great army may easily defeat or disperse

another army, less or greater, yet it is not in a like degree formidable to a
determined people, nor efficient in a like degree to subdue them, or to
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keep them in subjugation–much less if this people, like those of Spain in

the present instance, be numerous, and, like them, inhabit a territory
extensive and strong by nature. For a great army, and even several great
armies, cannot accomplish this by marching about the country,
unbroken, but each must split itself into many portions, and the several
detachments become weak accordingly, not merely as they are small in
size, but because the soldiery, acting thus, necessarily relinquish much
of that part of their superiority, which lies in what may be called the
engineer of war; and far more, because they lose, in proportion as they
are broken, the power of profiting by the military skill of the
Commanders, or by their own military habits. The experienced soldier is
thus brought down nearer to the plain ground of the inexperienced, man
to the level of man: and it is then, that the truly brave man rises, the man
of good hopes and purposes; and superiority in moral brings with it
superiority in physical power.” (Wordsworth, 1988: 177-8).
T. E. Lawrence also known as "Lawrence of Arabia," adds his voice to our

conceptual exploration of guerrilla warfare in his theory of guerrilla warfare
where he describes the guerrilla fighters by comparing them to a gas. The fighters
disperse in the area of operations more or less randomly. They or their cells
occupy a very small intrinsic space in that area, just as gas molecules occupy a
very small intrinsic space in a container.
The fighters may coalesce into groups for tactical purposes, but their general state
is dispersed. Such fighters cannot be "rounded up." They cannot be contained.
They are extremely difficult to "defeat" because they cannot be brought to battle
in significant numbers. The human and material cost that would be involved in
any attempt o destroy a significant number of them is prohibitive in every sense.
Mao Zedong’s work on guerrilla warfare has attracted global interest among the
war strategists. Mao explained the tactics adopted by the People’s Liberation
Army during the Chinese Civil War. According to him, guerrilla principles
involve a tactical system whereby (when):
The enemy advances, we retreat. The enemy camps, we harass.

The enemy tires, we attack. The enemy retreats, we pursue.
Mao in his analysis also distinguished between Mobile Warfare (yundong zhan)
and Guerrilla Warfare (youji zhan), but they were part of an integrated continuum
aiming towards a final objective.
Exercise
What is guerilla warfare?
3.2 Tactics and Strategy of Guerrilla Warfare
185
Guerrilla tactics are centered on intelligence, ambush, deception, sabotage, and

espionage, where an inferior power dislocates the power-base and psychology of
the superior power through a long and low-intensity confrontation. It can be quite
successful against an unpopular, foreign or local regime, as evident in the
Vietnam War.
During the Vietnam War, Maoist guerrilla tactic was optimally put into
application, and it proved very effective in decimating the enemy (US) troops.
Another was the war between the Boers and the British imperialists where
guerrilla tactics played prominent role in the war and to the advantage of the
former, as Britain was later forced to make some concessions.
A guerrilla army may increase the cost of maintaining an occupation or a colonial

presence above what the imperial power can bear. Against a local regime, the
guerrilla fighters may make governance impossible with terror strikes and
sabotage, and even combination of forces to depose their local enemies in
conventional battle. These tactics are useful in mutilating the psyche of the enemy
camp, while raising the morale of the guerrillas. In many cases, guerrilla tactics
allow a small force to hold off a much larger and better equipped enemy for a
long time.
Mao Zedong proposed three-phase approach in the articulation of guerrilla tactics.

The first phase involves developing strategies by the guerrilla fighters to win the
people’s support by manipulating their feelings and actions through a viable and
constructive machinery of propaganda as well as attacking organs of government.
Thereafter, in the second phase the insurgents will now adopt more violent
strategy by increasing attacks on government forces and essential public
facilities like the radio stations, communication facilities, official buildings like
the parliament building among others. The third phase assumes a new
dimension, where the tactics are somehow at variance to the asymmetric methods
that underlie guerilla warfare.
Here, the insurgents will go out to engage the government forces in an open and
conventional combat to seize cities, overthrow the government and take over the
mantle of leadership. But caution must be taken here, insurgents often times meet
serious resistance from the government forces as was evident in the fight between
the MPLA government forces and UNITA rebels led by Savimbi.
3.3 Features of Guerilla Warfare
A) Operations
Guerrilla operations usually involve a variety of attacks on transportation routes,

individual groups of police or military, installations and structures, economic
enterprises, and targeted civilians. Attacking in small groups, using camouflage
186
and often captured weapons of the enemy, the guerrilla force can persistently
torment the enemy forces psychologically through its level of invisibility in the
conduct of violence. Through continual violent attack on the enemy force, it
decimates the ranks of the enemy and the guerrilla escapes with very low
casualties. More casualties are often more recorded on the side of the enemy camp
than the side of the guerilla fighters.
The guerrilla insurgents carry out their operations not only to achieve military
advantage but also to fulfil their political goals. They use violence to tell the
government or the enemy-camp of the need to make valuable concessions. They
also attack civilian targets in order to force the masses to take drastic measures
such as public demonstration, election, memoranda , and criticism to prevail on
their government to make concessions to the insurgents by suing for peace. A
good example was the terrorist attack that forced the citizens of Spain to prevail
on the home government to withdraw its troops from Iraq. Operations vary from
place to place. The issue of suicide bombing is peculiar to the Middle East. The
9/11 incident that took place in the United States is still very fresh in our memory
where commercial air bus became weapon of mass destruction. It was a suicide
mission by the guerrilla insurgents that piloted the planes.
B) Application of Terror
Sometimes, the use of terror can play an important role in guerrilla military
campaign. Terror has become a veritable tool to attract international attention and
sympathy towards the cause of the guerrilla fighters. For example, Niger-Delta of
Nigeria had never enjoyed huge local and international attention until the recent
eruption of guerrilla warfare in the region.
The insurgent youths of the region kill government forces and security agents,
engage in hijacking of oil facilities, blow up facilities, extort cash from targets,
intimidate the general population, and resort to other acts of economic sabotage in
an attempt to bring the marginalization of the region by successive
administrations to local and international attention.
To some extent, guerrilla tactics employed by the Niger-Delta militants have

begun to yield fruits. This is evident in the political relevance the region is
currently enjoying in Nigeria. They have now produced the Vice President of the
country as the development of the area has become second most popular song
after the National Anthem in Nigeria.
C) Surprise and intelligence
For successful operations, surprise must be achieved by the guerrilla fighters. If

the operation has been betrayed or compromised it is usually called off
immediately. Intelligence is also extremely important, and detailed knowledge of
the target's dispositions, weaponry and morale is gathered before any attack.
187
Intelligence can be harvested in several ways. Collaborators and sympathizers

will usually provide a steady flow of useful information. If working clandestinely,
the guerrilla operative may disguise his membership in the insurgent operation,
and use deception to ferret out needed data.
Employment or enrollment as a student may be undertaken near the target zone,

community organizations may be infiltrated, and even romantic relationships
struck up as part of intelligence gathering. Public sources of information are also
invaluable to the guerrilla, from the flight schedules of targeted airlines, to public
announcements of visiting foreign dignitaries, internet access etc
D) Population Support
Most times, guerrilla fighters usually build cordial relationship with the mass
public in particular. But this is not always the case, if the civil population is found
to be hostile. A friendly population is perhaps a great access to the guerrilla
fighters. They are likely to assist the insurgents not only financially, they also
assist in the provision of shelter, sexual partners (or wives), information among
others. A guerrilla force always strives to win the sympathy of the people because
people determine their success and their safety in the face of counter-insurgency
attack by the enemy force.
Thus, mass public remains the lifeline and engine room of any guerrilla
movement. If a civil population has a hostile and uncooperative attitude towards
the guerrilla fighters, it is a great challenge to the insurgents who endeavour to
win the support of the public at all cost, even it will need to adopt intimidation
strategy to win the masses support, the movement will not hesitate to do so.
E) Withdrawal
Guerrilla fighters always plan for escape in the conduct of their violence. They do
this strategic planning where they draw their withdrawal tactic after each
operation has been carried-out or when there is difficulty in perpetuating the
planned violent campaign. The stage of withdrawal is very critical in guerrilla
operation. Insurgents often get trapped by the enemy camp superior firepower,
and withdrawal tactic will determine the fate of the insurgent. Insurgents usually
have some withdrawal tactics that include mixing with the civilians, evidence-
cleanup, disguise or self-murder (in rare cases) among others.
F) Logistics
Guerrilla operations usually take similar logistical character unlike the

conventional warfare. They often get their finances through bank robberies,
banditry, hired killing, kidnapping, bunkering, car snatching among others. The
guerilla insurgents sometimes get their finances through family support,
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membership dues, donations, investments among others. Civil population

provides support to the guerrilla force if there is a cordial relationship between the
public and the insurgents. A good example is African National Congress (ANC)
led by Nelson Mandela during the apartheid regime where the ANC conducted a
series of guerrilla hostilities against the apartheid government and its forces. The
insurgent group enjoyed wide support among the Blacks in the country and
elsewhere. In considering the logistics, insurgents appreciate the relevance of
speed and mobility in the conduct of their operations.
G) Terrain
Terrain is also very important in guerrilla warfare. Most time, guerrilla fighters
prefer rural location as their abode where they usually retire after they have
conducted their operations usually in the cities or any other target locations. They
prefer places like thick forests, mountainous environment, and borders, which can
create a platform for the insurgents to have access to easy escape routes in case of
any surprise offensive from the enemy camp. Examples include the activities of
the Mujahadeen of Afghanistan against the Russians, the Taliban movement
against the coalition forces in the continuing war in the country. Similarly,
FRELIMO conducted a series of guerrilla attacks against the Portuguese colonial
authorities in Angola prior to independence in that country. The urban guerrilla
movements usually have the attitude of blending into the civil population.
H) Foreign support and sanctuaries
More often than not, guerrilla groups get support from foreign countries or
organizations. They get foreign assistance in the form of soldiers, weapons,
sanctuary, or statements of sympathy. Foreign governments often give covert
assistance to the guerrillas, which can substantially increase the victory of the
insurgents. Foreign diplomatic support may bring the guerrilla cause to
international attention, putting pressure on local opponents to make concessions,
or garnering sympathetic support and material assistance.
I) Guerrilla initiative and combat intensity

Guerrillas normally choose the time and place to strike. Guerrilla fighters will
usually possess the tactical initiative and the element of surprise. Planning for an
insurgent operation often take weeks, months or even years. They always analyse
and examine the possible outcome of their planned strikes and operations. If they
sense that problem is likely to crop up, they change strategy.
Exercise
What are the features of Guerilla warfare?
3.4 Ethical Problems of Guerilla Warfare
A. Intimidation
189
Guerrilla fighters usually articulate policy of intimidation where they find it

difficult to win public support, knowing fully well the strategic importance of the
civil population in the operation of guerilla warfare. Civilians are often attacked
or killed as punishment for having sympathy towards the enemy camp. The
insurgent may also carry out bestial action against civil population to force people
to support their cause.
B. Irresponsible Attack on Civilian Population
This attitude dominates the conduct of guerrilla warfare in Africa. Civil wars, may
also involve deliberate attacks by the belligerents against civilians, with both
guerrilla groups and organized armies committing atrocities. The UNITA rebels
did similar thing during the civil war in Angola till the death of its leader, Savimbi
in the hands of government forces. Savimbi-UNITA guerillas committed a lot of
atrocities against the innocent and armless civil population in that country ranging
from mutilation, arson, sexual slavery to murder.
C. Transferred Aggression
Guerrillas often direct their aggression against civilians when they see that the
enemy camp is too powerful for them to conquer or if the superior fails to bend or
make any concessions in spite of their (guerrilla’s) attacks on government targets.
Frustration may set in on the part of the insurgents. For instance, the insurgents in
Iraq when they are subdued by the superior firepower of the coalition force have
often resorted to direct their anger against the civil population. They go about
bombing civilian locations.
D. Disobedience of the Laws of war
Article 44, sections 3 and 4 of the 1977 First Additional Protocol to the Geneva
Conventions, "relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed
Conflicts", recognizes combatants either militia or regular soldiers by the virtue of
the nature of the conflict, as belligerents either in uniform or not, inasmuch as
they carry arms and weapons openly in the prosecution of military operations,
they are both accorded the same status in the international criminal law.
Guerrillas are barred by the Laws of War from conducting guerrilla offensives on
armless civilians but the situation has been that the insurgents pretend that the
Conventions on the Laws of War do not recognize them as military elements, and
as such their military activities are not subject to the Conventions.
The recent development in Uganda where the leadership of the Lord Resistance
Army (LRA) has been alleged to have committed war crime and they are to face
justice at the War Crime Tribunal. In Rwanda genocide, several civilians that
190
participated in the dastardly act have been made to face justice both in the local
courts in Rwanda and at the International Criminal Court over various war
offences. Whether one is in uniform or not when perpetuating violence against
non-combatants, war crime is war crime.
3.5 Counter-Guerrilla Tactics
The guerrilla movement can be very difficult to crush by any power either
superior or inferior. Its tactical methods and modes of operation perform the
magic. How can one kill an invisible enemy? It is pretty difficult! Nonetheless,
right from the 1950s, attempts have been made at developing a strategic
framework to contain the activities of guerrilla groups. Several scholars have
presented a plethora of principles in form of counter-insurgency warfare.
One of such noble and influential works was done by Sir Robert Thompson.
Thompson is a popular counter-insurgency expert in Malaysia. He offers some
measures, which can be taken to contain guerrilla insurrection. Thompson
however criticised extreme counter-insurgent attitude of state and non-state
actors, which have had great adverse consequences on innocent civilians, which
somehow has created opportunity to insurgents in winning the support of the civil
population both locally and internationally. He however charged the state or
superior party to always adopt moderate approach to counter-guerrilla warfare.
These measures include:
1. People’s Oriented Vision
A viable vision should be articulated in government policy to gain people’s

support. A clear and popular vision can serve as counter measure to play down the
guerrilla vision. In doing this, government can grant political and/or economic
autonomy and embark on development projects in the affected region as evident
in the activities of the Federal Government-established NNDC to take a number
of development initiatives in the oil producing areas of the country.
2. Concessions
Necessary concessions can be made to satisfy the aggrieved people in order to

achieve peace. Through concession efforts, the guerrilla insurgents may see the
need to reconsider the need to work for peace by dropping their weapons and
create avenue to engage government in negotiation. Hard-stand posture is
inhibitor of peace and there is need for warring parties to embrace dialogue and
joint-problem solving philosophy. Thus, the cheapest war is costlier than the most
expensive peace.
3 Economy of force
191
The counter-insurgent regime must carry out its counter guerrilla with some level
of decency. Total military violence should be avoided because such action has the
tendency to force the guerilla to adopt more destructive methods to retaliate the
government’s offensive. The security institutions should be people friendly, and
official brutality should be discouraged.
4. Intervention of the Armed Forces
In a situation whereby the police cannot contain guerrilla harassment, the military
should be brought in to quell the crisis but should be made to discourage
recklessness from the side of government forces. The guerrilla structures should
be brought down and the insurgents should be subjected to hot pursuit in order to
reduce their ranks and put their operations in disarray.
5. Mobility
Mobility and aggressive small unit action is extremely important for the counter-
insurgent regime. Heavy formations must be lightened to aggressively locate,
pursue and fix insurgent units. The military formations should adopt holistic
approach in combating the guerrillas, through tactics like continual ground battle,
aerial bombardment, sea raids, border-combing, among others.
6. Systematic Intelligence Effort
Information is essential in any form of warfare. Adequate resources should be

chanelled towards developing a viable data system and spy intelligence
technology to monitor the activities and movement of the insurgents. Conducting
regular and voluntary questioning of people and create avenue through which
people can render information to government without publicly declaring their
identity, while such information should be treated with absolute confidentiality.
The use of modern information gathering systems like internet should be put in
place.
7. Constructive Investigation and Intelligence
The security operatives should map out the conflict area like an "ink spot". This
area should therefore be divided into various parts and allocate each part its
priority. The parts with high priority index shall be given the greatest attention.
Then, the counter-insurgent party will then spread out its control of the conflict
area outward like an ink spot on a paper. The strategic implication of this action is
that in the process, the entire area will be combed and the insurgents will need to
run away.
8. Establishment of Mass Forces
192
In inaugurating non-regular combatants or vigilante to complement the activities

of the regular armed forces to destroy the guerrilla structures, caution should be
taken in the selection process so that wrong people are not recruited. This group
will include hunters, retired security agents, paramilitary group, vigilante group,
socio-cultural associations, among others. There will also be specialist units that
will monitor the activities of this mass force, so that its institution will not be
counter-productive. With this, the guerrilla insurgents will be choked and it will
be difficult to carry-out their insurgent attack without being strongly challenged.
9. Foreign assistance
Limited foreign assistance will be quite helpful, particularly technical suppo rt

where the security personnel can have advanced training, which is useful in
improving their tactical understanding. Supply of security gadgets is also helpful.
Exercise
Explain any five ways to check guerilla warfare.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Guerrilla warfare has remained a very unique form of warfare in modern theatre
of war. It is usually adopted by the weak or inferior party to break the power-base
of the superior party because the former does not possess the military credentials
to engage the latter in any open and conventional warfare. If the former does
adopt open war, it is likely to be at its own peril.
History has shown that guerrilla warfare has remained a viable vehicle for the
inferior party to force the superior party to make concessions. This was evident in
the eventual acceptance by the British imperialists under the tutelage of Kitchener
to make some concessions to the Boers to end hostility and by 1902, the Boer
guerrilla insurgents finally gave up the struggle, which demonstrated the strategic
importance of guerrilla tactic in modern armed conflict.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to treat the topic, guerrilla warfare extensively. We
began by explaining the meaning of guerrilla warfare. We went further to discuss
the various tactics and strategies that characterize the guerrilla warfare. We also
described the features as well as the ethical Problems of guerrilla warfare. Finally,
we examined various counter-guerrilla measures that can be taken to limit or
contain any guerrilla uprising. Thank you for your patience. I hope you have
found the topic very interesting?
193
Describe Guerrilla Warfare. And what are the possible measures that can be taken
to counter guerilla aggression?
Asprey, Robert B. (1994), War in the Shadows, The Guerilla in History, William
Morrow.
Bing, Stanley (2004), Sun Tzu Was a Sissy: Conquer Your Enemies, Promote
Your Friends, and Wage the Real Art of War, New York: Harper Collins.
David, Steven R. (2002), "Fatal Choices: Israel's Policy of Targeted Killing", The
Begin-Sadat Centre for Strategic Studies, Bar-Ilan University. (September).
Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Warfare Conduct Of, Guerrilla Warfare," 1984

edition.
Giap, Vo Nguyen (2001), People's War, People's Army, Honolulu: University

Press of the Pacific.
Guevara, Ernesto "Che" (1998), Guerrilla Warfare, Lincoln: University of

Nebraska Press.
Mackey, Robert R. (2004). The UnCivil War: Irregular Warfare in the Upper
South, 1861–1865. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.
Smith, Rupert (General Sir) (2006), The Utility of Force: The Art of War in the
Modern World, Allen Lane, 2006.
Wordsworth, William (1998) Selected Prose, Penguin Classics.
.baader-meinhof.com/students/resources/pr int/minimanual/manualtext.html
://www.freepeoplesmovement.org/fpm/page.php?149
.marxists.org
194
Unit 4
RELEVANCE OF FORTIFICATION TACTIC IN SECURITY

MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Meaning of Fortification Tactic
3.2 Evolution of Fortification Tactic
3.3 Branches of Fortification
3.4 Obstacles of Permanent Fortifications
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Fortification is a form of tactic in which military constructions and structures are

put in place for security reasons. These structures, perhaps, serve to provide
defense for the belligerents in time of war and inhibit the movement of enemies in
security management. This tactic dominates every aspect of security and defence.
In the last unit, we discussed guerrilla and tactical measures that can be taken to
counter it.
What I want to bring out here is that fortification is another tactic that can be
adopted by counter-insurgent party to put the activities of the insurgents in check.
This is done through provision of military constructions or fence to edge-out the
guerrillas as well as limiting the insurgents’ movement flow, which will deny the
guerrilla fighters free access to the party’s camp. This unit will discuss
extensively on fortification as a viable tactic of security management. So, fasten
your seat belt and let’s cruise.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Explain the Meaning of Fortification Tactic;

Discuss the Evolut ion of Fortification Tactic;
Describe the Branches of Fortification; and
Examine the Obstacles of Permanent Fortifications.
195
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Meaning of Fortification Warfare
The term fortification is derived from the Latin fortis ("strong") and facere ("to
make"). If we consider the two Latin words in our definition of fortification, we
are not wrong to say that fortification tactic involves constructive initiatives ‘to
make strong’ one’s side in the face of security threat through provisions of
defense or security buildings and installations to create artificial impediment to
the enemy’s movement or seek to prevent enemy’s attack.
The word fortification can also refer to the practice of enhancing or improving an
area's security with defensive works. City walls are fortifications but not
necessarily called fortresses. Looking at the subject matter from the home-front,
we see almost every household erecting fences and burglary-proof iron gates all
over the place. The aim of doing this is not basically to prevent burglars’ visit but
to prevent their easy access to the house. By doing so, not every common criminal
can gain access to the house.
Even, if sophisticated bandits are to visit the neighbourhood, they consider first,
the house with easier access, not without exceptions. One of the exceptions is that
if it is the major plan of the bandits to visit a particular house, no matter the forts
available or security structures put in place, they will strive to gain access to the
house. But this effort, not in all cases, is fruitful. Thus, the bandits may
experience strong fight from the occupants of the house they are visiting and they
(bandits) may decide to retreat or remain resilient, engaging the house occupants
in continued aggression until they gain access to the house.
By and large, the point we are trying to make here, is to create an aggression
scenario from our civil (domestic) experience. What we are driving at here, is that
countries often adopt fortification strategy to prevent any form of surprise attack
or invasion by enemy-party, and to give the defensive party an opportunity to
have a strategic advantage over the offensive party on the scale of military
probability.
Fortification helps to alert the defensive party of the aggressor’s (offensive) or

security threat. If the defensive party is aware of the enemy’s offensive, it equips
itself adequately for the task ahead. Fortification can also serve as temporary
cover for belligerents in open confrontation.
In military context, fortification is defensive tactic against any attack from the
enemy’s camp. Fortification basically involves putting in place strategic defensive
system. Several military installations are known as forts, some of which are not
always fortified. Fort is the common military term for a detached fortified
building or enclosure of moderate size occupied or designed to be occupied by
196
troops.
Fort can be permanent or temporal. There are two forms of fort. The first is the
larger fort, which is known as fortress. The second form is smaller fort, which is
also known as fortalice. Fortress is that form of fortification, of extraordinary size
and strength, regarded as permanent.
The art of laying out or construction of a military camp, particularly an army

camp is known as castrametation. The art and science of laying siege to a
fortification aimed at destroying it can be regarded to as siege-craft. Fortification
is a tactical form of security management where building of military structures
and constructions or fence can serve as strategic scheme to impede the movement
of the enemy-aggressor party.
Forts are built in anticipation to prevent any external attack from the enemy.
Fortification has proved to be very effective as counter-guerrilla war strategy to
contain the activities of enemy-guerrilla insurgents as evident in the Boer War.
The war was between the British and Boer who were white settlers in South
Africa over imperial interests.
War broke out in 1899, and after two and a half years of armed hostility between
the two, the Boers were defeated (Strayer et al, 1961:392). Their capitals such as
Pretoria and Bloemfontein were thereafter occupied by the British. After the
defeat of the Boers by the British in conventional warfare, the former sought to
continue the military campaign this time, not through conventional method, but
by unconventional way-guerrilla tactic.
Guerrilla method really worked to the advantage of the Boers, particularly the
successes recorded by such insurgent units like the one led by Christian de Wet.
The insurgent operations against the British nonetheless attracted high casualty
rate among the British troops.
In response to the incessant guerrilla attacks from the Boers, the Kitchener led
British imperial forces had to adopt fortification tactic as alternative approach for
counter-insurgency. The British began by confining the Boer civilians into
concentration camps, and hundreds of houses were built all over the Transvaal
and Orange Free State. Then, Kitchener endorsed a scorched earth policy where
the Boer homes and farms were destroyed, bringing the insurgents to a bend.
Exercise
What is fortification tactic?
3.2 Evolution of Fortification Tactic
Fortification has been in existence, even from pre-historic era in human history.
From one period to another, human beings have continued to put in place various
197
types of defensive works of varying degree to protect themselves from any

external attacks. Simply put, people construct forts to prevent enemy from
carrying out a surprise attack.
In modern era, fortification involves creating a ‘special territory’ or space within

the larger territorial configuration of a state by government for a permanent
military facility, which includes military barracks, administration, intelligence or
medical services. These facilities may not likely have any concrete fortifications.
In medieval ages, the strategic importance of fortification as a defence tactic was

challenged by the introduction of cannons in the 14th century war terrain. Cannon
is a large tubular weapon for discharging a heavy shot, particularly one that is
mounted on carriage. It is a big artillery gun.
Fortifications in the Age of Blackpowder changed into much lower structures

with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts, which would reduce the efficacy of
cannon fire. Walls open to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were
crushed into ditches fronted by earth slopes. This placed a heavy emphasis on the
geometry of the fortification to allow defensive cannonry interlocking fields of
fire to cover all approaches to the lower and thus more vulnerable walls.
Fortifications also extended in depth, with protected batteries for defensive

cannonry, to allow them to engage attacking cannon to keep them at a distance
and prevent them bearing directly on the vulnerable walls. The result was star
shaped fortifications.
The introduction of explosive shells in the nineteenth century propelled a need to

further develop the artistry of fortification as a war tactic to stand the challenges
of modern warfare. The shaped fortifications of the cannon era became less
effective in modern theatre of war, considering the damaging effects of highly
destructive explosives on the fortress. Thus, the cannon-age fortress became
obsolete due to high degree of vulnerability to explosive shells.
In addressing this challenge, military engineers then developed the polygonal

style of fortification. Here, the ditch became deep and vertically sided, cut directly
into the native rock or soil, laid out as a series of straight lines creating the central
fortified area that gives this style of fortification its name.
The fortification is now large enough to be an obstructive blockade for attacking

troops. Due to its narrowness, it has been pretty difficult for enemy’s explosive
shell to hit the target. By 20th century, the use of steel and concrete fortifications
became popular. The experience of the two world wars has undermined the
strategic importance of fortress in modern warfare. Only underground bunkers are
still effective to provide a defense against enemy shell-fires.
3.3 Branches of Fortification
198
Fortification is usually divided into three branches, namely permanent

fortification, field fortification and semi-permanent fortification.
Permanent fortifications are constructed at leisure and not during eruption of
aggressive attack from the (external) enemy. The party provides necessary or
adequate resources both in material and technical terms for the constructions of
fortifications. The construction often takes months, if not years. Some may even
take decades to build.
Field fortifications are erected by troops in the field who may be assisted by local
labour and tools. This type of fortification does not require much resources to
prepare and it is temporal and less complex.
Semi-permanent fortification is between the permanent and field fortifications. It

is intermediate branch of fortification, which is applied when it becomes
paramount during the war, to protect a particular location for long term defense of
the warring state or party. Skilled civilian workers may be brought in to give
support to the military in the constructions.
Exercise
Explain branches of fortification.
3.4 Obstacles of Permanent Fortifications
In this segment of the unit, we are to look at various factors that are responsible
for the less effective nature of fortifications in modern warfare. Though,
fortification can still be effective in checking the activities of the guerrillas but
can prove ineffective in modern conventional warfare due to the nature of modern
war itself. Some of the obstacles bedeviling the strategic importance of
fortifications may include:
1) Problem of Permanency: The first problem of Permanent fortification is its very

permanency. The nature of modern day aggression makes it very vulnerable and
susceptible to demolition through the destructive military hardware that pervades
the modern war terrain. Again, due to easy access to fortification, arising from its
permanency, it is easy for enemies to ruminate on the effective way to destroy it.
The rise of mobile warfare since World War II has further subjected permanent
fortification to vulnerability because the might of the offensive party really
determines the fortification level of the defensive party. The offensive party could
channel its power to advance a breakthrough by breaking the ranks of a segment
of the defensive lines. Well, the main motive behind the adoption of fortification
is not to totally prevent enemy’s attack but to delay it, so that the defensive party
will have at least time to develop counter-attack measures to stop enemy’s
invasion.
199
2) The second obstacle of permanent fortification in modern battlefield is that the

level of military technology has gone sophisticated. The cold-war era contributed
in no small measure to proliferation of weapons, many of which are very
destructive, which no permanent fortification can withstand. Considering the cost
of production of siege weapons and construction of permanent fortification in
modern warfare, siege appears to be much cheaper.
3) The development of war jets and missiles has adversely affected the strategic
importance of permanent fortification in modern battlefields. The powerful shell-
fires from the air can crush any permanent fortifications. Thus, war is now
conducted not only through the land or sea but also by air. Aerial bombings and
the destructive nature of some bombs and missiles makes permanent fortifications
vulnerable.
Exercise
Explain the obstacles of fortification tactic.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Fortification tactic has continued to enjoy relative relevance in modern-day

security practice. Despite the challenges the lethal and destructive nature of
modern weapons and the emergent mobility in warfare and logistics as well as
war plane development, add to the strategic relevance of fortification, it has
remained a viable defence tactic. A great example is Iraq war where Saddam and
some of his senior aides escaped the ferocious air raids carried out by the US, by
hiding in the underground tunnels to escape the air onslaught, which left the
country with collateral casualty among the civilian and military population.
Fortification may prove very effective as a counter-guerrilla measure.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to focus on various aspects and issues of
fortification tactic. We explained the meaning of fortification tactic. We also
discussed the evolution of fortification tactic. Thereafter, we pointed our search
light on the branches of fortification. Finally, we examined the various obstacles
of permanent fortifications
i. What is fortification warfare?

ii. Describe the branches of fortification.
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS
Duffy, Christopher (1996), Fire & Stone: The Science of Fortress Warfare (1660–
200
1860), Second Edition, New York: Stackpole Books.
Keegan, John (1999), The Battle of the Frontiers and the Marine: The First World
War, New York: Random House.
Montague, Ashley (1976), The Nature of Human Aggression, Oxford: Oxford

University Press.
Mueller, John (1989), Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War,
New York: Basic Books.
Strayer, Joseph R.; Hans W. Gatzke; and E. Harris Harbison (1961), The Course
of Civilization (Volume Two), NewYork: Harcourt, Brace and World.
201
Unit 5
MANOEUVRE TACTIC IN DEFENCE AND SECURITY MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Meaning of Manoeuvre Tactic
3.2 Differences between Maneuver Tactic and Attrition Tactic.
3.3 Elements of Maneuver Tactic
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Manoeuvre is the term used by military theorists and tacticians, which means an
attempt or attempts where a party embarks on actions or measures to gain
positional advantage over the other party in armed conflict. These actions are
designed purposely to contain the movement of the enemy as well as to destroy its
fire-power such that the enemy will have very little or no military resources or
hardware to prosecute (further) aggression. This form of tactic is referred to as
theory of shock and awe. This unit shall focus on various issues in maneuver
tactic.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

Describe Maneuver Tactic;
Discuss the differences between Maneuver Tactic and Attrition Tactic; and
Explain elements of Maneuver Tactic.
3.0 MAIN BODY
3.1 Meaning of Maneuver Warfare
Maneuver is a form of tactic where one of the (or both) parties in aggression seeks
to gain military advantage over the other not basically by attacking the enemy but
by destroying the armoury of the enemy-party before conducting any offensive
against the enemy-party. By do ing so, the enemy’s aggressive frequency must
have a subject of tactical interception from the other party. A good example is a
202
brutal conflict between two families. Each of the families has a father, a mother,
and four children who are of the same height and weight (or, simply put, the same
size). The only difference is that one of the two families has three male children
while the other has two male children. The law of nature says that men should be
stronger than women physically (but not in all cases).
Thus, the second family is disadvantaged strategically by having two boys. If you
belong to the second family, what are you going to do to turn your strategic
disadvantage into advantage. Here, what the maneuver tells us is that we should
pay more attention on the enemy’s power-base rather than the enemy herself. A
maneuver tactician may decide not to engage the advantaged party first in any
physical battle. The first plan will be to set fire on the advantaged party’s house,
causing the entire household psychological defeat while its members run helter-
skelter to escape being consumed by fire.
The initially disadvantaged family may take advantage of the breakdown in the
command structure of the enemy party. Through strategic ambush, a substantial
number of the previously advantaged family may be killed, and cleansing
operation will then follow. In this case, the former disadvantaged party gained a
military advantage over the superior party. Any tactical miscalculation in security
management can be very risky and costly. And that is why nations now pay
greater attention on strategic intelligence. Superb security initiatives not backed
by intelligence are nothing but actions in futility.
Maneuver involves any action(s) that is designed specifically to drain and

crumble the power base of the enemy like destroying its armoury and weaponry.
This will undermine the enemy’s capability to further aggression. This is because
the enemy will no have any sufficient weapons to continue its aggression.
In military context, the United States is popular in maneuver tactic. The US will
always begin its military offensive by first destroying the armoury and the
military hardware of its enemy-state. This is done mainly through air raids and
aerial bombings. Thereafter, the infantry and tanks are called upon to do the
finishing. In the Iraq war, the US was very innovative and novel in putting
‘unprecedented combination of speed, precision, surprise and flexibility’ into play
while ‘turning difficulties into opportunities’ (Cordesman, 2003). Cordesman
further explains that:
Another lesson is that in the twenty-first century “overmatching

power” is more important than “overwhelming force”. In the past,
under the doctrine of overwhelming force, force tended to be measured
in terms of mass-the number of troops that were committed to a
particular conflict. In the twenty-first century, mass may no longer be
the best measure of power in a conflict. After all, when Baghdad fell,
there were just over 100,000 American forces on the ground. General
Franks overwhelmed the enemy not with the typical three-to-one
203
advantage in mass, but by overwhelming the enemy with advanced

capabilities in innovative and unexpected ways (Cordesman, 2003:2).
Maneuver tactic is basically aimed at gaining positional advantage over the

enemy-party. The American philosophy about maneuver is that aggression is
targeted against the enemy by smashing and destroying the solidity and cohesion
of the enemy-party. This will affect enemy-party psyche and the loss of bearing.
Conducting rapid and surprise attacks on the enemy can be tactically helpful in
security management.
The Iraq experience has been able to present the strategic and tactical importance
of maneuver in modern warfare. The Iraq forces that were substantially larger and
had a geographic advantage. This is because the war was taking place at their
home front. They were supposed to be more familiar with the terrain than the
foreign enemies. Nobody could have thought that Iraq would be defeated very
early unlike the case of the Gulf war of 1991. “Shock and Awe” tactic dominated
the whole maneuver proceedings. The cohesion as well as the communication
system of the Iraqi military had already been destroyed by the US bombings
before ground battle commenced. Their arms facilities were destroyed to the
extent that the Iraqi forces could not put up any strong challenge or resistance
against the US troops.
Jointness of the force, speed, communication command, computers and

intelligence play fundamental roles in maneuver. This is not to say that firepower
is not relevant in modern security management. Meanwhile, firepower is also
important to the conduct of maneuver aggression. We will apply the use of fires
and forces at critical points to demolish enemies when there are prospects and
when it fits our larger purposes. In fact, maneuver is both strategic (when and
where to fight) and tactical (how to fight the battle he chooses).
In maneuver aggression, air raids, missile shelling, and geographical amputation

can adequately subject enemy to perpetual confusion in the conduct of armed
hostilities. Maneuver is not new, it has been in existence from time immemorial.
In the Biblical narration of man in the Garden of Eden, we noticed here that after
Lucifer had fallen and lost the grace of God due to his disobedience to his
Creator-God. The demon knowing fully well that God had special love for man,
he (the devil) lured Adam and Eve to eat the forbidden fruit.
That event marked the beginning of earthly maneuver in the celestial hostility
between the good and bad or evil. Satan used that strategy to score a point against
God, such that if God can overlook the sin committed by man, similar grace
should also be extended to him-Satan for the sake of justice. But God too, was
very smart by decreeing that evil men will be subjected to eternal punishment-hell
fire along with Satan. This view is popular among Christians and Muslims.
Maneuver has remained prominent from one period to another. In the Franco-
204
Prussian War, it was clear that Napoleon had repositioned the French forces to a
stronger one army, which could destabilize the enemy-party through its speed,
precision, and cohesive control. Napoleon as a war general also arranged his
forces into what today we would refer to 'Battle-Groups' of combined arms
formations to enable faster reaction time to enemy action.
Advancement in technology has really increased the role played by maneuver in

modern security management and defence. The lethality and destructive nature of
modern weapons have increased the interest of nations in maneuver tactic.
Mobility, technology and intelligence have become basic elements of maneuver
tactic in modern time. States now adopt maneuver strategies and tactics to gain
advantage over the enemy-parties. In the Nigerian Civil War, hunger became a
viable weapon of warfare. The cut off of supply of foods and weapons to the
Biafran side by the Nigerian government really contributed in no small measure to
the defeat suffered by the Biafran forces
Exercise
What is maneuver warfare?
3.2 Differences between Maneuver Tactic and Attrition Tactic
a) Attrition is centered on attaining desired victory through killing or capturing an

adversary while maneuver supports the view that defensive aggression should
always involve both maneuver and attrition;
b) Maneuver is usually conducted by smaller forces, which appear more cohesive,

better trained, or more technically sound while attrition forces are often larger,
less trained or less technically sound. The term maneuver denotes any aggressive
articulation that involves actions and movement aimed at gaining positional
advantage of the enemy;
c) Attrition is associated with moving masses of men and material against enemy
strong-points. The military success is determined by a number enemy forces
killed, the enemy’s infrastructure destroyed, and amount of territory occupied.
Maneuver is pre-occupied with rapid movement and advanced capabilities to
contain the enemy’s mobility, crushing the enemy’s fire-power arsenals and
complete the aggression with attrition elements;
d) Maneuver involves decentralized command structures with greater tactical artistry
while the attrition usually has more centralized command with less tactics;
e) Attrition deals with attempts of hitting and destroying the totality of the enemy-
parties. It includes destruction of enemy troops as well other social facilities while
maneuver is primarily concerned with destroying the power-base of the enemy
like bombing of the armoury, military complex, air base, submarine, war ships
without necessary destroying the social facilities; and
205
f) Attrition can hardly be successful without employing maneuver tactic. No

aggression either defensive or offensive can be complete without employing both
attrition and maneuver tactics.
Exercise
What are the differences between maneuver tactic and attrition tactic?
3.3 Elements of Maneuver Tactic
War theorist, Martin Van Creveld identifies six main elements of maneuver tactic:
a) Sustaining the aggression tempo as the military quest to achieve a positional

advantage over the enemy is maintained;
b) Decentralization of the command structures for effective containment of the

enemy’s offensive and proper coordination of the destruction of the enemy’s
power base;
c) Scoring vital points by attacking most important and weakly defended military
facilities of the enemy at the right time. Maneuver is sustained by the synergy of
Intelligence, communication, speed, precision, control, computers and advanced
military capabilities;
d) Surprise attacks form the basic part of maneuver tactic. Sometimes, surprise
attacks can be counter-productive. Risk assessment must be conducted before
embarking on surprise attacks;
e) Jointness of the forces is also a very important element of maneuver tactic; and
f) Maneuver also involves high degree of flexibility.
Exercise
What are the elements of maneuver tactic?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Precision, communication, command, flexibility and intelligence are fundamental

elements of maneuver tactic. These determine the success of every defensive or
offensive aggression. The change in technology has made the application of
maneuver tactic very important in modern security management and defence.
There is a paradigm shift from measuring the capability of any force by its mass
to the security technology and mobility of any force. The competition that
dominates the acquisition of weapons among the nations and the growing security
threat posed by non-state actors, has further expanded the frontiers of maneuver in
modern time. Maneuver tactic plays a very important role in the technical
dislodgment of the enemy-party by attacking its military materials rather than
206
personnel (or troops).
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has been to treat a variety of issues as regards the maneuver tactic. We
began by looking at the meaning of maneuver. Thereafter, we discussed the
differences between Maneuver tactic and Attrition tactic. We also explained the
elements of maneuver tactic insecurity management and defence. Mind you, you
are advised to engage yourself in further reading to complement what you have
studied in this unit.
i. Describe the term, maneuver tactic; and

ii. Explain any four elements of maneuver tactic.
Boyd, John (1986) Patterns of Conflict, on .d-n-i.net/boyd/pdf/poc.pdfm
Cordesman, Anthony H (2003), The Iraq War: Strategy, Tactics and Military
Lessons, Washington DC: Centre for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).
Lind, William S (1985), Maneuver Warfare Handbook, Westview Special Studies

in Military Affairs. Boulder, CO.: Westview Press Inc.
Limpkin, Richard E. (2000), Race to the Swift: Thoughts on Twenty-First Century

Warfare. Brassey's.
Van Creveld, Martin, ‘Air Power and Maneuver Warfare’ on

://www.au.af.mil/au/aul/aupress/Books/vanCreveld/vanCreveld.pdf . Retrieved
on April 2, 2008.
.cfc.forces.gc.ca/Profreading/myers.pdf . Retrieved on April 6, 2008.
207
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CSS 243 Principles of Security Practice and Management

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: CSS 243

Course Developer: Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali

Course Writers: Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali

Course Editor: Prof. P.E. Agbebaku

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

National Open University of Nigeria 2008

First Printed 2008

All Rights Reserved

Unit 1: Meaning of Security……………………………………………..1-10

Abisoye Alesinloye wrote unit 3 in module 3: “management of job stress among

What you will learn in this course

organizations have continued to advocate for replacement of the traditional coercion

• Describe security and its types;

At the end of the course, you should be able to:

• Describe security and its types;

how it affects strategic planning;

Working through this course

Major components of the course include:

In this course there are twenty units, which include:

Unit 1: Meaning of Security

Unit 6: Approaches to Security Management

1. Teriff, Terry et al (1999), Security Studies Today, Massachusetts Blackwell

4. Smith, Steve (2000), “The Increasing Insecurity of Security Studies:

5. Hannah, Greg et al (2005), Intelligence for security Legislation for Security

6. Kent, Sherman (1965), Strategic Intelligence, Archon, Books

7. Imbus, Michael T. (April 2002), Identifying Threats: Improving Intelligence

8. Wisner, Frank G. (22 Sept. 1993), On “The Craft of Intelligence”, available

9. Armstrong, M. (1981), A Handbook of Personnel Management Practice,

10. Federal Bureau of Investigation (2004), Crime Reporting Handbook. Also

Tutor Marked Assignments

Final Examination and Grading

Course Marking Scheme

Table 1: Course Making Scheme

Unit Title Week’s Assessment

7 Meaning of Intelligence 6 Assignment 7

Table 2: Course Overview

How to get the best from this Course

1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

soon as possible if you have any questions or problems.

Tutors and Tutorials

• How do you describe security?

• What are the measures to counter-intelligence?

Course Developer Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali

Course Writers Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali

Course Editor Prof. P.E. Agbebaku

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

National Open University of Nigeria 2007

First Printed 2008

All rights reserved

Unit 1: Meaning of Security……………………………………………..1-10

Unit 1:Meaning of Security

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Define the term security and

3.0 MAIN BODY

3.1 Definition of Security

A layman definition of security is the protection of life and property of a person.

However, in an attempt by the state to actualize the purpose of its creation

But, in contemporary time, definition of security goes beyond the traditional