SCRIBNER LIBRARY OF MODERN EUROPE

EUROPE
1789 TO 1914
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE
AGE OF INDUSTRY AND EMPIRE
EDITORIAL BOARD

EDITORS IN CHIEF
John Merriman
Yale University

Jay Winter
Yale University

ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Jane Burbank
New York University

John A. Davis
University of Connecticut

Steven C. Hause
Washington University, St. Louis

Mark S. Micale
University of Illinois

Dennis Showalter
Colorado College

Jonathan Sperber
University of Missouri
 SCRIBNER LIBRARY OF MODERN EUROPE

EUROPE
1789 TO 1914
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE
AGE OF INDUSTRY AND EMPIRE

Volume 5
Talleyrand to Zollverein; Index
John Merriman and Jay Winter
EDITORS IN CHIEF
 Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire
John Merriman
Jay Winter
Editors in Chief

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Europe 1789 to 1914 : encyclopedia of the age of industry and empire / edited by John
Merriman and Jay Winter.
p. cm. — (Scribner library of modern Europe)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-684-31359-6 (set : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-31360-X (v. 1 : alk. paper) — ISBN
0-684-31361-8 (v. 2 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-31362-6 (v. 3 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-
31363-4 (v. 4 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-31364-2 (v. 5 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-31496-7
(ebook)
1. Europe–History–1789-1900–Encyclopedias. 2. Europe–History–1871-1918–
Encyclopedias. 3. Europe–Civilization–19th century–Encyclopedias. 4. Europe–
Civilization–20th century–Encyclopedias. I. Merriman, John M. II. Winter, J. M.
D299.E735 2006
940.2’8–dc22 2006007335

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 CONTENTS OF THIS VOLUME

n n
U
Maps of Europe, 1789 to 1914 . . . xvii
Ukraine
Ulm, Battle of
VOL UME 5 Ulrichs, Karl Heinrich
Umberto I
n Universities
Unkiar-Skelessi, Treaty of
T
Utilitarianism
Talleyrand, Charles Maurice de Utopian Socialism
Tchaikovsky, Peter
Telephones
Tennyson, Alfred n
Thiers, Louis-Adolphe
V
Tirpitz, Alfred von
Tobacco Van Gogh, Vincent
Tocqueville, Alexis de Venice
Tolstoy, Leo Verdi, Giuseppe
Tories Verga, Giovanni
Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de Verne, Jules
Tourism Victor Emmanuel II
Toussaint Louverture Victoria, Queen
Trade and Economic Growth Vienna
Trafalgar, Battle of Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène
Transportation and Communications Virchow, Rudolf
Treitschke, Heinrich von Vladivostok
Trieste
Tristan, Flora
n
Tuberculosis
Tunisia W
Turati, Filippo Wagner, Richard
Turgenev, Ivan Waldeck-Rousseau, René
Turner, J. M. W. Wales

v
CONTENTS OF THIS VOLUME

Wallace, Alfred Russel n

War of 1812 Y
Warsaw Yeats, William Butler
Waterloo Young Czechs and Old Czechs
Webb, Beatrice Potter Young Hegelians
Weber, Max Young Italy
Weininger, Otto Young Turks
Welfare
Wellington, Duke of (Arthur Wellesley)
Wells, H. G.
Westernizers
n
Whigs
Wilberforce, William Z
Wilde, Oscar Zasulich, Vera
William I Zionism
William II Zola, Émile
William IV Zollverein
Windthorst, Ludwig
Wine
Witte, Sergei
Wollstonecraft, Mary n
Wordsworth, William
Working Class
Systematic Outline of Contents . . . 2527
World’s Fairs Directory of Contributors . . . 2539
Wundt, Wilhelm Index . . . 2559

vi E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

VOLUME 1 Anarchism
Anarchosyndicalism
n Andreas-Salomé, Lou
Anneke, Mathilde-Franziska
Introduction . . . xix Anticlericalism
Maps of Europe, 1789 to 1914 . . . xxix Anti-Semitism
Chronology . . . xxxvii Aristocracy
Armenia
Armies
n
Arnold, Matthew
Artisans and Guilds
A Art Nouveau
Abdul-Hamid II Asquith, Herbert Henry
Absinthe Associations, Voluntary
Action Française Atget, Eugène
Acton, John Athens
Addis Ababa, Treaty of Auclert, Hubertine
Adler, Alfred Augspurg, Anita
Adler, Victor Austen, Jane
Adrianople Austerlitz
Africa Australia
Agassiz, Louis Austria-Hungary
Agricultural Revolution Austro-Prussian War
Airplanes Automobile
Albania Avant-Garde
Alcohol and Temperance
Alexander I
Alexander II
n
Alexander III
Alexandra B
Algeria Baden-Powell, Robert
Alliance System Bagehot, Walter
Alsace-Lorraine Bakunin, Mikhail
Amsterdam Balkan Wars

vii
CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Balzac, Honoré de Brontë, Charlotte and Emily

Banks and Banking Brougham, Henry
Barbizon Painters Brunel, Isambard Kingdom
Barcelona Brussels
Barrès, Maurice Brussels Declaration
Barry, Charles Budapest
Baudelaire, Charles Bulgaria
Bäumer, Gertrud Bund, Jewish
Beards Burckhardt, Jacob
Beardsley, Aubrey Bureaucracy
Bebel, August Burke, Edmund
Beethoven, Ludwig van Business Firms and Economic Growth
Belgium Butler, Josephine
Belgrade Byron, George Gordon
Belinsky, Vissarion
Bely, Andrei
Bentham, Jeremy
n
Berdyayev, Nikolai
Bergson, Henri C
Berlin Cabarets
Berlin Conference Cabet, Étienne
Berlioz, Hector Caillaux, Joseph
Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste Cajal, Santiago Ramón y
Bernard, Claude Canada
Bernhardt, Sarah Canova, Antonio
Bernstein, Eduard Capitalism
Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von Captain Swing
Bismarck, Otto von Carbonari
Black Hand Carducci, Giosuè
Black Sea Caribbean
Blake, William Carlism
Blanc, Louis Carlsbad Decrees
Blanqui, Auguste Carlyle, Thomas
Blok, Alexander Carpenter, Edward
Body Castlereagh, Viscount (Robert Stewart)
Boer War Catherine II
Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia Catholicism
Bolsheviks Catholicism, Political
Bonald, Louis de Cavour, Count (Camillo Benso)
Bonapartism Center Party
Borodino Central Asia
Bosnia-Herzegovina Cézanne, Paul
Bosphorus Chaadayev, Peter
Boulanger Affair Chadwick, Edwin
Boulangism Chamberlain, Houston Stewart
Bourgeoisie Chamberlain, Joseph
Boxer Rebellion Champollion, Jean-François
Brahms, Johannes Charcot, Jean-Martin
Braille, Louis Charles X
Brentano, Franz Charles Albert

viii E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Chartism Cossacks
Chateaubriand, François-René Counterrevolution
Chekhov, Anton Courbet, Gustave
Chemistry Crime
Childhood and Children Crimean War
China Crispi, Francesco
Cholera Croce, Benedetto
Chopin, Frédéric Cruikshank, George
Cinema Crystal Palace
Cities and Towns Cubism
Citizenship Curie, Marie
Civilization, Concept of Curzon, George
Civil Society Cuvier, Georges
Class and Social Relations Cycling
Clausewitz, Carl von Czartoryski, Adam
Clemenceau, Georges
Clothing, Dress, and Fashion
Coal Mining
Cobbett, William n
Cobden, Richard D
Cobden-Chevalier Treaty Daguerre, Louis
Cockerill, John Danish-German War
Coffee, Tea, Chocolate D’Annunzio, Gabriele
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor Danton, Georges-Jacques
Colonialism Darwin, Charles
Daumier, Honoré
David, Jacques-Louis
VOL UME 2 Davies, Emily
De Vries, Hugo
C (CONTINUED) Deák, Ferenc
Colonies Death and Burial
Combination Acts Debussy, Claude
Commercial Policy Decadence
Committee of Public Safety Degas, Edgar
Communism Degeneration
Comte, Auguste Delacroix, Eugène
Concert of Europe Delcassé, Théophile
Concordat of 1801 Demography
Congress of Berlin Denmark
Congress of Troppau Deraismes, Maria
Congress of Vienna Deroin, Jeanne
Conrad, Joseph Diaghilev, Sergei
Conservatism Dickens, Charles
Constable, John Diet and Nutrition
Constant, Benjamin Dilthey, Wilhelm
Consumerism Diplomacy
Continental System Directory
Cooperative Movements Disease
Corn Laws, Repeal of Disraeli, Benjamin
Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Dohm, Hedwig

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 ix
CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Doré, Gustave Federalist Revolt

Dostoyevsky, Fyodor Feminism
Doyle, Arthur Conan Ferdinand I
Dreadnought Ferdinand VII
Dreyfus Affair Ferry, Jules
Drugs Fichte, Johann Gottlieb
Drumont, Édouard Fin de Siècle
Dublin Finland and the Baltic Provinces
Dueling First International
Durand, Marguerite Flâneur
Durkheim, Émile Flaubert, Gustave
Dvorák, Antonı́n Fontane, Theodor
Football (Soccer)
Forster, E. M.
n Fouché, Joseph
Fourier, Charles
E
Fox, Charles James
Eastern Question France
East India Company Francis I
Economic Growth and Industrialism Francis Ferdinand
Economists, Classical Francis Joseph
Education Franco-Austrian War
Edward VII Franco-Prussian War
Egypt Frankfurt Parliament
Ehrlich, Paul Frazer, James
Eiffel Tower Frederick III
Einstein, Albert Frederick William III
Electricity Frederick William IV
Eliot, George Freemasons
Ellis, Havelock Frege, Gottlob
Emigration French Revolution
Endecja French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars
Engels, Friedrich Freud, Sigmund
Engineers Friedrich, Caspar David
Environment Furniture
Estates-General Futurism
Eugenics
Eurasianism
Evolution
Exile, Penal n
Explorers
G
Gagern, Heinrich von
Gaj, Ljudevit
n
Gall, Franz Joseph
F Galton, Francis
Fabians Gambetta, Léon-Michel
Factories Garibaldi, Giuseppe
Fashoda Affair Gaskell, Elizabeth
Fauvism Gaudı́, Antonio
Fawcett, Millicent Garrett Gauguin, Paul

x E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Gender Hölderlin, Johann Christian

Generation of 1898 Friedrich
Geneva Convention Holy Alliance
George IV Homosexuality and Lesbianism
Géricault, Théodore Housing
Germany Hugo, Victor
Giolitti, Giovanni Humboldt, Alexander and Wilhelm von
Girondins Hundred Days
Gissing, George Husserl, Edmund
Gladstone, William Huxley, Thomas Henry
Glinka, Mikhail Huysmans, Joris-Karl
Godwin, William
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
Gogol, Nikolai VOL UME 3
Goncharov, Ivan
Goncourt, Edmond and Jules de n
Gorky, Maxim
Gouges, Olympe de
I
Goya, Francisco Ibsen, Henrik
Great Britain Immigration and Internal
Great Reforms (Russia) Migration
Greece Imperialism
Grimm Brothers Impressionism
Guesde, Jules India
Guimard, Hector Indochina
Guizot, François Industrial Revolution, First
Industrial Revolution, Second
Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique
Intellectuals
n Intelligentsia
H International Law
Ireland
Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich
Istanbul
Hague Conferences
Italy
Haiti
Hamburg
Hardenberg, Karl August von
n
Hardie, James Keir
Hardy, Thomas J
Haussmann, Georges-Eugène Jacobins
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Jadids
Heine, Heinrich Japan
Helmholtz, Hermann von Jarry, Alfred
Herder, Johann Gottfried Jaurès, Jean
Hertz, Heinrich Jelacic, Josip
Herzen, Alexander Jena, Battle of
Herzl, Theodor Jenner, Edward
Hirschfeld, Magnus Jewish Emancipation
History Jews and Judaism
Hobson, John A. Jingoism
Hofmannsthal, Hugo von John, Archduke of Austria

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 xi
CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Jomini, Antoine-Henri de Leopold I

Jung, Carl Gustav Leopold II
Lesseps, Ferdinand-Marie de
Levée en Masse
n Liberalism
Libraries
K
Liebermann, Max
Kadets Liebknecht, Karl
Kafka, Franz List, Georg Friedrich
Kandinsky, Vasily Lister, Joseph
Karadjordje Liszt, Franz
Kautsky, Karl Literacy
Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson) Lithuania
Kierkegaard, Søren Lloyd George, David
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies Lombroso, Cesare
Kipling, Rudyard London
Kitchener, Horatio Herbert Loos, Adolf
Klimt, Gustav Louis II
Koch, Robert Louis XVI
Kosciuszko, Tadeusz Louis XVIII
Kossuth, Lajos Louis-Philippe
Krafft-Ebing, Richard von Lovett, William
Kropotkin, Peter Luddism
Krupp Lueger, Karl
Kuliscioff, Anna Lumière, Auguste and Louis
Kulturkampf Luxemburg, Rosa
Kutuzov, Mikhail Lyell, Charles
Lyon

n
L n

Labor Movements M
Labour Party Macaulay, Thomas Babington
Laennec, René Mach, Ernst
Lafayette, Marquis de Machine Breaking
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste Madrid
Lamartine, Alphonse Mafia
Landed Elites Mahler, Gustav
Larrey, Dominique-Jean Mahmud II
Lasker-Schüler, Else Maistre, Joseph de
Lassalle, Ferdinand Majuba Hill
Lavoisier, Antoine Malatesta, Errico
Law, Theories of Malthus, Thomas Robert
LeBon, Gustave Manchester
Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre-Auguste Manet, Édouard
Leipzig, Battle of Mann, Thomas
Leisure Manners and Formality
Lenin, Vladimir Manning, Henry
Leo XIII Manzoni, Alessandro
Leopardi, Giacomo Marat, Jean-Paul

xii E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Marconi, Guglielmo Museums

Marie-Antoinette Music
Markets Musil, Robert
Marriage and Family Mussorgsky, Modest
Martineau, Harriet
Martov, L.
Marx, Karl n
Masaryk, Tomáš Garrigue N
Masculinity
Nadar, Félix
Matisse, Henri
Nanking, Treaty of
Maurras, Charles
Naples
Maxwell, James Clerk
Napoleon
Mazzini, Giuseppe
Napoleon III
Mediterranean
Napoleonic Code
Méliès, Georges
Napoleonic Empire
Mendel, Gregor
Nash, John
Mensheviks
Nationalism
Menzel, Adolph von
Naval Rivalry (Anglo-German)
Mesmer, Franz Anton
Navarino
Metternich, Clemens von
Nechayev, Sergei
Meyerhold, Vsevolod
Nelson, Horatio
Michel, Louise
Netherlands
Michelet, Jules
Newman, John Henry
Mickiewicz, Adam
New Zealand
Milan
Nicholas I
Military Tactics
Nicholas II
Mill, Harriet Taylor
Nietzsche, Friedrich
Mill, James
Nightingale, Florence
Mill, John Stuart
Nihilists
Millet, Jean-François
Nijinsky, Vaslav
Millet System
Nobel, Alfred
Milyukov, Pavel
Norton, Caroline
Minorities
Novalis (Hardenberg, Friedrich von)
Missions
Nurses
Modernism
Moltke, Helmuth von
Mommsen, Theodor
n
Monet, Claude
Monetary Unions O
Montenegro Oceanic Exploration
Montessori, Maria O’Connell, Daniel
Morisot, Berthe O’Connor, Feargus
Moroccan Crises Octobrists
Morocco Offenbach, Jacques
Morris, William Old Age
Moscow Olympic Games
Mozzoni, Anna Maria Omdurman
Mukden, Battle of Opera
Munch, Edvard Opium Wars
Münchengrätz, Treaty of Otto, Louise

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 xiii
CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Ottoman Empire Poincaré, Raymond

Owen, Robert Poland
Police and Policing
Polish National Movement
Poor Law
V OLU M E 4 Popular and Elite Culture
Population, Control of
n Populists
P Pornography
Pacifism Portsmouth, Treaty of
Paganini, Niccolò Portugal
Paine, Thomas Positivism
Painting Posters
Palacký, František Poverty
Palmerston, Lord (Henry John Temple) Prague
Pankhurst, Emmeline, Christabel, and Sylvia Prague Slav Congress
Pan-Slavism Pre-Raphaelite Movement
Papacy Press and Newspapers
Papal Infallibility Primitivism
Papal State Professions
Paris Prostitution
Paris Commune Protectionism
Parks Protestantism
Parnell, Charles Stewart Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph
Pasteur, Louis Prussia
Pater, Walter Psychoanalysis
Paul I Psychology
Pavlov, Ivan Public Health
Pavlova, Anna Puccini, Giacomo
Peasants Pugin, Augustus Welby
Peel, Robert Pushkin, Alexander
Péguy, Charles
Pelletier, Madeleine
Peninsular War n
People’s Will Q
Philhellenic Movement Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques
Photography
Phrenology
Phylloxera
n
Physics
Picasso, Pablo R
Piedmont-Savoy Race and Racism
Pilgrimages Radicalism
Pinel, Philippe Railroads
Pissarro, Camille Rank, Otto
Pius IX Ranke, Leopold von
Planck, Max Ravachol (François Claudius
Plekhanov, Georgy Koenigstein-Ravachol)
Pogroms Ravel, Maurice
Poincaré, Henri Realism and Naturalism

xiv E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Red Cross Schiele, Egon

Reign of Terror Schinkel, Karl Friedrich
Renan, Ernest Schlegel, August Wilhelm von
Renoir, Pierre-Auguste Schleiermacher, Friedrich
Repin, Ilya Schlieffen Plan
Republicanism Schnitzler, Arthur
Restaurants Schoenberg, Arnold
Restoration Schopenhauer, Arthur
Revolution of 1905 (Russia) Schubert, Franz
Revolutions of 1820 Science and Technology
Revolutions of 1830 Scotland
Revolutions of 1848 Scott, Walter
Rhodes, Cecil Seaside Resorts
Richer, Léon Second International
Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai Secret Societies
Risorgimento (Italian Unification) Secularization
Robespierre, Maximilien Semmelweis, Ignac
Rodin, Auguste Separation of Church and State
Roentgen, Wilhelm (France, 1905)
Roland, Pauline Sepoy Mutiny
Rolland, Romain Serbia
Romania Serfs, Emancipation of
Romanies (Gypsies) Seurat, Georges
Roman Question Sewing Machine
Romanticism Sexuality
Rome Shamil
Rossini, Gioachino Shaw, George Bernard
Rothschilds Shelley, Mary
Roussel, Nelly Shelley, Percy Bysshe
Rude, François Shimonoseki, Treaty of
Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria Siberia
Ruskin, John Sicilian Fasci
Russia Sicily
Russian Orthodox Church Siemens, Werner von
Russo-Japanese War Sieyès, Emmanuel-Joseph
Russo-Turkish War Silver Age
Rutherford, Ernest Simmel, Georg
Sismondi, Jean-Charles Leonard de
Sister Republics
Slavery
n
Slavophiles
S Smallpox
Sade, Donatien-Alphonse-François de Smiles, Samuel
St. Petersburg Socialism
Saint-Simon, Henri de Socialism, Christian
Salvation Army Socialist Revolutionaries
Sand, George Sociology
San Stefano, Treaty of Soloviev, Vladimir
Satie, Erik Sorel, Georges
Schelling, Friedrich von South Africa

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 xv
CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Spain Stravinsky, Igor

Spencer, Herbert Strikes
Speransky, Mikhail Strindberg, August
Spiritualism Struve, Peter
Sports Subways
Staël, Germaine de Suez Canal
Statistics Suffragism
Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Suttner, Bertha von
Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle) Sweden and Norway
Stephen, Leslie Switzerland
Stevenson, Robert Louis Symbolism
Stolypin, Peter Symonds, John Addington
Strachey, Lytton Syndicalism
Strauss, Johann Syphilis

xvi E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

The maps on the following pages show the changes in European national boundaries from
1789 to 1914, including the unification of Italy and of Germany.

xvii
MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

nia
N
Europe, 1789 Norwegian

oth
of B
International border Sea
City

Gulf
SWEDEN FINLAND
(Sweden)
0 100 200 mi. Faroe
Islands
0 100 200 km Shetland nd
Helsingfors nl a St. Petersburg
Islands NORWAY f Fi
o
(Denmark)
G ul f
Christiania Stockholm
Orkney
Islands
Moscow

Sea
Scotland

North RUSSIA

c
ti
Edinburgh
DENMARK Copenhagen l
Sea
Ba Königsberg
Ireland
G R E AT B R I TA I N
Dublin PRUSSIA
Hanover
POLAND
Berlin
Wales England Hanover Warsaw
Amsterdam
NETH.
London Saxony
Brussels H O LY
Austrian GALICIA
Netherlands ROMAN Bohemia
AT L A N T I C EMPIRE
Moravia
HABSBURG
Austria POSSESSIONS
OCEAN Paris Bavaria Vienna Moldavia
Munich Buda
Pest TRANSYLVANIA
SWISS HUNGARY
CONFED.
Tyrol
FRANCE
Bay of Wallachia Black
Milan VENICE
Biscay PIEDMONT Venice Sea
Genoa
Florence
VENICE MONTENEGRO
TUSCANY PAPAL Constantinople
STATES A d RAGUSA O
ri T
at T
ANDORRA Corsica ic O
Se
AL

(France) Rome M
a AN
NAPLES
TUG

Madrid EM
Minorca Naples PIRE
(Great
Lisbon S PA I N Britain) SARDINIA
POR

Ty r r h e n i a n
Majorca Athens
Iviza (Spain) Sea
(Spain)
Ionian
Sicily
Sea
Algiers Tunis
Malta Crete
OTTOMAN (Ottoman Empire)
EMPIRE
Mediterranean Sea

xviii E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

G R E AT France in 1789
B R I TA I N
International border
City

F
a AUSTRIAN

l
n Lille
d NETHERLANDS
er
English Channel s
N

Rouen
GERMAN
Sei Île de
ne France S TAT E S
R
N o r m a n d y iv e r
Paris Nancy

er
ce

Riv
Lorraine

Alsa

Rhine
Brittany

er
re R iv
Loi Franche
Nantes F R A N C E Comté NEUCHÂTEL
AT L A N T I C
SWISS CONFEDERATION
OCEAN Burgundy
Poitou
La Rochelle
Geneva

Lyon

KINGDOM OF
SARDINIA
i v er

Bay of
Bordeaux
Rhône R

Biscay Ga
r
nn
o

eR AVIGNON
iver REPUBLIC
Guyenne NICE OF GENOA
c

and
o

Provence
d

Gascony e
Toulouse u
ng
La Marseille
0 50 100 mi.

0 50 100 km

ANDORRA Corsica

S P A I N Mediterranean Sea

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 xix
MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

FINLAND
KINGDOM OF (to Russia)
NORWAY AND
SWEDEN St. Petersburg
Stockholm

North
Moscow
Sea N
GREAT DENMARK Baltic
BRITAIN Sea
NETHERLANDS RUSSIAN
0 200 400 mi. Amsterdam EMPIRE
London
HANOVER Berlin
S SIA
RU
OF P
0 200 400 km
OM POLAND
BELGIUM
KINGD (to Russia)
Carlsbad
Frankfurt Prague
Paris
ATLANTIC Vienna HUNGARY
OCEAN FRANCE SWITZER-
SW
Pest
Buda
LAND
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
Milan
PIEDMONT PARMA Venice
TUSCANY Sea
ck
L

MODENA Bla
GA

PAPAL dr
A

Madrid CORSICA iat OT

RTU

STATES ic TO
KINGDOM (France) S M Constantinople
SPAIN OF SARDINIA Rome ea AN
PO

Naples EM
SARDINIA PIRE
KINGDOM OF
THE TWO
Gibraltar SICILIES Athens
GREECE

Mediterranean Sea
AFRICA

Europe, 1815
Boundary of the German Confederation, 1815

xx E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
SWITZERLAND Italian Unification
Kingdom of Sardinia, 1858
Added to Sardinia, 1859 and 1860
Added to Italy, 1866
Added to Italy, 1870
LOMBARDY VENETIA
Milan
Turin Venice

SAVOY PIEDMONT
(to France) PARMA
NA

Genoa
DE
MO

SAN MARINO
NICE LUCCA
(to France) Florence

Ligurian Sea TUSCANY

PA PA L
S TAT E S A
dr
ia
ti
c
CORSICA Se
(France) a
Rome

KINGDOM
Naples OF THE
TWO SICILIES
SARDINIA

Ty r rh e n i a n S e a

Ionian Sea
Palermo
Me
0 50 100 mi. dit
0 50 100 km
er
ra S I C I LY
ne
an
Se
a

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 xxi
MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

SWEDEN

DENMARK
North
Sea Baltic
Schleswig
Sea
East
Holstein Prussia

Pomerania
A
Hamburg Mecklenburg I
West
Hanover
S Prussia
S
NETHERLANDS Brandenburg Vist
u la
U Berlin Posen R.

R
Elb

Westphalia
RUSSIA
eR
Rhin

P
.

BELGIUM O
de
e

Saxony rR
R.

Ems Thuringia .
Sedan Silesia
LUX. Frankfurt
Prague
M ain R. Sadowa
To Paris
Metz
Lorraine Bavaria
Württemberg
AUSTRIA-
H U N G A RY
ce

FRANCE Da
German Unification
Alsa

Munich nub
Baden e R.
Hohenzollern Prussia, 1865
Vienna
Added to Prussia, 1866
Added to form North German
Confederation, 1867
SWITZERLAND Added to form German empire, 1871
0 50 100 mi. Boundary of German empire, 1871
Route of Prussian armies in
0 50 100 km
Austro-Prussian War
Route of German armies in
Franco-Prussian War
Battle sites

xxii E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1
 MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

Europe, 1914
International border
N

ICELAND

EN
AY

0 250 500 mi.

AT L A N T I C ED
RW

0 250 500 km
OCEAN
SW
NO

Sea

North
lti c

Sea DENMARK
Ba

UNITED
KINGDOM R U S S I A

NETH.
GERMANY
BELG.

LUX. Caspian
Sea
AUSTRIA-
FRANCE SWITZ. HUNGARY

ROMANIA

Black Sea
IT

SE
A

RB

ANDORRA Y MONT. BULGARIA

L
AL

IA
UG

ALBANIA
S PA I N
PORT

PE
O T T O M A N
RS
GREECE
E M P I R E
IA

Spanish Tunisia
Morocco (Fr.) Med
iterr
Morocco (Fr.) anean Sea
Algeria
(Fr.)

Egypt (Br.)
Libya (It.)

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 xxiii
 T
n
TALLEYRAND, CHARLES MAUR-
ICE DE (1754–1838), arguably the most
famous diplomat that France ever produced.
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord was
born in Paris on 2 February, the son of a noble
army officer. Neglected by his parents, as a young
boy he sustained a foot injury that gave him a limp
for the rest of his life, thus ruling out the possibility
of a military career. Instead he trained for the
priesthood, was ordained a Roman Catholic priest
in December 1779, but then led a very secular life
in Paris aristocratic society, openly consorting
with his mistress Adelaide Filleul, the Countess of
Flahaut, by whom he had an illegitimate son.
Nevertheless, his aristocratic credentials secured
his appointment as bishop of Autun in 1788.
In April 1789, Talleyrand was elected a deputy
of the clergy of Autun to the Estates General. On
10 October 1789 in the National Assembly, the
successor to the Estates General, he proposed that
all Church property should be confiscated to solve
the continuing financial crisis. The acceptance of
this proposal in November deprived the Roman
Catholic Church in France of nearly all its wealth
and led to its radical restructuring in the Civil
Constitution of the Clergy (July 1790). Talleyrand
was one of only four bishops to swear an oath of
loyalty to this Constitution, and as a ‘‘constitu-
tional bishop’’ on 14 July 1790 he officiated at
the Feast of the Federation, the national ceremony
in Paris to commemorate the first anniversary
of the storming of the Bastille. In January 1791,
Talleyrand resigned his bishopric. His diplomatic
career began in 1792 when he was sent on a
mission to London to improve relations between
France and Britain. Expelled from Britain in
February 1794, he moved to the United States,
where he settled in Philadelphia. There he traveled
quite extensively, made money from property
speculations, and frequented a circle of fellow
French émigrés.
Allowed to return to France, he arrived in Paris
in September 1796 and resumed a relationship
with Anne-Louise-Germaine de Staël (1766–
1817). Partly due to her influence, Talleyrand
was appointed minister of foreign affairs by the
Directory in July 1797. In December 1797, he
met Napoleon Bonaparte for the first time and
soon began planning with him the expedition to
Egypt, which set sail from France in May 1798.
Meanwhile, Talleyrand had acquired a new mis-
tress, the wife of Charles Delacroix, Talleyrand’s
predecessor as minister of foreign affairs. By her
he had another illegitimate son, Eugène Delacroix
(1798–1863), who became a famous Romantic
artist. Talleyrand resigned as minister of foreign
affairs in July 1799 and soon began plotting a coup
d’état to remove the Directory with Joseph Fouché
(1759–1820, the minister of police) and Napoleon
Bonaparte (who had returned from Egypt in
October 1799).
Following the coup d’état of 10 November
1799, Napoleon reappointed Talleyrand minister
of foreign affairs. Talleyrand negotiated the Treaty
of Lunéville with Austria (9 February 1801) and
2305
TCHAIKOVSKY, PETER
supported Napoleon’s policies of reconciliation
with royalists and Roman Catholics, but he was
soon disagreeing with the First Consul over the
severity of the Treaty of Amiens with Britain (27
March 1802), the annexation of Piedmont to
France (21 September 1802), and the declaration
of war against Britain (18 May 1803). Neverthe-
less, Talleyrand was, at the very least, a passive
accomplice in the execution of Louis-Antoine-
Henri de Bourbon-Condé, the Duke of Enghien
(20 March 1804). When Napoleon assumed the
imperial title (2 December 1804), Talleyrand
became Imperial Grand Chamberlain.
Whereas Napoleon sought to impose French
domination over Europe, Talleyrand believed in
the balance of power and unsuccessfully urged
moderation on Napoleon after the successive
defeats of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. In August
1807, Talleyrand resigned as foreign minister and
from 1808 publicly criticized Napoleon’s policies,
at a time when Napoleon was at the height of his
success. While Talleyrand supported Napoleon’s
marriage to Marie-Louise (1791–1847) of Austria,
he bitterly opposed the invasion of Russia in 1812.
Thus, although Napoleon had made Talleyrand a
prince and extremely rich, Talleyrand deserted him
in 1814 to play a leading role in the restoration of
the Bourbons. In April 1814, Talleyrand persuaded
Alexander I (1777–1825) of Russia to accept the
return of the Bourbons and the French Senate to
depose Napoleon and offer the French throne to
Louis XVIII (1755–1824).
Once more the minister of foreign affairs (13
May 1814), Talleyrand represented France at the
Congress of Vienna. Brilliantly exploiting the
principle of legitimacy that the Allies claimed to
uphold, Talleyrand secured for France remarkably
favorable terms. However, the Hundred Days epi-
sode resulted in harsher treatment of France by the
Second Treaty of Paris (20 November 1815).
Forced to resign in September 1815, Talleyrand
retired to his country estate, Valençay.
During the late 1820s, Talleyrand actively
supported the liberal opposition to Charles X
(1757–1836); in the Revolution of 1830, he con-
tributed to the accession of Louis Philippe (1773–
1850) as king of the French. As a reward, he
was appointed French ambassador in London
(September 1830–November 1834), when he
2306
helped to negotiate the separation of Belgium from
the Netherlands. He died on 17 May 1838. To his
critics he was the serial betrayer of the Roman
Catholic Church, the Directory, Napoleon I, and
Charles X, and the personification of corruption
and vice. To his admirers he was the consummate
politician and diplomat, who always sought the
true interests of France.
See also Concert of Europe; Congress of Vienna; France;
French Revolution; Napoleonic Empire; Restoration;
Revolutions of 1830.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles-Maurice de. Memoirs of
Talleyrand. Edited by the Duke of Broglie. 5 vols.
New York, 1891.
Secondary Sources
Bernard, Jack F. Talleyrand: A Biography. New York, 1973.
Brinton, Crane. The Lives of Talleyrand. New York, 1936.
Dwyer, Philip G. Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand, 1754–
1838: A Bibliography. Westport, Conn., 1996.
WILLIAM FORTESCUE
n
TCHAIKOVSKY, PETER (1840–1893),
Russian composer.
Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky was born in Votkinsk,
Russia. His father worked as a superintendent of
state mines; his mother, who was half French,
insisted on hiring French servants to attend to her
son. Even as a child, Tchaikovsky was introspective
and neurotic. By age thirteen, his homosexuality
had become obvious. At fourteen he lost his only
true friend, his mother, to cholera. He felt no
closeness to any of his other relatives, nor was he
interested in communicating with any of his peers.
After a short period as a student in a government
law school, which he despised, he left to study with
the composer and pianist Anton Rubinstein, the
founder of the St. Petersburg Conservatory of
Music. Several years thereafter, he accepted an offer
to teach harmony and was also invited by several
western and southern European countries to
appear as a guest conductor in major concert halls,
as well as at his home base, the Moscow Conserva-
tory. He resigned from his professorship in 1878.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Tchaikovsky was one of the innovators of Rus-
sian Romanticism, but he also considered it his
duty to introduce Russian patriotism and national-
ism into his music. His vast output included piano
and violin concertos, choral works, symphonies,
chamber music, and church music. His most crea-
tive works were in genres that included fantasies,
overtures such as ‘‘Romeo and Juliet,’’ choral
works, and piano-and-violin concertos. In western
Europe, Tchaikovsky’s music was well received,
and in Russia he was considered to be the most
Romantic and patriotic of composers. The literary
giants of his time were Fyodor Dostoyevsky and
Leo Tolstoy, yet controversy exists over whether
Tchaikovsky ever made the time or had the desire
to meet either of them.
In 1888 Tchaikovsky took a significant tour to
Leipzig, Germany, to meet with Edvard Grieg and
Johannes Brahms. He also visited London, Paris, and
Prague. His labors on Symphony No. 5 in E Minor
became increasingly intense and emotional, which
fed his neurotic despair. Nevertheless, he insisted
on continuing his travels. He went to the United
States and to England, where he was awarded an
honorary doctorate of music at Cambridge.
Tchaikovsky’s attempts to masquerade as het-
erosexual were obvious to all. The only woman he
ever truly loved was his mother. He spent one night
with Desire Artot, a singer and prima donna of a
visiting Italian troupe, but refused to comment
on it. In the 1870s he visited Georgia and other
Russian territories. A former student of his, Antonia
Milyukova, talked him into marrying her but the
marriage did not last long. Beginning in 1876 he
was subsidized by the wealthy widow Nadezhda von
Meck, who gave him the means to survive. In 1885
he bought a house in Maidanovo, near Moscow and
lived there until a year before his death.
Despite his successes, his mental condition
deteriorated, and this was aggravated when
Nadezhda von Meck stopped supporting him,
both financially and socially. By then he was no
longer in need of her money, but the psychological
damage was noticeable. On his deathbed, he
repeated her name over and over. He had just
completed his last symphony, the Pathetique,
which he rightfully considered his masterpiece.
Several historians have claimed that he wanted to
poison himself after having allegedly been accused
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TELEPHONES
of involvement with a male member of the British
imperial family.
Tchaikovsky’s major works include the operas
Undine, 1869; Mazepa, 1884; Pathetique, 1893;
Queen of Spades, 1890; and Eugene Onegin, 1879;
the ballets The Nutcracker Suite, 1892; The Sleeping
Beauty, 1890; and Swan Lake, 1877; the sympho-
nies No. 4 in F Minor, No. 5 in E Minor, and
No. 6 in B Minor (Pathetique); the Piano Concerto
No. 1 in B-Flat Minor; and the Americanized
Russian vocals ‘‘None but the Lonely Heart’’; ‘‘Why
Did I Dream of You’’; and ‘‘Don Juan’s Serenade’’;
as well as chamber and instrumental music.
See also Diaghilev, Sergei; Music; Mussorgsky, Modest;
Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abraham, Gerald, ed. Tchaikovsky: A Symposium. London,
1945.
Brown, David. Tchaikovsky. 4 vols. New York, 1978–1992.
Garden, Edward. Tchaikovsky. New York, 1973.
Strutte, Wilson. Tchaikovsky: His Life and Times. Speld-
hurst, U.K., 1979.
Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilich. The Diaries of Tchaikovsky. Trans-
lated by Wladimir Lakond. New York, 1945.
Volkoff, Vladimir. Tchaikovsky: A Self-Portrait. Boston, 1975.
Warrack, John.Hamilton Tchaikovsky. London, 1973.
LEO HECHT
TELEGRAPH. See Science and Technology.
n
TELEPHONES. Private enterprise, operating
under government-granted concessions, initiated
urban telephone service in most European countries
(except Germany) in the late 1880s, though virtually
all were nationalized in the 1880s and 1890s. The
government-operated post and telegraph (and
later, telephone) administrations (PTT) then often
restricted telephone network development to pro-
tect their earlier telegraph investments. As a result,
by 1914 the telephone was far more developed in
the United States (which had nearly two-thirds of
2307
TELEPHONES
the world’s telephones, or nearly ten for every one
hundred people) than anywhere in Europe.
Telephone devices patented by Alexander
Graham Bell (1847–1922) were first demonstrated
in London and several continental cities in 1877–
78. The inception of regular telephone service
varied across European capitals, from London and
Paris in 1879; followed by Stockholm, Copenhagen,
and Christiania, Norway, in 1880; Berlin, Vienna,
and several Italian cities in 1881; Helsinki and
Lisbon in 1882; Brussels, Moscow, and St. Peters-
burg in 1883; Luxembourg City in 1885;
and finally various Spanish cities in 1886–87. As
these dates suggest, early telephone development
concentrated in urban areas with many potential
users, providing little interconnection among them
and little or no service to small communities and
rural areas. Virtually all switching of calls required
manual operation using male, and later female,
operators. Women operators were required to be
single (and to resign upon marrying) in Britain,
Switzerland, Norway, and Sweden.
Local pricing of telephone service varied. Most
subscriber charges were based on per use with
some reflection of the distance carried or (more
rarely) a flat charge for a given period of use. There
was considerable variation in the prices charged by
different PTTs. By the mid-1880s, the Inter-
national Telegraph Bureau in Bern, Switzerland,
began to collect and publish statistics on telephone
availability and use. By 1887, Germany’s PTT had
123 exchanges and more than 22,000 subscribers,
while Sweden’s privately owned operation (with
148 exchanges and nearly 13,000 subscribers) was
second. Other nations fell far behind.
The growing need to interconnect service
across national boundaries raised similar questions
as had the telegraph decades earlier: the need for
some means of setting and interconnecting varied
technical standards, as well as melding different
currencies and means of paying for telephone
service—and determining how to divide revenues
across the telephone systems involved. Among the
earliest international links were landlines connect-
ing such European cities as Brussels and Paris.
Over-water routes took longer: the first was London
to Paris in 1891, and Britain to Ireland by means
of an undersea cable from Scotland two years later.
2308
The telephone was occasionally applied to
deliver concert music and stage entertainment—
for example, in Budapest (the Telefon Hirmondo
operated by the Puskas brothers in 1893), Paris
(the Theatrophone), and in London. The first
European automatic telephone exchange (using
strowger devices developed in the United States)
began operation in Berlin in 1899, but most
European nations relied on (often high-capacity)
manual switches to the eve of World War I. The
first pay telephone kiosks appeared in Britain by
1904, and soon in other nations.
Europe fell far behind U.S. rates of telephone
system growth and technical developments from
1890 to 1914, chiefly because of PTT monopoly
control of telephone services across Europe. This
usually meant that insufficient capital was made
available for system expansion (telephones had
low priority in national budgets), telephone rates
were held to artificially low levels by national
parliaments (thus financially starving the systems
even more), and telephone administrators generally
were subordinate to those directing telegraph and
postal services. Further, and with few exceptions,
there was virtually no overall system planning or
policy and very little study of either rates charged
or traffic carried. On the other hand, German and
Swiss PTTs stood out for their effective operation
of telephone networks, and the three Scandinavian
nations retained private ownership and thus a
strong commercial impetus to expand telephone
availability. This shows up in some statistics:
by 1914, a third of British telephones were in
London, but the city still had but 3.5 telephones
per 100 people, while Stockholm had 24; Copen-
hagen, 9; Berlin, 6.6; and Paris, 3.2.
As had been the case earlier in the United
States, telephone use was limited for the first sev-
eral decades to government officials, businesses,
and the wealthy who could afford the equipment
and service charges. Only very slowly—and barely
so by 1914—was telephone service made more
widely available to and affordable by the general
public, at first with phones in public places and pay
stations, and later in individual homes.
See also Science and Technology; Transportation and
Communications.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baldwin, F. G. C. The History of the Telephone in the United
Kingdom. London, 1925.
Bennett, Alfred Rosling. The Telephone Systems of the
Continent of Europe. London, 1895. Reprint, New
York, 1974.
Chapuis, Robert J. 100 Years of Telephone Switching (1878–
1978). Amsterdam, 1982.
Holcomb, A. N. Public Ownership of Telephones on the
Continent of Europe. Boston, 1911.
Webb, Herbert Laws. The Development of the Telephone in
Europe. London, 1911. Reprint, New York, 1974.
CHRISTOPHER H. STERLING
TEMPERANCE. See Alcohol and Temperance.
n The year 1850 also marked a professional turn-
TENNYSON, ALFRED (1809–1892),
English poet and the leading representative of
Victorian verse.
Born in Somersby, Lincolnshire, Alfred, Lord
Tennyson was a precocious child who wrote poems
after the styles of John Milton (1608–1674) and
the British Romantics.
In November 1827 Tennyson entered Trinity
College, Cambridge, where his standing as a poet
grew and in June 1829 he won the chancellor’s
gold medal for his poem, Timbuctoo. The death
of his father in March 1831 revealed his family’s
deep financial indebtedness, and Tennyson left
Cambridge without taking a degree.
In 1832 Tennyson published Poems, a volume
that included ‘‘The Lotos-Eaters’’ and ‘‘The Lady
of Shalott.’’ Reviewers’ attacks deeply distressed
the self-critical Tennyson, but he continued to
revise his old poems and compose new ones.
In September 1833, Tennyson’s close Cam-
bridge friend Arthur Hallam died suddenly. The loss
of Hallam, recently engaged to marry Tennyson’s
sister Cecilia, dealt a serious blow to Tennyson. He
soon drafted ‘‘Ulysses,’’ ‘‘Morte d’Arthur’’ and
‘‘Tithonus’’—three poems prompted by the death,
but all with strong classical echoes that spoke to his
expressly modern and personal sentiments.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TENNYSON, ALFRED
Between 1832 and 1842 Tennyson published
no new volumes, but he edited and wrote much
during this melancholic period, initiating In Memor-
iam, which celebrated Hallam, ‘‘The Two Voices’’
(originally entitled ‘‘Thoughts of a Suicide’’) and
his ‘‘English Idylls.’’ In 1842 Tennyson published
Poems to unfavorable reviews. The volume included
‘‘Morte d’Arthur,’’ ‘‘Locksley Hall,’’ and ‘‘The
Vision of Sin.’’ That same year the prime minister,
Sir Robert Peel (1788–1850), granted him a pension
of £200 for life, easing his financial burden. In
1847 Tennyson published his first long poem,
The Princess, a conservative view of university
education for women.
On 13 June 1850, Tennyson married Emily
Sellwood, after a very long and uncertain courtship,
due in part to her father’s early disapproval of
Tennyson’s unorthodox lifestyle and liberal reli-
gious views.
ing point. Tennyson anonymously published In
Memoriam, which enjoyed tremendous success and
won him the favor of Queen Victoria (r. 1837–
1901), who helped bring about his appointment as
poet laureate that same year. Tennyson had finally
secured his reputation and finances.
A massive poem, In Memoriam captured the
public imagination, highlighting many concerns of
the Victorian age as the author searched for the
meaning of life and death and tried to come
to terms with the loss of his friend. The poem
struggles with religious doubt and faith, weighing
spiritual belief in immortality against emerging
scientific theories of evolution, astronomy, and
modern geology. Tennyson cemented his position
as national poet with his Ode on the Death of the
Duke of Wellington (1852) and a poem about the
25 October 1855 Charge of the Light Brigade at
Balaklava in the Crimea in Maud and Other Poems
(1855).
In 1859 Tennyson published the first four
parts of Idylls of the King, a series of twelve con-
nected poems that reviewed the legend of King
Arthur, in whom he held a lifelong interest. He
held Arthur up as an exemplar of human spiritual-
ity, while the poems infused elements of traditional
romance with middle class Victorian morality. The
poems were an immediate success and thrust upon
2309
TERROR, THE
Tennyson an undesired public fame, which rose with
further publications, such as Enoch Arden (1864).
In September 1883 Tennyson accepted a peer-
age as First Baron and took his seat in the House of
Lords in March 1884. In 1886 he published a new
volume containing ‘‘Locksley Hall Sixty Years
After,’’ which assaulted modern decadence and
liberalism and retracted the earlier poem’s belief
in inevitable human progress.
In the last two decades of his life Tennyson
also turned to poetic drama, though his plays
proved only moderate successes, broadcasting his
growing disapproval of the religious, moral, and
political tendencies of the age. His poem ‘‘The
Ancient Sage,’’ published in Tiresias and Other
Poems (1885), aired a more hopeful suggestion
of eternal life.
Tennyson remained productive well into old
age. He wrote the elegy ‘‘Crossing the Bar’’ in
October 1889 while crossing the Isle of Wight.
Despite ill health, he finished his last volume, The
Death of Oenone, Akbar’s Dream, and Other Poems
in 1892. He died on 6 October 1892 in Aldworth,
Surrey, aged eighty-four.
Tennyson’s fame was challenged during his
own lifetime, when poets Robert Browning
(1812–1889) and Algernon Charles Swinburne
(1837–1909) emerged as rivals. Early twentieth-
century critics, who held aloft the modernist
approaches of such poets as William Butler Yeats
(1859–1939) and T. S. Eliot (1888–1965) and
celebrated the rediscovery of poets John Donne
(1572–1631) and Gerard Manley Hopkins
(1844–1889), further eroded Tennyson’s reputa-
tion. Around the turn of the twenty-first century,
appreciation for the abundance and variety of
Tennyson’s sweeping lyricism reemerged, most
especially for his In Memoriam, ‘‘Crossing the
Bar,’’ and ‘‘Ulysses.’’
See also Carlyle, Thomas; Romanticism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Martin, Robert Bernard. Tennyson: The Unquiet Heart.
Oxford, U.K., 1980.
Ormond, Leonée. Alfred Tennyson: A Literary Life. New
York, 1993.
Richardson, Joanna. Pre-eminent Victorian, A Study of Ten-
nyson. London, 1962.
2310
Ricks, Christopher B. Tennyson. New York, 1972.
Tennyson, Charles. Alfred Tennyson. New York, 1949.
STEPHEN VELLA
TERROR, THE. See Reign of Terror.
n
THIERS, LOUIS-ADOLPHE (1797–
1877), one of the founders of the Third Republic
in France.
Adolphe Thiers was born in Marseilles on
15 April 1797. He overcame birth outside wed-
lock, desertion by his father, relative poverty, and
a stature of just five feet and two inches with his
ambition, intelligence, and industry. A pupil at the
lycée in Marseilles, he went on to study law at
the University of Aix-en-Provence. Although his
family had suffered financially during the Revolu-
tion, Thiers embraced liberal political ideas after
1815, and following graduation chose journalism,
not law.
Moving to Paris in 1821, he joined the lead-
ing liberal newspaper, Le Constitutionnel. Thiers
also embarked on a major historical work, his
History of the Revolution (ten volumes, 1823–
1827), which provided a liberal interpretation of
the Revolution and a rational explanation for the
Jacobin Terror. In January 1830, a new Paris
liberal newspaper was founded, Le National,
and, with François-Auguste-Marie Mignet
(1796–1884) and Jean-Baptiste Nicolas Armand
Carrel (1800–1836), Thiers became one of its
three editors. Le National argued that the king’s
ministers had to have a majority in the Chamber
of Deputies, supported opposition candidates in
parliamentary elections, attacked the Jules
Armand Polignac (1780–1847) ministry, and
opposed the four ordinances of 26 July
1830. Thiers was one of the principal authors of
a protest against the ordinances drawn up on
26 July and signed by forty-four journalists.
He also played a leading role in persuading
Louis-Philippe (1773–1850), Duke of Orleans,
to succeed King Charles X (1757–1836) after
the latter’s abdication.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

On 21 October 1830, Thiers was elected dep-
uty for Aix-en-Provence. He served as minister of
the interior from October 1832 to January 1833,
and then as minister of commerce and public
works. Minister of the interior once more, Thiers
was blamed for the massacre of the Rue Transno-
nain (13 April 1834), when several innocent
civilians were killed in a shoot-out between repub-
lican militants and soldiers and guardsmen. Never-
theless, Louis-Philippe appointed him to head a
ministry from February to August 1836, and again
from 1 March 1840. In his second ministry, Thiers
apparently threatened a war between France and
the other European powers over Egypt and Syria.
Alarmed, Louis-Philippe eventually dismissed
Thiers (22 October 1840).
Out of government office for the rest of the
July Monarchy, Thiers began his mammoth History
of the Consulate and Empire (twenty volumes,
1845–1862). This long and detailed narrative
history portrayed Napoleon I (r. 1804–1814/15)
as a Romantic hero and successful military com-
mander. After Louis-Philippe had dismissed
François-Pierre-Guillaume Guizot (1787–1874)
on 23 February 1848, he invited Thiers to form a
ministry, but by then it was too late to save the July
Monarchy.
Elected to the National Assembly on 4 June
1848, Thiers backed Napoleon III (1808–1873) in
the presidential election of 10 December 1848. Yet
Thiers did not accept ministerial office and became
increasingly critical of the Prince-President. Briefly
imprisoned after the coup d’état of 2 December
1851, Thiers then led a life of exile in Brussels,
London, and Switzerland until allowed to return
to France in August 1852. In May 1863, he gained
election to the Legislative Body, where he joined
the opposition while remaining separate from
the republican Left. He campaigned for liberal
freedoms (though not free trade), opposed the
Mexican expedition, and warned against the expan-
sion of Prussian power in Germany. In July 1870
he desperately tried to discourage war with Prussia.
Once the war had begun, he urged the concentra-
tion of French troops in the Paris area. He refused
to serve as a minister under Empress Eugénie
or in the provisional government formed after 4
September 1870, but he did agree to accept a diplo-
matic mission to seek foreign assistance for France.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
THIERS, LOUIS-ADOLPHE
In the National Assembly elections of 8 Febru-
ary 1871, following the armistice with Germany of
28 January, twenty-six departments elected Thiers.
This remarkable indication of his popularity
ensured his election in Bordeaux as ‘‘Chief of the
Executive Power’’ (13 February 1871). Thiers then
had to accept the harsh terms of the Treaty of
Frankfurt (10 May 1871)—the payment of a large
indemnity and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine.
Meanwhile, by ordering the removal of cannon
from Paris on 17 March 1871, Thiers had
provoked the outbreak of the Paris Commune.
The defeat of the Paris Commune temporarily
crushed the radical Left, while the opposition of
Thiers to a monarchical restoration helped to check
the royalist Right. Instead, Thiers presided over the
emergence of a conservative Republic. By the time
of his resignation (24 May 1873), he had achieved
financial stability, the full payment of the indemnity
owed to Germany, and the ending of German
military occupation of French territory. Thiers
continued to be a deputy, but took little part in
parliamentary debates.
Thiers died on 3 September 1877. His excep-
tionally long career, from the 1820s to the 1870s,
indicates the political continuities in this period,
despite four changes of regime, and the close
connections between journalism, historical writing,
and politics common in nineteenth-century France.
His political legacy, a combination of patriotism,
liberalism, and conservatism, had a profound effect
on the Third Republic.
See also France; Guizot, François; Liberalism; Paris
Commune; Restoration; Revolutions of 1830;
Revolutions of 1848.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Thiers, Louis-Adolphe. Discours parlementaires de M.
Thiers. Edited by M. Calmon. 16 vols. Paris, 1879–89.
———. Notes et souvenirs de M. Thiers: 1848: Révolution du
24 février. Paris, 1902.
Secondary Sources
Bury, J. P. T., and R. P. Tombs. Thiers, 1797–1877. London,
1986.
Guiral, Pierre. Adolphe Thiers, ou, De la nécessité en politique.
Paris, 1986.
WILLIAM FORTESCUE
2311
TIRPITZ, ALFRED VON
n the Dreadnought type, armed with large guns.
TIRPITZ, ALFRED VON (1849–1930),
Prussian admiral.
Alfred Peter Friedrich Tirpitz (who was
ennobled in 1900) was born on 19 March 1849
in the small town of Küstrin in the eastern part of
Prussia. The son of a judge, he joined the Prussian
Navy in 1865 and soon made a brilliant career. In
the 1880s he was responsible for the development
of the new torpedo weapon. In 1891 he became
chief of staff of the Baltic naval station. He also
quickly attracted the attention of the new kaiser,
William II, himself a naval enthusiast, for unlike
many of his elder comrades Tirpitz had a clear
concept of both naval policy and naval strategy.
Although the extent of the influence of
Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan on Tirpitz is difficult
to measure, their concepts were similar. Mahan
believed that the Roman Empire was shaped by
its control of the sea; Tirpitz was deeply convinced
that history had proven sea power to be a prereq-
uisite to the German Empire’s power, prestige,
welfare, and social stability in the twentieth cen-
tury. Accordingly, he developed a plan to achieve
these aims by building a battle fleet that he believed
would be able to gain command of the sea.
Appointed commanding admiral of the German
East Asian Squadron in 1896, he was called back in
June 1897 to become secretary of the Imperial
Navy Office. Supported by the new secretary for
foreign affairs, Bernhard von Bülow, and using
modern methods of propaganda to influence both
parties in the Reichstag as well as the public, he
began to realize what historians later were to call
the Tirpitz Plan, which aimed at securing ‘‘a place
in the sun’’ for Germany. For the advocates of this
policy, it seemed inevitable that Germany would
challenge Britain’s supremacy in the world and on
the seas. In June 1898 the Reichstag passed the First
Navy Law, which established a battle fleet consisting
of two battle squadrons and, most importantly,
ensured continuous fleet building. Only two years
later, this fleet was doubled. Although Tirpitz finally
gave up the idea of demanding two more battle
squadrons in 1905, he added six armoured cruisers
for service on foreign stations to the existing fleet
in 1906. More important, he decided to follow
Britain’s example and start building battleships of
2312
Thus he openly challenged the Royal Navy, which
as a result quickly lost its margin of superiority in
modern vessels. By reducing the age of replace-
ment of older ships in 1908, he further accelerated
the tempo of German battleship building. Contrary
to his own expectations, this step was the begin-
ning both of an arms race and the decline of his
plan. After the failure in 1908 of British attempts to
induce the German government to reduce its
building program, the Royal Navy started to out-
build its German rival in 1909. At the same time,
Tirpitz began to lose support within the govern-
ment as well as with the public. Steadily increasing
costs and Germany’s isolation among the great
powers seemed to require a change in German
foreign and naval policy. Supported by the Kaiser,
Tirpitz was, however, still strong enough to thwart
the attempts of Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg,
appointed chancellor in July 1909, to negotiate a
naval agreement. Moreover, Bethmann Hollweg’s
fiasco in the Moroccan crisis in 1911 offered Tir-
pitz an opportunity to once again increase the navy.
Tirpitz eventually pushed through a new naval bill
in 1912, stabilizing a building rate of 3 capital ships
a year. The Imperial Navy now consisted of 61
capital ships, 40 light cruisers, 144 torpedo boats,
and 72 submarines.
In spite of this success, his influence on German
politics was diminishing. The Moroccan crisis, the
Balkan Wars in 1912 to 1913, and the threat of
a world war on the Continent strengthened the
position of the army, which was enlarged twice in
1912 and 1913. Moreover, in early 1914 even
Tirpitz realized that his policy was on the verge of
bankruptcy due to financial constraints and rising
costs on the one hand and Britain’s determination
to preserve its naval supremacy on the other. His
policy’s obvious lack of success did not harm his
popularity, however. Members of the German
Right were convinced that he was the ideal candi-
date to replace Bethmann Hollweg, who seemed
too weak to break the iron ring around Germany.
Tirpitz was not involved in the decisions that
led to the outbreak of war in August 1914. How-
ever, afraid of a humiliating diplomatic defeat, he
did not plead for moderation. The war soon proved
disastrous for Tirpitz’s navy. Bottled in the German
Bight, it was unable to successfully challenge the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Grand Fleet. Raids on the British east coast were
costly and dangerous, and the battle of Jutland in
May 1916 was no strategic breakthrough. Only
unrestricted submarine warfare, advocated by
Tirpitz since 1915, seemed to offer a way out of a
strategic deadlock but at a high price: it brought
the United States into the war in 1917. Having lost
the confidence of the kaiser, Tirpitz was forced to
resign in March 1916 after one of several disputes
with the chancellor about submarine warfare.
However, he did not refrain from interfering in
politics. In September 1917 he became chairman
of the German Fatherland Party, a right-wing orga-
nization demanding far-reaching annexations and
rejecting all domestic reforms.
After the war he quickly became the eminence
gris (gray eminence) of the German Right, and he
was involved in a number of attempts to overthrow
the republican government. In 1925 he was one of
the main architects of Field Marshall Paul von
Hindenburg’s candidacy for president. At the same
time, he exerted great influence on the navy, whose
members still regarded him as their master. Still
actively involved in antirepublican intrigues, the
father of the German battle fleet died on 6 March
1930.
See also Balkan Wars; Germany; Moroccan Crises; Naval
Rivalry (Anglo-German).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Tirpitz, Alfred von. My Memoirs. 2 vols. New York, 1919.
Secondary Sources
Berghahn, Volker R. Der Tirpitz-Plan: Genesis und Verfall
einer innenpolitischen Krisenstrategie unter Wilhelm II.
Dusseldorf, Germany, 1971.
Halpern, Paul G. A Naval History of World War I. Anna-
polis, Md., 1994.
Herwig, Holger H. ‘‘Luxury Fleet’’: The Imperial German
Navy, 1888–1918. London, 1980.
Hobson, Rolf. Imperialism at Sea: Naval Strategic Thought,
the Ideology of Sea Power, and the Tirpitz Plan, 1875–
1914. Boston, 2002.
Lambi, Ivo N. The Navy and German Power Politics, 1862–
1914. Boston, 1984.
Scheck, Raphael. Alfred von Tirpitz and German Right-
Wing Politics, 1914–1930. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.,
1998.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TOBACCO
Steinberg, Jonathan. Yesterday’s Deterrent: Tirpitz and the
Birth of the German Battle Fleet. London, 1968.
MICHAEL EPKENHANS
n
TOBACCO. On the eve of the French Revolu-
tion, some 250 years after its introduction from the
Americas, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) was used
as a recreational stimulant throughout Europe. It
was an important article of trade between Europe
and the rest of the world and a significant source
of income for many European governments. In
Spain, France, Portugal, and Austria the supply of
tobacco was subject to a government monopoly; in
every other European country its import, proces-
sing, or sale was controlled by some form of fiscal
legislation.
State control of the tobacco supply was chal-
lenged at various times during the period, notably
in France, where both taxation and the government
monopoly were abolished during the Revolution
(although both were subsequently reinstated); in
Berlin in 1848, when the right to smoke in public
places was a demand of and concession made to the
revolutionaries; and in Italy in 1848, where pro-
tests against an Austrian monopoly led to open
revolt in Lombardy, Venice, and Piedmont.
The principal source of tobacco was the
Americas, with the United States the largest sup-
plier followed by Brazil and Cuba. Tobacco was
also imported to Europe from Sri Lanka and the
Philippines in the Far East and Egypt and the Otto-
man Empire in the Near East. Tobacco cultivation
was banned in many European countries, including
Great Britain, in order to protect national mono-
polies or customs revenues. However, it was grown
on a commercial scale in Russia, the Netherlands,
and a number of Germany principalities.
SOCIAL ASPECTS
At the beginning of the nineteenth century the
usual way in which tobacco was consumed
throughout Europe was as snuff—dried, flavored,
powdered tobacco, sniffed by the pinch as a stimu-
lant. Over the next half-century, as a general trend
across the Continent, snuffing was replaced by
smoking. In some countries such as Great Britain
and Holland the trend was a revival, but in others,
2313
TOBACCO
such as Prussia, the habit was new. The switch from
snuff taking to smoking commenced in the Napo-
leonic Wars, when the British soldiers who served
in Spain during the Peninsula campaign were
introduced to cigars, hitherto a Spanish or South
American method of tobacco consumption, and
brought the habit home with them, where it
quickly spread: in 1800 Britain imported twenty-
six pounds of cigars; in 1830, two hundred fifty
thousand pounds. Contemporaneously with the
introduction of cigars, Britain also witnessed a revi-
val of pipe smoking, which had been the principal
form of tobacco use in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. The revival, however, was accompanied
by new social attitudes to smoking and a new eti-
quette for smokers. It was accepted that the smell
of tobacco smoke might cause offense, and so space
was dedicated, in both private houses and public
institutions, to the creation of smoking rooms.
Moreover, while snuff had been used by both sexes
at every level of society, smoking was considered to
be a masculine habit, and except among the poor,
women who smoked were the subjects of moral
opprobrium (although perhaps not in ‘‘bohemian’’
circles).
The pan-European drift toward smoking was
uneven: the first year in which more tobacco was
sold in France for smoking rather than snuffing
was 1830, whereas in Venice the change did not
occur until 1860. As a consequence, a variety of
tobacco habits coexisted side by side in many
European countries, and the particular habit any
individual possessed often reflected his or her
social class. The ability to determine a person’s
background by how they used tobacco was
employed by novelists as an aid to characteriza-
tion: Charles Dickens in Great Britain and
Honoré de Balzac in France were both careful to
specify the tobacco habits of their characters. In
Britain, in particular, clear literary conventions were
established: the amoral or ostentatious rich smoked
cigars; the dependable middle class and intellectuals
enjoyed pipes; old people and mill workers took
snuff. Tobacco and smoking were also the subject
of artistic works in their own right. For instance,
Charles Baudelaire included a poem dedicated to
his pipe in Les Fleurs du Mal (1857).
Attitudes toward tobacco generally were very
positive. It was associated with thinking as well as
2314
relaxation and considered to be a mental stimu-
lant. Among the poor it was used to suppress
appetite. Despite advances in chemistry and the
isolation, in 1828 in Heidelberg, of the alkaloid
nicotine—the chemical soul of tobacco—which
was found to be highly toxic, neither smoking
nor snuffing were thought to be injurious. Criti-
cism usually focused on sanitary matters (the odor
of tobacco smoke tainted clothes) or safety: in
Prussia, wire cigar guards were employed to pro-
tect smokers and their surroundings from ash and
burning embers. Opposition to tobacco use
gained some momentum in Great Britain with
the advent of the temperance movement, which
attacked smoking as being godless and wasteful.
However such sentiments were rare and were
contrary to received opinion.
CIGARETTES AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
Although tobacco was mass consumed, for much
of the nineteenth century its conversion into a
consumer product was unsophisticated: it was
processed rather than manufactured, and the prin-
cipal cost of production in every European coun-
try was labor. The Royal Tobacco Factory in
Seville, Spain, was the largest industrial building
in Europe at the beginning of the period, yet it
lacked all but the most rudimentary of machinery.
The snuff, cigars, and loose tobacco it produced
were handmade by a largely female workforce.
The loose tobacco was destined for the urban
poor, who smoked it rolled in scraps of paper.
This manner of smoking was adopted by French
travelers who carried it to Paris, where the little
hand-rolled paper and tobacco cigar was named
the ‘‘cigarette’’ by the writer Théophile Gautier
in 1833. Cigarettes acquired romantic associations
in France. Works such as Prosper Mérimée’s
Carmen (1845) put them into the mouths of
tempting young women and the men who wished
to seduce them. In response to evident demand,
the French tobacco monopoly started manufactur-
ing cigarettes by hand in 1845.
In Great Britain, by contrast, cigarettes were a
luxury item and their consumption was thought to
be effete. They had been introduced to the country
in 1856 by a veteran of the Crimean War, were
produced in limited quantities by exclusive tobac-
conists such as Philip Morris of Bond Street, and
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

An 1824 print captioned ‘‘Tis very good! (indeed)’’ depicts women enjoying snuff.
ª HULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS
were smoked by people of equivocal social stand-
ing such as the playwright Oscar Wilde. Matters
changed in 1883 with the introduction of mechani-
zation, which enabled British suppliers to produce
a cheap and uniform product. Machine-made cigar-
ettes did not displace existing tobacco products
but rather created their own market. Unlike pipes
they were simple to use, in contrast to cigars they
were mild to smoke, and above all, they were con-
sistent in quality. Such attributes made cigarettes
appealing to the ever-increasing number of clerical
workers; they were also attractive to women and
to minors.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TOBACCO
Cigarettes inspired the first popular opposition
to smoking in Great Britain. It was perceived that
such cheap branded products were irresistible to
children, and in 1908 the Children and Young
Persons Act was passed, which made it illegal to
sell tobacco to those under sixteen years of age—an
implicit acknowledgment that tobacco use might
pose a risk to health. Notwithstanding such reser-
vations, tobacco rations were supplied to British
troops and to the soldiers of every other one of
the principal combatant nations at the outbreak of
World War I, and tobacco consumption through-
out Europe ended the period on a rising trend.
2315
TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS DE
See also Alcohol and Temperance; Drugs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barrie, J. M. My Lady Nicotine. London, 1890.
Gately, Iain. Tobacco—A Cultural History of How an Exotic
Plant Seduced Civilization. New York, 2002.
Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History. London, 1993.
Hilton, Matthew. Smoking in British Popular Culture,
1800–2000. Manchester, U.K., 2000.
IAIN GATELY
n
TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS DE (1805–
1859), French political theorist, historian, and
political liberal.
Alexis de Tocqueville remains best known as
the author of two classics: De la démocratie en
Amérique (1835 and 1840; Democracy in America)
and L’ancien régime et la révolution (1856; The Old
Regime and the Revolution).
Tocqueville was born on 29 July 1805 into an
old Norman aristocratic family that had suffered
severely from the French Revolution. His life
was dedicated to understanding the origins and
implications of that upheaval for his nation and
the larger world. Despite a frail voice in a fragile
body he chose a career in politics. In preparation
for that career he was strongly influenced by the
lectures of the historian and statesman François-
Pierre-Guillaume Guizot (1787–1874), who
traced the decline of aristocratic privilege over
the centuries preceding the French Revolution.
At the same time Tocqueville became deeply
interested in the Anglo-American world, which
was to become his major source for a lifetime
of comparisons with developments in his own
country.
The July Revolution of 1830 was a turning
point for the young Alexis. The Bourbon
dynasty, to which his family was closely tied,
was displaced by the ‘‘citizen king,’’ Louis-
Philippe (r. 1830–1848). The revolution
confirmed Tocqueville’s conviction that France
was moving rapidly and inevitably toward ‘‘equality
of conditions.’’ Breaking with the perspective of
the older generation’s liberals epitomized by
2316
Guizot, Tocqueville looked toward America rather
than aristocratic Great Britain as a potential model
for the democratic future. Because of his family’s
continued loyalty to the exiled Bourbons, Tocque-
ville’s political position had also become precar-
ious. He and his close friend and fellow liberal,
Gustave-Auguste de Beaumont de la Bonninière,
formulated a plan to obtain official permission to
study prison reform in America. In doing so they
also hoped to establish a reputation for themselves
as experts on the new political order, which would
qualify them to participate in building France’s
political future.
DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA
The two young men traveled through the United
States for nine months in 1831–1832. The first-
fruits of their journey was a joint report in
fulfillment of their official mission: Du système
pénitentiaire aux États-Unis (1833; On the
Penitentiary System in the United States and
Its Application to France). On the basis of his
observations and further readings Tocqueville
attempted to lay bare the essential components
of political society in the United States. He
focused on those aspects of America most
relevant to his own liberal philosophy and politi-
cal ambitions. The vitality, the limitations, the
excesses, and the potential future of democracy
became the themes of Democracy in America.
The period immediately following the publi-
cation of Democracy was probably the happiest in
Tocqueville’s life. The book instantly won him an
international reputation as a judicious political
scientist. It was soon translated and published
in Great Britain, the United States, Belgium,
Germany, Spain, Hungary, Denmark, and Swe-
den. A voyage to England and Ireland in 1835
solidified lifelong friendships with the British elite,
a bond that was reinforced that same year by his
marriage to an Englishwoman, Marie Mottley. As
a source of comparisons and intellectual exchange,
England became, in Tocqueville’s words, his
second country.
Returning to France, Tocqueville began a
sequel to his Democracy, now focusing on demo-
cratic ideas, beliefs, and mores in America. The
second Democracy took longer to write and took
Tocqueville further afield than its author had
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

anticipated. Although published in 1840 under
the same title as the earlier work, it ended up
being as much about democracy in France and
Europe as in the United States. Tocqueville’s
observations on the continuing bureaucratization
of the French state and the progressive diminution
of French political life during the late 1830s
caused him to envision a new threat to democracy.
Centralization and apathetic individualism made
egalitarian societies vulnerable to a new form of
despotism. Tocqueville’s theme, as he wrote to
John Stuart Mill, had become less America than
‘‘the influence of equality on the ideas and the
sentiments of men.’’ The ambiguities created by
chapters on this new theme, interspersed with others
more directly focused on America, accounted for
some confusion among readers, and for the more
muted reception of the 1840 volume in France.
Just as he completed his second Democracy,
Tocqueville fulfilled his youthful ambition to step
into the political arena. He was elected to the
Chamber of Deputies in 1839 from Valognes.
Tocqueville’s need for uncompromising dignity
and independence, however, deprived him of the
influence to which he aspired in the legislature of
the July Monarchy. For the next eight years he
remained only a well-respected spokesman for
legislative committees. On nonpartisan issues such
as prison reform and colonial policy, he put his
familiarity with American and British examples to
good use.
The Revolution of 1848 presented Tocque-
ville with new threats and new opportunities.
France was immediately faced with militant
working-class demands for extensive and even
revolutionary social reforms. Tocqueville was
determined to combat what he viewed as the
combined danger of increased state power and a
proletarian attack on the basic principle of private
property. France’s electoral system also changed
dramatically in 1848. The provisional government
called for a new national constituent assembly
based on universal male suffrage. Tocqueville’s
own voting constituency therefore suddenly
expanded from several hundred to 160,000. In
his campaigns for reelection in the Second French
Republic, Tocqueville made the transition so well
that he became the most successful vote getter in
his department of La Manche. He subsequently
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS DE
opposed all radical social reform and joined the
National Assembly in crushing a working-class
uprising in 1848. The following year he briefly
served the Republic as foreign minister, from
June to October 1849. During a long period of
illness in 1850 Tocqueville began a memoir
on the Revolution of 1848. It was published post-
humously, in 1893, under the title Souvenirs
(1896; Recollections).
When the Republic was overthrown on 2
December 1851 by President Louis Napoleon
Bonaparte (later Napoleon III; r. 1852–1871),
Tocqueville refused to take an oath to the new
regime and withdrew from politics. Seeking to
sustain his liberal mission by other means,
Tocqueville reverted to the strategy of the 1830s,
touching on his fundamental concern with the
relation of liberty to equality. He sought to trace
the origins of France’s entrapment in cycles of
despotism and revolution by investigating the two
centuries preceding the French Revolution. After
four years of intensive archival research the Old
Regime and the Revolution was published in
1856. Tocqueville located the deep structural
sources of France’s alterations of upheaval and
despotism in the long-term evolution of the
prerevolutionary monarchy and society. At the same
time he offered his readers a counterpoint to his
pessimistic analysis of French political instability by
continuous comparisons with the Anglo-American
world. The acclaim from liberal sympathizers in
France and abroad that greeted his new history
dispelled some of the gloom of his last years.
INFLUENCE
In the midst of writing his sequel to the Old Regime,
Tocqueville died on 16 April 1859 at Cannes.
Although he quickly became the posthumous
leader of French liberalism, his reputation in France
languished at the end of the nineteenth century. In
the following century the totalitarian challenges to
the survival of liberal democratic institutions
helped to stimulate a ‘‘Tocqueville renaissance.’’
After World War II the revival of his Democracy
was fostered by the emergence of the United States
as a world power. The expansion of political
democracy in Eastern Europe after 1989 sustained
that momentum. Tocqueville’s The Old Regime
became the foundational text for a revision of the
2317
TOLSTOY, LEO
prevailing Marxist interpretation of the Revolution
in France itself.
However, the revival of interest in Tocqueville
has not been based only on a sequence of events. A
major change in the scholarly attention to Tocque-
ville’s writings emerged during the late twentieth
century. There was a broadening consensus on the
relevance of his thought to democracy on a global
scale. This growing encounter with Tocqueville’s
major writings is evidenced by an explosion of
international scholarship. That scholarship has
given us a rich sense of Tocqueville’s complex
dialogues with himself and his contemporaries
and with the challenges faced by the world of the
early twenty-first century. Some have sought to
demonstrate that Tocqueville was entrapped by
the limitations of his own time and background.
Others have argued that he ultimately despaired of
his hopes for political liberty in an egalitarian
world. Yet a majority of historians and social
scientists find in his thought a deeper affirmation
of the resilience of democratic liberal institutions
and mores. Tocqueville’s sensitivity to civil society
as a determinative of institutional success or failure
has been echoed by contemporary students of
political thought. Tocqueville’s cumulative legacy
is evidence of his unparalleled power to bring
contemporary political concerns into sharper focus
even where consensus on fundamentals remains
difficult to achieve.
See also French Revolution; Marx, Karl; Michelet, Jules;
Napoleon III; Revolutions of 1830; Revolutions of
1848.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Drescher, Seymour. Tocqueville and England. Cambridge,
Mass., 1964. Assesses the influence of England on
Tocqueville’s life and thought.
Jardin, André. Tocqueville: A Biography. Translated by Lydia
Davis with Robert Hemenway. New York, 1988.
The most recent and detailed narrative of Tocqueville’s
life.
Lamberti, Jean-Claude. Tocqueville and the Two Democra-
cies. Cambridge, Mass., 1989. Stresses changes in
Tocqueville’s view of democracy between the 1835
and 1840 volumes.
Mélonio, Françoise. Tocqueville and the French. Translated
by Beth G. Raps. Charlottesville, Va., 1998. An
account of French attitudes toward Tocqueville and
2318
his works during the nineteenth and twentieth centu-
ries.
Schleifer, James T. The Making of Tocqueville’s Democracy
in America. Indianapolis, 2000. An abundantly
documented reconstruction of the major concepts in
Democracy, using Tocqueville’s extensive notes and
drafts. Schleifer stresses the unity of the two books,
published in 1835 and 1840.
Tocqueville, Alexis de. The Tocqueville Reader: A Life in
Letters and Politics. Edited by Olivier Zunz and Alan S.
Kahan. Oxford, U.K., 2002.
Welch, Cheryl B. De Tocqueville. Oxford, U.K., 2001.
A synthesis of Tocqueville’s political thought from
the perspective of political science.
SEYMOUR DRESCHER
n
TOLSTOY, LEO (in Russian, Lev Nikolaye-
vich Tolstoy; 1828–1910), Russian novelist and
moral philosopher.
Leo Tolstoy, a Russian nobleman, was born at
his family’s estate, Yasnaya Polyana (‘‘clear glade’’),
on 9 September (28 August, old style) 1828.
Orphaned by age ten, he was raised by close relatives.
While at Kazan University, he read Jean-Jacques
Rousseau’s Confessions, which exerted a profound
and lifelong influence on him. Rejecting what he
perceived as a trivial education, Tolstoy broke off
his studies and eventually followed his brother
Nikolai to the Crimea to serve in the elite artillery
corps.
LIFE AND WORKS
In the Crimea Tolstoy’s literary career began in
earnest, with the publication of the autobiogra-
phical trilogy Childhood (1852), Boyhood (1854),
and Youth (1857), and the remarkable Sevastopol
Stories (1855–1856). In late 1859, contemptuous
of the vagaries of the writer’s life, Tolstoy returned
to Yasnaya Polyana intent on bettering the lives of
his own peasants. He married Sophia Andreyevna
Bers in 1862; they had thirteen children. Tolstoy
wrote The Cossacks (1863), and then began his
stupendous historical novel War and Peace, written
and published between 1865 and 1869. It pro-
voked lively and heated critical debate. He followed
it with a tale of modern society, Anna Karenina
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 TOLSTOY, LEO

(1875–1877), which was published serially to good

reviews.
In the late 1870s, seized by a profound feeling
of hopelessness in the face of the eventuality of
death, Tolstoy embarked on a religious transform-
ation detailed in the profound and controversial
Confession (1879). The essential elements of
Tolstoy’s new religious ideas can be found in a
trilogy: An Investigation of Dogmatic Theology
(1880), A Translation and Harmony of the Four
Gospels (1882–1884), and What I Believe (1884).
The Kingdom of God Is Within You (1894) details
Tolstoy’s doctrine of pacifism. Tolstoy’s crisis was
both aesthetic and moral, so his literary works took
on a more overtly didactic tone. Masterful stories
of this period include ‘‘The Death of Ivan Ilych’’
(1886), ‘‘How Much Land Does a Man Need?’’
(1886), and ‘‘The Kreutzer Sonata’’ (1891).
Master and Man (1895) portrays a man’s deathbed
conversion. The less successful Resurrection (1899)
concerns an impassioned search for justice.
Tolstoy’s famous work of literary criticism, What
Is Art? (1898), vituperatively condemns much of
world literature—Tolstoy’s own contribution as
well as William Shakespeare’s—as elitist and
corrupting. Art, he argued, should not seduce for
the sake of enjoyment, but should edify the masses
by infecting them with sympathetic feelings.
Leo Tolstoy c. 1900–1910. ªMICHAEL NICHOLSON/CORBIS
Tolstoy’s outspoken repudiation of government
and church responses to social crises contributed to
his excommunication from the Russian Orthodox
Tolstoy himself to Homer’s Iliad, the subject of
Church in 1901. His masterful novel Hadji
the novel is ‘‘life itself,’’ conveyed by Tolstoy
Murat (1904) concerns a protracted war between
through precise detail and sweeping description.
Caucasian mountaineers and the Russians. Seeking
Anna Karenina, lauded as one of the world’s
to free himself of the wealth, privilege, and fame
greatest novels, contrasts the eponymous heroine’s
that overwhelmed him, Tolstoy left home and
adulterous relationship with two other, more or
died at Astapovo railway station on 20 November
less ideal, marriages. Even upon the publication of
(7 November, old style) 1910. At the time of his
Childhood, however, Tolstoy was heralded as a
death Tolstoy was a figure of world renown and an
great new literary talent for his extraordinary ability
ambivalent leader of his own religious movement.
to convey every nuance of conscious thought. His
Thousands of Russian peasants accompanied his
works are rife with luminous moments where the
funeral procession, and the demise of this giant
individual’s existence melds harmoniously with all
of a man was felt by many to be the passing of a
creation, as when Levin is mowing hay in Anna
whole era.
Karenina, or Prince Andrei lies dying on the
battlefield in War and Peace. Also central to
CONTRIBUTIONS TO LITERATURE Tolstoy’s thought is a strain of anti-individualism
Tolstoy discovered new forms for the novel. Set that intensifies with time. It manifests itself in his
during the Napoleonic Wars, War and Peace critique of the ‘‘great men’’ theory of historical
depicts the lives of three families. Compared by causation.

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2319
TORIES
For Tolstoy, there exists an eternal truth that is
the same for all people in all times. One merely
needs to discover what that truth is and live in
complete harmony with it. Through most of Tol-
stoy’s literary career, apprehension of the truth
occurs through aesthetic means, most insistently
through defamiliarization (ostranenie), a method
that exposes society’s conventions by making them
‘‘strange.’’ This device is famously employed in
War and Peace, for example, in the scene in
which Natasha attends the opera for the first time.
Tolstoy also employs repetition, enumeration, and
logical sequencing. He effects narrative shifts in
point of view that are held together by an omnis-
cient narrator who as often as not contains a
measure of the personality of Tolstoy himself. In
his postconversion works the aesthetic element is
often dominated by social and political commen-
tary, although the best works, such as Hadji
Murat, achieve universal clarity.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOCIAL, POLITICAL,
AND RELIGIOUS THOUGHT
While at times sympathetic to radicals, liberals, and
conservatives, Tolstoy largely remained at odds
with the main currents of nineteenth-century
Russian intellectual thought. Akin to an eighteenth-
century philosophe, Tolstoy, a fierce believer in the
equality of all people, envisioned and put into
practice at times utopian social and educational
reforms. Although he eventually came to a whole-
sale rejection of his class’s way of life, in less
dogmatic moments he believed that with privilege
came the responsibility to educate those less
fortunate than oneself.
After his moral crisis of 1880, Tolstoy came to
embrace Christian anarchism. He interpreted
Christ’s injunction to turn the other cheek as a
summons to nonviolent protest against injustice.
Tolstoy tended to follow any idea through to its
logical conclusions, even if that led him to extreme,
even contradictory, positions. For example, he
spoke out not against revolutionaries’ violent
tactics, but against the government’s execution of
the revolutionaries. He used his notoriety to rail
against the legal system, the prisons, private
property, the bureaucracy, marriage, education,
and agriculture. Tolstoy’s pacifism had a profound
influence on Mahatma Gandhi, spiritual and
political leader of India.
2320
See also Chekhov, Anton; Dostoyevsky, Fyodor;
Pacifism; Russia; Turgenev, Ivan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Tolstoy, Leo. Polnoe sobranie sochenenii. Edited by
V. G. Chertkov. 90 vols. Moscow, 1928–1958. Definitive
Russian edition of Tolstoy’s works.
———. Tolstoy Centenary Edition. Translated by Louise
and Aylmer Maude. 21 vols. London, 1929–1937.
Comprehensive, though incomplete, set of transla-
tions.
———. Anna Karenina. Translated by Constance Garnett.
Edited and translation revised by Leonard J. Kent and
Nina Berberova. New York, 1965. Reprint, 1993.
———. Great Short Works of Leo Tolstoy. Translated by
Louise and Aylmer Maude. New York, 1967.
———. War and Peace. Translated by Ann Dunnigan. New
York, 1968. Reprint, 1993.
Secondary Sources
Bloom, Harold, ed. Leo Tolstoy: Modern Critical Views. New
York, 1986. Excellent articles by distinguished scholars
on key aspects of Tolstoy’s work.
Orwin, Donna Tussing. Tolstoy’s Art and Thought, 1847–
1880. Princeton, N.J., 1993. Brilliant study of the ideas
that led Tolstoy to write his masterpieces.
Steiner, George. Tolstoy or Dostoevsky: An Essay in the Old
Criticism. 2nd ed. New Haven, Conn., 1996. Good
overall interpretation of Tolstoy’s works.
The Tolstoy Studies Journal. Toronto, 1998–. Good source
for contemporary scholarly articles on Tolstoy.
SARAH A. KRIVE
n
TORIES. On 14 July 1789, when the Bastille
was attacked by a revolutionary mob, there were,
save perhaps for James Boswell (1740–1795) and a
few politically eccentric High Church clergymen,
few individuals in Great Britain who would have
identified themselves as Tories. None would have
considered themselves as members of a ‘‘Conserva-
tive Party,’’ as that was an expression of 1830. The
term Tory had first come into widespread usage in
the 1670s and came to denote thereafter English
and Welsh politicians and their supporters who
placed a great deal of emphasis on the royal pre-
rogative and the virtues of the established Church
of England; were well able to restrain their enthu-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

siasm for Protestant Dissenters (Baptists, Quakers,
Presbyterians, Unitarians, Congregationalists);
were, at best, wobbly in their passion for the Glor-
ious Revolution of 1688 and the subsequent
settlement of the English, Scottish, and Irish
crowns on the German Lutheran electors of
Hanover; and who tended, as a generally landed
and country party, to mistrust the accoutrements
(national banks, national debts, stock exchanges) of
commercial capitalism.
By the 1760s and 1770s, the term Tory was fast
becoming an anachronism owned up to by few and
utilized chiefly by Whigs as a cudgel with which to
beat up political opponents. Most members of the
political nation of 1789, including those ‘‘fathers of
conservatism,’’ Edmund Burke (1729–1797) and
William Pitt (1759–1806), would have considered
themselves as Whigs of one form or another.
GOVERNING PARTY
William Pitt the Younger had been prime minister
since 1783 as leader of a post–American war coali-
tion, usually termed ‘‘Pittite,’’ whose distinguish-
ing characteristic was loyalty to George III
(r. 1760–1820). They were widely credited with
the ability to provide sound and efficient govern-
ment. Indeed, from the perspective of 1750 or of
1850, there was, save for this pragmatic loyalty
to the king, nothing particularly ‘‘Tory’’ about
Pitt or his government. Pitt tended to be broadly
sympathetic to the Irish Catholics, to limited
parliamentary reform, and to the cultivation of at
least reasonable relations with the Protestant Dis-
senters. This Pittite moderation changed with the
increasing radicalization of the French Revolution.
What could arguably be called the bible of modern
conservatism, Edmund Burke’s clarion call for
resistance to the French explosion, Reflections on
the Revolution in France, was published in 1790.
Burke, like Pitt, with a background replete with
parliamentary opposition to the American war
and, in a qualified way, to British imperialism in
India, was no Tory, but a Foxite Whig. Yet it was
Pitt and Burke, old enemies and never very cordial
colleagues, who in the 1790s stitched together a
governing coalition of Pittites and former Foxite
Whigs that became, even more than the papacy or
the Russian monarchy, the centerpiece of European
opposition to the Revolution and to Napoleon
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TORIES
Bonaparte. This coalition, save for a brief time
in 1806 and 1807, remained in power from
1794 to 1830. It was the nucleus of a revived
Tory Party, though most of its members, at least
until the 1820s, wore the Tory label most uncom-
fortably.
The Tories, who oversaw the great victories
over the French Empire in 1814 and 1815, and
the establishment thereafter of a Pax Britannica
over the sea lanes of the world, and who attempted
in the 1820s to liberalize the rigors of traditional
mercantilism, were smashed by the Catholic issue
after 1827. Many of the leading lights of the coali-
tion, the Pitts, the Burkes, the Cannings, the
Castlereaghs, were supporters of Catholic emanci-
pation, allowing the Catholics of the United
Kingdom, who were, of course, the vast majority
in Ireland, access to the imperial parliament in
London. The backwoodsmen of the party, in this
reflecting, most probably, the wider views of the
British people, did not support emancipation.
When Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington
(1769–1852), an anti-Catholic of long standing,
became prime minister in 1828, he decided, not
for the last time in the history of his party, to trump
ideology with pragmatism and give in to the
demands of the Catholic Irish and their leader,
Daniel O’Connell (1775–1847). The result was
the death knell of the Pittite-Burkeite coalition at
the general election of 1830. The victorious Whigs
and Liberals then proceeded to institute a reforma-
tion of the voting system for the House of
Commons in the interest, most generally, of their
middle class supporters.
OPPOSITION PARTY
The Tory Party, used to running the country and
the empire since 1783 or 1794, found themselves
in 1830 in the unfamiliar terrain of opposition. It
was, alas for the Tories, to be a too familiar terrain
over the bulk of the nineteenth century, the liberal
century of British politics. Between 1830 and
1885, the Tories only once won the majority of
votes cast at a general election, in 1841, and other-
wise only won in 1874. They lost to some sort of
Liberal-Whig coalition at thirteen general elections
during the time period. Contrast this to their years
of triumph between 1783 and 1829, when only
one general election was lost and nine were won!
2321
TORIES
The Tories in the early 1830s rechristened
themselves ‘‘the Conservative Party’’ and devel-
oped or refined their old Pittite principles into
what many hoped would be a coherent political
ideology called ‘‘Conservatism.’’ This new ideology
was trumpeted in newspapers, magazines, and
speeches on the hustings and in Parliament. It
basically endorsed the idea of a confessional (Angli-
can) party and denounced the works and pomps of
those forces of economic and social modernity that
the Conservatives held responsible for their elec-
toral defeats: the classical political economists, the
factory owners, the New Poor Law reformers, and
those free traders who advocated the ending of
protective duties on agriculture. That the Conser-
vative leadership in Parliament, the Wellingtons,
the Peels, the Grahams, were enthused by this
agenda is unlikely. Sir Robert Peel (1788–1850)
in the Tamworth Manifesto of 1834 presented a
more moderate Conservatism, accepting of much
of the Liberal reforms of 1830–1834. But it may
have been the more undiluted conservatism of the
church and the newspapers that orchestrated Peel’s
great victory of 1841.
Peel’s 1841–1846 administration showed the
great disconnect that existed between the party
leadership and the rank and file. Little was done
for the church, the New Poor Law was not
repealed, economic modernity was not repudiated,
and agricultural protection was not retained. In
1846, Peel, William Ewart Gladstone, Sir James
Graham, and other party notables began the trek
away from conservatism toward the wider shores of
liberalism, leaving their former party a rump. This
secession of the Tory generals forms the back-
ground for the emergence of a witty, talented
parliamentarian, Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881),
a baptized Jew with numerous personal quirks
not normally congenial to a conservative-minded
club, nor to the party leadership in the House of
Commons.
The Tory Party came to power, if briefly, in
1852, 1858, and 1866, and, for a longer time, in
1874, not because the voting public wanted them
but because the dominant Liberals fell out among
themselves. And the Tories (and Disraeli) played
the Liberal game to stay in power. They jettisoned
protection and their confessional leanings, sup-
ported Jewish emancipation, enfranchised the
2322
urban working class, and adopted a high imperialist
foreign policy. None of this seemed to matter
greatly, and the Liberal machine, chastened by its
periodic loss of power, picked itself up, won
elections, and moved on. What changed this idiom
more than the political skill and eccentric wisdom
of Disraeli or the iron pragmatism of Disraeli’s
successor, Lord Salisbury (Robert Arthur Talbot
Gascoyne-Cecil, 1803–1903), was the destruction
of the nineteenth-century Liberal paradigm by its
own leader, Gladstone. In 1885 and 1886, by
suddenly embracing the Irish leader Charles
Stewart Parnell’s vision of Home Rule for Ireland,
Gladstone ended the Liberal era in British politics
as savagely as in 1829 the Duke of Wellington and
Robert Peel, by supporting Catholic emancipation,
had ended the Tory one. The Conservatives
now found themselves in an anti–Home Rule gov-
ernmental alliance with the relatively congenial
whiggish Right of the Liberal Party and the not
so congenial collectivistic Left, led by Joseph
Chamberlain (1836–1914).
‘‘UNIONIST PARTY’’
Between 1886 and the official formation of a
‘‘Unionist Party’’ in 1895, the two sides (or three
sides) of the new coalition learned to tolerate and
support each other. For twenty years after 1886,
led by Salisbury and then by his nephew Arthur
James Balfour (1848–1930), the Conservatives
(or Unionists) won three general elections and
were in unaccustomed power for all but three years.
The dominant figure of the party, however, prob-
ably more than Salisbury and certainly more than
Balfour, was Chamberlain. As Winston Churchill
said of him, he made the weather. He also made
trouble for the future, by too aggressively promot-
ing African imperialism and by suddenly jettisoning
sixty years of a general free trade consensus in favor
of massive protection. The divided Unionists, then,
lost three general elections between 1905 and
1914.
In 1914 the great men of British politics,
Herbert Henry Asquith, David Lloyd George, and
Winston Churchill, were Liberals. Liberalism
seemed more than Unionism (or Conservatism)
to have captured the public mood on foreign,
imperial, and domestic issues. On 4 August 1914,
the day that the German army invaded Belgium,
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

few would have predicted that the Unionist and
Conservative Party would be the most formidable
political machine in Europe during the twentieth
century.
See also Conservatism; Great Britain; Whigs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Burke, Edmund. Reflections on the Revolution in France.
Edited by J. C. D. Clark. Stanford, Calif., 2001.
Secondary Sources
Bentley, Michael. Lord Salisbury’s World: Conservative
Environments in Late-Victorian Britain. Cambridge,
U.K., 2001.
Colley, Linda. Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837.
New Haven, Conn., 1992.
Dangerfield, George. The Strange Death of Liberal England.
New York, 1935.
Gash, Norman. Reaction and Reconstruction in English
Politics, 1832–1852. Oxford, U.K., 1965.
Marsh, Peter T. Joseph Chamberlain: Entrepreneur in Poli-
tics. New Haven, Conn., 1994.
Sack, James J. From Jacobite to Conservative: Reaction and
Orthodoxy in Britain, 1760–1832. Cambridge, U.K., 1993.
Smith, Paul. Disraeli: A Brief Life. New York, 1996.
JAMES J. SACK
n
TOULOUSE-LAUTREC, HENRI DE
(1864–1901), French artist best known for
portrayals of Paris life.
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec belonged to no
theoretical school, but is now sometimes classified
as postimpressionist. His primary focus was unsen-
timental evocations of personalities and social
mores in working-class, cabaret, circus, and brothel
scenes. Toulouse-Lautrec’s greatest contemporary
impact came with the thirty posters done between
1891 and 1901 that transformed the aesthetics
of poster art.
BACKGROUND AND ARTISTIC TRAINING
A heritage of wealth, artistic talent, and a rare
genetic disorder defined Toulouse-Lautrec. Born
in Albi, France, as the child of a first-cousin marriage
between aristocrats, Henri Marie Raymond de
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TOULOUSE-LAUTREC, HENRI DE
Toulouse-Lautrec Montfa inherited a rare form of
dwarfism that left him deformed and crippled.
During an otherwise normal childhood, he suffered
from increasingly severe bone pain. At age thirteen
in 1878, a minor fall broke his left femur or thigh-
bone. In 1879, a second fall broke the right femur.
His growth stopped at 152 cm (about 4’ 11’’) tall.
Controversies surrounding the causes of his disabil-
ity include rumors he fell from a horse or received
incompetent medical treatment. It is sometimes
claimed that he had pycnodysostosis (a genetic
disorder of the bones), but in photographs he does
not appear to have several of its identifying symp-
toms. His exact malady remains undiagnosed.
His childhood was marked by conflicts
between his parents. Consequently the primary
family unit became the artist and his mother. The
child Toulouse-Lautrec often drew and painted
alongside his father or one of his uncles, all talented
amateur artists; he used art to tolerate long conva-
lescences. His uncle, Charles de Toulouse-Lautrec
(1840–1915), and deaf-mute artist René Princeteau
(1844–1914), who specialized in horses, provided
early art training. In 1882 at age seventeen, with
parental approval, he began art study in Paris,
receiving training from Léon-Joseph-Florentin
Bonnat (1833–1922) and Fernand Cormon
(1845–1924). Toulouse-Lautrec kept studios in
Montmartre, influenced by neighboring artists
Edgar Degas (1834–1917) and Jean-Louis Forain
(1852–1931). Friends included close relatives, fellow
aristocrats, prostitutes, circus performers, and
artists Vincent Van Gogh (1853–1890), Pierre
Bonnard (1867–1947), and Edouard Vuillard
(1868–1940). Much of his art portrayed dance
halls and cabarets like the Moulin de la Galette,
the Moulin Rouge, and the Mirliton, where, after
dining at his mother’s, he drank nightly.
ART AND LIFE
By age twenty-two, Toulouse-Lautrec was an
accomplished artist and a hopeless alcoholic.
Rejecting the hypocrisy and sentimentality he
believed corrupted all human relations, he flaunted
his physical handicaps, with a veneer of self-mockery
and outrageous public misbehavior. Many works
make reference to his disabilities, ranging from
cruel caricatures of himself and others to ‘‘nostril
view’’ portraits, and figure studies with legs, arms,
2323
TOULOUSE-LAUTREC, HENRI DE
Poster for the Moulin Rouge by Toulouse-Lautrec,
1891. Toulouse-Lautrec depicts La Goulue, one of the most
popular and risqué dancers at the Moulin Rouge. THE ART
ARCHIVE
and in one case, head cut off by the frame, symbo-
lically handicapping his models as he was himself.
He became iconoclastic, resolutely destroying
others’ pretensions with a sharp word or a slash of
pencil on paper. Against his father’s wishes, he
decided to sign with the family name: H. T-Lautrec.
ARTISTIC PROCESS
Toulouse-Lautrec prepared a final work by proceed-
ing through a variety of media. First he did many
sketches, sometimes using carbon and tracing paper
to preserve images he liked. He at length distilled
an expression or gesture into a single evocative,
sometimes caricatural line. Obsessed with technical
innovation and being ‘‘modern,’’ he sometimes
2324
used photographs to fix a pose or scene, while
making a painted portrait. His paintings are vir-
tually always in oil, usually greatly thinned with
turpentine, painted on an absorbent surface such
as bare canvas, wood panel, or cardboard. He typi-
cally used tiny brushes to make subtle and detailed
facial studies, sketching in the rest of the scene in
quick strokes with larger brushes.
Toulouse-Lautrec’s paintings are striking for the
revealing expressions and body language of his mod-
els and for his staging of social narratives via costume
and location. Finished paintings in turn sometimes
served as preliminary studies for a color lithograph or
poster. However, the image in the final print was
pared down, simplified, and abstracted into a work
whose emphasis was on areas of color and repeated
shapes, containing virtually none of the psychological
impact of the oil. It was in his multiples that Tou-
louse-Lautrec most showed the influence of Japanese
art. He experimented with superimposed layers of
color on the lithographic print, a variety of spatter
techniques, and other technological inventions, but
it was above all his understanding of the guiding
principles of the advertising poster that revolution-
ized the art form. He created striking trademark
images whose message was immediately understand-
able, rendering his subjects so memorable that they
are still recognizable to the early-twenty-first-century
viewer.
Both notoriety and success came quickly to Tou-
louse-Lautrec. In spite of his irregular and distracting
lifestyle, he was remarkably productive. By age
twenty-one he was selling drawings to magazines
and newspapers, illustrating books, song sheets,
menus, and theater programs. Acclaimed by the
avant-garde, he exhibited constantly. Although his
work sold well, and his monthly allowance from his
parents (around 15,000 francs per year) was perfectly
adequate, he had extravagant tastes and lavish gener-
osity. Virtually every letter home said, ‘‘Send money!’’
He was institutionalized for several months in
1899 for treatment of psychological symptoms
caused by organic deterioration certainly from
advanced alcoholism, and possibly from tertiary
syphilis. He died two months before his thirty-
seventh birthday. In a career lasting only twenty
years, he produced a phenomenal amount of art:
737 canvases, 275 watercolors, 368 prints and pos-
ters, and 5,084 drawings, not to mention lost works,
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

an occasional book binding, ceramic, or stained-glass
window. Some 300 works are pornographic.
Toulouse-Lautrec’s art remains so popular that
it has become a commonplace, reproduced on cof-
fee mugs, dish towels, and shopping bags. Research
and criticism have traditionally centered on its art
historical, biographical, or social context. More
recent studies focus on Toulouse-Lautrec’s dis-
tinctive, repetitive artistic characteristics: fleeting
impressions, transparency, layering, visual narra-
tive, jokes and puns, homages to and pastiches of
other artists. These traits reveal subtlety and com-
plexity that are increasingly appreciated by other
artists, scholars, and the public at large.
See also Fin de Siècle; France; Impressionism; Paris;
Posters.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Carlton Lake Collection, Harry Ransom Center, University
of Texas. Austin, Tex. Unpublished original letters by
Toulouse-Lautrec and members of his family, most
written between 1864 and 1894.
Dortu, M. G. Toulouse-Lautrec et son oeuvre. 6 vols. New
York, 1971. Only catalog of all works credibly attri-
buted to Toulouse-Lautrec. A huge effort, but contains
many errors in dating and some in attribution.
Musée Toulouse-Lautrec Collection. Albi, France. Originals
and/or copies of all possible documentation on
Toulouse-Lautrec, including letters, photographs,
schoolbooks, clippings, etc.
Wittrock, Wolfgang, ed. Toulouse-Lautrec: The Complete
Prints. 2 vols. London, 1985. Reproduces and docu-
ments each known state of Toulouse-Lautrec’s prints.
Worthwhile articles by several critics.
Secondary Sources
Bibliotheque Nationale and Queensland Art Gallery. The
Lautrecs of Lautrec. Brisbane, 1991. Exhibition cata-
log. Notable for interesting articles and entries.
Castleman, Riva, and Wolfgang Wittrock, eds. Henri de
Toulouse-Lautrec, Images of the 1890s. New York,
1985. Exhibition catalog. Reproduces evolution of
artistic choices through preparatory and finished works.
Cate, Phillip Dennis, and Patricia Eckert Boyer. The Circle
of Toulouse-Lautrec: An Exhibition of the Work of the
Artist and of his Close Associates. New Brunswick, N.J.,
1985. Exhibition catalog. Artists who were Toulouse-
Lautrec’s friends and contemporaries.
Denvir, Bernard. Toulouse-Lautrec. London, 1991. Excel-
lent overall analysis of the artist’s relation to his work.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TOURISM
Devynck, Daniele. Toulouse-Lautrec: The Posters, Collection
of the Musée Toulouse-Lautrec. Graulhet, 2001.Thor-
ough, serious study of Toulouse-Lautrec’s poster art.
Frey, Julia. Toulouse-Lautrec: A Life. London, 1994. Only
complete biography. Based on contemporaneous
letters and documents.
Heller, Reinhold. ‘‘Rediscovering Henri de Toulouse-
Lautrec’s At the Moulin Rouge.’’ Art Institute of
Chicago Museum Studies 12, no. 2 (1986): 114–135.
Examines the cutting and re-stitching of a section of
the famous oil, theorizing possible intent.
Murray, Gale B. Toulouse-Lautrec: The Formative Years,
1878–1891. Oxford, U.K., 1991. Study of Toulouse-
Lautrec’s early work with focus on dating and artistic
influences.
Schimmel, Herbert, ed. The Letters of Henri de Toulouse-
Lautrec. Oxford, U.K., 1991. Translates (sometimes
badly) many if not all Toulouse-Lautrec’s existing letters.
Thomson, Richard, et al. Toulouse-Lautrec. London, 1977.
Exhibition catalog. Some interesting critical articles.
Excellent chronology.
Thomson, Richard, Phillip Dennis Cate, and Mary Weaver
Chapin. Toulouse-Lautrec and Montmartre. Washing-
ton, D.C., 2005. Exhibition catalog.
JULIA FREY
n
TOURISM. Until the late twentieth century,
the history of tourism was not a serious subject
for historical inquiry. Before the advent of social
history, political historians duly noted where deci-
sions and pronouncements were made, and the
place of leisure travel becomes obvious only in
retrospect: French Emperor Napoleon III met
Count Cavour (Camillo Benso) in the comfortable
French spa town of Plombières to plot what turned
out to be a war of Italian unification against the
Austrians; and King William of Prussia had been
taking the waters at Ems when the Ems dispatch
was issued in 1870, provoking the French to
declare war. Even the emergence of social history
initially left the history of tourism at the margins.
Careful analysis of workers, peasants, the bourgeoi-
sie, and eventually women, that is, specific social
groups, eventually made room for analysis of cul-
tural practices besides work, such as tourism. The
neglect was unfortunate because the history of
tourism has revealed just how much various social
groups used travel to set themselves off from others
2325
TOURISM
THE MICHELIN RED GUIDE: AUTOMOBILE TOURISM AND GENDER ROLES
In 1900, Michelin published the first Guide Michelin to
France. In the preface, Michelin noted that ‘‘this work
desires to give all information that can be useful to a
driver traveling in France, to supply [the needs of] his
automobile, to repair it, and to permit him to find a
place to stay and eat, and to correspond by mail,
telegraph, or telephone’’ (p. 5). Offering this new red
guide free of charge, the company recognized that by
encouraging automobile travel it fostered the consump-
tion of tires. In essence, the guide offered knowledge
about tires and about French towns, thus providing a
sort of informational infrastructure for early automobile
tourists.
Interestingly, the red guide and advertisements for
it reinforced societal assumptions about sexual differ-
ence in early twentieth-century Europe. In an age when
many wealthy men did not even drive their own cars,
they were still portrayed as in charge in their planning of
trips and management of the chauffeur. Women, by
contrast, were presumed to be flighty, hopefully attrac-
tive, and concerned with maintaining their beauty.
Advertisements for the red guides played on the
idea that men, the providers, needed to supply a
comfortable place to stay for women, the presumed
consumers. In one case, Michelin recounted the tale
of newlyweds traveling without a red guide. After the
chauffeur informed them that a mechanical breakdown
would leave them stranded overnight, the Viscount
René de la Ribaudière (a name suggesting bawdiness
as well as aristocratic origins) and Giselle, his new
wife (the text notes that ‘‘she was not yet [really] the
countess’’), got a room in a hotel that was, according to
the owner, ‘‘the best in the region.’’ After retiring to their
room, they found a bat, and
and thus to construct differences of class and gen-
der as ‘‘natural’’ social divides. In fact, tourism, like
other forms of consumption, was as much a defin-
ing characteristic of social position as the work with
which it was often contrasted.
THE GRAND TOUR
In the eighteenth century, the British had been
predominant as early tourists. Before the French
Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, many aristo-
2326
it took a quarter of an hour and all of the eloquence
that M. de la Ribaudière had in order to calm down
Giselle. However, the little viscount did not waste
any time, and he quickly addressed his very immi-
nent wife the most legitimate compliments on the
beauty of her legs and the finesse of her ankles,
when suddenly he cried out in distress. ‘‘Ah! my
God, what is the matter?’’ Giselle asked him. [He
replied,] ‘‘my darling, where did you get this bit of
red on your shoulder which was so white a moment
ago?’’ The same exclamation came out of both of
their mouths, ‘‘Bed bugs.’’ They killed 10, then 100,
then 577; they could not have fought off the yellow
invasion with more ardor. Finally, overtaken by
sleep, Giselle resigned herself to stretching out on
her uncomfortable and hard bed. And the viscount
wanted to begin the conversation again. ‘‘Oh, no,
my dear,’’ she told him. . . . When the sun rose,
Giselle was still not yet Madame de la Ribaudière,
though she looked like cream with strawberries [that
is, her cream-colored skin had many red marks
resembling strawberries]. (‘‘Lundi de Michelin,’’
Le Journal, 6 July 1908, p. 5)
By playing on the notion of consummation of the
marriage, Michelin suggested that the viscount, how-
ever desperately he may have tried, did not get to have
sex with his new wife because he had not ordered a
copy of the red guide, so he did not realize there was a
fine hotel nearby. Having not fulfilled his role as good
provider, the viscount could not fulfill his role as a
husband in the act of sex. Thus, marketing of the red
guide—which began ostensibly as a list of mechanics
and places to buy gas—could assert assumptions
about the appropriate behavior of men and women:
men were supposed to take care of the practical details
while traveling, by buying a red guide, and women were
to worry about their appearance.
cratic and wealthy British families sent their sons on
a Grand Tour of Europe. To have done a Grand
Tour set a young English man apart from his
contemporaries, not to mention his social inferiors.
For the growing upper middle class, a tour of
classical ruins was construed as cultural training,
not unlike attending university. Lasting for several
months, a tour usually included Paris and often
other major European capitals and was almost
always dominated by the Italian cities. Venice,
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Florence, Rome (including the digs at Pompeii),
and sometimes Naples were must-sees, while
Genoa and Turin usually figured as stopping points
en route from the Alpine crossing to the south.
Art collections, architecture, classical ruins, and
brothels were the main attractions.
The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic
Wars interrupted much international tourism,
particularly by the British, until 1815. However,
in the course of the nineteenth century, the idea
of the Grand Tour remained an important image
as the numbers of Europeans with the time and
financial resources to travel grew. Napoleon’s
road building across France and through the Alps
facilitated access by reducing travel times.
Museums opened their doors, following the
example of the Louvre, which became public dur-
ing the Revolution. The populations capable of
affording a tour grew. In addition, the number of
women traveling, escorted by female family
members, servants, and friends—and sometimes
husbands and fathers—steadily increased.
Both evolving aesthetics and accessibility
changed the destinations and the perceptions of
early nineteenth-century tourists. The Alps, long
considered a mere untamed obstacle en route to
Italy, became a destination in their own right and
an important stop on many a Grand Tour. Moun-
tain climbing for the few and hiking for the many
became primary attractions. Romantic sensibilities
also led to interest in Gothic cathedrals along
with the classical monuments. The few travelers to
Greece in the nineteenth century, which seemed
more accessible after its independence from
the Ottoman Empire in 1832, were in search of
classical ruins overrun by vegetation and partially
destroyed by time; here Lord George Gordon
Byron’s poetry was an obvious inspiration. During
the period from 1792 to 1815, a heyday of early
Romanticism, the British Lake Counties so dear to
William Wordsworth became primary alternatives for
wealthy British tourists unable to tour the Continent.
With a volume of Wordsworth in hand, visitors
sought the uncontrolled nature he had described.
TAKING THE WATERS: SPAS AND SEASIDES
Named for Spa, a well-known spring of mineral
water in what would after 1830 be known as
Belgium, spas had long existed in Europe. The
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TOURISM
Romans had established baths filled with spring
water, and some of those same baths remained in
operation throughout the Middle Ages, attracting
both local inhabitants and the infirm from farther
away. In Hungary, baths experienced a boom in
the eighteenth century. Improved roads and coach
service made the baths more accessible, and
towns such as Bath in western England, Vichy in
south-central France, and Baden-Baden in the
southwestern German state of Baden became
important destinations.
Until the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries, baths frequently remained large pools
in the open air, situated within the towns and
open, without charge, to all who wished to bathe.
Although only scattered evidence has survived, it
appears that in the early modern period bathers of
both sexes of all social groups wore little clothing,
frolicking in the baths. By the early nineteenth
century, as bourgeois usage grew dramatically, so
too did the expectations for regulation of access.
In France, the open-air pools largely disappeared,
replaced by individual bathing compartments
where a bather would not come in contact with
anyone but spa staff. At least in France, the strict
separation of the sexes and careful attention to
appropriate attire resulted in part from women’s
complaints of men’s behavior at the baths, so
the institution of new norms of propriety may
have resulted as much from women’s increased
presence as from a desire for social control on
the part of the bourgeoisie in general. Neverthe-
less, a clear segmentation by social class clearly
took place. The poor and working poor found
themselves excluded from many of the baths, and
an array of new hospitals for the poor requiring
hydrotherapy segregated them from the wealthy
bathers.
In the nineteenth century, doctors largely
controlled access to the baths. Doctors developed
a complement of hydrotherapeutic techniques,
including hot and cold pressurized showers, hot
mud packs for the body, and individualized boxes
for prescribed steam baths. During an average
three-week course of treatment, the majority of a
patient’s time was often not spent in the bathing
pools themselves. Even when patients were in the
bath, the duration of daily treatments was closely
controlled by the spa’s staff.
2327
TOURISM
Social stratification was a defining characteristic
of spa towns. Locals worked in the baths, in the
hotels, and in the newly organized casinos. In
towns such as Vichy and Aix-les-Bains (in Savoy),
service to wealthy travelers was the primary
employment for local residents. While the wealthy
travelers registered their names, addresses, profes-
sions, and the number of accompanying servants—
all markers of social station in the nineteenth
century—before going off to the baths for their
cures, locals lost their earlier (nonmedical) access
to the baths. Spa employees and larger municipal
police forces further kept the homeless and
begging poor out of the casinos and off the
important promenades, where their presence was
assumed to damage the appeal of the spa town.
After 1750, first in Britain and then on the
Continent, the aristocracy and increasingly the
middle classes also began to flock to the seaside,
spurring the development of resorts. In many parts
of Europe, though sources are comparatively
scarce, there is evidence of swimming or playing
in sea water on the Atlantic and the Mediterranean.
As bourgeois interest in the seaside grew, so too did
municipal regulations governing use of the beaches.
In the first half of the nineteenth century, nude
bathing was banned on most beaches, which were
also usually segregated by sex. Although access to
the sea remained open to people of all social classes,
the primary beachfront connected to resort towns
was largely reserved for wealthy travelers whose
expenditures supported local economies.
Although Romantic interest in the sea as
untamed nature was not unlike the ‘‘discovery’’ of
the Alps, the motivation for travel to the seaside, as
in the case of spas, was also ostensibly medical. For
skin and particularly pulmonary ailments, especially
tuberculosis, doctors often advised an extended
stay on the coast. By the early nineteenth century,
doctors also began to regulate immersion in the
water. Doctors offered careful instructions as to
the preparation, duration, and necessary move-
ments during daily baths in sea water.
Doctors and bathers made an important dis-
tinction between men and women. While women
in particular were prescribed strict guidelines, car-
ried out by attendants who manned the individua-
lized bathing boxes ostensibly for the preservation
2328
of female modesty, doctors exercised comparatively
little control over men, who customarily treated
jumping into the waves as a sort of male rite of
passage, a proof of their virility. The medicalized
control established at the seaside was thus insepar-
able from a broader social control of women’s
movements and their bodies in the nineteenth
century.
RIDING THE RAILS AND READING
THE GUIDEBOOKS
Although the network of European roads and
coach services improved steadily in the eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries, facilitating tourism
among wealthy Europeans, the development of the
railroad allowed faster and considerably cheaper
transportation, dramatically increasing the number
of people who could afford to travel. The greater
accessibility made possible by the railroad did
not erase social distinctions but rather altered their
contours; just as the railroad had first-class, second-
class, third-class, and even fourth-class carriage,
tourist destinations changed to accommodate both
greater social diversity but also the desire for social
differentiation by those who could afford better.
The railroad had an ironic effect on established
tourist destinations. For example, on the southern
coast of England, Brighton had been a favored
destination of the English nobility and royalty in
the eighteenth century. However, when the rail-
road connected Brighton to nearby London, the
middle and lower middle class of the city began to
make day trips to Brighton. The royal family and
social elite relocated their social season to the
north, placing themselves outside the logistical
and financial reach of these new tourists. In France,
where the warm and more desirable seasides were
in the south, the railroad made it possible for the
wealthy of Paris and of Europe to easily make a
journey impractical for those of limited means. The
empress Eugénie, wife of Napoleon III of France,
made Biarritz on the southwestern French coast a
sought-after resort town once the railroad line was
established. On the Riviera, the French annexation
of Nice in 1860 facilitated the development of
a French railway line from Paris. Nice expanded
rapidly and its wintertime (the social season on
the Riviera) population exploded as the inter-
national social elite swarmed in.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

More tourists with more destinations sought
ever more information about where to go, what
to see, and how to get there most easily. Because
tourists on land were by mid-century traveling
almost exclusively by railroad, guidebooks adopted
railway itineraries as their organizational frame-
work. In Britain, John Murray published little red
guides to sights and hotels of Europe, in a format
quickly adopted by Karl Baedeker in Germany.
With guides in several European languages cover-
ing western, northern, and southern Europe by
1914, Baedeker and his successors built a veritable
empire of guidebooks, directing tourists where to
go and what to see. In France, Adolphe Joanne
launched a similar series published by Hachette,
which had a monopolistic control of bookstores
in French rail stations.
The Murray, Baedeker, and Joanne guidebooks,
like their eventual competitors, offered practical
information about the quality and prices of hotels,
admission prices to museums, train schedules,
detailed information about the sights a dutiful
tourist should not miss, and even advice about
appropriate behavior. In short, the guidebooks
attempted to instruct the novice tourist in how to
travel. By providing abundant information updated
in frequent re-editions, guidebooks took some of
the uncertainty out of travel, but arrangements
remained entirely in the hands of individual tourists,
who needed to negotiate not only with hotels but
also with the multitude of different train companies
even within a given country.
For the lower middle class and skilled workers
with limited means, less time, and little familiarity
with the profusion of train schedules and fares,
Thomas Cook offered both greater certainty and
moderate prices. A British cabinetmaker and min-
ister, Cook organized his first tour by railroad for
working men and women attending a Temperance
meeting in 1841. In 1851 he negotiated prices
with the railroads and lined up accommodations
for some 165,000 British men and women who
traveled to the see the Grand Exhibition in London
(some 3 percent of visitors). By the 1860s, as
railroad fares declined within Britain, often
obviating the need for his services, Cook focused
on tours of the Continent, beginning with Paris
(1861), then Switzerland (1863), Italy (1864), and
Spain (1872). In several respects, Cook and his
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TOURISM
competitors opened up touring to social groups
that had not traveled in the past. Initially, ‘‘work-
ingmen,’’ usually skilled artisans or lower middle-
class tradesmen on day trips, formed the primary
travelers. Without this early group being aban-
doned, as the destination increasingly became the
Continent, Cook’s tourists also came from a broad
spectrum of the middle class; not only doctors,
lawyers, and salaried employees but also teachers
and ministers, who had time but limited incomes,
were a primary constituency.
Cook’s tour came to embody the increased
access to travel in nineteenth-century Europe. As a
result, those travelers who could afford longer,
slower, and more costly trips ridiculed the month-
long Cook’s tours to Continental Europe as offering
no time for the real appreciation of the monuments,
museums, and landscapes seen in a blur. The
perceptions of social distinction shifted; for the
modest, touring offered status, but for the wealthy
the fact of touring the Continent often became less
important than in what company and how one did.
The most obvious social change among tourists
became in the nineteenth century the increased
presence of women. Although a few women had
done the Grand Tour or had taken the waters in
the eighteenth century, in the course of the nine-
teenth century tourism by women unaccompanied
by men became standard. The railroads and guide-
books (which were often, as in the case of the
Baedeker, downright sexist even by nineteenth-
century standards) facilitated travel, making it easier
for women to travel without the company of men.
In Cook’s tours both single women and women
traveling in groups were actually more heavily
represented than men. While ease of transport
was clearly one reason, the broader cultural changes
in nineteenth-century Europe were another.
Whereas men had been the primary collectors of
art early in the century, women increasingly became
connoisseurs of art, music, and culture generally,
though the remunerated professions of artist, cura-
tor, or academic remained the preserve of men.
Bourgeois women’s predominance in the church
was also a factor; in largely Protestant Britain
women had an important role in the Temperance
movement, sometimes necessitating travel by train,
and in Catholic areas women were proportionately
better represented in the organized group tours to
2329
TOURISM
Egyptian guides help tourists climb the Great Pyramid
at Cheops c. 1900. ªCORBIS
pilgrimage sites, such as the spring at Lourdes in the
Pyrenees mountains.
By the end of the nineteenth century, growing
nationalist and imperialist sentiment, laced with
Social Darwinism, was also reflected in well-off
Europeans’ travel. Guidebooks could be quite
nationalistic. In the 1860s, the Baedeker guides in
the German language fervently claimed that French-
held Alsace-Lorraine should in fact be part of united
Germany. British guides frequently deplored the
supposedly inadequate hygiene on the Continent,
especially the absence of toilets flushed with water.
In countries with expanding empires, most notably
Britain and France, trips to the colonies gained in
popularity among the wealthy. Although their num-
bers remained small, Britons and to a lesser extent
other Europeans, very often under the auspices of
a Cook’s tour down the Nile, traveled to Egypt
in search of cultural exoticism; by the 1880s they
were reassured by the British protectorate. Britons
also went to Palestine to visit the ‘‘Holy Land.’’
Among the French, the colonies of Algeria and later
2330
Morocco were sometimes destinations. While travel-
ing outside Europe, Europeans could congratulate
themselves on their own national—in having a
grander empire they could be superior to other
Europeans—and racial superiority, presumably
manifest in the vast material divide between them
and indigenous peoples.
BICYCLE AND AUTOMOBILE TOURISM
While the overwhelming majority of travelers in the
early twentieth century continued to use the rail-
road, technological innovations of the late nine-
teenth and early twentieth centuries placed
renewed emphasis on traveling by road as well as
rail. The ‘‘safety’’ bicycle with two wheels of the
same size became a fashionable rage for sportsmen
rich enough to buy one in the 1890s. In the first
decade of the twentieth century, the automobile
began to rival the bicycle among sportsmen, and
it quickly became a means of tourist transportation
for aristocrats and bourgeois Europeans. The
automobile’s price and extremely high mainte-
nance costs made it a socially exclusive mode of
transportation. An automobile allowed wealthy
men, accompanied by women and usually a
mechanic/driver, to make long trips, veritable
adventures given the poor reliability of automobiles
when compared to trains.
Both bicycle and automobile tourism necessi-
tated a new infrastructure eventually provided by
local and national authorities. Well-maintained,
eventually paved roads with road signs became the
subject of important lobbying efforts by tourists
enamored of the new forms of transport. An array
of nonprofit organizations emerged across Europe
to advocate the interests of first cyclists then
motorists. Inspired by the British Cyclist Touring
Club, ‘‘touring clubs’’ funded by members’ contri-
butions and often public subsidies, worked with
local and national governments to provide an
infrastructure for all forms of tourism, though
cycling received pride of place in the 1890s. After
1900, touring clubs, working alongside more
socially exclusive automobile clubs, also argued
for roadway improvements necessary for automo-
biles. In several countries, the touring clubs, while
overwhelmingly bourgeois, were among the largest
of associations. The Touring Club de France,
founded in 1890, had nearly 100,000 members in
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

1914. The Touring Club Ciclistico Italiano,
founded in 1894, dropped ‘‘cycling’’ from its name
in 1900 and itself grew to 450,000 members in the
interwar years.
CONCLUSION: TOURISM AND SOCIAL
DISTINCTIONS
Before the 1790s, when the English term tourist,
itself derived from the French term tour, first
emerged in the English language, traveler was the
primary designation used for what one might call
the ‘‘leisure traveler.’’ In the course of the nine-
teenth century, most European languages acquired
a term equivalent to the English tourist. Since the
nineteenth century, tourists and social observers
have often distinguished between travelers and
tourists. Late-nineteenth-century travelers con-
demned Cook’s tourists as superficial. Travelers
supposedly appreciated what they saw and experi-
enced whereas tourists completed a list of things
that ‘‘needed to be seen.’’ Many historians and
other writers have often accepted the distinction
at face value, stressing the difference between the
old bourgeois, aristocratic, and educated travelers
and the late nineteenth- and twentieth-century
hordes who supposedly understood little besides
how to have a good time.
In fact, the terms reveal more about the people
employing them to reinforce social difference than
about any real difference between leisure travelers
and tourists. Many middle-class travelers in the
nineteenth century, even ‘‘Cook’s tourists,’’ could
be far more interested in European art and archi-
tecture, which also offered them the possibility of a
sort of cultural capital upon returning home, than
the fabulously wealthy who spent much of their
time simply enjoying themselves in the company
of their compatriots. In short, the distinction that
some have made between travelers and tourists, like
the distinctions that post–World War II tourists
often make between themselves and other, presum-
ably less knowledgeable and culturally sensitive
tourists, are not ‘‘real,’’ measurable differences.
In the nineteenth century, social distinctions
made between those who could afford to take the
tour, take the waters in a spa, or go to the beach
and those who could not mirrored the social
segmentation of European society as a whole.
Similarly, the prescribed roles for women and
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TOURISM
men further reflected widespread assumptions
about the ‘‘natural’’ differences between the sexes.
Tourism, having afforded some people the
occasion to join their presumed cohorts and set
themselves off from other people, thus provides a
fascinating glimpse at the social hierarchies that
characterized nineteenth-century Europe.
See also Automobile; Cycling; Popular and Elite Culture;
Railroads; Transportation and Communications.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Bertho Lavenir, Catherine. La roue et le style: Comment nous
sommes devenus touristes. Paris, 1999.
Bosworth, R. J. B. ‘‘The Touring Club Italiano and the
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Harp, Stephen L. Marketing Michelin: Advertising and
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Haug, C. James. Leisure and Urbanism in Nineteenth
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(1998): 323–340.
Koshar, Rudy, ed. Histories of Leisure. New York, 2002.
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mémoire, edited by Pierre Nora, 1035–1072. Paris,
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TOUSSAINT LOUVERTURE
Pemble, John. The Mediterranean Passion: Victorians and
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STEPHEN L. HARP
n
TOUSSAINT LOUVERTURE (c. 1743–
1803), French general and Haitian political
leader.
Legends maintain that on Toussaint (All Saint’s
Day), 1 November 1745, at a plantation owned by
the Comte de Bréda, a first son was born to a
former African king. In Catholic Saint-Domingue
(as Haiti was known during the French colonial
period), the slave child was christened François
Dominique Toussaint. François Antoine Bayon de
Libertat, the plantation overseer, saw only potential
in the small, frail boy, and in a striking departure
from convention, ensured that he became literate
and solidly grounded in the Catholic faith. While
Toussaint’s equestrian skills earned him the
exclusive position of driver and master of horses
at Bréda, he also gained wide recognition among
his fellow slaves as a master practitioner of herbal
medicine—felicitous skills that would serve Tous-
saint well during the convulsions that lay ahead.
Battles for primacy between the white social
classes and mulattoes characterized the French
Revolution in Saint-Domingue, until the night of
22 August 1791, when tens of thousands of slaves
throughout the colony’s great northern plain
revolted, torching cane fields and plantations, and
2332
‘‘I am Toussaint Louverture, my name is perhaps
known to you. I have undertaken vengeance. I want
liberty and equality to reign in Saint-Domingue.
I work to make them exist.’’ (Toussaint to his
‘‘brothers and friends’’ in Saint-Domingue, 29
August 1793)
‘‘By defeating me, one has only cut the trunk
of the tree of Negro liberty in Saint-Domingue; it will
rise again by its roots, for they are numerous and
deep.’’ (Toussaint from his cell in Fort de Joux)
massacring nearly every non-black they could find.
After helping the Bayon de Libertat family to
safety, Toussaint joined the rebellion, and by early
1793 was among the thousands of rebel slaves who
had crossed into neighboring Santo Domingo,
where the Spanish king offered freedom and
promotion for black (and white) fugitives who
would take up arms against French Republicans.
Starting as physician and key advisor to slave leader
Georges Biassou, Toussaint eventually attained the
rank of brigadier with an independent command of
more than 4,000 black troops—irregulars that he
drilled into an extraordinarily competent fighting
force. Throughout 1793, Toussaint’s military
talent became so well established that by August,
he composed a general call to arms to the slaves of
Saint-Domingue in which he referred to himself for
the first time as ‘‘Louverture’’—the opening.
For reasons that remain unclear, on 6 May
1794, Toussaint renounced his allegiance to Spain,
declared for France, and quickly amassed a series of
victories against his former Spanish and British
confederates. In 1796, Toussaint rescued French
Governor General Étienne Laveaux from imprison-
ment by disaffected mulattos; Laveaux reciprocated
by appointing Toussaint lieutenant governor
general of the colony. France’s Directory followed
suit, officially promoting Toussaint to division
general, and naming him lieutenant governor
general and commander in chief of armies of
Saint-Domingue (2 May 1797). By November
1800, Toussaint was complete master of Saint-
Domingue. He annexed Santo Domingo in February
1801, and in May, promulgated the island’s first
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Toussaint Louverture meets with defeated generals.
Nineteenth-century engraving commemorating Toussaint
Louverture’s defeat of British troops in Haiti, 1798.
CORBIS
constitution—a document that named him gover-
nor general for life.
Acknowledged as a protector to anyone,
regardless of color, who would support his designs
for a stable, resurgent Saint-Domingue, Toussaint
exercised his authority to rebuild the devastated
colony. He encouraged the return of émigré French
planters and enforced labor decrees through martial
law, but ensured that former slaves were compen-
sated for their labor with one-third of the crops
they helped produce. However, Toussaint’s regime
barely had time to accrue measurable successes
before the colony was once again at war.
In December 1801, Napoleon I (r. 1804–
1814/15) dispatched to Toussaint his most
respectful greetings, along with a 21,000-man
invasion force under the command of his brother-
in-law, Captain-General Charles-Victor-Emmanuel
Leclerc (1772–1802). Leclerc’s secret instructions
from Napoleon included orders to conciliate
Toussaint and his leaders (promising anything in
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TRADE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
order to take possession of the colony), disarm
the blacks, and then force their return to slavery.
Ferocious fighting ensued until Toussaint and
Leclerc concluded an armistice during which
the black general was allowed to retire under
protection to his estate. This reprieve was only a
ruse; Toussaint and his family soon were abducted
from their home and spirited away to France,
where Napoleon had the general barbarously incar-
cerated in the dungeons of Fort de Joux in France’s
eastern Jura Mountains. Toussaint died the follow-
ing year from exposure and neglect, while his wife
and children simply disappeared. Fighting in Saint-
Domingue continued until November 1803 when,
abandoned by Napoleon and decimated by yellow
fever and malaria, the pitiful remnants of the
Army of Saint-Domingue surrendered to General
Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758–1806).
As the result of Napoleon’s ill-advised treat-
ment of Toussaint and Saint-Domingue, France
not only lost any chance to regain meaningful
influence over its most lucrative former overseas
possession, but also a potential staging base for
regaining control of the Louisiana Territory. The
ªBETTMANN/ impact on Haiti, however, was tragic. Minus Tous-
saint’s unifying leadership, Haiti devolved into the
200 years of internecine fighting and corrupt
administrations that characterize the country into
the twenty-first century.
See also Caribbean; Colonies; French Revolutionary
Wars and Napoleonic Wars; Haiti.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fick, Carolyn E. The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue
Revolution from Below. Knoxville, Tenn., 1990.
Heinl, Robert Debs, Jr., and Nancy Gordon Heinl. Written
in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1971.
Boston, 1978.
James, Cyril Lionel Robert. The Black Jacobins: Toussaint
L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution. Rev. ed.
New York, 1963.
JAMES L. HAYNSWORTH
n
TRADE AND ECONOMIC
GROWTH. Since Adam Smith (1723–1790)
and David Ricardo (1772–1823), trade and eco-
nomic growth have been regarded as interconnected,
2333
TRADE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
and ‘‘Smithian growth’’ has become a fixed term
in economic growth analysis. The connection is
obvious: if previously nonintegrated regions and
countries have cost advantages in different types of
products, trade will benefit both sides. For example,
Polish grain farmers can produce wheat at a lower
cost than English farmers, whereas English workers
can produce textiles more cheaply than Polish
workers. The ‘‘comparative advantages’’ of the
English textile sector furthermore imply that even
if an English worker could in principle produce
grain at a lower cost than even a Polish laborer,
that worker can only spend his time either with
grain or with textile production. If the cost advan-
tage in textiles is relatively larger, the worker
should thus continue to produce textiles and eat
imported wheat.
Smith and Ricardo were convinced that the
effects of trade are positive. However, international
trade has also been the target of hostile criticism,
and the debates on how beneficial the effects of
trade were in nineteenth-century Europe are rele-
vant for the contemporary world. The debates
focused on the following four hypotheses:
1. Growing imports have always provoked counter-
measures, or attempted countermeasures, from
interest groups who were afraid of losing income
and social status when faced with competition
from imported labor or goods. For example,
British landowners lobbied for and benefited
from protectionism in the early nineteenth
century while continental European textile man-
ufactures flourished when Napoleon I (r. 1804–
1814/15) closed the French ports to British
manufactures.
2. While market integration had mostly beneficial
effects on purchasing power, it is less clear that
the contribution to the overall growth of
welfare was always positive. For example, inte-
gration might in some situations have detri-
mental effects on health or longevity for parts
of the population, which might adversely affect
living standards. The ‘‘Human Development
Index’’ of the United Nations includes mea-
sures such as life expectancy and education,
whereas others have used human height as a
proxy for the so-called Biological Standard of
Living. During the nineteenth century in
Europe, height in some cases even declined in
2334
some previously remote and nonintegrated
regions of Europe.
3. It has been argued that trade not only promoted
direct growth in ways that Adam Smith had
predicted but that it also influenced the devel-
opment of institutions. Daron Acemoglu,
Simon Johnson, and James Robinson have
argued that trading cities on the Atlantic coast
benefited particularly from the development
of institutions that transmitted information
more easily and protected and defined property
rights. Although their study concentrates on the
early modern period, the influence of greater
institutional efficiency might have continued
well into the nineteenth century. Another indirect
effect might also have been the formation of
physical and financial capital through the rein-
vestment of a produced surplus, as is implied
by Douglass North’s theory of ‘‘export-led
growth.’’
4. The indirect growth effects of trade may influ-
ence income inequality. Eli F. Heckscher and
Bertil Gotthard Ohlin have argued that an
increased import of goods produced primarily
with unskilled labor will reduce unskilled wages,
thereby increasing inequality. The opposite
holds for the increased export of goods ‘‘con-
taining’’ unskilled labor inputs. Yet while
increasing inequality may imply more invest-
ments by the rich (because poorer people do
not invest much), inequality can also lead to a
lack of schooling and human capital formation
among the poor, in addition to negative health
and crime effects, or even upheaval and social
conflict.
These four hypotheses about the relationship
between trade and economic growth will be dis-
cussed in more detail below. Before addressing
them, however, the trade structure of Europe in
the nineteenth century needs to be addressed:
Which countries concentrated on which export
staples? How large were the net exports of particu-
lar items that can inform us about the country’s
growth prospects? Which imports and exports
restored the trade balance (taking into account that
national deficits were modest in nineteenth-century
Europe, at least if we interpret colonial military
activities as ‘‘service exports,’’ which is surely deba-
table)?
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

India House, Sale Room. Engraving by Pugin and Rowlandson, 1808. Buyers gather to bid on the rich cargoes brought into
London by the East India Company. ªHISTORICAL PICTURE ARCHIVE/CORBIS
FLOWS OF TRADE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY
EUROPE: GRAIN, MACHINERY, AND
OTHER GOODS
Who traded which commodities in nineteenth-
century Europe? To answer this question, we must
concentrate on a small number of commodities,
and only the principal exporters and importers can
be taken into account. A German survey published
by the German Imperial Statistical Yearbook
(1915) gives an overview of trade in the pre–World
War I period. Two commodities, or rather com-
modity groups, are particularly interesting for
European trade history: ‘‘grain’’ (more precisely:
grain, rice, and flour) and machinery.
Grain had been a major trading commodity
from the Middle Ages onward. It is self-evident
that grain, rice, and flour are crucial for human
nutrition. In the nineteenth century, grain imports
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TRADE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
were responsible for sustaining the extremely high
population density of some of Europe’s rapidly
developing regions. The biggest exporters of grain,
rice, and flour in 1913 were Russia, the United
States, and British India (which included today’s
Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Burma). Much smaller
quantities were exported in 1913 by Canada,
Romania, and Australia. Especially Romania, with
a population of less than one tenth of the Russian
population, exported remarkable quantities per
capita. Argentina was also an important grain
exporter.
Not surprisingly, the biggest importer of grain
was the United Kingdom. Britain was thus not only
the workshop of the world but also consumed most
of the traded grain. The second-largest importer
was Germany, whose export of industrial goods
2335
TRADE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
was growing strongly at the time. However, the
German East (and the Polish parts of the empire)
were long-established grain exporters, so that
Germany’s grain-trade statistics were more
balanced in effect, with internal trade playing an
important role as well. We also need to take into
account that the United Kingdom and Germany
had the largest populations among the large grain
consumers. On a per capita basis, imports were in
fact very high in the Netherlands and Belgium as
well. Italy imported a substantial total amount of
grain, but not as much per capita. Other modest
grain importers were Switzerland, France, Denmark,
and Norway. Most of these importing countries
were among the early industrializers, whereas most
exporters tended to be late developers (except for
the United States). Interestingly, there were also a
number of net grain importers among the less devel-
oped countries (LDCs) in 1913, such as China,
Sri Lanka (‘‘Ceylon’’ at the time), and Indonesia.
The same applies to Japan and the British Straits
Settlement (mostly Singapore and Melaka), which
counted as LDCs in 1913.
During the period following the ‘‘grain inva-
sion,’’ a term coined by Kevin O’Rourke, the dra-
matic decline of transportation costs for grain
from the New World and Black Sea area caused
enormous shifts in production and land revenues.
The New World and Russia now accounted for a
large share of the total grain trade, whereas a much
larger amount had been produced locally before.
Net export values of machinery are important
to examine because machinery was one of the most
human capital–intensive (that is, skill-intensive)
commodities being traded at large quantities
during the period. The United Kingdom remained
the world’s export champion in the prewar period,
with 6.4 million Marks of net exports. Germany
had heavily reduced the United Kingdom’s lead in
the decade before and almost reached its competi-
tor with 6.0 million Marks in machinery exports. In
a similar vein, the United States had made its mark
as a strong new force producing machinery for
many different purposes. Switzerland—with its
much smaller population—reached only about
5 percent of the net export value of each of the
big three machinery exporters. It is also interesting
to look at the principal importers of machinery
because those countries were using imports to
2336
build up a physical capital stock during the period.
The world’s leading importer of machinery was the
Russian Empire. Canada and France had approxi-
mately half of the volume of Russia’s imports,
making them also significant importers at the time.
Next followed Australia and Austria-Hungary,
whereas the net machinery imports of Italy, Mexico,
and Belgium were only modest in 1913.
To summarize, the United Kingdom, Ger-
many, and the United States were the leading
exporters of machinery in the nineteenth century.
In contrast, the major importers were spread more
evenly among the richer and developing nations in
1913. Grain imports tended to be the mirror image
of machinery exports, with the important exception
of the United States, which exported both grain
and machinery in substantial quantities.
This discussion has concentrated on the two
commodities that are of particular interest for
assessing economic development. What has not
been discussed, however, is the value of the most
important import and export goods. By far the
most valuable export commodity in 1913 was cot-
ton from the United States, which accounted for
23 million Marks, or about three times the value of
U.S. net grain exports. In second place came
British coal, with Brazilian coffee ranking third.
Of course, these goods were much more depen-
dent on natural conditions such as resources and
climate than were grain and machinery, which
could in principle be produced in any location that
had sufficient population density and skill levels.
TRADE DEVELOPMENTS IN THE EUROPEAN
NORTH AND SOUTH
The major European trading nations were
undoubtedly Great Britain, Germany, France, and
other northwest European countries. Yet the devel-
opment of trade also played an important role for
countries in the far north and south, and it was
only in the eastern European regions that lacked
access to rivers or coasts that international trade
might have been somewhat less important.
The grain exports of the Russian Empire, east-
ern Germany (including today’s Poland), and
Romania have already been discussed. In addition,
wood and butter exports played an important role
for the far north of Europe, whereas fruit, olive oil,
and other horticultural exports came from the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Mediterranean. Similar to the grain invasion that
shook all of Europe, important globalization events
occurred in the South, as José Morilla Critz, Alan
Olmstead, and Paul W. Rhode have argued: during
the 1880s Mediterranean fruit exports dominated
European and U.S. markets, but fruit production
in California, Florida, and similar regions of the
New World started to become competitive in the
following three decades. California farmers first
captured large slices of their home market, aided
by U.S. protectionist policies and natural disasters
in Europe such as the phylloxera plague that
destroyed two-thirds of the European grape pro-
duction in the second half of the nineteenth cen-
tury. By the end of the century, U.S. products were
even competing with Mediterranean fruits in
northern Europe. In the 1870s, for example, the
important Spanish raisin exporting area of Málaga
exported nearly 60 percent of its production to the
United States. In the 1890s, this share had fallen to
10 percent. Initially, this decline was caused by phyl-
loxera, but later on, the market opportunities that
had been lost to the California competitors played
the major role. Since the Málaga region also had
the highest emigration rates in Spain, some authors
have concluded that a causal relationship existed
between lost export markets and emigration.
In contrast to raisins, citrus exports were in gen-
eral a success story for Mediterranean agriculture.
Oranges from Spain and lemons from Italy became
famous in many parts of the world. However, Ameri-
can competition grew in these fruit markets as well,
and U.S. protectionism posed further problems. In
the case of lemons in particular, the Italians had
to redirect their trade to northern Europe, after
performing vast advertising campaigns there. In
1907–1913, Germany and Austria-Hungary became
the most important recipients of Italian citrus fruits.
Greek exporters specialized in currants and
even benefited from the phylloxera catastrophe at
first, since they could sell their produce to French
winemakers, who used it as a temporary substitute
for their own grape production. After the recovery
of grape production, however, the French govern-
ment in 1892 imposed high tariffs, which had dis-
astrous consequences for the Greek economy. The
plum and prune exports of Serbia and of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, as well as the fig and raisin
exports of the Turkish west coast, experienced a
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TRADE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
similar development: a promising start, followed
by a struggle against protectionism and competi-
tion with California and other New World regions
(such as Australia).
What is particularly interesting about this pheno-
menon is that we would not expect high-wage
areas in the New World to be able to compete
successfully with the low-wage areas of southern
Europe in the seemingly labor-intensive horticulture.
Critz, Olmstead, and Rhode, on whose research this
section draws heavily, report that one acre of land
requires only 9 man-hours of labor to grow wheat,
whereas 286 hours are required to grow lemons,
for instance. The output value varies drastically as
well, of course. The authors have calculated that
the value of output per man-hour on U.S. fruit farms
was in fact very similar to that of other U.S. farms in
the early twentieth century. Moreover, California
farmers were quite successful in using modern pack-
ing techniques, brand names, and scientific techni-
ques to overcome blue mold and similar production
problems. In this way, they were able to outbalance
higher labor and transportation costs compared
with their major competitors.
The effects on southern European exports were
sometimes dramatic. More successful development
of the fruit markets could have resulted in dynamic,
export-led growth engines in many southern Eu-
ropean regions, as well as in the reinvestment of
profits into those poor regions. This remains true
even when considering that the total value of pro-
duction of horticultural goods was certainly lower
than that of other agricultural goods (mainly for
the domestic market). Another important point
here is that the majority of consumers clearly bene-
fited from the increased competition.
Nonetheless, two of the three markets dis-
cussed in more detail above share some common
characteristics that suggest some answers to our
initial question: Why was there opposition to trade,
if trade increased welfare? In both the European
grain market and the Mediterranean fruit market,
decisive changes occurred in the nineteenth cen-
tury. The ‘‘grain invasion’’ and the ‘‘fruit invasion’’
produced a substantial number of losers who
tended to be politically well-organized. Even if on
average, the growth in trade surely added to
European prosperity, the fate of the fruit farmers
of the Mediterranean and the eastern German
2337
TRADE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
grain-farming nobility gave rise to political forces
that influenced the economic history of their
respective countries in crucial ways.
TRADE AND GROWTH
What follows is an empirical discussion of Smith’s
and Ricardo’s expectation that trade would trigger
economic growth in nineteenth-century Europe.
This issue is difficult to resolve because comparative
evidence on trade shares in the early nineteenth
century still contains a large margin of error. More-
over, convergence effects must be taken into
account, since a country with a high initial trade
share (such as the Netherlands) would probably
increase its trade shares at a lower rate than any
newcomer. In addition, a thorough analysis would
require taking into consideration all other potential
growth determinants such as human and physical
capital growth, institutional design, geography,
and political development as well as alternatives to
commodity trade, for example, the exchange of
capital (foreign investment) and population
(migration). Here, our aims are more modest. We
have taken Paul Bairoch’s rough estimates of export
shares for the early and late nineteenth century and
compared them with Maddison’s GDP estimates
for 1820 and 1913, combined with an investigation
of individual cases. In the following, we distinguish
trade shares (imports plus exports per GDP) from
export shares (only exports per GDP).
Even with all those caveats, some important facts
emerge clearly. First, the Netherlands exported the
highest share of their GDP in 1840, followed by a
number of relatively small countries such as Norway
and Denmark. Smaller countries often had larger
trade shares because country-size is negatively corre-
lated with the amount of production items pas-
sing borders. However, in early-nineteenth-century
Europe, there were also many smaller countries with
low trade shares while the United Kingdom displayed
one of the highest shares.
Between the early and late nineteenth century,
export shares grew for all countries. Overall, they
ranged between about 1 and 9 percentage points
higher in 1910 than in 1840, with typical values of
1 to 3 percent. At the same time, GDP per capita
grew substantially in all countries. Even the inhab-
itants of slowly growing economies such as Portugal,
Russia, and Greece had become richer by roughly
2338
$500–1000 per year before World War I (measured
in 1990 Geary-Khamis Dollars, a standard measure
for making purchasing power comparable across
time). In many cases, this meant a doubling or trip-
ling of real incomes within less than a century. Lastly,
the Swiss population had acquired four times more
purchasing power in 1913 than in 1820.
Based on those numbers, it is not implausible
to assume that nineteenth-century growth was
caused to a large extent by ‘‘Smithian’’ trade
effects. Yet was it the case that countries with
higher integration into trading networks also
achieved more growth? As the example of the
Netherlands, with a high export level but only
slightly above-average growth rates indicates,
export levels probably had no impact on subse-
quent growth performance. Even if additional
explanatory variables were taken into account, this
result would not change significantly.
It is clear that countries with disproportio-
nately large export shares at the end of the period
(i.e., irrespective of the initial level) also experi-
enced much higher increases in national income
per capita. Belgium, the United Kingdom, Den-
mark, Switzerland, France, and Germany were
examples of the strong and positive development
of both variables. On the other hand, the small
export-share increases of Portugal, Russia, and
Greece went hand in hand with an only modest
increase in income. Again, we would like to empha-
size that we are not looking at growth rates in
percentages here. Moreover, this analysis cannot
reveal the direction of the causality involved: Did
increasing trade shares cause income growth, or did
increasing per capita–production (which equals
income per capita) correlate with the need to
export a higher share of production? Hence, from
this descriptive analysis, we can only conclude that
a higher export share correlates empirically with
higher additional income. Overall, both export
shares and income per capita grew in all European
countries over the nineteenth century, yet while the
increase was most significant in Belgium and the
United Kingdom, it was much less so in southern
and eastern Europe.
TRADE POLICY
Bairoch, O’Rourke, and Jeffrey Williamson have
given excellent overviews of trade policy. They
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 TRADE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

Victoria Mesmerises. Illustration from Punch, 1843. The young Queen Victoria made her first visit to France in 1843, meeting
with French king Louis-Philippe and helping to overturn the adversarial relations that had long persisted between Great Britain
and France. Trade issues were very much on the minds of the British, as opposition to the Corn Laws grew dramatically. The
cartoonist here suggests that the queen dominated the negotiations by hypnotizing the seventy-year-old Louis-Philippe. MARY
EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY

describe in detail the history of ideas that influenced
the debate about free-trade versus protectionist
policies. What they found was that most countries
were certainly not free-traders in the early nine-
teenth century, except for perhaps the Netherlands,
Denmark, Switzerland, and Portugal. In England,
an intensive discussion was waged before midcen-
tury on whether the country should abolish its
protectionist policies against grain imports. Over
time, free-traders influenced by Ricardo and the
‘‘Manchester’’ liberals convinced enough political
decision-makers in their favor, so that the famous
protectionist Corn Laws were finally dropped in
the 1840s (after having been gradually reduced
earlier). Subsequent negotiations between the
United Kingdom and France, as well as the general
economic upturn of the 1860s led to a wave of
free-trade policies in the 1860s and 1870s. How-
ever, the dramatic decline in transportation costs
and the high productivity of New World farmers
stimulated a rebound in protectionism in many
continental European countries against grain
imports while the United States acted in a strongly
protectionist manner against industrial imports.
However, protectionist measures were not strong
enough to hinder the international integration
of many markets. The fall in transportation costs
simply outweighed most such measures.

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2339
TRADE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
The integration of commodity markets within
Europe can be measured by the decline in price
gaps. For example, the price gap between Odessa
in Ukraine (one of the major grain exporting
regions) and London decreased from 40 percent
to virtually 0 percent between 1870 and 1906.
Similarly, the price gap of Swedish wood between
its country of origin and England fell from 155 to
70 percent. In general, O’Rourke and Williamson
found that the strong increase in commerce and
trade in the nineteenth century was mainly the
result of declining transportation costs and only
to a much lesser extent of more liberal trade poli-
cies. This stands in sharp contrast to the boom in
international trade in the second half of the twen-
tieth century, when trade policies accounted for
most of the trade-generating effects, whereas the
decline of transportation costs due to technological
improvement was only modest.
TARIFFS AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
The expansion of export shares correlated with
additional per capita income in nineteenth-century
Europe. Does this imply that protectionism was
bad for growth? To answer this question, we must
first consider that neither protectionism nor its
inverse, the ‘‘openness’’ of countries, correlates
perfectly with trade shares. For example, Germany
and France became grain protectionists in the late
nineteenth century, yet their export shares still
continued to increase substantially, since economic
forces were simply much stronger than the respec-
tive political countermeasures.
The growth effects of protection (as opposed
to free trade) have been studied in great detail for
the contemporary world. Free-traders expect wel-
fare effects if the external effects (i.e., side effects)
of protection are not important. However, if
‘‘infant industries’’ cannot develop because the
industries of industrialized countries have already
achieved specific knowledge and cost-efficient pro-
duction methods, then the protection of those
industries on the side of the newcomers could
stimulate growth. Empirically, most studies for
the late twentieth century concur with Jeffrey
D. Sachs’s conclusions that free trade rather then
protectionism was a successful device for growth.
However, for the late nineteenth century, O’Rourke
found that protective tariffs in fact had a positive
2340
influence on growth rates, even after allowing for
changes in the capital-labor ratio, land-labor ratio,
initial income level, schooling, and other country-
specific characteristics. His analysis included seven
European countries, the United States, Australia,
and Canada for 1870–1913 and indicates that the
protectionist United States grew fast, whereas the
free-trading United Kingdom grew only modestly
during the period under consideration. In addition,
O’Rourke found that Germany was not as protec-
tionist as studies focusing particularly on the grain
trade have suggested. Even if the United States and
the United Kingdom are omitted as extreme cases,
the positive relationship between protectionism and
growth is confirmed for the nineteenth century. A
possible causal mechanism, O’Rourke suggests, was
that tariffs caused a declining share of the labor force
to be employed in agriculture, especially in the New
World, where tariffs benefited industrial production.
It should be noted, however, that our comparison
of export shares and GDP growth refers to long-term
growth over almost a century, whereas O’Rourke’s
study explores the effect of protection levels on annual
growth rates in the period 1875–1913, controlling
for a number of other variables as well.
INTERNAL TRADE: DIRECT AND INDIRECT
EFFECTS
So far we have concentrated mainly on interna-
tional trade, since external exchange always attracts
the highest attention from policy makers and the
general public. More important in terms of value,
however, was internal trade that did not cross
national boundaries in nineteenth-century Europe.
Trade within countries increased dramatically at the
time because transportation facilities experienced a
veritable revolution. The railway network not only
grew dramatically in size, but the railway system
also became ever more refined. Moreover, toward
the very end of the nineteenth century, refrigera-
tion wagons allowed the transportation of perish-
able goods. For the first time in human history, it
became possible to provide large urban populations
with food that was as healthy as the food consumed
in the countryside. Milk, for example, had pre-
viously not been transportable to large urban
agglomerations at reasonable costs, although urban
centers were in dire need of protein in particular
because of the high rates of disease. Before the
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 TRADE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

A department store in the Old Town square, Prague, c. 1895. Industrialization in the
nineteenth century led to increased production of consumer goods and the consequent growth
in large retail establishments such as the one shown here. ªSCHEUFLER COLLECTION/CORBIS

introduction of refrigeration wagons and a dense
railway network in general, there had always been
an ‘‘urban penalty’’ of health and nutritional quali-
ties, with the result that urban dwellers often lived
shorter lives than their contemporaries in the coun-
tryside. The change in the ‘‘transportability of health
inputs’’ was perhaps the most dramatic and decisive
development of nineteenth-century trade history.
In the countries that invested heavily in this
new transportation technology—not least because
of adequately low temperatures in their territories,
as opposed to the Mediterranean region, which
followed about half a century later, for example—
a stagnation of life expectancies and heights that
had lasted for millennia finally ended in the second
half of the nineteenth century. Clearly, this devel-
opment was accompanied by progress in the appli-
cation of hygienic and medical knowledge,
although it is not easy to disentangle the individual
contribution of each. Thomas McKeown, for
example, has argued that nutrition played a much
stronger role in increasing health and longevity,
whereas the impact of medical knowledge set in
much later. McKeown did not address the issue of
the tradability of perishable foods, but this is prob-
ably the heart of the matter. We would, for exam-
ple, not expect a decline in hygiene and health
knowledge with the advent of railway stations in
villages, but agricultural workers with lower
incomes experienced significant downward trends
in health. This has been analyzed using anthropo-
metric techniques that take human height as a
proxy for nutritional status and health (see, for
example, Komlos and Baten). Human stature is
mostly determined by the quality of nutrition in
the first three years of life, and by the disease
environment. When a railway station was opened
in the countryside nearby, for example, farmers

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2341
TRADE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
could sell their perishable products to urban con-
sumers with high purchasing power. In earlier
times, the local poor population in the countryside
had often been able to consume healthy food at very
low prices or even for free. If they were involved in
the production of butter, for example, they were
often allowed to drink the remaining milk. Others
were allowed to eat offals after local cattle were
slaughtered. All such nonmarket entitlements dis-
appeared with the arrival of the railway, so that poor
rural children lost their previous height advantage
while the heights of urban children increased. In
the long run, the health and longevity of poor
agricultural laborers increased as well. In the short
run, however, there were losers from the moderni-
zation process, and their experiences should not
be overlooked when examining the dramatic trade
and income increase in nineteenth-century Europe.
INEQUALITY EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION
While it is clear that landowners in western Europe
lost income when vast quantities of grain arrived
from the New World, the effect on workers was
hotly debated at the time. O’Rourke describes the
nineteenth-century debates on the influence of
cheap grain imports on workers’ living standards.
Karl Marx argued that rural depopulation in Ire-
land was reinforced by the switch from tillage to
pasture, as Ireland focused on butter exports in
response to globalization. Since pasture was less
labor-intensive, fewer agricultural workers were
employed. Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881), a lead-
ing English politician, was similarly concerned
about the decreasing demand for rural workers in
England caused by the arrival of cheap grain from
the New World. He argued that this negative
labor-demand factor was more important than the
positive cost of living effect for workers. A coalition
of Manchesterian liberals and socialist workers
opposed this view. They believed (correctly) that
the cost of living effect dominated in most indus-
trialized nations. In western Europe, the grain
invasion had mostly egalitarian effects on average,
reducing the previously very high income inequal-
ity. In some grain regions, however, agricultural
workers had to bear at least the cost of migrating
to industrializing cities. The costs of migration
were particularly high if it implied the crossing of
national borders (Ireland to England or the United
States, Poland to Germany, and so forth).
2342
CONCLUSION
This essay first discussed the relationship between
trade and economic growth in nineteenth-century
Europe. It began with a description of the net
exports of two important commodities, machinery
and grain. Machinery production requires a high
skill level, and countries that specialized early on in
its production and export became rich countries—
and continued to be so even after losing world wars
and colonial empires in the twentieth century. In
contrast, specialization in grain did not require
large investments in skills. It has been argued that
the export of primary goods led to deindustrializa-
tion and poor growth in the long run. This was not
the case for all grain exporters in 1913. The United
States, Canada, and Australia proved success stories
in the long run. Eastern Europe and Argentina might
have grown less than expected in the twentieth
century, but there were also other reasons for this.
We then analyzed whether countries with
strongly expanding trade shares experienced the
relatively highest increases in income, an assump-
tion that is supported by the available data. How-
ever, the question of causality cannot be resolved at
the current state of research, and there is evidence
that protectionism may even have been positively
correlated with growth, at least in the short run
from 1875 to 1913.
From the point of view of trade history, it is
particularly interesting to assess the reasons for the
frequent protest against, and opposition to, globa-
lization and international trade in the nineteenth
century. The unfulfilled hopes of the Mediterra-
nean fruit farmers was a case in point, as they
struggled with the growing competition from Cali-
fornia, a region they might never have heard of
before. Even the internal trade expansion of this
period produced many winners but also some
losers, since previously isolated farmers and farm
workers lost their health advantage. Yet a dramatic
health revolution occurred in the cities: for the first
time in the history of mankind, the inhabitants
of densely populated metropolises could live long
and healthy lives, which could at least in part be
accredited to the nineteenth-century trade expan-
sion that made healthy nutrition possible.
Finally, the trade history of the nineteenth cen-
tury produced some ‘‘rich losers.’’ For example, the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

The Great Vegetable Market in Moscow, 1902. By the end of the nineteenth century, the
Russian economy still depended primarily on agriculture. ªCORBIS
British gentry lost a substantial share of their rents
when grain protectionism was abolished around
midcentury. The Russian nobility may have been
compensated by export revenues, but the German
landed aristocracy felt severely threatened by the
‘‘grain invasion,’’ a development that may have
increased their willingness to start World War I—
an extreme example of resistance to of globalization,
to be sure.
See also Banks and Banking; Economic Growth and
Industrialism; Economists, Classical.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James Robinson.
‘‘The Rise of Europe: Atlantic Trade, Institutional
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TRADE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
Change, and Economic Growth.’’ NBER Working
Paper 9378, 2002.
Bairoch, Paul. ‘‘European Trade Policy, 1815–1914.’’ In
The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, edited by
Peter Mathias and Sidney Pollard, vol. 8, pp. 1–160.
Cambridge, U.K., 1989.
Critz, José Morilla, Alan Olmstead, and Paul W. Rhode.
‘‘ ‘Horn of Plenty’: The Globalization of Mediterranean
Horticulture and the Economic Development of South-
ern Europe, 1880–1930.’’ Journal of Economic History
59, no. 2(1999): 319–352.
Komlos, John, and Joerg Baten, eds. The Biological Stan-
dard of Living in Comparative Perspective. Stuttgart,
Germany, 1998.
Maddison, Angus. The World Economy: A Millennial Per-
spective. Paris, 2001.
2343
TRADE UNIONS
McKeown, Thomas. The Modern Rise of Population. Lon-
don, 1976.
North, Douglass C. ‘‘The New Institutional Economics and
Third World Development.’’ In The New Institutional
Economics and Third World Development, edited
by John Harriss, Janet Hunter, and Colin M. Lewis,
17–26. London, 1995.
O’Rourke, Kevin, ‘‘Tariffs and Growth in the Late 19th Cen-
tury.’’ Economic Journal 110 (Aprtil 2000): 456–483.
O’Rourke, Kevin, and Jeffrey Williamson, Globalization
and History: The Evolution of a Nineteenth-Century
Atlantic Economy. Cambridge, Mass., 1999.
Sachs, Jeffrey D., and Andrew Warner. ‘‘Economic Reform
and the Process of Global Integration.’’ Brookings
Papers on Economic Activity 1(1995):1–118.
JOERG BATEN
TRADE UNIONS. See Labor Movements; Syn-
dicalism.
n
TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF. Fought on
21 October 1805, the Battle of Trafalgar, in which
a British fleet under the command of Admiral
Horatio Nelson defeated a combined Franco-Spanish
fleet, was the culmination of a yearlong campaign of
deception and maneuver supporting Emperor
Napoleon I’s project for the invasion of England.
With the major elements of his French and Spanish
navies blockaded in Continental ports, Napoleon
initially proposed to slip his invasion flotilla of
small craft past the Royal Navy forces on watch in
the English Channel. As the folly of that notion
became obvious, Napoleon proposed instead to
unite the main Spanish fleet with the French
squadrons from Toulon and Brest, gaining control
of the Channel long enough for his invasion force
to cross.
His plan took sophisticated account of the
relative dispersion of British forces. The Toulon
squadron, under its new commander Vice Admiral
Pierre-Charles de Villeneuve, would evade its
blockaders, pick up a Spanish squadron at Cádiz,
and sail for Martinique in the West Indies. There it
would join another French squadron sortieing
from Rochefort. The combined force would return
to France, while the Brest squadron broke its
2344
blockade and joined the ships from Martinique in
a sweep of the Channel that would clear the way for
the conquest of England.
Napoleon expected the British to mount vain
pursuits in all directions as the Franco-Spanish
squadrons combined and recombined. In fact,
apart from the predictable uncertainties of weather
and wind, the quality of the French and Spanish
navies was far below that required by the proposed
display of maritime virtuosity. Both had spent too
much time in port under British guns to have
developed the seamanship and self-confidence to
execute Napoleon’s grand design smoothly. The
French fleet in particular had never recovered from
the losses of experienced officers and petty officers
caused by the Revolution.
The Brest squadron never made it out of port
in the face of a dogged close blockade. Villeneuve
had better fortune—and a temporarily obliging
enemy in the person of Nelson. Commanding in
the Mediterranean, Nelson had maintained a long-
range blockade of Toulon in the hope of luring the
French out to battle. When Villeneuve slipped out
of Toulon in late March 1805, Nelson thought he
was making for Egypt. Instead the French admiral,
after a brief stopover at Cádiz, made for the West
Indies, getting a three-week head start before Nelson
turned in pursuit.
Villeneuve arrived at Martinique to find no one
else there; the ships from Rochefort had come
and gone. On learning of Nelson’s arrival in the
Caribbean, Villeneuve set his sails for Europe as
well. His revised orders were to break the block-
ades of El Ferrol and Brest, pick up the Spanish
and French ships there, and take the entire fleet
into the Channel. But he had little confidence in
his own fleet, whose efficiency had improved little
during its time at sea. After an inconclusive engage-
ment with a British squadron under Vice Admiral
Robert Calder, Villeneuve made for Cádiz. Tem-
porarily at least, he was safely out of range of major
British forces. He had also sacrificed any chance he
might have of executing Napoleon’s grand design.
Nelson, frustrated by his failure to catch up
with Villeneuve, returned to England and a brief
shore leave. On 14 September he put to sea again,
assigned as commander of the blockading force at
Cádiz. He had spent three weeks working on the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

The Battle of Trafalgar. Painting by John Callow, 1875. ªFINE ART PHOTOGRAPHIC LIBRARY/CORBIS
problem of putting paid to Villeneuve once and for
all. His intention was to let the allied fleet sortie,
then attack it not in an orthodox line of battle
formation but in two columns, splitting his enemy
and bringing about a no-holds-barred melee.
Conventional wisdom argued such an action could
not be controlled. Nelson was confident in the
quality of his crews and captains—and not least in
an improved signal system facilitating transmission
of orders even in close action.
Under orders from Napoleon to engage, Ville-
neuve set sail on 19 October. Fearing to frighten
his opponent back to port, Nelson stalked him
until the morning of the twenty-first. The sub-
sequent jockeying for position only highlighted
Franco-Spanish navigational shortcomings. Noth-
ing was wrong with their courage—but as the
British came to close quarters the Royal Navy’s
gunnery and ship-handling created a debacle.
Twenty-two allied ships out of thirty-three were
lost when the final tally was taken. No British
ship was sunk, though most were badly battered.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF
Nelson fell to a musket shot, his place among the
great admirals assured for all time.
Trafalgar was the most important naval engage-
ment of the Napoleonic Wars. It put an end to
Napoleon’s hopes of invading England, and decided
as well an Anglo-French struggle for naval mastery
dating back to the mid-seventeenth century. Nel-
son’s victory secured a British mastery of the high
seas that endured for more than a century.
See also French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic
Wars; Military Tactics; Napoleon; Nelson, Horatio.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Howarth, David. Trafalgar: The Nelson Touch. London,
1969. Reprint, London, 2003.
Lambert, Andrew. Nelson: Britannia’s God of War. London,
2004. Excellent alike on Nelson’s history and mythology.
Schom, Alan. Trafalgar: Countdown to Battle, 1803–1805.
New York, 1990.
DENNIS SHOWALTER
2345
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
n roads promoted changing perceptions of time and
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMU-
NICATIONS. Over centuries, roads evolved
in response to the movement of goods and people.
They included narrow tracks linking farms to
fields and those linking villages to each other and
to local and regional markets; links between market
towns and regional administrative and commercial
centers; and major routes radiating from national
capitals toward these regional centers and the fron-
tiers. Differing natural conditions meant that the
physical condition and carrying capacity of these
routes varied considerably, as did the priorities and
resources accorded to their maintenance by local
users as well as administrative bodies. Everywhere,
however, users incurred substantial ‘‘transaction
costs’’ as a result of slow movement, dependent on
horse traction. Furthermore, irregularity and the
resulting need to maintain stocks of foodstuffs and
essential raw materials, which were susceptible to
spoilage, added to costs.
ROADS AND WATERWAYS
In response to growing demand, from at least the
beginning of the eighteenth century, increasingly
efforts were made to improve road construction
techniques, provide paved surfaces, and introduce
more regular maintenance. The timing and nature
of the decisions taken are intelligible only within
particular geographical, political, social, institu-
tional, and cultural contexts. Thus in Britain,
improvement was to be funded primarily through
private initiative by means of the creation of turn-
pike trusts—of which there were 1,037 by 1834—
and the introduction of tolls. Elsewhere, classifica-
tion of routes, the ordering of priorities, and super-
vision of construction by state engineers were more
likely, with resources provided by a mixture of tolls,
taxation, and obligatory labor service. With better
road surfaces, carts and carriages could move more
rapidly and carry heavier loads, with less wear and
tear on both beasts and vehicles. Certainly less
strain was imposed on the horses. Carefully
selected for their particular functions, they repre-
sented a substantial investment. In an expansive
economic situation, improved roads were a major
factor in sustaining growth. Government interest
was also encouraged by the desire to reinforce
political centralization. Additionally, improved
2346
space as well as more positive attitudes toward
travel. For official use, as well as for the conveni-
ence of the small minority who could afford to use
the mail coach or a private carriage and able to take
advantage of relays of horses, travel was becoming
increasingly rapid. In France, where technical
improvements in road construction and mainte-
nance largely followed British models, the most
effective road system in Continental Europe was
created during the eighteenth century. Subse-
quently, with the exception of strategic routes,
roads were neglected during the long and destruc-
tive wars of the revolution and empire until, with
the coming of peace, work was resumed.
While these improvements were certainly wel-
comed, travelers continued to complain, especially
about the marked deterioration in conditions once
they moved away from privileged axes. In the
uplands steep gradients frequently required the
use of packhorses rather than carts. Although times
varied considerably according to the season and
weather, in 1827 it was still likely to take twenty-
five days to transport goods from Paris to Mar-
seilles at a cost of 14.50 francs a metric ton, even
on relatively good roads. For somewhere between
32 and 36 francs ‘‘accelerated’’ transport might
reduce the time taken to thirteen days. The range
of transport services included large enterprises
with heavy wagons and large teams of horses and
offering regular departures; local carriers providing
links with nearby market towns; and the hosts of
peasants engaged in transporting their own pro-
duce or, during the agricultural quiet season, offer-
ing their services, together with horses or oxen,
to whomever needed a cart and generally at very
low cost.
There was a clear division of function between
road and waterway transport. Road transport was
generally preferred for innumerable short-distance
movements, in the absence of navigable water, or
else as a feeder to the waterways. In general it was
more rapid and reliable and certainly offered
greater flexibility than did carriage by water.
High-value goods, which could bear the cost of
transport, would be transported by road. However,
waterways offered the only economic means of
transporting such bulky products as cereals, coal,
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS

A stagecoach on a mountain road. The use of horse-drawn vehicles for transportation and tourism increased early in the
nineteenth century due to improved roadways and more comfortable coaches. In this photograph, passengers riding a
stagecoach through the scenic Furka Pass in the Swiss Alps admire the view. ªHULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS

and building materials as well as finished textiles
and metallurgical products, glass, and pottery.
Britain, an island penetrated by numerous waterways,
and the Low Countries thus enjoyed considerable
advantages. Nevertheless, conditions on the water-
ways and transport costs were extremely diverse. In
part this reflected seasonal variations in the depth
of water and in the strength of the current, whether
movement was with or against the current, and, on
the larger rivers and at sea, the direction of the
prevailing winds. The existence of obstacles
(including rocks, shifting sandbanks, bridges, and
mill weirs) was another key factor. Transshipment
was frequently necessary. Even minor rivers might
be employed at least downriver and when water
levels were high. On faster-flowing streams, where
downriver movement alone was possible, boats
were likely to be broken up on reaching their des-
tination. As a result of differences in the conditions
for navigation, the structure and capacity of boats
varied considerably. Rivers were also the means of
floating downriver the wood that served as the
essential construction material and as a major
source of fuel. In addition to numerous barges
coming downriver, regions accessible to the sea
attracted ships active in long-distance international
trade and also played host to the numerous small
coasters plying their trade between the large num-
ber of mostly tiny harbors.
In response to growing demand, the construc-
tion of canals offered a means of bypassing obsta-
cles and of linking the various river basins in order
to create more extensive networks. The excavation
of reservoirs to improve water supply, the construc-
tion of locks to overcome gradients, and the provi-
sion of towpaths to make it easier to use horses to
tow barges, all represented means of improving
canal navigation. In France, where the rivers Seine,
Loire, Saône, and Rhône carried the most traffic,
much of the canal construction, beginning in the
seventeenth century, was directed toward improv-
ing links between these river basins. In the south
the Canal du Midi linked the Garonne River at

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2347
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
Toulouse with the Mediterranean at Sète, trans-
porting cereals from upper Languedoc, an area of
surplus, to lower Languedoc, where deficits were
common. Considered to be a technological marvel
when under construction between 1665 and 1681,
it ran for some 240 kilometers and included 74
locks. By 1840 Paris was linked to central France
by the upper Seine and its tributaries and by the
canals of Bourgogne and the Centre, with the east
by the Marne-Rhine canal, with the coal fields of
Belgium and the north by the Canal de Saint-
Quentin and the Oise, and by the lower Seine to
the sea. Lyon, at the confluence of the rivers Rhône
and Saône, served as the second major node in the
French transport system. As late as 1829, with
steam locomotion already in its early stages but
with an uncertain future, the Becquey Plan
assumed that economic change would continue to
depend on substantial investment in the canaliza-
tion of rivers and in canal construction.
In practice the waterways continued to suffer
from major shortcomings. As a senior French gov-
ernment engineer pointed out: ‘‘the utility of
canals is recognised along their length, but extends
itself for only short distances from their banks.
Immediately the merchandise transported by boats
has to be re-loaded into carts, the unloading, the
reloading and carting eliminates the economies
offered by water transport’’ (quoted in Price, p. 45).
Every lock represented a bottleneck. Propulsion,
prior to the development of small and inexpensive
steam engines, depended on horse or sail and in
some cases even on human power and represented
a major problem, especially against the current.
The upper reaches of the Rhine were thus used
primarily by downriver traffic, with the most active
stretch of the river that between Mainz and
Cologne. Gradually, in the early nineteenth cen-
tury efforts were made to abolish the tolls charged
by various cities along its banks and to clear the
riverbed; from the late 1820s steamers were intro-
duced to carry passengers and from midcentury
tugs to tow barges. In northern Germany the
Weser, Elbe, and Oder were used mainly by local
traffic, while farther east the Vistula, even if closed
by freezing for some three months each year, made
possible substantial transports of rye and wheat.
In both Germany and Russia the north-south flow
of the major rivers limited their impact on both
2348
internal and international trade. By 1850 the vari-
ous German states had constructed only 750 kilo-
meters of canals to link the major river systems,
while the navigable link established from the
1820s between the Baltic and Black Seas was often
interrupted by adverse water conditions. Neverthe-
less, ports like Hamburg, Lübeck, Danzig, and the
Russian Baltic port of Riga at the mouths of these
rivers made important contributions to the export
trades in grain, timber, flax, and hemp. In Italy the
river Po and the Tiber below Rome carried sub-
stantial traffic; in Spain the Guadalquivir and the
lower reaches of the Tagus, Duero, and Ebro were
also used for navigation. Topography represented
an insurmountable obstacle to significant canal
construction, however. In much of Scandinavia
slow construction of what would in any case be a
low-density rail network would ensure that coastal
shipping remained important throughout the nine-
teenth century.
In spite of the expense and frequent difficulty
of movement by both road and water the gradual
increase in the efficiency of the transport system
reduced the cost and improved access to potential
markets, as well as increasing the efficiency with
which marketplace information was diffused. Thus,
although they provided few of the ‘‘backward’’
linkages to industry—which, for example, would
be created by railway demand for metallurgical
products—improved road/water transport would
have a substantial impact on economic conditions.
Reductions in transport costs, and in effect of the
prices paid by consumers, stimulated the expansion
of demand for manufactured goods and the greater
commercialization of agriculture, particularly in the
already relatively favored areas of valley and plain.
Urban centers at nodal points in communications
networks, which performed key commercial func-
tions, could be supplied more easily with the raw
materials and foodstuffs necessary to their further
development. Central to regional communications
systems themselves, they were also the key elements
in interregional and international trade. Even in the
more isolated areas growing numbers of middle-
men were active in the host of markets and fairs still
made necessary by the slow and expensive commu-
nications that limited the zone of attraction of
most small markets to something like a circumfer-
ence of fifteen kilometers. Nevertheless, they drew
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

in peasant farmers anxious to sell their produce and
increasingly able to make purchases. Information
on the prices of such key commodities as cereals
and coal suggests that a gradual and piecemeal
process of market integration was underway but
also points at the continued fragmentation that
remained a predominant characteristic of pre-rail
economies. The survival of numerous dispersed
small-scale iron producers was a further indication
of the difficulties of access to both raw materials
and markets, of poor diffusion of technical as well
as market information, and the weakness of com-
petitive pressures to innovate. In such situations
railway construction would represent a response
to the bottlenecks emerging within road/water
transport systems as the economic development,
to a large degree stimulated by their improvement,
resulted in a further growth in the demand for
transport facilities. Just to take one example, the
Thames below, and especially in, London, was
increasingly packed with colliers bringing coal from
the northeast while nearby streets were congested
with horses and carts.
RAILWAYS AND STEAM-POWERED WATER
TRANSPORT
A technical solution to these problems was being
developed, however. Like the canals, the first rail-
ways were constructed as adjuncts to river systems
and as means of replacing costly road transport.
However, it rapidly became evident that in spite
of considerable investment in the improvement of
roads and waterways and substantial pre-rail reduc-
tions in the cost of transport, the railways offered
considerable further advantages in terms of cost,
speed, and regularity. This was especially welcomed
in those areas that had previously lacked easy access
to waterways or the sea. Rail construction would
have a substantial market-widening impact. The
cost reductions they allowed stimulated demand
for a wide range of products. The growing integra-
tion of space would also result in greater regional
specialization as the more resourceful producers
benefited from comparative advantage. Together
with the intensification of competition, they pro-
moted the more efficient diffusion of information
and stimulated technical innovation. Long-distance
passenger transport moved virtually entirely to the
railways, which offered cheaper, far more rapid, and
more comfortable transport. The time taken for the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
coach journey from Paris to Lille in northern
France had already been reduced from forty-eight
hours in 1815 to twenty in 1845 as a result of road
improvements and better coach design and horse
breeding. Clearly more positive attitudes toward
traveling had developed as a result. However, there
were limits to what could be achieved by horse
traction, and by 1855 the rail journey took only
four hours and fifty minutes. The greater concen-
tration of manufacturing processes also led to the
deindustrialization of less well-endowed areas and
to a process of ruralization as dispersed handicraft
manufacture collapsed.
The injection of this new technology into the
communications system had a substantial impact
on road and waterway traffic, which underwent a
relative decline in importance. The schematic
model drawn by Norman J. G. Pounds (An Histor-
ical Geography of Europe, 1800–1914, Cambridge,
U.K., and New York, 1985, figure 9.1, p. 428)
provides an effective representation of these trends.
The statistical information available is extremely
fragmentary, however, particularly for road and
waterway transport. Table 1 therefore provides
only an additional impression of trends.
Although the pre-rail forms of transport con-
tinued to move similar or even slightly greater
volumes of freight, their share dropped consider-
ably. Between 1851 and 1876, while the tonnage
carried by French railways increased by around
1,590 percent, that carried by water and road
rose by 18 and 19 percent respectively. In general
traffic declined on waterways and roads running
parallel to the railways while rising substantially
on roads providing access to railway stations. It
also needs to be borne in mind that rail construc-
tion was extended over at least a half-century,
affecting repeated local and regional changes in
road use.
Waterway transport of bulky commodities was
also threatened. Operating in an area with relatively
efficient waterborne transport, the Nord railway
company in France nevertheless proved able, by
means of competitive pricing, to attract a substan-
tial part of the traffic in coal coming from Belgium
and the departments of the Nord and Pas-de-
Calais. This represented 44 percent of its goods
traffic in the period from 1873 to 1884. Major coal
2349
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS

TABLE 1

Transport of commodities in France, 1830–1914 (in thousand millions of metric ton-kilometer)

Period Road Canal Rail Sea (coaster) Total

1830 2.0 0.5 — 0.6 3.5
1841–1844 2.3 0.8 0.06 0.7 3.9
1845–1854 2.6 1.2 0.46 0.7 5.0
1855–1864 2.7 1.4 3.00 0.7 7.8
1865–1874 2.8 1.3 6.30 0.6 11.0
1875–1884 2.6 1.5 9.40 0.6 14.1
1885–1894 2.7 2.3 10.90 0.8 16.7
1895–1904 2.8 3.2 14.90 1.1 22.0
1905–1914 2.9 3.8 21.00 1.1 28.8

SOURCE: J.-C.Toutain, Les transports en France de 1830 à 1965 (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1968), p. 252

mining and metallurgical enterprises constructed
both internal rail systems and spurs linking them
to the external railway network. In the case of
seaborne trade the railway was either complemen-
tary, in providing a means of penetration inland for
seaborne people and goods, or else competitive,
particularly with coastal traffic. International and
especially transatlantic trade grew substantially in
volume, reflecting both rising prosperity and
substantial reductions in maritime freight costs
resulting from improvements in the design and
construction of both sailing and steam ships.
Gradually, from the 1820s and 1830s, steamers
entered coastal trade and from midcentury into
longer-distance transport. Although as late as
1870 only 24 percent of British merchant tonnage
and around 9 percent of that of France, Germany,
and Italy was steam powered, the speed and carry-
ing capacity of sailing ships was improved consider-
ably. Increasingly, however, especially from the
1870s and 1880s and in long-distance trade, steam
propulsion replaced sail, especially as more reliable
and efficient engines reduced fuel consumption
and larger iron—then steel—ships were con-
structed offering more cargo space. This growing
maritime trade—and the shipbuilding that made it
possible—was increasingly concentrated in the
major ports, where infrastructure investment in
docks, quays, and cranes had improved turnaround
times for ships and which furthermore benefited
from efficient rail links to wide hinterlands as well
as rail tariff policies that sought to maximize traffic.
There was intense competition between such ports
as Le Havre, Antwerp, and Hamburg for a lucrative
transit trade. The massive imports of raw materials
and foodstuffs did much to keep down both the
price of manufactured goods and the cost of living
and thus to stimulate consumer demand.
From the 1860s through 1880s, on a selective
basis, substantial investments also took place in the
improvement of conditions for navigation on such
major rivers as the lower Seine, Meuse, Rhine,
Elbe, and even the Danube (where natural obsta-
cles continued to deter users) as well as in the
widening and deepening of canals, designed to
allow the constant movement of high-capacity
barges. Between 1873 and 1914 the length of
canals and canalized rivers in Germany almost
doubled, to 6,600 kilometers. In France and
Germany governments favored this as a means of
countering rail monopoly by providing an even
cheaper means of transport for bulky commodities
like coal and iron ore. Between the mid-1880s and
1905 the tonnage carried on French waterways
grew by 73 percent, on Belgian by 114 percent,
and on German by 274 percent. In the French case
the relative decline in the significance of inland
waterways was reversed as their share in goods
traffic, which had fallen from 37 percent to 15
percent between 1851 and 1882, rose again to 21
percent by 1903. In less economically dynamic
regions or where natural conditions made the cost
of improvement prohibitive, waterways like the
Loire or Vistula were largely abandoned and river
ports decayed rapidly.
REVIVAL OF THE ROAD: BICYCLES
AND MOTORCARS
As had been the case with the development of the
railway system, the revival of the road as a means of

2350 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

A group of shipbuilders in their shipyard. Late-nineteenth-century photograph. The use of steel for shipbuilding allowed for
the construction of much larger vessels and greatly enlarged the fortunes of shipping magnates. ªHULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS
transport was a response to the perceived short-
comings of existing rail/road transport facilities.
The introduction of the bicycle and then of the
motorcar were once again to transform transport
conditions. Substantial investment in road impro-
vement had continued because of roads’ central
importance to short-distance transport and in pro-
viding access to the railways.
In 1867, a Parisian blacksmith called Pierre
Michaux probably produced the first commercial
bicycle. By 1885 the modern safety bicycle had
been developed. From the late 1880s its use rapidly
spread as its cost fell. The bicycle offered both a
means of getting to work and a leisure activity that
enhanced personal liberty. By 1890 some five hun-
dred thousand were in use in Britain. Michelin’s
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
invention of the detachable, inflatable tire in 1888
provided for a more comfortable ride. Typically,
large numbers of producers entered the new indus-
try before competition and overproduction elimi-
nated the weakest.
Even more significant was the development of
the internal combustion engine, invented indepen-
dently by Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler in the
1870s and 1880s. This provided a more compact,
fuel-efficient power technology than that provided
by steam and allowed the construction of lighter
vehicles no longer dependent on rails. The auto-
mobile offered a flexible and rapid means of perso-
nal transport to luxury consumers anxious to
escape from crowded, more ‘‘democratic’’ forms
of transport. Initially, customized cars were
2351
TREITSCHKE, HEINRICH VON
TABLE 2
Annual expenditure on roads in France, 1815–1913
(in millions of francs)
Period Expenditure
1815–1819 58.2
1820–1829 65.0
1830–1839 110.3
1840–1849 170.6
1850–1859 176.8
1860–1869 220.7
1870–1879 223.7
1880–1889 243.9
1890–1899 231.9
1900–1909 234.2
1910–1913 249.0
assembled by skilled artisans in hundreds of metal-
working and carriage-building workshops, some of
which, like Peugeot, were pushed into diversifica-
tion by intense competition among bicycle manu-
facturers. Again, only a small minority of these
companies, including Peugeot, Opel, and Fiat,
would survive growing competitive pressures. By
1907 there were some 150,000 vehicles in use
throughout Europe, increasing to 600,000 by
1914. In France 91,000 vehicles were in use in
1913; in Germany there were 61,000 private cars
and 9,700 commercial vehicles. Public transport
was also affected. Thus, whereas in London in
1903 11,000 hansom and hackney cabs and 1
motor cab plied their trade, by 1913 there were
already 8,000 motor cabs, and the number of
horse-drawn cabs had declined to 1,900. Trucks
and motorbuses were also making an appearance.
As a result of better automobile design and the
improvement of road surfaces, the reliability of
vehicles and their capacity for long-distance move-
ment also increased rapidly. A major new industry
was in the making. In Europe’s fragmented mar-
kets assembly-line production was slower to
develop than in the United States. In 1914
Peugeot, the largest European producer, turned
out only around 2 percent of the cars produced
by Ford. Even at this stage, however, the burgeon-
ing new industry substantially increased demand
for aluminum, high-quality steels and alloys, and
rubber and oil. Renault, Panhard et Levassor, and
others were also already moving into the produc-
tion of aircraft engines. In France by 1914 some
100,000 were employed in making cars and espe-
2352
cially in related activities in garages and road
maintenance. Soon World War I would provide a
massive stimulus to production that heralded the
postwar rebirth of road transport and, because
motor vehicles offered greater convenience and
flexibility at a competitive price, the gradual but
accelerating decline of the railway. Although the
process would take decades, particularly in the
countryside, the age of the horse was also coming
to an end.
See also Airplanes; Automobile; Cycling; Industrial
Revolution, First; Industrial Revolution, Second;
Railroads; Trade and Economic Growth.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Laux, James Michael. In First Gear: The French Automobile
Industry to 1914. Liverpool, U.K., 1976.
Livet, Georges. Histoire des routes et des transports en
Europe. Strasbourg, France, 2003.
Price, Roger. The Modernization of Rural France: Commu-
nications Networks and Agricultural Market Structures
in Nineteenth-Century France. London, 1983.
Szostak, Rick. The Role of Transportation in the Industrial
Revolution: A Comparison of England and France.
Montreal, 1991.
Ville, Simon P. Transport and the Development of the
European Economy, 1750–1918. London, 1990.
———. ‘‘Transport and Communications.’’ In The
European Economy, 1750–1914: A Thematic Approach,
edited by Derek H. Aldcroft and Simon P. Ville.
Manchester, U.K., 1994.
ROGER PRICE
n
TREITSCHKE, HEINRICH VON
(1834–1896), German nationalist.
Born on 15 September 1834 in Dresden, the
future champion of Prussian-led German unifi-
cation Heinrich von Treitschke grew up in the
aristocratic, conservative, and provincial atmo-
sphere of the capital of the kingdom of Saxony.
The son of an army officer who eventually rose to
the rank of general and a mother who descended
from a venerable Saxon noble family, Treitschke
became interested at an early age in German
nationalism, convinced as early as 1848 that only
the Prussian monarchy could unite the Germans
states. Prevented from becoming an officer due
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

to a childhood ear affliction that eventually resulted
in total deafness, Treitschke graduated in 1851
from the elite Holy Cross secondary school and
went on to study history, political economy, and
state administration in Bonn, Leipzig, Tübingen,
Freiburg, and Heidelberg before taking a teaching
position at the University of Leipzig in 1859.
As a university professor and a contributor to
the journal Preussische Jahrbücher, Treitschke initially
promoted German unification from a classically
liberal standpoint. Prussia’s current authoritarian
nature, Treitschke believed, hindered unification
because it represented a foreign-influenced perver-
sion of the ideal traditional Prussian state, one
based on collaboration between the monarchy
and a civil service dominated by the educated bour-
geoisie. Events in the 1860s caused Treitschke
to revise his opinions. Prussia’s victories over
Denmark in 1864 and Austria in 1866 convinced
him to overlook Otto von Bismarck’s role in the
conflict between the Prussian state and its parlia-
ment and to begin to believe that Bismarck could
succeed in forging a centralized nation-state in
central Europe. The founding of the German
Empire in 1871 largely fulfilled Treitschke’s
wishes, despite reservations concerning, among
other things, Germany’s weak federalist structure.
Although he served as a deputy in the national
parliament until 1884, Treitschke exerted his influ-
ence primarily through his writings and lectures.
His five-volume, unfinished monumental German
History in the Nineteenth Century, begun in 1879,
chronicled political, economic, theological, philo-
sophical, and cultural developments in the period
up to 1848. Like his other writings, this work
wedded his deeply felt political convictions with
his interest in historical events; the first two
decades of the century were characterized as a
blossoming of the national ideal that was crushed
after 1815 by the triumph of small-minded German
particularism and the unnatural and pernicious
domination of central Europe by the Habsburg
Monarchy. Clear to contemporary readers was the
implicit glorification of Prussia’s role in creating
a unified nation-state.
In his published essays, Treitschke engaged
many of the pressing issues of the day. He sup-
ported Bismarck in the anti-Catholic Kulturkampf
of the 1870s, and he railed against socialism and its
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TREITSCHKE, HEINRICH VON
proponents within academe. Treitschke also played
an important role in making respectable and
thereby spreading anti-Semitism within German
society. Although he claimed to abhor the violent
manifestations of anti-Semitism, Treitschke attacked
Germany’s Jews in print, accusing them of under-
mining traditional German values and thereby
weakening the German state. Generations of anti-
Semites would thank him for the infamous slogan
‘‘the Jews are our misfortune.’’
By the mid-1880s, Treitschke was calling for
Germany’s acquisition of overseas colonies. ‘‘All
great nations in history felt the urge to impress
the stamp of their authority on barbaric countries
while they felt strong enough to do so,’’ Treitschke
wrote. ‘‘He who does not take part in this gigantic
competition is destined to cut a poor figure one
day. . . . It is therefore a vital question for the
[German] nation to show colonial drive’’ (quoted
in Winzen, p. 160). A consequence of his growing
interest in the issue of German expansion was a
growing hatred of Great Britain. For Treitschke,
Great Britain represented a ‘‘reactionary power’’
that would have to be dealt with if Germany were
to realize the goals of Weltpolitik. Moreover,
Treitschke believed that military conflict with
England or other powers was not only inevitable
but also legitimate and often beneficial.
Although most historians believe Treitschke
contributed very little to the discipline of history,
scholars recognize his enormous impact on the
many Germans who attended his lectures or read
his articles. Lecturing to overflow crowds at Berlin’s
Kaiser Wilhelm University, Treitschke helped to
instill imperialistic, chauvinistic, and anti-Semitic
values in a generation of young men, many of
whom later occupied important positions in the
Wilhelmine state and its society. Men such as Carl
Peters, Alfred von Tirpitz, Bernhard von Bülow,
and Helmuth Johannes von Moltke learned from
Treitschke of the positive effects of war, the essen-
tial foreignness of Jews and non-Germans, and
the deficiencies of parliamentary democracy.
Whether such teachings laid the foundation for
National Socialism remains a subject of debate
among scholars.
See also Anti-Semitism; Imperialism; Nationalism;
Ranke, Leopold von.
2353
TRIESTE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bussmann, Walter. ‘‘Heinrich von Treitschke 1834–1896.’’
In Die Grossen Deutschen. Deutsche Biographie, edited
by Hermann Heimpel, Theodor Heuss, and Benno
Reifenberg. Berlin, 1957.
Dorpalen, Andreas. Heinrich von Treitschke. New Haven,
Conn.: Yale University Press, 1957.
————. ‘‘Heinrich von Treitschke.’’ Journal of Contem-
porary History 7, nos. 3–4 (1972): 21–35.
Iggers, Georg. ‘‘Heinrich von Treitschke.’’ In Deutsche
Historiker. Band II, edited by Hans-Ulrich Wehler.
Göttingen, 1971.
Kupisch, Karl. Die Hieroglyphe Gottes. Grosse Historiker der
bürgerlichen Epoche von Ranke bis Meinicke. Munich,
1967.
Langer, Ulrich. Heinrich von Treitschke. Politische Biogra-
phie eines deutschen Nationalisten. Düsseldorf, 1998.
Loftus, Ilse. ‘‘Bismarck and the Prussian Historians.’’ In
Imperial Germany. Essays, edited by Volker Dürr,
Kathy Harms, and Peter Hayes. Madison, Wisc., 1985.
Winzen, Peter. ‘‘Treitschke’s Influence on the Rise of
Imperialist and Anti-British Nationalism in Germany.’’
In Nationalist and Racialist Movements in Britain and
Germany Before 1914, edited by Paul Kennedy and
Anthony Nicholls. London, 1981.
CHARLES LANSING
n ance sector also flourished. Assicurazioni Generali,
TRIESTE. ‘‘It is the affliction of her two
natures—the commercial and the Italian—that
collide and cancel out each other. And Trieste
cannot suffocate either of the two. This is her
double soul.’’ Such was the writer Scipio Slata-
per’s description of his native city (La voce, 25
March 1909; in Slataper, pp. 38–39). From a
small city of approximately 30,000 at the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century, Trieste grew to a
major central European city of more than
240,000 by 1913. Habsburg support for the free
port and commercial privileges beginning in the
mid-eighteenth century spurred the growth of the
city that had been under Habsburg protection
since the fourteenth century. Yet, by the eve of
World War I, technological developments in
commercial and maritime trade had begun to
erode the city’s economic foundations, and
nationalist tensions threatened the political stabi-
lity of the Habsburg port.
2354
COMMERCIAL AND POLITICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Intending to challenge Venetian domination, the
Austrian emperor Charles VI extended free-trade
privileges in the Adriatic in 1719. From 1731 to
1775, Trieste functioned as the administrative
center of the Habsburg Adriatic commercial zone.
France’s defeat of the Venetian empire in 1797
encouraged Austrian commercial expansion in the
Adriatic and Mediterranean, and down to 1814
Trieste became a pawn in the contest between
Austria and France. Three periods of French
occupation (March to May 1797, November
1805 to March 1806, and November 1809 to
October 1813) encouraged western European
political associations, and Napoleon’s choice of
Trieste as the administrative center for the Illyrian
provinces created links between the upper Adriatic
region and areas of the Italian peninsula as far
south as Rome. After 1814 Trieste and other
Adriatic provinces, in part inherited from Venice,
became part of Austria’s Adriatic littoral. The port
city’s trade blossomed with Habsburg assistance.
In 1835 the navigation firm Lloyd Austriaco was
founded, and in 1836 the Austrian government
granted the steamship line a charter, initiating a
marriage between private venture and government
that allowed Lloyd to become the largest steamship
company in the Mediterranean by 1851. The insur-
destined to be one of the largest insurance
companies in Europe and the Mediterranean, was
founded in 1831, and Riunione Adriatica di Sicurtà
was established in 1838.
Trieste grew as a pillar of Habsburg maritime
commerce to become, perhaps, the fourth most
important city in the empire after Vienna, Budapest,
and Prague. The city’s architecture took on a
Viennese aspect with development of the Theresian
Quarter, named for the Habsburg empress Maria
Theresa, centered on the Grand Canal. By the mid-
nineteenth century, a neoclassical stock exchange
building graced the main avenue leading from the
Grand Canal to the major public square, Piazza
Grande, which over the course of the century
became home to imposing and ornate public
buildings and the headquarters of Lloyd Aus-
triaco. The Habsburg monarchy also sought to
establish a direct presence in the city. In 1856
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Ponte Rosso on the Grand Canal, Trieste. Photograph by Giuseppe Wulz c. 1890. The church of Sant’Antonio can be seen
in the background. ALINARI/ART RESOURCE
Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, the younger
brother of the emperor Francis Joseph and
supreme commander of the Imperial Austrian
Navy, began construction of his royal palace Mir-
amare. Ferdinand died in 1867 in an ill-advised
attempt to rule as the emperor of Mexico, but
construction of the castle continued, and by
1871 the completed royal residence stood as a
symbol of Habsburg authority.
By the mid-nineteenth century, under Habsburg
tutelage, Trieste’s trade position was enhanced.
The Südbahn rail connection, completed in 1857,
formed a direct link to Vienna. Although the
Adriatic route could never match the northern
German port route in terms of efficiency and
economy, Trieste grew as a cosmopolitan port city
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TRIESTE
serving international commercial interests. In the
1860s the convergence of Austria’s loss of Venice
to Italy, Habsburg suspicions of German states
unifying under a ‘‘small German’’ model, and the
monarchy’s compromise of 1867 that split the
empire into two parts served to focus Austrian
energies on the development of Trieste. The Adriatic
port served as an alternative to lost Venetian
routes and politically unreliable networks through
Bismarck’s Germany.
In 1891 the monarchy abrogated Trieste’s
free-port status, but Habsburg monopolies, sub-
sidies, and commercial advantages continued to
feed economic growth. In 1913 trade with imperial
regions accounted for over 80 percent of Triestine
commercial rail traffic.
2355
TRIESTE
COSMOPOLITAN PORT AND CULTURE
From the Habsburg perspective, Trieste rested in
the hands of commercial elites of a variety of ethnic
and cultural backgrounds, whose allegiance lay with
the monarchy and whose focus was on economic
concerns. The urban environment had an Italian
character due to reliance on an Italian dialect as
the lingua franca and general adherence to Italian
customs. However, the city was reputed to be
cosmopolitan, with a climate heavily influenced by
diverse groups of immigrants, including Greeks,
Ottomans, Jews, and English and Swiss Protestants.
At the same time, a strong civic identity grew out of
the city’s pretensions to economic importance and
autonomy within the Habsburg Empire. Writers
in Trieste captured the contradictions of the ‘‘cos-
mopolitan’’ and ‘‘municipal’’ identities and the clash
between economic internationalism and nationalist
particularism. They also emphasized the psycho-
analytic perspective, filtering to the port from
Freud’s circle in Vienna. The Irish writer James
Joyce spent several years before World War I teach-
ing English in Trieste and is reputed to have drawn
inspiration for many of his characters, including
Leopold Bloom in Ulysses, from the Triestines. Best
known among the psychoanalytically inspired
works is the novel Zeno’s Conscience by Triestine
native Italo Svevo.
Cultural networks and literary circles embra-
cing diversity remained intact on the eve of World
War I, but political bifurcation went hand in hand
with the emergence of ethnic antagonisms that
increasingly pit Italians against Slavs in the second
half of the nineteenth century. By the 1880s, the
increasing wealth of Trieste had quickened the pace
of immigration to the urban center, altering the
ethnic and political landscape. The migration of
workers from nearby rural districts in Italy, Istria,
and Slovene and Croatian Adriatic provinces and
the changes wrought by rapid urbanization set the
stage for the opposition between socialists and
national liberals.
NATIONALIST/ETHNIC DEBATE
Nationalist or ethnic antagonism in Trieste had
its roots in the upheavals of 1848. In 1848 local
civilian and military leaders, recognizing the port’s
reliance on Vienna, generally maintained calm in
Trieste. The monarchy rewarded the city’s loyalty
2356
by transferring the seat of the Austrian navy from
revolutionary Venice. Nonetheless, the city’s role as
a port serving Germanic Austria increasingly
clashed with the aspirations and ambitions of
nationalist groups, in particular irredentist Italians,
who wished to integrate all Italian-speaking
territories into the new Italian state.
The 1860s were critical in the emergence of
ethnic and nationalist politics in the northeastern
Adriatic lands. Italian unification, particularly
the inclusion of Lombardy and Venetia, former
Habsburg holdings, in the new state of Italy,
exacerbated tensions over the fate of the Italian-
speaking populations of the Adriatic littoral. The
Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 brought
nationalist questions to the fore. It excited Slavic
interests in autonomy and, by the turn of the
century, spurred proposals for a third, Slavic
component to the monarchy.
The most famous local nationalist incident
occurred in 1882 and involved Guglielmo Oberdan
(or Oberdank) and a plan to assassinate the
Austrian monarch Francis Joseph, visiting Trieste
to honor the five-hundredth anniversary of the
city’s adhesion to Austria. Officials uncovered
Oberdan’s plot, and he was hanged for treason.
The execution furnished the irredentist movement
with a local martyr for the Italian cause.
By the turn of the twentieth century,
Trieste’s municipal council rested squarely in
the hands of Italian nationalists who controlled
local matters. Heightening sensitivities to ethnic
and cultural differences fueled nationalist antag-
onisms throughout the empire. In the northeast-
ern Adriatic provinces, Slavs and Italians began to
struggle against one another and against Austrian
(considered Germanic) officials. The fever pitch
of the prewar debate between factions favoring
international commerce under the oversight of
Austria and those with Italian irredentist aspira-
tions was evident in 1912 in the firestorm that
erupted over the publication of Angelo Vivante’s
Irredentismo adriatico (Adriatic irredentism).
Irredentists expected Vivante, a respected
member of an Italian Triestine bourgeois family,
to support pro-Italian factions. Instead, he
emphasized Trieste’s dependence on Austria and
painted irredentist schemes as ‘‘utopian’’ dreams,
emphasizing the ‘‘antithesis between the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

economic element and the national one’’ as ‘‘the
guiding thread of all Triestine history’’ (Vivante,
p. 221).
At the end of World War I, victorious Italy’s
incorporation of Trieste into the liberal state could
be counted an Italian nationalist triumph. How-
ever, Vivante’s antithesis could not be reconciled.
Italy’s victory proved Pyrrhic. Italy was frustrated at
the inability to annex other coveted territories in
the eastern Adriatic; nationalists and socialists
clashed; the port city, due to the ravages of war
and political separation from hinterlands in central
Europe, entered into a period of decline. Economic
crisis and political and ethnic antagonisms set the
stage for the well-known, bitter twentieth-century
contests over the fate of Trieste.
See also Austria-Hungary; Italy; Vienna.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Slataper, Scipio. Lettere triestine: Col seguito di attri scritti
vociani di polemica su Trieste. Trieste, 1988.
Svevo, Italo. Zeno’s Conscience. Translated by William Weaver.
New York, 2001. Translation of Coscienza di Zeno (1923).
Vivante, Angelo. Irredentismo adriatico. Trieste, 1984.
Secondary Sources
Dubin, Lois C. The Port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: Absolutist
Politics and Enlightenment Culture. Stanford, Calif.,
1999.
McCourt, John. The Years of Bloom: James Joyce in Trieste,
1904–1920. Dublin, 2000.
Pizzi, Katia. A City in Search of an Author: The Literary
Identity of Trieste. London, 2001.
Schächter, Elizabeth. Origin and Identity: Essays on Svevo
and Trieste. Leeds, U.K., 2000.
Sondhaus, Lawrence. In the Service of the Emperor: Italians in
the Austrian Armed Forces, 1814–1918. New York, 1990.
MAURA E. HAMETZ
n character based partly on Tristan herself). The
TRISTAN, FLORA (1803–1844), French
feminist and socialist.
Flore-Célestine-Thérèse-Henriette Tristan Mos-
coso, who called herself Flora Tristan, was born in
Paris. Her French mother had met her father, a
Peruvian-born nobleman of Spanish ancestry, in
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TRISTAN, FLORA
Bilbao (Spain) during the French Revolution. Their
religious marriage was not recognized under Revo-
lutionary law, making Flora and her younger
brother Pio technically illegitimate. They did not
inherit on their father’s sudden death in 1807, and
grew up in modest circumstances in the countryside
near Paris.
Little is known of Tristan’s life until she
returned to Paris in 1818 and found work coloring
designs in the engraving workshop of André
Chazal. She married him shortly before her eigh-
teenth birthday, but the marriage was violent and
Tristan left her husband in 1825. With two sons to
support and pregnant with her third child, she had
difficulty finding work. Following the birth of her
daughter in October 1825, she left her children in
her mother’s care and became a ‘‘lady’s maid,’’
traveling throughout Europe with her employers.
She then made contact with her father’s family and
visited Peru in 1832–1833 in an unsuccessful
attempt to claim her inheritance. This voyage pro-
vided the basis for her first major publication,
Peregrinations of a Pariah (1838), and for a career
as a writer. Her account of her unhappy marriage
also sparked renewed conflict with her estranged
husband, who was jailed after attempting to kill her
in 1838.
Tristan’s travels opened her eyes to the extent
of social injustice and transformed her from a dis-
illusioned wife pursuing her own rights into a poli-
tical activist. In the 1830s she signed petitions
for the legalization of divorce and against capital
punishment, and published a pamphlet on the plight
of single women. She became interested in the
socialist theories of Charles Fourier (1772–1837),
Robert Owen (1771–1858), the Saint-Simonians,
and Étienne Cabet (1788–1856), but found none
of them satisfactory. Tristan began to publish her
own proposals in both fiction and nonfiction. The
hero of her 1838 novel Méphis, a self-proclaimed
‘‘proletarian,’’ fought oppression by aristocrats and
Jesuits with his lover, the Andalusian Maréquita (a
novel ends with the birth of their daughter, Mary,
a female savior destined to complete the redemp-
tion of the proletariat.
Following a fourth trip to England in 1839,
Tristan published a report on the plight of workers
in the nation at the forefront of industrialization
2357
TRISTAN, FLORA
Flora Tristan. Nineteenth-century lithograph portrait.
BIBLIOTHÈQUE MARGUERITE DURAND, PARIS, FRANCE/BRIDGEMAN ART
LIBRARY/ARCHIVES CHARMET
(Promenades dans Londres [Walks in London],
1840). She cited a range of investigations and
reports to give her work credibility. Her preface
warned French workers that they faced similar prob-
lems as industrialization spread. Her links with
militant French workers from 1843 and her inves-
tigation of French workers’ lives sharpened her
conviction that the political mobilization of the
‘‘largest and most useful class’’ was the key to social
transformation. She promoted this idea in her best-
known book, Workers’ Union (1843). It empha-
sized the need for workers to form a ‘‘union’’ with
a broad membership, superseding craft-based
associations, if they were to become a political
force. Unskilled workers and women needed to
be included. She argued that women’s oppression
underpinned the oppression of workers and that
workers should lead the way in recognizing
women’s rights. While on a speaking tour to pro-
mote this book, Tristan died at Bordeaux of sus-
pected typhoid fever on 14 November 1844.
2358
A monument to Tristan, funded by French
workers, was erected at Bordeaux in October
1848. It was inscribed: ‘‘In memory of Madame
Flora Tristan, author of the Workers’ Union, with
the workers’ gratitude. Liberty—Equality—Frater-
nity—Solidarity.’’ This acknowledged her dedication
to the workers’ cause. Nevertheless, her relation-
ships with workers were sometimes difficult. She
remained an outsider, defining herself as one of the
‘‘enlightened bourgeoisie.’’ Her messianic vision
and her claim to be the ‘‘mother of the workers’’
also emphasized her own leadership, creating some
resentment. Tristan’s approach reflected both the
religious currents within Romantic socialism, and
the prominence of middle-class figures within socia-
list organizations at that time.
Tristan’s feminist legacy is also complex. She
did not form alliances with other feminists of her
day, desiring to lead rather than follow. But she
articulated the concerns shared by feminists in this
period about discriminatory marriage laws, educa-
tion, employment, and personal autonomy for
women. Tristan’s reputation as one of the most
significant feminists and socialists of her day is well
deserved, and her life illustrates that these two sets
of ideas were intimately connected in the early
nineteenth century.
See also Feminism; France; Socialism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
The London Journal of Flora Tristan. Translated, annotated,
and introduced by Jean Hawkes. London, 1982.
The Workers’ Union. Translated with an introduction by
Beverly Livingston. Champaign, Ill., 1983.
Flora Tristan, Utopian Feminist: Her Travel Diaries and
Personal Crusade. Selected, translated, and with an
introduction to her life by Doris Beik and Paul Beik.
Bloomington, Ind., 1993.
Flora Tristan’s Diary: The Tour of France, 1843–1844.
Translated, annotated, and introduced by Máire
Fedelma Cross. Oxford, U.K., and New York, 2002.
Secondary Sources
Bloch-Dano, Evelyne. Flora Tristan: La femme-messie.
Paris, 2001. The best recent biography in French.
Cross, Máire, and Tim Gray. The Feminism of Flora Tristan.
Oxford, U.K., and Providence, R.I., 1992.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Grogan, Susan K. Flora Tristan: Life Stories. London, 1998.
Explores Tristan’s life through the variety of self-
images she created.
Puech, Jules-L. La vie et l’oeuvre de Flora Tristan, 1803–
1844. Paris, 1925. This first biography remains
invaluable.
SUSAN K. FOLEY
n ing of tuberculosis. One was the refinement around
TUBERCULOSIS. The symptoms of tuber-
culosis, more often called consumption or phthisis
in the nineteenth century, have been known in
Europe for many hundreds of years. A Dublin
physician described consumption of the lungs in
1772 in much the same way as modern medical
treatises do—as an obstinate cough, inclination to
vomit, oppression of the chest, habitual fever that
increases after eating, general paleness, high pulse,
night sweats, loss of weight, and coughing up of
blood. Infection with the tubercle bacillus was
widespread in Europe; some calculations for the
early twentieth century suggest an almost 100 per-
cent rate of infection. But though not all who were
infected went on to develop the full-blown disease,
mortality was high. At the height of the epidemic
possibly at least two-thirds to three-quarters of
those who had the disease died, most commonly
from respiratory failure. Even among the recovered,
tuberculosis could return in later life.
Some historians see the high rates of tuber-
culosis in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries as the downward curve of an epidemic that
had reached its peak several hundred years before.
Others argue that a deteriorating urban environ-
ment caused an increased incidence in the early
nineteenth century. All agree that in most European
countries—Ireland and Norway were the excep-
tion—tuberculosis was on the decline in the late
nineteenth century. Nonetheless, of all the infec-
tious diseases, tuberculosis was the most important
contributor to mortality in the nineteenth century
and, while its decline continued into the twentieth,
it was still the leading cause of death among young
adults. Tuberculosis was more prevalent in the cities
and towns. There is some evidence that in the nine-
teenth century, with important exceptions, mortality
from tuberculosis was higher among women than
men in rural areas, whereas the reverse was true for
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TUBERCULOSIS
the towns; no definitive explanation for this varia-
tion is known in the early twenty-first century.
MODERN CONCEPTS OF TUBERCULOSIS
Modern concepts of the causes of tuberculosis date
from 1882, when the German scientist Robert
Koch identified the bacteria responsible for the
disease. Before then only two significant develop-
ments had taken place that affected the understand-
1816 by the French scientist René-Théophile-
Hyacinthe Laennec of the stethoscope, which aided
better diagnosis; the other was the microscope,
which enabled the identification of the characteris-
tic lesions or ‘‘tubercles’’ that were present in the
infected organs of sufferers. This established that,
although consumption of the lungs was the most
prevalent form of the disease, it could be found in
other parts of the human body. It also gave the
disease its modern name—tuberculosis.
Before Koch it was not known whether tubercu-
losis was infectious, though some doctors suspected it
was. It was widely believed to be hereditary, and this
led to families concealing the disease. Innumerable
cures were offered in the early nineteenth century, all
in retrospect valueless, including inhalation of iodine,
a diet rich in fat, water cures, and even starvation.
Some doctors attributed its incidence to overindul-
gence. By the middle of the nineteenth century, cli-
mate was considered to be an important influence on
tuberculosis, and medical journals of the period are
full of investigations of the incidence of tuberculosis
in different climates around the world. This led suf-
ferers to take tours or voyages in search of a climate
they hoped would improve their health. A significant
number of immigrants from Europe to the New
World and the colonies were tuberculosis sufferers.
The lingering nature of death from consump-
tion of the lungs and the fact that it seemed to
strike the young in their prime led to a romantic
iconography growing up around the disease in the
nineteenth century. Some symptoms—flushed
cheeks, glittering eyes—were considered to enhance
beauty. The febrile excitement that sufferers often
displayed in their psychological reaction to their
illness led to an association between susceptibility
to tuberculosis and emotional and artistic tempera-
ments. Thus in operas, novels, and art, death from
tuberculosis was used as the climax of a tragic
2359
TUBERCULOSIS

Dr. Koch’s Treatment for Consumption at the Royal Hospital, Berlin. English engraving, late nineteenth century.
Following his discovery of the bacterium that causes tuberculosis in 1882, Robert Koch attempted to develop treatments for the
disease. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1905 for his discoveries. PRIVATE COLLECTION/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY

narrative of unfulfilled promise and youthful hopes
dashed. Most famously the theme appears in the
death of Mimi in Giacomo Puccini’s opera La
Bohème (1896), based on Henri Murger’s novel of
1849. However, there are many examples in real
life of the impact of tuberculosis on promise. The
disease claimed the composer Frédéric Chopin at
thirty-nine; the Brontë sisters Emily, Anne, and
Charlotte at ages thirty, twenty-nine, and thirty-eight
respectively; and the playwright Anton Chekhov
at forty-four and the poet John Keats at age
twenty-five.
TREATMENT
The belief that fresh, uncontaminated air was good
for the tuberculosis sufferer gained ground in the
nineteenth century and came to dominate treat-
ment of the disease. One product of this was the
specialized tuberculosis hospital or sanatorium
situated in an area chosen for climate and fresh
air. The most famous example was the hospital in
the German Black Forest opened by Dr. Otto
Walther in 1888, which combined bed rest, medical
attendance, and exposure to the air. Sanatoriums
based on similar principles, catering initially to
the private patient, opened throughout Europe.
Isolated mountain retreats in Europe, brought
within reach by the railway, experienced burgeon-
ing local economies built on the provision of
sanatoriums for the tubercular. The sanatorium
led to the development of a specialized form of
hospital architecture and to a literature based on
the patient’s experience. Every European country
produced novels of sanatorium life, most now for-
gotten. However, the most famous is the German
novelist Thomas Mann’s The Magic Mountain,
published in 1924. This was the year that the writer
Franz Kafka, whose life and work was also over-
shadowed by the disease, died from tuberculosis
in an Austrian sanatorium.

2360 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

The late nineteenth century saw a dramatic
change in attitudes toward tuberculosis. Koch’s dis-
covery of the infectious nature of tuberculosis opened
up the possibility that it could be susceptible to the
kind of public health measures that had once been
used to combat the ‘‘fevers’’—the epidemic diseases
such as cholera, typhus, and smallpox. These included
notification, isolation, and decontamination. Between
1890 and 1914 nongovernmental organizations
emerged in Europe, usually initiated and led by med-
ical professionals. They raised consciousness of the
disease among the public, advocated hygiene, and
strove to bring the benefits of the sanatorium within
reach of the poor. The principle they operated under
was that the disease could be prevented, contained,
and perhaps even cured. Thus tuberculosis became a
focus for private charitable and eventually government
action. A series of international conferences acted as a
vector for the spread of ideas about its treatment
across Europe. They encouraged comparisons
between national tuberculosis rates, though the fig-
ures these comparisons were based on were notor-
iously unreliable. Nonetheless, this helped to make
lowering the national tuberculosis rate a matter of
patriotic duty.
There were national styles in the public health
treatment of tuberculosis. Germany was the coun-
try with strongest adherence to the sanatorium;
France to the outpatient clinic dealing exclusively
with tuberculosis—the tuberculosis dispensary.
Some countries had a system of compulsory notifi-
cation of sufferers, others resisted. Two significant
disparities in tuberculosis policy concerned the use
of the antituberculosis vaccine BCG and the treat-
ment of bovine tuberculosis. Koch’s discoveries
had encouraged the search for a vaccine against
tuberculosis and in 1921 two French scientists
Albert-Léon-Charles Calmette and Camille Guérin
announced the discovery of BCG. By the 1930s it
was in use in France and Scandinavian countries
but elsewhere, particularly in Britain, its value as a
preventative measure was questioned. By the
1940s, however, the use of BCG, particularly for
children, had become widespread in Europe.
The second was treatment of bovine tuber-
culosis. Tubercles similar to those seen in humans
were observed in animals, and the bacteria Koch
found in affected humans was also present in animals.
But he doubted, incorrectly, that tuberculosis
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TUNISIA
could be transmitted between animals and humans.
In the first decade of the twentieth century experi-
mental proof that it could be so transmitted was
available and generally accepted. The chief vector
was in the milk and meat of infected animals,
primarily cattle. Tuberculosis transmitted by milk
affected the bones and internal organs of children
in particular. This led to another familiar figure of
the nineteenth century—the severely crippled
child. Improved agricultural practices and pasteur-
ization of milk eventually led to decline in tubercu-
losis of bovine origin, but the politics of agriculture
intervened in some countries to slow down reform.
See also Disease; Public Health.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barnes, David. The Making of a Social Disease: Tubercu-
losis in Nineteenth-Century France. Berkeley, Calif.,
1995.
Bryder, Lynda. Below the Magic Mountain: A Social History
of Tuberculosis in Twentieth-Century Britain. Oxford,
U.K., 1988.
Dormandy, Thomas. ‘‘The White Death’’: A History of
Tuberculosis. London, 1999.
Jones, Greta. ‘‘Captain of All These Men of Death’’: The
History of Tuberculosis in Nineteenth and Twentieth
Century Ireland. New York and Amsterdam, 2001.
Smith, Francis Barrymore. The Retreat of Tuberculosis,
1850–1960. London, 1988.
GRETA JONES
n
TUNISIA. The history of Tunisia during the
long nineteenth century really begins with the
advent of Ottoman suzerainty in the late sixteenth
century. In 1574 Sinan Pasha took control of Tunis
on behalf of the Ottomans and put an end to the
Hafsid dynasty that had ruled Tunisia since 1229.
For the Ottomans, this victory represented a strategic
success that complemented their conquest of Egypt-
Syria (1516–1517) and their capture of Algiers
(1525) and Tripoli, Libya (1551). In North Africa,
only Morocco would escape Ottoman dominance. In
the race to control the southern Mediterranean coast
in the sixteenth century, the Ottomans emerged as
victors against their Spanish rivals.
2361
TUNISIA
The administration of Tunisia was vested in the
appointment of a pasha and the stationing of a
contingent of Janissaries (elite Turkish soldiers) to
ensure the continuance of Ottoman rule. Next to
the pasha, the bey was responsible for internal
affairs (mostly keeping the local tribes in check)
and for the collection of taxes. By 1591 a rebellion
of the Janissaries propelled their junior command-
ers, each bearing the title of dey, to the forefront of
the provincial administration. This date marked the
ascendancy of the power of the deys in Tunisia.
The dey relied on the allegiance of fellow officers
and on the discipline of the Janissaries while the
bey had authority over the indigenous members of
the Mahalla (the ‘‘fiscal’’ troops). For most of the
seventeenth century the position of bey rose to the
detriment of its rival after Murad Bey (d. 1631), a
Corsican of origin, founded the hereditary Mura-
did dynasty that would last until 1702, when its last
ruler was assassinated. By 1705 a bey, al-Husayn
ibn Ali (whose father was of Greek origin) suc-
ceeded in repelling an invasion from Algiers and
took control of Tunisia, hence founding the
Husaynid dynasty that would rule the country until
1957, when the Tunisian republic was declared. He
was a Kulo g lu (Turkish for ‘‘son of a slave’’), a
term generally applied to someone issued from
the union of a member of the Turkish military
and a local woman. This dynasty was granted
hereditary succession by the Ottomans and
acknowledged nominal Ottoman suzerainty. In
the eighteenth century, the Husaynid rulers suc-
cessfully faced the challenge posed by the expansio-
nist aims of the deys of Algiers. Economically, they
encouraged the creation of new crafts (weaving and
textiles), imposed a state monopoly over the export
of the main agricultural products (particularly olive
oil and cereals), and tolerated corsair activity from
their ports. By the end of the century, the rule of
Hammuda Pasha (r. 1782–1814) witnessed added
prosperity as a result of the fiscal reform and the
abolition of the state monopoly on agriculture,
known as Mushtara, which victimized the farmers
and the peasantry. This last measure was repealed
by his successor.
A turning point in the history of this dynasty
came in 1830, with the French occupation of
Algeria. Although France rid the Husaynid beys
of a bellicose neighbor against whom they had
fought many wars, its military presence in Algeria
2362
represented a greater threat to their rule, because
this allowed France to flex its military muscle
toward achieving its imperialist designs over the
region. Barely a month after the fall of Algiers,
France was able to impose a treaty on Tunisia’s
Husayn Bey (r. 1824–1835) that stipulated the
lifting of the state monopoly over agricultural
exports, the establishment of a system of capitula-
tions similar to the one maintained with the Otto-
mans, and the suppression of piracy by the Barbary
corsairs. With regard to the last issue, an identical
demand had been made by France and Britain in
1819 in the name of the European powers follow-
ing the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle but was met
with the procrastination of the beys.
The nineteenth century witnessed the imple-
mentation of modernist reforms in the Ottoman
Empire, Egypt, and Iran. In the case of Tunisia, the
rule of Ahmad Bey (r. 1837–1855) was the begin-
ning of such a trend. The crux of the reform was
the common model adopted by the other three
countries, namely the concentration on building a
modern army along European lines. To this effect,
the bey established a military school at Bardo, a
suburb of Tunis, using Italian instructors who were
soon replaced with Frenchmen. A visit to Paris in
1846 whetted Ahmad Bey’s appetite for palace
building, and the mounting expenditures led to
higher taxation, monopolistic policies, and financial
ruin. His successors had to deal with internal
unrest, such as the 1864 revolt in the south led
by Ali bin Ghadahum, and with the need to meet
the state’s expenditures. With regard to the latter,
Tunisia borrowed from European banks. Unable to
repay the debt on schedule, it declared bankruptcy
in 1869 and had to agree to the formation of an
International Financial Commission (made up of
representatives of Tunisia, France, Britain, and Italy)
to oversee its revenues. This commission controlled
Tunisian finances until 1884, when France assumed
the Tunisian debt three years after the establishment
of its protectorate over the country.
Despite the bleak financial situation, Tunisia
undertook a number of reforms. Under European
pressure, slavery was abolished (1846) and the
bey issued the Fundamental Pact (Ahd al-Aman,
September 1857) guaranteeing the rights of minor-
ities, equal justice, and freedom of commerce.
In 1861 a constitution (the first of its kind in the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Arab and Islamic worlds) reiterated the principles of
the Fundamental Pact and created a grand council
whose members were selected by the bey. The refor-
mer Khayr al-Din assumed the presidency of the
council, but this last experiment was short lived,
and in 1864 the constitution was suspended. In
the realm of education, the Sadiqi college, founded
in 1875, was the first establishment to offer a mod-
ern and secular instruction and would play a role in
the formation of the future Tunisian intelligentsia.
Tunisia had to deal with the competing inter-
ests of three European powers: France, Britain, and
Italy. Of these, France exploited its position of
strength to further its own interests in Tunisia
and to outmaneuver its main European rivals. At
the Congress of Berlin (1878), it reached an under-
standing with Great Britain regarding their respec-
tive colonial designs in the Mediterranean. Three
years later, French land and naval forces swiftly
took control of the Tunisian capital and imposed
the Treaty of Bardo (12 May 1881) on Muham-
mad al-Sadiq Bey (r. 1859–1882), a year before
British troops landed in Egypt (1882) and thirty
years before the Italian occupation of Libya
(1911). This treaty, together with the subsequent
Convention of al-Marsa (8 June 1883) established
the French protectorate over Tunisia. The bey
was reduced to a figurehead, and real power was
concentrated in the hands of the French resident-
minister, a title that changed in 1885 to resident-
general. French citizens were offered incentives to
settle in Tunisia and own farmland at symbolic
prices. By 1893 the military draft was extended to
the Tunisians, thus giving France the opportunity
to count on the added manpower to maintain
order in its colonies or to fight its wars. As a result,
over sixty thousand Tunisians served in the French
army in World War I.
See also Algeria; Colonialism; Egypt; France; Imperial-
ism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic
Period. Cambridge, U.K., 1987.
Brown, Carl L. The Tunisia of Ahmad Bey, 1837–1855.
Princeton, N.J., 1974. An excellent study of Tunisian
society in the period under study.
Ganiage, Jean. Les origines du protectorat français en Tuni-
sie, 1861–1881. 2nd ed. Tunis, 1968.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TURATI, FILIPPO
Green, Arnold H. The Tunisian Ulama, 1873–1915: Social
Structure and Response to Ideological Currents. Leiden,
Netherlands, 1978.
Kraı̈em, Mustapha. La Tunisie précoloniale. 2 vols. Tunis,
1973. A documentary survey of the period.
Krieken, G. S. van. Khayr al-Dı̂n et la Tunisie, 1850–1881.
Leiden, Netherlands, 1976.
Mahjoubi, Ali. L’établissement du protectorat français en
Tunisie. Tunis, 1977.
Perkins, Kenneth J. Historical Dictionary of Tunisia.
2nd ed. Lanham, Md., 1997. Contains an extensive
bibliography.
Tlili, Béchir. Les rapports culturels et idéologiques entre
l’Orient et l’Occident, en Tunisie au XIXème siècle
(1830–1880). Tunis, 1974.
ADEL ALLOUCHE
n
TURATI, FILIPPO (1857–1932), Italian
socialist.
Filippo Turati was the most significant Italian
Socialist leader before the Fascist era. Turati
passed from his conservative and Catholic family
traditions to positivism and finally to socialism.
In the 1880s Turati began to write for La plebe,
an early socialist newspaper, and in 1885 he met
the Russian socialist Anna Kuliscioff. This rela-
tionship was to be the most important on a
personal and intellectual level in his life and
lasted until Kuliscioff’s death in 1925. In the late
1880s Turati began to read Karl Marx, whose
theories he combined with his original positivism
and democratic faith. However, Turati was never
tied to ideology as an end in itself, but was much
more drawn to practical results. In 1889 he
founded the Milanese Socialist League and two
years later launched the influential journal Cri-
tica sociale.
In 1892 Turati played a key role in creating the
Italian Socialist Party (PSI). He was elected to the
Chamber of Deputies for the first time in 1896.
However, during the repression that followed the
popular protests of May 1898, he was stripped of
his parliamentary immunity and imprisoned. The
experience of martial law and prison convinced
Turati that a fundamental step to a socialist society
was the democratization of Italy. He accepted the
overtures of Giovanni Giolitti and Giuseppe
2363
TURGENEV, IVAN
Zanadelli to collaborate with more democratic
liberals in a defense of the rights of Parliament. In
1901 Turati, Leonida Bissolati, and Claudio Treves
formed the core of a reformist group that
engineered a favorable vote from the Socialist
deputies for the Zanardelli-Giolitti government.
Giolitti, as interior minister, allowed the Socialist
trade unions greater scope to organize industrial
and peasant labor and to conduct strikes in the
private sector.
Turati’s relationship with Giolitti proved to
be a complicated one. In 1903, when Giolitti
succeeded Zanardelli as prime minister, he
offered a position in the government to Turati.
The reformist leader rejected the offer. Two
issues drove a wedge between the two men.
Turati was identified with the unionization of
state workers, which Giolitti did not accept.
More importantly, it became apparent that Gio-
litti’s program did not entail major social and
economic reforms.
Turati’s control over the Socialist Party was
also tenuous. His strength was in the parliamen-
tary delegation, not in the base of the party. In
1904 the party took a turn to the left; Turati’s
reformist faction did not regain full control of the
party until 1908. That year the Socialists adopted
a program that called for fundamental reforms of
the taxation system and the introduction of uni-
versal manhood suffrage. Turati never embraced
universal suffrage and in 1910 accepted a more
limited voting rights bill from the government of
Luigi Luzzatti. When Luzzatti’s government fell
in March 1911 and Giolitti returned to office on
a program of nationalization of the insurance
industry and universal manhood suffrage, the
time seemed to be right for a renewed alliance
between Giolitti and the Socialist reformists.
The new prime minister offered a position in the
cabinet to Leonida Bissolati, a leading moderate.
This time, Turati, fearing that the more radical
party militants would not accept participation in a
non-Socialist government, weighed in to persuade
Bissolati to reject the offer. Soon after, relations
between Turati and Giolitti turned sour when
the government decided to conquer Libya in
September 1911. Although Turati passed into
opposition, more revolutionary leaders, including
Benito Mussolini, took control of the party in
2364
1912. Turati never again regained a majority,
nor was his relationship with Giolitti ever fully
repaired.
The years after 1914 would be frustrating
ones for Turati as he sought to find a constructive
role. The 1917 Bolshevik Revolution radicalized
the Italian Socialist Party and blocked Turati’s
hopes that the PSI might cooperate with other
democratic movements in a campaign for a new
constitution and a democratic republic. Turati was
in the minority at the 1919 party congress when
the leadership set its sights on joining the new
Communist International. Although the PSI won
156 seats in the November 1919 elections, Turati
was blocked by party policy from using this
strength constructively. Turati remained in a party
that frittered away its opportunities and opened
the door to Fascist reaction; only in October
1922, when the Socialist Party was completely
irrelevant, did Turati’s reformist faction finally
break off to form the Unitary Socialist Party
(PSU).
Turati watched helplessly as the Fascist dicta-
torship took hold in Italy. In December 1925 Anna
Kuliscioff died; the next year a group of young
socialists organized Turati’s escape from Italy to
France. Turati became active in exile politics,
supporting the movement to reunify the PSI and
PSU, which took place in July 1930. He died in
Paris in March 1932.
See also Giolitti, Giovanni; Italy; Kuliscioff, Anna; Soci-
alism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Di Scala, Spencer. Dilemmas of Italian Socialism: The Politics
of Filippo Turati. Boston, 1980.
Miller, James Edward. From Elite to Mass Politics: Italian
Socialist in the Giolittian Era, 1900–1914. Kent, Ohio,
1990.
ALEXANDER DE GRAND
n
TURGENEV, IVAN (1818–1883),Russian
novelist, poet, and playwright.
Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev, a Russian nobleman,
was born on 9 November (28 October, old style)
1818 and grew up on his mother’s vast estate, Spass-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

koye, in Russia’s Orel Province. Both witness and
recipient of his mother’s arbitrary beatings, Tur-
genev grew to abhor tyrannical systems and violence
of all kinds. He was graduated from St. Petersburg
University in 1837. A subsequent momentous per-
iod of study at the University of Berlin solidified his
belief that progress lay along the path of Westerniza-
tion begun during the reign of Peter I (r. 1682–
1725), rather than with purely Russian social forms
as stipulated by the adherents of its countercurrent in
Russian thought, Slavophilism. In Europe he also
became acquainted with many future Russian intel-
lectual leaders. Back in St. Petersburg, he published a
long poem, Parasha (1843). In this same year he
became acquainted with Pauline Viardot-Garcia, an
operatic star who was married, and with whom he
soon began a lifelong, probably unconsummated,
liaison. Quitting the civil service to devote himself
to literature, Turgenev published the long story,
‘‘Diary of a Superfluous Man’’ (1847), which, in a
manner that was to be rather uncharacteristic of his
work as a whole, depicted a self-deprecating, proto-
Dostoyevskian type. Turgenev’s play A Month in the
Country (1850) influenced the development of Rus-
sian theater, in particular the dramatic art of Anton
Chekhov.
‘‘Diary’’ marks the beginning of Turgenev’s lit-
erary focus on the intellectual debates of the Russian
intelligentsia. In 1852 he was arrested for the pub-
lication of an obituary on Nikolai Gogol. Turgenev
spent a month in police detention, then more than a
year under house arrest. Perennially interested in
social and political problems, he achieved notoriety
for the publication—first serially in the journal The
Contemporary—of a collection of sympathetic, rea-
listic depictions of the peasantry titled A Sportsman’s
Sketches. The first, ‘‘Khor and Kalinich,’’ sensitively
contrasts two peasants’ attitudes toward life, and its
successful reception emboldened Turgenev to con-
tinue in this vein. Among the sketches, ‘‘Bezhin
Meadow’’ epitomizes Turgenev’s lyrical description
of the natural world. Sketches was the first work to
reveal the plight of the peasant class in Russia, and
they contributed to Tsar Alexander II’s decision to
emancipate the serfs in 1861. In the 1850s
Turgenev also wrote three novels, each of which
reflects both important social issues of the
period and Turgenev’s ambivalent nostalgia for the
romanticism of his youth. The well-received Rudin
(1856) depicts a man of Turgenev’s own genera-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TURGENEV, IVAN
tion; A Nest of the Gentry (1859) conveys
an outsider’s unsettling effect on a family; and
On the Eve (1860) offers a portrait of a revolutionary
hero. Also in 1860 Turgenev published an influen-
tial essay, ‘‘Hamlet and Don Quixote,’’ whose
literary typology divides heroes into two types: the
self-conscious, introspective, and ironic Hamlets,
and the idealistic Don Quixotes, who selflessly
devote themselves to abolishing oppression. Two
remarkably evocative love stories of this period are
‘‘Asya’’ (1858) and ‘‘First Love’’ (1860).
Turgenev’s artistically accomplished but politi-
cally controversial novel Fathers and Children
(1862; Otsi i deti)—sometimes translated into
English as Fathers and Sons—unsentimentally
depicts the conflict between the young generation
of radicals and their conservative, Slavophile-leaning
elders. By the 1860s, moderate Westernizers such
as Turgenev were losing sway to a rising class of men
who were neither nobles nor peasants. These so-
called men of various classes (raznochintsi) were
agitating—some with increasing violence—for social
reforms. Credited with bringing the term nihilism
into wide usage, Fathers and Children was rejected
by liberals because it seemed to ridicule their cause,
and by conservatives because it oversympathized
with the radicals. The work’s hostile reception
shocked Turgenev, leading him to leave Russia
permanently and settle in western Europe, first in
Baden-Baden, then in Paris. Despite or perhaps
because of his physical distance from his homeland,
Turgenev’s last novels, Smoke (1867) and Virgin
Soil (1877), continued to reflect particularly
Russian social problems. His final novel, The Torrents
of Spring (1872), achieves poignant clarity, while the
pessimistic Poems in Prose (1883) presages modernist
stylistic innovations.
Turgenev became the first Russian writer to
gain a wide reputation in Europe. He was a well-
known figure in Parisian literary circles, where he
had connections with Gustave Flaubert and Émile
Zola. Warmly received by Anglophone society,
Turgenev received an honorary degree at Oxford
University, and exerted a strong influence on
Henry James. Virgin Soil’s sympathetic treatment
of the populist movement lifted Turgenev’s repu-
tation at home one last time. After a triumphant
return to Moscow in 1880 for the unveiling of
the monument to Alexander Pushkin, he returned
2365
TURNER, J. M. W.
to France and died in Bougival, near Paris, on
3 September (22 August, old style) 1883. Gener-
ally considered masterful evocations of nineteenth-
century life, Turgenev’s works remain widely read
in Russia today.
See also Chekhov, Anton; Dostoyevsky, Fyodor;
Flaubert, Gustave; Gogol, Nikolai; Tolstoy, Leo;
Westernizers; Zola, Émile.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Beaumont, Barbara, ed. Flaubert and Turgenev: A Friendship
in Letters; The Complete Correspondence. New York,
1985.
Turgenev, Ivan. Polnoe sobranie sochinenii i pisem. 28 vols.
Moscow, 1960–1968. Definitive Russian edition of
Turgenev’s works.
———. The Essential Turgenev. Edited by Elizabeth
Cheresh Allen. Evanston, Ill., 1994. Contains transla-
tions of Rudin, A Nest of Gentry, Fathers and Sons, and
First Love; selections from Sportsman’s Sketches;
seven short stories; and fifteen prose poems. Also
contains samples of the author’s nonfiction drawn
from autobiographical sketches, memoirs, public
speeches, the essay ‘‘Hamlet and Don Quixote,’’ and
correspondence with Fyodor Dostoyevsky and Leo
Tolstoy.
Secondary Sources
Allen, Elizabeth Cheresh. Beyond Realism: Turgenev’s Poetics
of Secular Salvation. Stanford, Calif., 1992.
Freeborn, Richard H. Turgenev: The Novelist’s Novelist.
London, 1960. Reprint, Westport, Conn., 1978.
Kagan-Kans, Eva. Hamlet and Don Quixote: Turgenev’s
Ambivalent Vision. The Hague, Netherlands, 1975.
Moser, Charles A. Ivan Turgenev. New York, 1972.
Waddington, Patrick. Turgenev and England. London, 1980.
SARAH A. KRIVE
n advantage of the respite offered by the short-lived
TURNER, J. M. W. (1775–1851), English
painter.
Born in London in 1775, the landscape and
history painter J. M. W. Turner had a long, pro-
ductive, and highly successful career, which evolved
against a background of tumultuous political and
social change in Europe. The son of a barber,
Turner received little formal education but
2366
embarked on his career at a precociously young
age, entering the Royal Academy Schools in 1789
and making his exhibition debut there in 1796, at
the age of twenty-one, with his painting Fishermen
at Sea. Despite his reclusive tendencies, Turner
played an important role in the artistic politics of
the period and participated actively in the institu-
tional and social life of the Royal Academy, hold-
ing the post of professor of perspective between
1807 and 1837. Secretive about his working
methods and private life, he never had pupils but
was often generous with advice to his fellow
artists.
Turner traveled extensively in Britain and the
Continent, documenting with an acute eye both
scenes of everyday life and events of broader poli-
tical significance. Although patriotic and intensely
interested in contemporary events, Turner rarely
articulated his views on politics and seldom
addressed controversial issues directly in his work,
perhaps in order not to alienate his patrons. He
preferred subtle allusion, often literary in nature,
over overt reference. His extensive body of work
nonetheless constitutes a penetrating chronicle of
the political and social landscape of Europe during
the first half of the nineteenth century and an
eloquent articulation of contemporary ideas of
nationhood.
The wars with Napoleon (1793–1815) played
a crucial role both in the development of Turner’s
career and in the evolution of British landscape art.
Between 1799 and 1815, recreational travel on the
Continent was highly restricted and Turner was
forced to delay his visit to Italy, which was regarded
as an essential component of an artist’s education,
until the cessation of hostilities. He eventually
embarked on the trip in 1819, when he was over
forty. In 1802, the year he was elected as a full
member of the Royal Academy, Turner took
Peace of Amiens and traveled to France and Swit-
zerland. In Paris he made sketches and detailed
notes of Old Master paintings looted by Napoleon
and exhibited in the Louvre.
In Britain during the Napoleonic Wars, neces-
sity and patriotism created a renewed interest in the
indigenous landscape. Turner undertook a series of
sketching tours of Britain, which provided raw
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons, October 16, 1834. Painting by J. M. W. Turner, 1834.
ªPHILADELPHIA MUSEUM OF ART/CORBIS
material for a large output of paintings and water-
colors, many of which were engraved and pub-
lished. His designs for Picturesque Views on the
Southern Coast of England (1814–1826), a series
of line-engravings focusing on the area of the
country most vulnerable to French attack, celebrate
the nation’s military and economic strength, con-
taining references to the forestry, ship-building,
and sail-making industries.
Turner shared his contemporaries’ fascination
with Napoleon, whose extraordinary career spoke
to his preoccupation with the theme of rise
and fall of civilizations. In 1812, the year of
Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow, Turner exhib-
ited his monumental painting Snow Storm: Han-
nibal and His Army Crossing the Alps, drawing
parallels between ancient history and contemporary
events. Following the British victory at Waterloo
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
TURNER, J. M. W.
on 18 June 1815, many artists made pilgrimages
to the battleground. Turner was forced by pressure
of work to delay his visit until 1817, but the
site made a profound impression on him. His
1818 painting The Field of Waterloo is a profound
and unequivocally antiheroic response to the
subject, depicting the relatives of the fallen com-
mon soldiers searching for their loved ones in the
aftermath of battle.
Although Turner’s political affiliations remain
unclear, one of his closest friends, Walter Fawkes
(1769–1825), was an ardent Whig, and libertarian
sympathies, albeit often expressed through the
filter of historical subject matter, seem to inform
works such as Dolbadern Castle, North Wales, and
Northampton, the latter implying support of the
controversial bill for electoral reform spearheaded
by the Whigs and passed in 1832. Turner was
2367
TURNER, J. M. W.
sometimes moved to comment more overtly
on acts of inhumanity. His unexhibited canvas
Disaster at Sea responded to the destruction of
the female convict-ship Amphitrite in a storm
on 1 September 1833, in which the entire cargo
of 125 women and children, bound for Botany
Bay, perished less than a mile from the French
shore when the ship’s captain rejected offers of
assistance. In 1840, perhaps stimulated by the
abolition of the slave trade in the British
colonies in 1833, Turner exhibited his spectacular
critique of empire and the slave trade, Slavers
Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying: Typhoon
Coming On.
Turner lived and worked in London all his life,
yet representations of the metropolis and refer-
ences to its political life are surprisingly rare in
his oeuvre, even though he witnessed there and
depicted some of the most momentous events of
his era, including the return of the Victory, bearing
Nelson’s body, after the Battle of Trafalgar in
1805, and the burning of the Houses of Parlia-
ment on 16 October 1834.
Of all the British landscape artists of the period,
Turner was most fascinated by modernity. Alert
to the aesthetic possibilities offered by industrial
sites and aerial pollution, many of his acutely
observed images, such as his 1816 watercolor of
Leeds and Keelmen Heaving Coals by Night (1835),
chart Britain’s troubled transition from an agrarian
to an industrial society. Turner was particularly
interested in steamboats, which enabled him to
travel more quickly and widely than was previously
possible. Intellectually curious (as his fellow painter
John Constable noted, he had ‘‘a wonderful range
of mind’’), Turner’s eclectic range of scientific
interests included meteorology, geology, perspec-
tive, and color theory, and his use of pigments was
highly experimental.
2368
Although his often arcane choice of subject
matter and unconventional handling of paint often
attracted adverse criticism, Turner was nonetheless
regarded as the most significant painter of his time,
and his work continues to exert an enduring influ-
ence, both in Europe and North America.
See also Constable, John; French Revolutionary Wars
and Napoleonic Wars; Romanticism; Slavery.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bailey, Anthony. Standing in the Sun: A Life of J. M. W.
Turner. London and New York, 1997. An excellent
and readable biography.
Butlin, Martin, and Evelyn Joll. The Paintings of J. M. W.
Turner. 2 vols. New Haven, Conn., and London,
1984. An exemplary catalog raisonné of exhibited and
unexhibited paintings.
Gage, John. J. M. W. Turner: A Wonderful Range of Mind.
New Haven, Conn., and London, 1987. A ground-
breaking study, demonstrating the breadth and depth
of Turner’s intellectual interests.
Hamilton, James. Turner’s Britain. London, 2003. An
exhibition catalog exploring Turner’s profound
engagement with the social, political, and physical
landscape of Britain.
Joll, Evelyn, Martin Butlin, and Luke Herrman, eds. The
Oxford Companion to J. M. W. Turner. Oxford, U.K.,
2001. An exemplary reference book written by team of
distinguished Turner scholars; particularly relevant are
articles on Chartism, the Napoleonic Wars, politics,
and slavery.
Rodner, William S. J. M. W. Turner: Romantic Painter of
the Industrial Revolution. Berkeley, Calif., 1997. A
comprehensive account of Turner’s concern with
industry and technology.
Venning, Barry. Turner. London and New York, 2003. An
insightful and readable introduction to Turner’s life
and work, situating the artist within his political, social,
and artistic contexts.
GILLIAN FORRESTER
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 U
n
UKRAINE. The history of Ukraine begins with
Kiev (Kyı̈v). In the Early Middle Ages, Kiev was the
center of Kievan Rus, a trading domain that
became an Orthodox Slavic state. Its civilizational
base was the Old Church Slavonic language, written
in Cyrillic characters, and a law code recorded in a
modified form of that language. By the time the
Mongols arrived in 1241, Kievan Rus had already
been divided into competing principalities. In the
fourteenth century the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
absorbed most of the territories now known as
Belarus and Ukraine. Lithuania became a largely
Orthodox country, and Orthodox culture and law
migrated from Kiev to Vilnius. Galicia, a western
duchy of Rus, was annexed by Poland in the 1340s.
Poland and Lithuania established a personal union
in 1386. In 1569, when Poland and Lithuania
established a Commonwealth, Ukrainian lands were
transferred from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
to the kingdom of Poland. This created a new
boundary among the lands that had once been
Rus, between Belarus (which remained in Lithuania)
and Ukraine (now in Poland).
THE COMMONWEALTH AND THE COSSACKS
Between 1569 and 1648 Polish rule animated
Ukrainian civilization, but also provoked Ukrainian
opposition. Reacting to the Reformation and
Counter-Reformation, Ukrainian clerics published
books and established academies, most importantly
in Kiev. Ukrainian and Belarusian bishops initially
supported the Union of Brest of 1596, which was
designed to preserve the Eastern Christian rite
within the Catholic Church. The church thus
established was known as Uniate, and later Greek
Catholic. This transformation was incomprehensible
to the peasantry, which was increasingly exploited
by a ‘‘second serfdom.’’ The Cossacks, a native
Ukrainian group of free warriors and fighters,
constituted an important segment of the Polish
army. As they were not noble, they could not take
part as equals in the Polish-Lithuanian Common-
wealth, a republic of nobles. In 1648 one of their
number, Bohdan Khmelnytsky organized a rebel-
lion against Polish rule. Cossacks and peasants
murdered Poles and Jews, and Ukrainian peasants
were murdered in their turn by Polish landlords.
As the war turned against the Cossacks, Khmel-
nytsky solicited help from Muscovy at Pereyaslav in
1654. Ukrainian Cossacks then fought with
Muscovite armies against the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth, beginning the period in Polish
history known as the Deluge. The Commonwealth
conceded to Muscovy left-bank Ukraine (east of
the Dnieper [Dnipro] River) and the city of Kiev,
in a peace accord of 1667. Whereas Kiev had shared
its medieval Christian achievements with Vilnius,
it now imparted its renaissance and baroque attain-
ments to Moscow. Kievan churchmen provided
the reservoir of learning and ambition for Tsar
Peter’s reform of the Orthodox Church and spread
European learning in Muscovy. The Cossacks,
having freed themselves from Polish rule, tried to
assert Polish-style rights for themselves within the
Russian Empire. They also wished to preserve their
2369
UKRAINE
own administration, known as the hetmanate, in
left-bank Ukraine. Their ideas of reform clashed
with those of Catherine II (r. 1762–1796), who
wished to create a uniform state. She abolished the
hetmanate in 1764.
The Cossacks made their case in Catherine the
Great’s legislative commission (1767–1768), refer-
ring as ever to the traditional rights of nobles in the
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Yet Catherine
had little need for groups of warriors living in an ill-
defined relationship to central authorities. Military
victories over the Ottoman Empire and the Russian
annexation of the Crimea revealed that the Cos-
sacks were of relatively little importance in war. The
Zaporozhian Cossacks, free men living to the east
of the old hetmanate, were eliminated by a Russian
surprise attack in 1775. In 1781 Ukraine was
divided, along with the rest of the empire, into
provinces. In 1786 Ukrainian Orthodox dioceses
were secularized, as were Russian dioceses before
them. The Kiev Academy, which had taught a clas-
sical curriculum in Polish and Latin, was abruptly
made into a theological school with Russian as the
language of instruction. Conscription was intro-
duced in 1789, ending any possibility for the creation
of local fighting forces.
Catherine’s state building, despite appearances,
had much to offer the Cossack elite. Cossack offi-
cers became members of the Russian dvorianstvo
(according to the 1785 Charter to the Nobility).
As such they were able to press claims to own land
and peasants. Ukrainian peasants became serfs, and
the Jews were expelled from Kiev. With the crea-
tion of a state administration Cossack officers and
their descendants found new opportunities for
careers in the provincial capitals and indeed in
St. Petersburg. In the last three decades of the
eighteenth century, Ukrainian families filled the
ranks of the Russian civil service and essentially
dominated the (nonforeign) intellectual classes.
They arrived in the Russian capital as Russia was
partitioning Poland out of existence, in 1772,
1793, and 1795. The partitions brought right-
bank Ukraine, west of the river Dnieper, into the
Russian Empire. Of the old lands of Kievan Rus,
only Galicia remained outside Russia, annexed in
the partitions by Austria. As the nineteenth century
began, almost the entirety of Ukraine was part of
the Russian Empire.
2370
EMPIRE AND NATIONS
As in Europe as a whole, so in Russia the extension
of imperial rule coincided with the emergence of
local patriotism. Kharkov University, founded in
1805, was intended to anchor Ukraine in Russia
and transmit European scholarship throughout
the empire. It served this purpose, but with the
French Enlightenment it also brought German
philosophy. Kharkov, perhaps the most important
Ukrainian city at this time, was east of the old
hetmanate, and can in no way be seen as directly
transmitting Cossack traditions. Instead, scholars
and students sought, like Romantics throughout
Europe, to seize upon what was local and authen-
tic, counterposing implicitly or explicitly tradition
to progress. Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861),
the greatest Ukrainian Romantic poet, drew from
Polish and Russian models as he created a uniquely
Ukrainian idiom. In 1846 the publication of the
Istoriia Rusov (History of the Rus people) revealed
the potential political implications of Romanticism.
It treated the Cossacks, not Muscovy, as the true
people of Rus, and the Russian Empire as an inter-
loper in the heartland of the Slavs.
In the nineteenth century, left-bank and right-
bank Ukraine were very different. In right-bank
Ukraine, west of the Dnieper, Polish nobles
remained the dominant class, despite the destruc-
tion of Poland itself. It was precisely in right-bank
Ukraine that the early modern Polish system
revealed itself in its most extreme form: a small
number of Roman Catholic landlords owned vast
estates and huge numbers of serfs. In some cases
Polish families owned territories as large as small
countries, and hundreds of thousands of serfs. In
this system, Jews mediated between those who
owned the land and those who worked it, between
Polish lords and Ukrainian serfs. Although there
were far more landless Polish nobles than there were
great lords, and many more Polish peasants, those
who stood atop the system were Poles. Precisely
because this arrangement was so profitable, relatively
few important Polish families joined in the Polish
uprising of 1830 to 1831 against Russian rule.
Polish nobles in right-bank Ukraine neverthe-
less confronted a harsher Russian policy once the
uprising had been defeated. The Commission on
National Education, which had organized Polish-
language schooling, was liquidated. The famous
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

lycée in Krzemieniec was closed, its priceless library
of thirty-four thousand volumes (which included
the collections of the Royal Palace in Warsaw) sent
to Kiev. About two-thirds of the Roman Catholic
monasteries in left-bank Ukraine were liquidated
after 1831. In 1840 the Lithuanian Statute was
annulled, on the grounds that it was alien to
Russian traditions. Here was the great irony of
modernization. The first Lithuanian Statute
(1529) flowed from the traditions of Kievan Rus.
In form and in content, in language and in law, it
represented an unbroken tradition of the Eastern
Slavs. The Russian Empire, which claimed to be the
inheritor of such traditions, liquidated them
instead.
In left-bank Ukraine, St. Petersburg had
confronted for decades the problem of ‘‘surplus’’
Polish nobles, men without means who clung
nevertheless to their noble status. In the old Polish-
Lithuanian Commonwealth, some very high
percentage of the population, perhaps 10 percent,
had been noble. Noble status required neither the
ownership of land nor service to the state. Like the
Cossacks of the right bank a few decades before,
the petty nobles of the left bank referred to ancient
rights, with the distinction that they and their
families had indeed enjoyed such rights under the
Commonwealth. After 1831, Russia moved to
eliminate this troublesome group, which so ill fit
the Russian notion of nobility. In the two decades
after 1831, some 340,000 nobles were ‘‘declassi-
fied,’’ leaving a total of perhaps 70,000 Polish
nobles in left-bank Ukraine. Of these, only about
7,000 possessed great estates. Russian policy thus
distorted further an already extremely exploitative
society. Polish landholders then used Russian prop-
erty law to expel poorer brethren from land they
had tilled for centuries.
In their own way, these few Polish landlords
preserved Polishness in these terrains, although it
was an image of Polishness that denied all modern
democratic ideas and could only provoke the local
peasantry. St. Petersburg occasionally tried to use
the Ukrainian peasantry against Polish landlords.
Peasants who were encouraged by imperial prom-
ises, however, then had to be quelled by imperial
soldiers. The abolition of serfdom in 1861 was
received differently by Ukrainian peasants than by
those in Russia: the Ukrainian peasants wished to
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
UKRAINE
receive their own individual plots. They did not
in any case receive enough land to truly prosper,
and did not understand that land reform would
also mean the loss of rights to traditional use
of common land. Polish landlords held their
own against this pressure and against others. They
circumvented Russian legislation banning the sale
of land to Poles by leasing it to Jews. They deterred
Russians from settling by humiliating them socially.
They began small-scale industrial projects such
as sugar beet refineries.
Over the course of the nineteenth century Kiev
became a center of Ukrainian national society and
Ukrainian intellectual life. The annexation of the
right bank placed Kiev squarely between Russia’s
eastern and western Ukrainian territories. Kiev was
a provincial capital, and increasingly a port of call
for traders. It was a city that spoke Russian, Polish,
and Yiddish rather than Ukrainian, but it was the
center of hopes for those who began to think
of Ukraine as a future political home. Like other
university towns in imperial Russia, it became the
center of a populist movement. In Ukraine, how-
ever, populism took on a particularly national char-
acter. Populists of Polish and Russian origin, when
they ‘‘went to the people,’’ realized that Ukrainian
culture could not be reduced to Polish or Russian
models. Some Polish students felt that their
families had subjected peasants to both social and
national exploitation. Some of them, such as the
populist historian Volodymyr Antonovych, took up
a Ukrainian identity themselves.
Especially after the Polish uprising of 1863 to
1864, Russian authorities assimilated the Ukrainian
national question to a Polish plot. When the pub-
lication of books in Ukrainian and the use of the
Ukrainian language were banned in the 1860s,
this was a response to a perceived Polish threat.
Ukrainian intellectuals, obviously, bore the brunt
of this repression. Important scholars chose immi-
gration, thereby transferring the ideas of Kharkov
and Kiev farther west. In this way, in the 1870s,
Ukrainian populist scholars animated a Ukrainian
national movement in Austria, in the eastern portion
of Austria’s province of Galicia. Antonovych’s
student Mykhailo Hrushevsky, for example, was
hired by Austrian authorities to teach east Euro-
pean history at the university in Lemberg in 1894.
In Austria, starting in 1898, he published his
2371
UKRAINE
Ukrainian peasants at a market, Mukacheve, Ukraine, c. 1908–1914. ªSCHEUFLER COLLECTION/CORBIS
ten-volume masterpiece, A History of Ukraine-Rus.
This foundational work of Ukrainian history was
based on ideas developed and research completed
in the Russian Empire, but could be published only
beyond its boundaries. At the end of the nine-
teenth century Austria became the center of the
Ukrainian national movement.
THE GALICIAN REVIVAL
The eastern half of Austrian Galicia was perhaps
65 percent Ukrainian in population, but such numbers
mattered only when church and secular leaders
began to attend to the peasantry. The most import-
ant institution of the Ukrainian national revival in
Galicia, the Greek Catholic Church, was designed
to serve entirely different purposes. The Greek
2372
Catholic Church was the old Uniate Church, cre-
ated in 1596 at Brest by Orthodox bishops who
wished to preserve their Eastern rite in an institu-
tional union with Rome. Although the Uniate
solution never supplanted traditional Orthodoxy,
the Uniate Church survived (paradoxically) as a
separate institution. The partitions of Poland left
most Uniate believers in the Russian Empire, but a
considerable number in Austrian Galicia. While
St. Petersburg merged the Uniate Church with
the Russian Orthodox Church, Vienna preserved
the church but changed its name to the Greek
Catholic Church. Austrian Empress Maria Theresa
meant to underline thereby that the church was the
equal of the Roman and Armenian Catholic
Churches in Galicia, and emphasize the distinction
from Orthodoxy.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Until the middle of the nineteenth century,
the Greek Catholic Church was loyal to the Habs-
burgs and faithful to traditions of Polish high
culture. While a few of its priests experimented
with Ukrainian lexicons and folklore, the church
itself was hostile to such undertakings. In 1848
Austrian authorities called upon the Greek Catho-
lic Church to help quell the revolution, in which
Poles were taking part. Ukrainian peasants, domi-
nant in numbers, were to frighten Polish nobles
who requested home rule. This achieved, Vienna
ignored the Greek Catholic hierarchy, which was
disappointed to find the loyalty of its flock unre-
warded. A fascination with Russia ensued, because
Russia could present itself as an alternative to
both Austria and Poland. After Polish nobles suc-
ceeded in gaining autonomy for themselves in
Galicia in the late 1860s, the attraction of Russia
as a counterweight increased. Greek Catholic
Russophiles developed an ideology of themselves
as a member of the family of Russian nations,
writing in a mixture of Ukrainian, Old Church
Slavonic, and Russian.
In the last decades of the nineteenth century,
the reform of the Austrian electoral system
rewarded those who could communicate directly
with voters in their own language. The secular
sons and daughters of priests realized that demo-
cracy required new kinds of political organization.
Ukrainian populism imported from Russia played
an important role in the articulation of a new secu-
lar politics. Ivan Franko, the most important of the
new generation of activists, was greatly influenced
by Mykhailo Drahomanov, a Ukrainian populist
who had lost his professorship in Kiev. As in Russia,
some of the important figures were converts from
the Polish nation. Andrii Sheptytsky, the Ukrainian
who turned the Greek Catholic Church into a
popular national institution, was born a Pole and
a Roman Catholic. He ascended to the metropoli-
tan see of Galicia in 1900. In the early years of the
twentieth century, Ukrainian national activists
competed with Polish nationalists and socialists
for political influence in a Galicia that was governed
by the Polish nobility on behalf of the Habsburg
dynasty.
The successive enlargement of the franchise
and the freedom to publish in national languages
favored the development of a Ukrainian-Polish
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
UKRAINE
national competition, one that sharpened skills
and sensitivities on both sides in the early years of
the twentieth century. Ukrainian parties that allied
with Polish or Jewish rivals for tactical reasons dis-
played the experience gained from sophisticated
national politics. Nothing similar could take place
in the Russian Empire of the early twentieth cen-
tury. During the Russian Revolution of 1905,
Ukrainian demands were limited to autonomy.
Before World War I, very few Ukrainians in the
Russian Empire advocated national independence.
Galician Ukrainian activists regarded ‘‘Great
Ukraine,’’ the lands to the east in Russia, as part
of a future united state. The Russian census had
revealed to them the vast domains of the Ukrainian
population to their east. Their goal was national
unity, as achieved earlier by the Italians and the
Germans, as planned for also by the Poles. Galicia
was seen as the first and crucial land of a general
national revival.
See also Austria-Hungary; Cossacks; Nationalism;
Peasants; Poland; Russia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beauvois, Daniel. Le noble, le serf, et le revizor: La noblesse
polonaise entre le tsarisme et les masses ukrainiennes,
1831–1863. Paris, 1985.
———. La bataille de la terre en Ukraine, 1863–1914: Les
Polonais et les conflits socio-ethniques. Lille, France,
1993.
———. Pouvoir russe et noblesse polonaise en Ukraine,
1793–1830. Paris, 2003.
Hrycak, Jaros•aw (Hrytsak, Iaroslav). Historia Ukrainy,
1772–1999: Narodziny nowoczesnego narodu. Lublin,
Poland, 2000.
Kappelar, Andreas. Russland als Vielvölkerreich: Entstehung,
Geschichte, Zerfall. Munich, 1992.
Markovits, Andrei S., and Frank E. Sysyn, eds. Nationbuild-
ing and the Politics of Nationalism: Essays on Austrian
Galicia. Cambridge, Mass., 1982.
Miller, Alexei. The Ukrainian Question: The Russian Empire
and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century. Budapest,
2003.
Rudnytsky, Ivan L. Essays in Modern Ukrainian History.
Edmonton, Alta., Canada, 1987.
Saunders, David. The Ukrainian Impact on Russian Culture,
1750–1850. Edmonton, Alta., Canada, 1985.
TIMOTHY SNYDER
2373
ULM, BATTLE OF
n not know what the Allies’ intentions were. He
ULM, BATTLE OF. The Battle of Ulm
(September–October 1805) was the opening
round of the War of 1805, fought between Napo-
leon I and the Third Coalition of Austria, Russia,
Britain, and Sweden. The conflict arose primarily
from conflicts between Napoleon, Russia, and Aus-
tria over measures Napoleon had taken both to
secure his own position in France and to strike at
Great Britain, with which he had been at war since
March 1803. The immediate sources of conflict in
1805 were in Italy, a fact that played an important
role in shaping the military campaign.
The allied war plan for the late summer of
1805 involved a coordinated effort: vast armies
attacking France from the Adriatic to the North
Sea. The largest Austrian army, commanded by
Archduke Charles, would attack in Italy. Another
Austrian force, nominally commanded by Arch-
duke Ferdinand but actually controlled by its quar-
termaster general, Baron Karl von Mack, would
seize Bavaria and await the arrival of Russian rein-
forcements commanded by General Mikhail Kutu-
zov before invading France via Switzerland. Still
other forces were to make landings in Naples and
Hanover, while large Russian armies attempted to
compel Prussia to join the coalition as well.
Napoleon did not initially recognize the gath-
ering storm clouds. He was intent upon his plans
for the invasion of England and the final prepara-
tions of the Army of the Channel at Boulogne with
which he intended to destroy his ancient nemesis.
The emperor also believed that he had sufficiently
cowed Austria during the War of the Second Coali-
tion (1798–1801) that he need not fear it in 1805.
When he learned in late August that the French
fleet would not be able to seize the English Chan-
nel to permit his invasion of England, Napoleon
decided to strike the coalition instead, hoping that
by punishing Austria he could gain time to renew
his war with ‘‘perfidious Albion.’’
He therefore directed the bulk of the newly
rechristened ‘‘Grande Armée’’ to race from its
camps along the Channel to the Rhine, while the
corps of Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, which
was occupying the British territory of Hanover,
would rush south, through Prussian territory,
toward the Upper Danube. At first, Napoleon did
2374
sought only to drive into Bavaria as rapidly as
possible to protect or, if necessary, restore his ally,
Maximilian I, the elector of Bavaria, to his threat-
ened throne. The emperor’s initial war plan, there-
fore, would have precipitated a head-on collision
with the advancing Austrian army. As the Grande
Armée approached its final positions on the Rhine
in late September, however, Napoleon realized that
Mack’s Austrian army had advanced all the way to
the Iller River, far to the west. He saw a correspond-
ing opportunity to drive into Mack’s rear and cut his
army off from its lines of communication and
retreat. Adjusting his plans of movement accord-
ingly, Napoleon enveloped Mack’s right flank.
The success of that maneuver hinged on the
movement of Bernadotte’s corps (and two others)
through the Prussian territory of Ansbach, while the
Prussians had declared themselves in a state of
armed neutrality. Mack did not expect or believe
that Napoleon would violate Prussian neutrality,
and thereby risk bringing more than 200,000 first-
rate troops into the field against him. Mack had
therefore taken no steps to guard his right wing,
enabling Napoleon’s forces to drive rapidly into
Mack’s rear and force the Austrians back toward
Ulm in a series of confused battles along the
Danube. By 14 October, the Austrians were sealed
in the dilapidated fortress of Ulm itself, ringed by
French troops and with no hope of escape. Mack
agreed on 17 October to surrender his army by the
twenty-fifth, although the date was subsequently
moved up to the twentieth at Mack’s request.
Napoleon’s violation of Prussian territory had,
in the meantime, had the effect of bringing Prussia
into the war. At Potsdam in early November, King
Frederick William III signed an agreement with
Tsar Alexander I of Russia to strike Napoleon’s
exposed army along its flanks and rear. The Prus-
sians began a rapid mobilization and deployment
to effect this plan, which was suspended by the
Treaty of Schönbrunn signed by Prussian co-for-
eign minister, Count Christian von Haugwitz, on
15 December, thirteen days after the Battle of
Austerlitz at which Alexander and his remaining
Austrian allies were defeated.
The Battle of Ulm was not a masterpiece of prior
planning and skillful deception, as it is sometimes
made out, but rather a masterpiece of skillful and
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

decisive adaptation to changing circumstances.
Napoleon’s initial plans were to do more or less
what Mack expected him to do, although with
much greater force. He devised the plan for the
final, brilliant maneuver only after he had seen the
Austrian deployment. He thereby seized an oppor-
tunity that a confused enemy had presented to him.
Moreover, Napoleon was able to do so only by
sacrificing the future security of his army. He had
not reckoned on Prussian hostility following the
violation of Ansbach, and so did not understand
the full danger to which he exposed his army at a
strategic level in order to gain an operational
advantage over the enemy at hand.
See also Armies; Austerlitz; French Revolutionary Wars
and Napoleonic Wars; Napoleon.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Duffy, Christopher. Austerlitz, 1805. London, 1977.
FREDERICK W. KAGAN
n abroad, and they document Ulrichs’s own growing
ULRICHS, KARL HEINRICH (1825–
1895), German homosexual emancipationist, law-
yer, journalist, and author.
In the written and spoken word, Karl Heinrich
Ulrichs was the first person to demand not just the
decriminalization of homosexual practices but also
the complete legal equality of homosexuals and
heterosexuals. A man ahead of his time, he came
out publicly as a homosexual in 1867 and envi-
sioned a political and sociocultural movement of
homosexuals organized to demand their rights as
an oppressed minority. Unable to rally any substan-
tial solidarity among the homosexuals of his era, he
left Germany for voluntary exile in Italy.
Ulrichs’s ability to imagine homosexual eman-
cipation and his maverick willingness to challenge
authority was surely in part a matter of individual
temperament but may also have derived from his
family heritage in Frisia, the coastal region strad-
dling Holland, Germany, and Denmark that is the
only part of Germany that remained free of feudal-
ism in the Middle Ages. He was born on 28 August
1825 in Aurich, the foremost Frisian city, as the
son of an architect in the civil service of the king-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
ULRICHS, KARL HEINRICH
dom of Hanover. Following the study of law at the
Universities of Göttingen and Berlin, Ulrichs began
a promising judicial career in Hanover in 1848. Six
years later, however, his homosexual proclivities
came to light, and he chose to resign from the civil
service rather than face certain dismissal. He moved
to Frankfurt am Main, where he worked as a news-
paper journalist and as an administrative assistant
for a delegate to the German Confederation.
In 1864 Ulrichs published the first of a series of
twelve small books that appeared under the collec-
tive title Investigations into the Riddle of Man-Manly
Love. In language that was closely reasoned and legal-
istic but at times also impassioned and immediately
accessible, this wide-ranging set of books surveyed
the domains of law, religion, medicine, history, lit-
erature, and current events in an almost encyclopedic
effort to assemble all available information on
homosexuality, challenge homophobic prejudice,
and muster support among homosexuals them-
selves. These books—the first five appeared in
1864 and 1865—led to a far-flung correspondence
with homosexuals throughout Germany and
knowledge about homosexuality, drawing on data
and leads he received from his correspondents.
THE ‘‘THIRD SEX’’ THEORY
Ulrichs began with the assumption that virtually all
homosexuals shared his delicate features, which he
himself described as feminine, as well as his boy-
hood interest in girls’ pastimes and their colorful
clothing, which contrasted vividly with the increas-
ingly drab men’s dress of his era. His first awareness
of homosexual interests came at age fifteen, fol-
lowed by a full recognition of his orientation at
twenty-one, and he frankly described his erotic
fascination with laborers clad in working-class garb
and soldiers decked out in colorful uniforms. His
contacts with his contemporaries soon convinced
him, however, that beyond effeminate homosex-
uals of his own stripe there were fully masculine
ones as well as butch and femme lesbians, and he
eventually came to recognize bisexuality as a valid
sexual category.
Despite his acknowledgment of a panoply of
sexual orientations and types, Ulrichs basically main-
tained his ‘‘third sex’’ theory of homosexuality,
according to which gay men are endowed at birth
2375
ULRICHS, KARL HEINRICH
with a female anima (which might be translated as
spirit, psyche, or soul) and lesbians are endowed with
a male one. He coined the word Urning for a homo-
sexual, drawing on the speech by Pausanias in Plato’s
Symposium in which the origins of same-sex and
opposite-sex love are attributed to the two avatars
of the love goddess, one being the motherless daugh-
ter of Uranus, and the other the daughter of Zeus
and Dione (thus Dioning was Ulrichs’s name for
heterosexuals). The term Urning, occasionally ren-
dered in English as Uranian, had some European-
wide currency for a few decades but was ultimately
edged aside by adoption of the term homosexual,
which was likewise coined in the 1860s. Ulrichs
argued that the natural, innate quality of homo-
sexuality meant that it was unjust and pointless
to punish it, and he compared the persecution
of homosexuals with that of witches in earlier
centuries, confident that growing enlightenment
would ultimately lead to homosexual equality.
ANTI-PRUSSIAN ACTIVISM
Ulrichs’s publication series was halted by the wars
of German unification spearheaded by Otto von
Bismarck. A local patriot, Ulrichs was twice impri-
soned in 1866 for opposing the Prussian invasion
and annexation of Hanover. His house was
searched and his papers, including a manuscript
collection of homosexual poetry, were confiscated.
Shortly after his second release from prison, he
traveled to Munich to deliver an address on homo-
sexual rights at the 1867 Congress of German
Jurists. His call for the repeal of sodomy statutes
in the various German states was roundly shouted
down by the entire outraged audience.
Following his aborted speech in Munich,
Ulrichs resolved to come out publicly as a homo-
sexual to the entire German nation. ‘‘As Urnings,
we should and must present ourselves without a
mask. Only then will we conquer ground to stand
on in human society; otherwise, never’’ (Ulrichs,
vol. 1, p. 123). Whereas his first five books had
appeared under the pseudonym Numa Numantius,
his sixth, published in 1868, was published under
his own name, as were his six subsequent volumes
on homosexuality that appeared between 1869 and
1879. Banned from Hanover, Ulrichs moved initi-
ally to southern Germany. These books document-
ed a growing international network of homosexuals
2376
and an increasing knowledge of the homosexual
subculture, including the slang and practices of
his era in Germany, England, and elsewhere. He
criticized the homophobia of the majority but also
lamented the cowardice of his fellow homosexuals.
Ulrichs was bitterly disappointed when Prussia,
with its harsh antisodomy statute, became the fore-
most state following national unification in 1871,
which led in the following year to the imposition
of Prussia’s criminal code throughout Germany.
Ulrichs left Germany for voluntary exile in Italy in
1880, and here he spent the last fifteen years of his
life cultivating the revival of Latin as a universal
language. His grave is in Aquila, Italy, where he
died on 14 July 1895.
In Aquila, Ulrichs was visited by John Adding-
ton Symonds (1840–1893), who provided a sym-
pathetic portrait of Ulrichs as an individual along
with a useful précis of his third-sex theory in
A Problem in Modern Ethics (1881). In Germany,
Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840–1902) credited
Ulrichs with first drawing his attention to homo-
sexuals, these ‘‘stepchildren of nature’’ (Ulrichs,
vol. 2, p. 512), and Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
commented, albeit disparagingly, on Ulrichs’s the-
ory in his Three Essays on Sexuality (1905). Magnus
Hirschfeld (1868–1935) admiringly noted that
Ulrichs single-handedly developed virtually the
entire platform of the homosexual emancipation
movement that finally came into being at the close
of the nineteenth century, including proposals of a
homosexual journal, a national petition to repeal
the antisodomy statute, and even a ‘‘bond of love’’
or civil union ‘‘analogous to’’ heterosexual mar-
riage (vol. 1, p. 234). In their private correspon-
dence, Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich
Engels (1820–1895) commented on Ulrichs’s writ-
ings, remarking that ‘‘the pederasts’’ were beginning
to count themselves and to notice that they formed
an organizable minority.
Although he estimated that homosexuals consti-
tuted just 0.2 to 0.4 percent of the German adult
male population, Ulrichs indeed recognized that
homosexuals constituted a minority that could
demand its ‘‘inalienable . . . civil rights’’ from ‘‘des-
potic majorities’’ (vol. 2, pp. 605, 547). He fully
anticipated the identity politics of the late twentieth
century by placing homosexuals on a par with other
oppressed minorities and reminding his fellow
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

homosexuals of their duty to practice solidarity ‘‘on
the side of the victims of violence and abuse: whether
they are called Poles, Hanoverians, Jews, Catholics’’
(vol. 2, p. 547). By the early twenty-first century,
German homosexual activists had successfully lob-
bied to have streets in Aurich, Hanover, Bremen,
and Munich named in his honor.
See also Freud, Sigmund; Hirschfeld, Magnus; Homo-
sexuality and Lesbianism; Krafft-Ebing, Richard
von; Symonds, John Addington.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Ulrichs, Karl Heinrich. The Riddle of ‘‘Man-Manly’’ Love:
The Pioneering Work on Male Homosexuality. 2 vols.
Translated by Michael A. Lombardi-Nash. Buffalo,
N.Y., 1994.
Secondary Sources
Kennedy, Hubert. ‘‘Karl Heinrich Ulrichs: First Theorist of
Homosexuality.’’ In Science and Homosexualities, edi-
ted by Vernon A. Rosario, 26–45. New York, 1997.
———. Karl Heinrich Ulrichs: Pioneer of the Modern Gay
Movement. 2nd ed. San Francisco, 2005.
JAMES D. STEAKLEY
n
UMBERTO I (1844–1900; ruled 1878–1900),
king of Italy.
Born 14 March 1844, Umberto received
the rank of captain on his fourteenth birthday. He
held a series of military commands beginning in
October 1862 and saw action at Custoza against
Austria in 1866. He married his cousin Margherita,
daughter of Ferdinand, the duke of Genoa, on
22 April 1863. Umberto became king of Italy
when his father, Victor Emmanuel II, died on 9
January 1878. Departing from his father’s example,
he ignored the legacy of the House of Savoy and
took the title Umberto I rather than Umberto IV.
Just ten months after he assumed the throne, the
anarchist Giovanni Passanante tried to stab him
(17 November 1878). Umberto escaped unscathed,
but twenty-two years later another anarchist
succeeded in killing him.
King Umberto inherited the challenges of estab-
lishing the infrastructure, laws, and institutions for
the newly united Italian state and of securing its
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
UMBERTO I
place among the powers of Europe. Political faction-
alism and the strains of economic modernization
produced increasing tension and tumult during his
reign. To popularize the monarchy, Umberto tra-
veled widely in Italy, and he regularly visited the
sites of earthquakes, floods, and epidemics to com-
fort the victims. His efforts to connect with the
people earned him the label ‘‘the good king.’’ But
Umberto did not limit his duties to ceremony.
He played a role in turning Italy away from France
and toward an alliance with Germany and Austria-
Hungary, using his personal ties with fellow
monarchs to smooth the way. He also encouraged
Italy’s imperialist ambitions in Africa.
The king’s role in domestic politics produced
controversy at the time and in historical assess-
ments of his reign. He accepted a series of weak
cabinets directed by prime ministers of the left,
including Agostino Depretis, Benedetto Cairoli,
and Francesco Crispi. In the 1890s these govern-
ments faced agrarian and urban discontent and
the growing power of the Socialists. Alarmed
industrialists and landowners supported the sus-
pension of constitutional guarantees to enforce
public order. In a context of rapidly fluctuating
majorities and weak cabinets, Umberto allowed
prime ministers to legislate by royal decree. The
persistent weakness of parliament caused influential
lawmakers such as Sidney Sonnino to call for
the return to even stronger royal authority.
In 1898 high bread prices intensified popular
agitation, and in May an insurrection broke out in
Milan. The government imposed martial law and
General Fiorenzo Bava Beccaris restored order,
with considerable loss of civilian life. Despite the
outrage of socialists, republicans, and anarchists, on
9 June 1898 the king proclaimed his gratitude to
the soldiers, decorated Bava Beccaris for merit, and
named him senator (16 June). Hoping for a firm
government, he then appointed a military man,
General Luigi Pelloux, prime minister. Pelloux
ended martial law and presented to parliament
proposals curbing freedom of press, meeting, and
association. When deputies of the left tried to
obstruct their passage, Pelloux suspended the
parliamentary session (22 June 1899) and imposed
the public order laws by decree (28 June 1899).
The following year the courts nullified the decrees,
and new elections (3 June and 10 June 1900)
2377
UNIFICATION, ITALIAN
returned a majority favorable to the government.
Pelloux resigned anyway, and the king appointed
the moderate Giuseppe Saracco to replace him.
This ‘‘liberal about face’’ ended conservative
efforts to bypass parliament and to revitalize govern-
ment by reinforcing royal power. In the view of
some historians, Umberto had endorsed what
amounted to a legal coup d’etat during the turn-
of-the-century crisis. Others criticize his passivity in
the face of parliamentary weakness and the auto-
cratic initiatives of politicians such as Crispi. When
he inaugurated the new parliament on 16 June
1900, Umberto underscored his intention to main-
tain the commitment with which he had begun
his reign: the defense of constitutional liberties.
Six weeks later, on 29 July 1900, Gaetano Bresci,
a silk worker and anarchist, killed Umberto at
Monza, proclaiming that renewing Italy began
with eliminating its symbolic head. Judgments of
Umberto vary, and while few credit him with sav-
ing the monarchy or accuse him of destroying
it, most concur that his actions caused serious dis-
cussion of its merits.
See also Italy; Victor Emmanuel II.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Farini, Domenico. Diario di fine secolo. Edited by
Emilia Morelli. Rome, 1961. Provides an inside look
at political life from a close advisor of King Umberto.
Secondary Sources
Alfassio Grimaldi, Ugoberto. Il re ‘‘buono’’: La vita di
Umberto I e la sua epoca in un’esemplare ricostruzione.
5th ed. Milan, 1973.
Mack Smith, Denis. Italy and Its Monarchy. New Haven,
Conn., 1989.
SUSAN A. ASHLEY
UNIFICATION, ITALIAN. See Risorgi-
mento (Italian Unification).
UNITED KINGDOM. See Great Britain.
2378
n
UNIVERSITIES. In the first half of the nine-
teenth century, higher education in Europe under-
went changes that resulted in the establishment of
divergent institutional systems. Beginning in the
1870s, however, a new consensus began to emerge,
based on an ideal that combined teaching and
research that accelerated the exchange of knowl-
edge, teachers, and students across the Continent.
CHANGES IN THE MAP OF EUROPEAN
UNIVERSITIES
In 1790 there were 143 active universities in
Europe. As the century came to a close, and over
the first half of the nineteenth century, major
changes started to occur that, to begin with,
affected Germany, France, and Russia.
Germany, France, and Russia: Revolution in
the university Of the thirty-five German univer-
sities existing in 1789, with a total of seventy-nine
hundred students, eighteen disappeared during
the Revolutionary period. On the other hand, three
new institutions were founded, in Berlin (1810),
Breslau (1811), and Bonn (1818). Prussia hoped
that these would help buttress the control it recov-
ered after 1815 over extremely heterogeneous lands
now stretching from part of conquered Poland to
the Catholic Rhineland.
The French university landscape was even more
radically altered. A string of revolutionary laws and
decrees issued between 22 December 1789, when
universities were subordinated to the départe-
ments, and 7 Ventôse Year III (25 February
1795) quite simply swept away colleges and facul-
ties of theology, medicine, the arts, or law founded
in the Middle Ages. Under the Consulate (1799–
1804) and Empire (1804–1814), French higher
education was integrated into a highly restrictive
central administrative framework from which all
local institutional autonomy was completely
absent. Professional faculties (three of medicine
and three of law for the whole empire in 1804)
and academic faculties (of arts and letters and of
science) were all brought under the authority of
a central administration known as the ‘‘Imperial
University.’’ Fortunately, the Napoleonic regime
spared certain major institutions considered to be
genuine seedbeds of scientific innovation. Some of
these dated from the ancien régime, such as the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Jardin du Roi, turned into a museum in 1793, and
the Collège de France; some had been
founded during the Revolutionary period, such as
the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, the Institut
de France, and the School of Oriental Languages;
and others were long-established elite training
establishments such as the École Polytechnique
for civil and military engineers, the Saint-Cyr mili-
tary academy, and the École Normale for the train-
ing of university teachers.
In Russia too the transformation of the univer-
sity system was rapid and carried out from above.
Moscow University itself was founded early on, in
1755. Between 1803 and 1819, however, as many
as five Russian universities came into being: Kazan
(1804); Kharkov (1805); Dorpat (Tartu), formerly
a German institution, became Russian in 1802;
Vilna (1803), transferred to Kiev in 1835; and
St. Petersburg (1819). In the second half of the
nineteenth century, universities in Odessa (1865),
Tomsk (1888), and Saratov (1909) were estab-
lished. To these institutions should be added very
many higher technical schools, chiefly in Moscow.
Elsewhere in Europe, however, the growth of
universities was far slower.
Slow progress in northwestern and southern
Europe The British Isles were especially conser-
vative. In 1800 there was one university in Ireland,
namely Trinity College in Dublin; four in Scotland;
and two—the University of Oxford and the
University of Cambridge—in England. This deficit
was gradually mitigated by local endeavors with
no overarching plan: by 1901, Durham (1832),
London (1828; reincorporated 1836), Manchester
(1851), and twelve other ‘‘civic universities’’ had
gradually been established in the larger English
cities. And, thanks to reforms made in Scotland in
1858 and at Oxford and Cambridge in 1877, it is
possible to say that a real university system, rather
than the isolated colleges of an earlier time, had
come into existence in Great Britain before 1914.
As for the Mediterranean region and northern
and eastern Europe, it is hard to blame traditional-
ism for the delayed progress of higher education.
Governments in these areas tended to create new,
more functional institutions as a response to social
and political pressures, the result being a highly
unbalanced distribution of facilities. Before 1871,
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
UNIVERSITIES
the Italian states as a whole possessed twenty-one
establishments of higher learning, but these varied
dramatically in size and were distributed in a
way that failed to reflect real needs: northern and
central areas were overserved, whereas from the
academic standpoint the south was a near-desert
utterly dominated by the giant University of
Naples.
By contrast, a centralized country such as Spain
was able to rationalize its university map gradually
during the nineteenth century. A number of the
institutions of the old regime were simply closed
down between 1807 and 1845, with no attempt
being made to revitalize them. Just ten universities
remained, each covering a district conceived on
the model of France’s ‘‘circumscriptions.’’ After
the transfer of the main institution from Alcalá
de Henares to Madrid in 1836, the nationwide
network suffered, just like that of France, from
the crushing weight and privileges of what in
the official terminology was called the ‘‘Central
University.’’
Smaller countries also, notably the Nether-
lands, Belgium, Switzerland, and to a lesser degree
the countries of Scandinavia, met with much diffi-
culty in their attempts to bring a measure of ration-
ality to their university systems. As in the modern
period, religious traditions and national, even
regional, rivalries meant that these sparsely popu-
lated states had a disproportionate number of insti-
tutions relative to their actual needs. In the wake of
Belgium’s independence, two new universities were
founded, a liberal and secular one in Brussels and a
Catholic one in Malines (both in 1834). The reor-
ganization of 1835, however, left the country with
just four universities: two state institutions, in
Ghent and Liège, an independent university in
Brussels, and a Catholic one in Louvain.
The map of Scandinavian universities went
through analogous revisions in response to political
changes and the requirements of scientific innova-
tion. The achievement of autonomy, and then
independence, by such new states as Norway and
Finland enabled them to develop systems of higher
education clearly distinct from those of their for-
mer protectors, Denmark and Russia, respectively.
The ancient universities in Scandinavia were
Copenhagen, founded in 1479, and, in Sweden,
Uppsala (1477) and Lund (1666). To these was
2379
UNIVERSITIES
added the University of Christiania (Oslo);
founded in 1811, six years after Norway became
independent of Denmark, it was to be the center of
Norwegian nationalism. Similarly, the elevation of
Finland to the status of a grand duchy dependent
on the Russian Empire was followed by the transfer
of the University of Turku to Helsinki (1828).
Change in the university and political change
in central and eastern Europe In the early
modern period, central and eastern Europe was a
region with little in the way of a university system.
This traditional pattern, however, was gradually
transformed by virtue of the expanding national
and liberal movement, the training of local elites
in western Europe, the birth of new states, religious
and ethnic rivalries, and a growing desire to catch
up with the more developed parts of Europe. A few
signs of intellectual subordination or archaism never-
theless survived until after World War I, as witness
the continuing flow of students sent to Germany and
France from most of these new nations.
The western part of the Austrian Empire
(Cisleithania) was undoubtedly the best served
region, with six ancient universities at the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century, to which almost as
many advanced technical schools were added in the
first half of that century. This picture underwent
very few modifications thereafter, except for the
division of the University of Prague into two
autonomous institutions, one Czech and the other
German, in 1882; the creation of the University of
Agram (Zagreb) in Croatia in 1874, with philoso-
phy, theology, and law faculties; and the founding
of the University of Czernowitz (now Chernivtsi,
Ukraine) in 1875.
As for the eastern portion of the empire, Trans-
leithania, its sole university was founded in Nagy-
szombat (now Trnava, Slovakia) in 1635 then
moved to Buda in 1775 and then to Pest in
1784. The university could award doctorates but
offered only partial programs of technical instruc-
tion and specialized law and theology courses. New
universities were eventually established around the
turn of the nineteenth century, as was consistent
with the country’s development.
A very different path was taken by higher edu-
cation in partitioned Poland, which would not
regain its independence until 1918. Throughout
2380
the nineteenth century, Polish elites were educated
for the most part in foreign universities. Students
from the Prussian province of Posen (Poznán)
attended the universities of Berlin and Breslau
and, being barred from administrative posts,
tended to take up Catholic theology. In Austrian
Galicia, however, there were two predominantly
Polish university towns, Kraków and Lemberg
(now L’viv, Ukraine). The most repressive univer-
sity system was in the Russian-dominated ‘‘Con-
gress Kingdom of Poland.’’ From 1831 to 1862,
the University of Warsaw was in effect closed in
reprisal for the 1830 uprising. During those
years, Polish students were thus obliged to go to
Russia—to Kiev or St. Petersburg. After 1864 the
University of Warsaw was Russified, becoming in
effect a sort of private free university. This institu-
tion had to struggle to survive, and indeed it lost all
autonomy in 1869. In the latter part of the nine-
teenth century, Polish elites preferred to educate
their young people abroad, in clandestine establish-
ments or, more and more, in the Polish-speaking
and relatively independent Galician universities.
The most oppressed group of all were Jews aspiring
to higher education but confronted by both
Russian and Polish anti-Semitism.
On the fringes of Europe, Greece, Bulgaria, and
Romania provide examples of the simultaneous
emergence of the modern university and the mod-
ern nation under strong foreign influence—Bavar-
ian or German for the first two, French for the third.
In such small rural countries the founding of a
university in the capital was one of the chief symbols
of an independence eventually won after long cen-
turies of cultural oppression. From the outset, the
new kingdom of Greece, with Otto, son of the king
of Bavaria, at its head, sought to buttress its national
identity by establishing a university in Athens. Inau-
gurated on 3 May 1837, it was to serve for the rest
of the century as a rallying point for the Greek
diaspora living under the Ottoman Empire (more
than 40 percent of students at the University of
Athens were born outside Greece’s borders).
In Romania, the creation of the University of
Iaşi (1860) through the expansion of an academy
dating from 1835 was followed in 1864 by the
founding of the University of Bucharest on the
basis of three preexisting faculties (arts, sciences,
and law); a medical school was added in 1869 and
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

a department of theology in 1884. These two insti-
tutions reflected the desire of the Moldo-Wallachian
elites to emancipate themselves from dependence on
ancient centers of learning abroad that had trained
the ruling class until that time. As a small country
speaking a romance language, however, Romania
maintained its links to France, and most of its future
university teachers and a significant proportion of
its students, especially in law and medicine, contin-
ued to complete their education in Paris.
EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY SYSTEMS
The first seventy-five years of the nineteenth century
thus saw the rise of university systems in Europe that
differed greatly according to their location. This
may be explained in part by the upheavals and
reorganizing already mentioned, and in part, too,
by the survival of long-standing cultural traditions.
The two most radically distinct approaches, which
for the sake of convenience are referred to here as
the ‘‘Napoleonic’’ and ‘‘Humboldtian’’ systems,
were instituted almost simultaneously and repre-
sented opposing responses both to critical historical
contingencies and to the intellectual and peda-
gogical debates of the Enlightenment.
The Napoleonic system Though constructed
almost from scratch, the Napoleonic system of
higher education extended certain eighteenth-cen-
tury innovations (the vocational schools) while
rejecting the universalizing ambitions and new
departures of the radical phase of the French Revo-
lution. The intent was to endow the state and
postrevolutionary society with the framework
needed to stabilize a country turned upside down,
to exercise a tight control over education in accor-
dance with the new social order, and to prevent the
emergence of a sphere of intellectual freedom too
large and dangerous for the state to handle. This
enlightened despotism accounts for the predomi-
nance of the ‘‘school’’ model (even when the term
faculty was used), the tyranny of state diplomas
governing the right to exercise a specific function
or profession, the importance placed on grading
and competition even in courses of study that did
not necessarily call for them, the regimentation of
curricula, and the conferment of degrees by the
state alone. The system implied a strict division of
labor among faculties and a high measure of educa-
tional specialization. In consequence all essential
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
UNIVERSITIES
research and innovation was confined to the large
establishments—to a few departments of the
Sorbonne or the Collège de France or to the aca-
demies and learned societies. This explains the chief
shortcoming of French higher education, namely
the overconcentration of resources and manpower
in Paris.
This unegalitarian logic was also reflected in
the hierarchical relations among teachers: because
a portion of their remuneration was in the form of
examination rights, teachers in the vocational
schools with their large intake and those in Paris
with its abundance of candidates had unfair advan-
tages. This inequity was exacerbated by the ability
of professionals, notably teachers of law and
medicine, to supplement their incomes through
extramural activity. Professors of arts and science
subjects, meanwhile, often sought to increase their
revenue by cumulating teaching or administrative
functions, which had an exploitative effect on sub-
stitutes and adjuncts.
The Humboldtian system The new university
system promoted by Wilhelm von Humboldt
(1767–1835) was conceived in explicit opposition
to the Napoleonic approach. Under its sway the
philosophy faculty was assigned equal if not supe-
rior status to other departments. The philosopher
Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834) defined the
university in this context as that place where mas-
ters and fellow students assemble between school
(in the sense of secondary education, viewed as a
coming together of masters and apprentices) and
academy (meaning an assembly of masters among
themselves).
This ambitious intellectual ideal explains the
categorical rejection of French-style vocational
and specialized schools, which turn their back on
what the German model considered the true pur-
pose of the university, namely to awaken the indi-
vidual to knowledge, to adopt an encyclopedic
approach, and to offer a free choice of studies
(Lernfreiheit). Nevertheless, even though the orga-
nization of the University of Berlin was certainly
influenced by these ideas, it would be an error to
assume that its structure conformed strictly to the
myth of the ‘‘Humboldtian system’’ as later con-
structed by German academia.
2381
UNIVERSITIES
To begin with, research played a distinctly sub-
ordinate role in the new system, and the particular
relationship between teaching and research that
was subsequently deemed one of the chief distin-
guishing features of the Prussian approach came
into being only slowly and in an uneven manner
depending on place and discipline. As for another
hallmark of the German system, much admired by
foreign observers, namely the use of the privatdo-
cent (an assistant professor who gives lectures to
students without being tenured and is directly paid
by them) in the training of future teachers, it
should be pointed out that this arrangement was
by no means as widespread as is often assumed. The
real basis of the dynamism of the German system
(or more accurately systems) was perhaps that,
being less rigid than any other, it was able to
benefit from nineteenth-century intellectual and
social advances. Decentralization indeed allowed
for local initiatives that might later, imitated or
imported, spread to other universities. Student
mobility obliged institutions to adapt according
to demand, and this created a process of emulation
that was by definition absent from unified and
centralized states such as France. All these features
are primarily the result not of any concerted
approach but of a history based on the division of
Germany into several different states.
Nor should one overlook the persistence of
older traditions (differing religious practices
according to region, the continuing subordination
of philosophy departments in southern Catholic
states such as Bavaria) or the enduring wish of the
sovereign of the German states to retain political
control over ‘‘their’’ universities. In 1819, for
example, the conference of German states in Karls-
bad decided that the universities should be subject
to political surveillance in view of a growing liberal
student movement, the Burschenschaft. The con-
cern of the states was only increased by the degree
of student participation in the 1848 movement for
German unification. The supposed competitiveness
of the academic market within a multipolar system
unique in Europe was nonetheless vulnerable to
corruption through persistent nepotism in recruit-
ment, especially in the smaller universities. Inasmuch
as the state, in order to meet the demand for
teachers, resorted to the creation of extraordinary,
low-paying and nontenured positions for teachers or
privatdocenten, this arguably served as a spur to
2382
young researchers whose work had to be truly dis-
tinguished if they were to join the professoriate. On
the other hand, the appointment process remained
prone to biases of a social kind into the twentieth
century; in the conservative Protestant states, for
instance, Catholics, teachers considered too liberal,
and—a fortiori—Jews were persistently discrimi-
nated against or even excluded from the academy.
The vocational crisis of the German system
During the latter part of the nineteenth century,
when the German university system was being imi-
tated across Europe and elsewhere in the world, the
system itself was undergoing a crisis. This reflected
several problems related to social and intellectual
changes: the difficulty of incorporating the most
modern scientific and technical culture, the aristo-
cratic corporatism of the teachers, the lagging pro-
fessionalization of certain career paths, and so on.
This was a crisis of growth—and a crisis in the
academy’s sense of vocation.
After stagnating between 1830 and the mid-
1860s, the German student population had multi-
plied by a factor of five (to sixty-one thousand)
by 1914. In the main, this growth benefited the
smaller universities and the philosophy faculties.
For the first time the number of arts and science
students surpassed that of law students, while the
tally of theology students in 1914 was a full half
lower than in 1830. Higher education was chang-
ing, shifting its emphasis from traditional avenues
such as the clergy or the civil service to more
modern careers such as college teaching, scientific
research, engineering, and the technical profes-
sions. In parallel to the universities a network of
Technische Hochschulen (polytechnics) was set up—
ten in all by the beginning of the twentieth cen-
tury. Their student population more than tripled
from five thousand in 1871–1872 to seventeen
thousand in 1903; university enrollment doubled
during the same period. These technical colleges
were disparaged by those in traditional universities,
and it was only thanks to the intervention of
Emperor William II in 1899 that they obtained
the right to bestow doctorates.
The new generation of students tended to be
drawn from less middle-class, less cultivated back-
grounds than its predecessors, and student atti-
tudes were more pragmatic. Students were now less
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

taken with the Humboldtian ideal, for they were
seeking an education tailored to very precise career
goals, and this often gave rise to misunderstandings
with teaching staff who for their part were increas-
ingly specialized, detached from the surrounding
society, and prone to indulging nostalgia for a
Germany that was no more.
The burgeoning student population alarmed
conservatives fearful of the rise of what Otto von
Bismarck called a ‘‘proletariat of bachelors.’’ The
absence of regulation with regard to enrollment
probably did produce numbers of students in law,
medicine, and arts and sciences that at some point
became disproportionate to the society’s needs.
As for the system’s vocational crisis, it was an
even more pointed threat to the German approach
than uncontrolled expansion, because it precipi-
tated an internal dislocation of the universities.
The Humboldtian ideal was meant to help educate
distinguished young men of the solid bourgeoisie
or nobility. But once the universities were popu-
lated in the majority by young people (including,
from the early nineteenth century on, young
women and foreign students) whose concern was
to maximize the future profitability of their univer-
sity careers, the orientation of higher education was
bound to veer toward utility and specialization.
After 1871 the governments of German states grad-
ually accepted this tendency, structuring their insti-
tutions and courses of study in accordance with the
new needs of an industrial society. They also fos-
tered ties between scientific research and the econ-
omy. These new priorities were bound to throw the
earlier German ideal model of the university into
question.
The crisis also affected those supposed to
embody and uphold the Humboldtian ideal, the
university professors themselves. The untenured
were often in the majority, notably in the sciences
and in medicine, but they did not always participate
in collective faculty decisions. This imbalance made
career advancement slower and more arduous and
fed a discontent that erupted before World War I
in the movement of the Nicht-Ordinarien. The
proliferation of untenured teachers cannot be
explained solely by the financial advantage govern-
ments stood to reap from the availability of lower-
paid employees. It was related also to the increasing
prestige of professorships, which were more and
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
UNIVERSITIES
more eagerly sought after, and to the growing
specialization of disciplines, whose new branches
would typically be entrusted to young untenured
teachers. These factors accelerated innovation, but
they were also a source of intellectual frustration.
They meant, for one thing, that new entrants to
the system needed to dispose of private means
while waiting for promotion or occupying lower-
level positions.
Meanwhile, institutional autonomy was
increasingly jeopardized by state intervention in
appointments and even more by the growing finan-
cial dependence of the universities on public fund-
ing for the equipment needs of scientific and
medical research and even for research grants and
library resources in the humanities. The ‘‘freedom
and solitude’’ of the ideal Humboldtian professor
had scant prospect of survival in institutes where
collective projects held sway or in universities
collaborating closely with captains of industry.
Austro-Hungarian exceptionalism Austro-
Hungarian higher education presented a far more
traditional aspect than the German universities.
After the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1773, the
central government administered the entire system,
including the non-German-speaking parts, under
the Ratio educationis law of 1777. Remnants of
medieval tradition, such as ‘‘student nations’’ and
the ‘‘assembly of the doctors,’’ and the survival of
absolutist tendencies into the 1850s, also impeded
the introduction of German-style reforms. The
university system thus had a strictly functional goal,
namely the provision of the human cogs—priests,
functionaries, or teachers—needed by a heteroge-
neous empire. Education was thus governed in every
detail from above, in sharp contrast to the peda-
gogical freedom gradually spreading in Germany.
With the exception of the Vienna Faculty of
Medicine, Austrian universities were scientifically
backward. The 1848 revolution, in which Viennese
and Hungarian students were very active partici-
pants, obliged the authorities to experiment with
the Prussian model (Count Leo Thun Von Hohen-
stien’s reform), albeit in an authoritarian version
that remained in place until around 1860. Under
this arrangement higher education was extended by
two years, while students in the preparatory years
no longer entered institutions of higher education
until they had passed a ‘‘maturity examination’’ (or
2383
UNIVERSITIES
baccalaureate). The philosophy faculty thus achieved
parity with other departments, as in Germany. The
government eliminated student nations and asso-
ciated teachers’ remuneration with the number of
students enrolling in their courses. The opening
up of the academic market through the hiring of
more privatdocenten and the recruitment of teachers
from Germany created a competitive situation that
over time raised scientific teaching standards.
The chief peculiarity of the Austro-Hungarian
system lay, however, in the obstinate survival up
until World War I of professional (and especially
law) faculties: 45.7 percent of Viennese students in
1860 and as many as 53.8 percent in 1909 were
law students; in Hungary the proportion was close
to 60 percent.
British systems It makes little sense to speak of a
single university ‘‘system’’ in the British Isles. The
characteristics of English universities on the one
hand and Scottish on the other were the product
less of any state plan than of compromises between
centuries-old traditions and long-postponed
reforms. To this picture must be added new insti-
tutions, privately or locally conceived, that
addressed shortcomings in the existing establish-
ments and were thus governed by the logic of local
conditions rather than by an overarching idea, as in
France or Germany.
For most of the nineteenth century, a clear
distinction has to be drawn between the Scottish
universities and the two ancient English universities
of Oxford and Cambridge. The Scottish institu-
tions were much more closely akin to universities
on the Continent because they depended on the
state for most of their financial support. Their
doors were open to students from modest back-
grounds, they imposed neither residence nor the
tutorial system, and they were far more concerned
with teacher training than the ‘‘colleges’’ of their
English counterparts. Reformed before the English
universities by virtue of two royal commissions
(1826 and 1876) and two acts of Parliament
(1858 and 1889), the Scottish universities took
the lead in educating students in the new disci-
plines and preparing them for professions other
than the clergy. As early as the 1820s, their total
student population was large, totaling 4,250,
whereas Oxford and Cambridge together had less
2384
than one thousand undergraduates. The reason was
twofold: the simultaneous presence within the
Scottish universities of adolescents of fourteen or
fifteen, ‘‘lads o’parts’’ drawn directly from paro-
chial schools, and young men of twenty or thirty
years of age; and a generous scholarship system.
The flexibility of curricula and attendance even
made it possible to combine studies with work.
While a humanist culture continued to dominate
at Oxford and Cambridge and while vocational
training in England, as a practical matter, was
provided outside university walls, the Scottish uni-
versities, like those of most European countries,
combined the two functions.
At the start of the nineteenth century, Oxford
and Cambridge differed in every particular from
the Scottish universities. They had barely emerged
from a long period of stagnation stretching over
the best part of the previous century. By about
1829, with 840 admissions annually, they had
returned to their seventeenth-century level. The
requirement that students reside in the colleges,
the high cost of enrollment, the absence of voca-
tional preparation other than clerical, and the
refusal of admission to non-Anglicans placed
further limits on expansion. The gradual introduc-
tion of formal examinations (the Tripos), espe-
cially at Cambridge, produced a corresponding
improvement in the quality both of the teaching
and of the students. The complete independence
of these ancient universities vis-à-vis the state was
founded on their vast landholdings and on their
close relationship with the Church of England.
Their ideal of an educated man was still that of a
well-rounded honnête homme (honest man), and
moral context continued to count as much as
scholarly content. Thus the teacher–student ratio
was kept much higher than in continental Europe.
At Oxford, for example, there was a teacher for
every nineteen students in 1814 and for every
sixteen students in 1900. It is true that competi-
tion for ‘‘honors’’ introduced a kind of meritoc-
racy and bestowed social markers, so to speak, of
future success.
Even before religious restrictions were lifted,
dissidents got around them in 1828 by instituting
the first non-Anglican college in London, namely
University College, destined to become one of the
core components of the University of London. The
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Protest against the admission of women to Cambridge University c. 1880. Separate
women’s colleges had been established at Cambridge in 1869 and 1872, and women were granted
academic degrees after 1880, despite protests such as the one pictured here. ªHULTON-DEUTSCH
COLLECTION/CORBIS
Anglicans of the capital responded in 1831 by
founding King’s College. The Whig government
recognized both colleges in 1836 in setting up
the University of London, licensed to deliver
degrees on students in London institutions.
As early as 1850, two hundred candidates took
advantage of this method of circumventing the
constraints of the traditional universities. The new
university thus introduced another level of hetero-
geneity into British higher education, for London
was not residential like Oxford and Cambridge
(‘‘Oxbridge’’), nor was it unified like the Scottish
establishments.
A third phase in the evolution of the British
higher education system was constituted by the
creation of the ‘‘civic universities’’ mentioned earlier,
which had purely practical goals and philanthropical
or local funding, and by the long-deferred reform of
the ancient universities, where a few features of the
German system were eventually introduced.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
UNIVERSITIES
Russia between Humboldt and Napoleon In
Russia, the beginning of the nineteenth century
saw the establishment of a system of secondary
and higher education. The new universities were
modeled on the German system. The first teachers
were in fact Germans or Russians trained in
Germany, notably at Göttingen. The most contra-
dictory aspect of the new system, an aspect that
would endure as long as the Russian Empire itself,
was that these institutions, devoted in principle to
science and theoretically rather autonomous, were
nevertheless assigned the task, after the fashion of
France’s grandes écoles, of training civil servants.
This ambiguity was reflected in an alternation
between liberal periods facilitating Westernization
and the politicizing of student youth and periods of
repression and militarization precipitated whenever
the authorities felt they had been too permissive.
The first such reactionary moment came in the
1830s in response to the European and Polish
2385
UNIVERSITIES
revolutionary events of 1830 to 1832. The statute
of 1835 obliged students to wear uniforms and
follow regimented curricula while teachers were
forced to defend the Orthodox religion, autocracy,
and nationalism. The tumult of 1848 in Europe
sparked a new militarization of the Russian univer-
sities. Rectors were now to be appointed, the
teaching staff was purged, the content of courses
became liable to prior vetting, enrollment fees were
increased so as to reduce the number of students,
and students were subjected to military training
and strict pedagogical control. Disciplines per-
ceived as dangerous (such as constitutional law
and philosophy) were eliminated. By the early
1860s, however, the return to a more liberal
administration had begun.
Initially intended as they were to train a nobi-
lity integrated into the state, the Russian universi-
ties accepted but a small proportion of poorer
students. In Moscow in 1862, 71 percent of stu-
dents were children of the nobility or of eminent
functionaries—actually up from the 65.9 percent
estimated for 1831.
In theory at least, the teaching system was very
rigorous, calling for twenty hours of obligatory
course work per week, a pass-or-fail yearly exam-
ination, and a maximum of six years of study to
finish the nominal four-year program. Selection
was not very strict in practice, however: more than
two-thirds of students were graduated and received
the title of kandidat.
TRANSFORMATIONS AND CONVERGENCE
OF EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY SYSTEMS
Sociologists and historians of education have
described the period from 1860 to 1914 as one
of diversification, expansion, and professionaliza-
tion of higher education. These three tendencies
were accompanied by the growing influence of the
German system as a model for reform in countries
whose universities had remained traditional. Con-
vergence was nevertheless only partly realized
because of the persistence of national and regional
particularities.
France: Incomplete reform (1868–1904) In
France during these years two main concerns,
the need to develop the research function within
the faculties, as in the German system, and the
2386
need to restore balance to a vastly overcentralized
structure, joined forces with a mood of intense
national self-examination prompted by the defeat
of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) to spur
on the movement for reform.
In 1868 the first concern was addressed when
Victor Duruy (1811–1894) founded the four
sections of the École pratique des hautes études,
so creating teaching laboratories and a place where
knowledge was transmitted by means of specialized
seminars that broke from formal courses intended for
a wide audience (the main form of teaching in the
faculties). The second concern, the need for decen-
tralization, took longer to address. A solution
required local support from the provincial cities, a
new inflow of teachers (teaching positions nearly
tripled between 1865 and 1919), and much
increased financial resources (faculty budgets more
than tripled between 1875 and 1913). Most univer-
sities were reorganized or expanded during this time.
An improved balance was achieved, too, between
vocational and academic faculties, bringing things
closer to the German model in this regard. The
greatest challenge was the administrative reform
embodied in the law of 1896 that grouped faculties
together as universities. As was consonant with their
status as civil institutions, these new entities had
elected governing councils, controlled a portion of
their budgets, and were empowered to create and
eliminate professorial posts and to receive endow-
ments. In a word, they could innovate.
Convergence with the German system was never-
theless incomplete. The decentralization failed to
impinge seriously on the dominance of Paris: 43
percent of all French faculty students were still to be
found in Paris in 1914, as compared with 55 percent
in 1876. Paradoxically, the decision finally taken to
transform all groups of faculties into universities, even
in small towns, prevented the emergence of major
regional centers capable of competing with Paris.
All the same, the reform must be credited with
the diversification of the subjects on offer and a
reduction in the average age of teachers, who now
fell into several different categories.
The university reform was less successful in
the vocational faculties, and it failed to challenge
the enduring hold of an elite system of higher
education over recruitment to top technical and
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

administrative positions. So far from losing their
importance, the schools of this system multiplied,
keeping most of their privileges. After 1870 they
were reinforced by commercial schools, as well as
new engineering schools and schools of adminis-
tration. Catholic faculties created after 1875 also
developed vocational training opportunities.
The development of the British universities
This period was also decisive for British universi-
ties, which experienced their most radical reforms
since the Middle Ages. England’s two ancient
universities were obliged by parliamentary action
to adapt to the modern world: non-Anglican,
female, and foreign students were at last admitted
in the 1870s, when they were permitted to enroll
outside the college system. Meanwhile college fel-
lows were gradually given permission to marry.
From this point on, therefore, a genuine academic
career became a possibility, because university
teaching was no longer merely a stepping-stone to
the clergy or to the liberal professions. In conse-
quence the population of Oxford and Cambridge
grew considerably. The range of subjects taught,
still confined at midcentury to the classics and to
mathematics, opened up now to the sciences, his-
tory, law, and foreign languages. Research too now
had a place, especially at Cambridge, after a gift
from the Duke of Devonshire made it possible in
1871 to create the Cavendish Laboratory, where
part of the future British scientific elite would be
trained.
The most significant changes in the British
academic landscape nevertheless occurred outside
Oxbridge, as the new civic universities grew in
number in the provincial cities, their purpose being
to train the new managers needed by an industrial
and urban society. Until these universities were
granted full independence by royal charter, their
students received their degrees through the Univer-
sity of London, an establishment that itself expanded
very greatly as more and more specialized institu-
tions were federated under its aegis in a somewhat
abstract manner. The resulting ‘‘exploded’’ univer-
sity obtained its real charter only in 1898.
The other change that underlined the break
with the Middle Ages was the state’s ever-increasing
financial stake in institutions that had hitherto sub-
sisted either on their inherited wealth (Oxbridge)
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
UNIVERSITIES
or on the support of private or municipal benefac-
tors (the provincial universities). This departure
was initiated in 1889, and by 1906 state aid had
already reached £100,000, a by no means negligi-
ble sum, albeit much inferior to university appor-
tionments on the Continent (from the 1890s on,
for example, France disbursed four times as much
to its fifteen groups of faculties).
The Scottish universities depended even more
on the state. They were granted £72,000 yearly from
1892, to which were added funds for building,
endowments from local businesspeople to create
chairs of practical interest, and, beginning in
1901, a gift worth £100,000 per annum from the
Scottish-born American industrialist and philan-
thropist Andrew Carnegie.
The social background of university entrants
continued to reflect great elitism at Oxbridge, but
for the new universities and above all for the Scot-
tish institutions the picture was considerably more
egalitarian, and thus closer to the continental pat-
tern. In 1910, for instance, 24 percent of university
entrants at the University of Glasgow were children
of manual workers, and 20 percent those of small
shopkeepers, artisans, and office workers; at Oxford
these two categories together accounted for a mere
10 percent of student intake, although they con-
stituted 90 percent of the active population in
Britain. This discrepancy in the level of social dis-
crimination between the two kinds of universities
had a financial underpinning: in Scotland, fees were
low, scholarships plentiful, and the primary and
secondary education network well developed; in
England, by contrast, Oxbridge students continued
to be drawn mostly from the high-fee public (i.e.,
private) schools, while some two hundred pounds
per annum, roughly equivalent to the entire
income of a middle-class family, was needed to
fund an Oxbridge student. And in 1910 no more
than 7 percent of English students received schol-
arships (predominantly young people supported
by local municipalities interested in their pursuing
technical careers).
Austria-Hungary: The attraction of Germany
It was during the second half of the nineteenth
century, too, that the Austro-Hungarian Empire
and the newly developing Balkan nations began in
their turn to feel the gravitational pull of the
2387
UNIVERSITIES
German model. Their universities belonged in a
sense to two worlds: they were modern, and close
to the German academy, inasmuch as German-
speaking teachers and students were continually
circulating through the western part of the empire
and even reaching Budapest; but at the same time
they were still archaic in many ways, still character-
ized by the backwardness of largely rural countries
where careers for professionals lay in the civil-
service, judicial, ecclesiastical, or medical spheres
far more often than in the scientific or literary ones.
The eighteenth century’s enlightened despotism
had left a concrete legacy in the shape of many
well-established advanced technical schools. But
the whole system was subject to unusual stress on
account of the national and religious origins of its
students, drawn as they were from populations of
great diversity. Another difficulty arose from the
pressure, strongest in the east, for students to
migrate westward to Vienna, to the German or Swiss
universities, or even, in the latter part of the period,
to Paris, a trend that deprived many new institutions
of the most highly motivated individuals.
The universities of the Austro-Hungarian
Empire gradually won the right to teach in national
languages. They thus became seedbeds of national
freedom movements, which naturally tended to
block convergence with the German system and
with international intellectual life.
The Hungarian universities had a number
of special traits, notably the predominance of law
studies, a privileged avenue so favored by the ruling
class that Hungary was dubbed ‘‘a nation of lawyers.’’
The explanation for this lies in the development of
a Magyar bureaucracy after the Compromise of
1867 and by the new prominence of the legal
profession in a liberal economy. The petty and
middle-level Hungarian nobility, with its land
rents in decline, used law training as a way of
monopolizing positions in the state apparatus. By
the end of the century this monopoly was being
challenged by commoners, especially by Jews
who were able to take advantage of bloated uni-
versity law schools where rather easy require-
ments made it possible to combine legal studies
with other activities. By the same token, such
easy access to law courses facilitated the assimila-
tion of Germans and Slavs into the dominant
ethnic group.
2388
Switzerland: Gradual expansion During this
period Switzerland slowly developed an approach
to higher education that was unique in three
respects. In the first place, there was no nationwide
university system, because each establishment
depended on a particular canton that had a free
hand with respect to education. Second, because
the canton authorities were directly involved in the
governance of the university, institutions were imme-
diately affected by political developments. Third,
the independence of cantons notwithstanding,
the nearness of Swiss university towns to one another
meant that competition always had to be reckoned
with when striving to attract students from a single
linguistic catchment area; rather as in the German
system, this was a powerful spur to productive rival-
ries. An original—albeit almost unavoidable—way
to fund the conversion of the old Swiss academies
created by the Reformation into true universities
(including research facilities), was the opening of
the door to foreign students and (unusually early)
to young women. Even before 1914, female stu-
dents constituted a fifth of the total Swiss student
population, more than twice their proportion in
France at that time. As for foreign students, their
percentage in Geneva was very high: 44 percent
in 1880 and 80 percent in 1910; for all Swiss
universities their numbers were not much lower:
47 percent in 1900 and 53 percent in 1910. All these
rather unusual characteristics made Switzerland’s
small universities into innovators when compared
with peer institutions in neighboring countries.
Italy and Spain: The difficulty of reform Re-
form in the Italian university system proceeded
alongside the construction of the national state. It
was particularly elusive inasmuch as modern and
medieval traditions weighed heavily on the system,
while the unique role played by the Catholic Church
in Italian society meant that any attempt at moder-
nization meant contesting clerical privileges. The
Casati Law of 1859 sought to centralize higher
education after the fashion of the French system. It
excluded the church from higher education but
failed to eliminate small local universities inherited
from medieval times.
With its seventeen complete or incomplete
groups of faculties, post-unification Italy at the
end of the nineteenth century seemed overen-
dowed by comparison with France (fifteen groups)
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

or Germany (twenty universities), especially since
Italy’s population was smaller and its territory only
half as large. In addition, the Italian network was
very unevenly organized: in the 1890s, for instance,
eight universities had fewer than five hundred stu-
dents among them, while in the following decade
the student body at Naples alone numbered more
than four thousand. The only notable reform,
motivated by anticlericalism, was the abolition of
theology faculties in 1873.
At the turn of the century, despite German
influence, the system’s long-standing defects
remained, among them the predominance of law
studies, the lack of independence for the smaller
university centers, and hidebound teaching meth-
ods. The archaic character of the degree courses
was at the root of significant unemployment
among brainworkers and a predilection for civil-
service posts that worked to the detriment of
the sort of advanced technical training needed by
a modern economy.
In the early 1900s, however, this last tendency
was significantly reversed, thanks largely to private-
sector initiatives. In response to the new industrial
Italy’s need for managers, business leaders, and
technicians, public business schools sprang up, the
private Bocconi University was founded in Milan
(1902), and engineering schools were established
in Milan (1863), Naples (1868), and Turin (1859).
But teachers were still badly paid, precipitating a
continual search for other sources of income—
especially in law departments, often a springboard
to politics.
Spain, like other Mediterranean countries, saw
its higher education system fall dramatically behind
that of the more advanced northern European
nations in the latter half of the nineteenth century.
Until 1900 the Spanish universities were plagued
by some of the same problems as the French but
in an even more chronic way. Those problems
included overcentralization, skeletal staffing,
bureaucratic administration, and lifeless teachers
given to rote methods. The law faculties monopo-
lized the majority of students. The central university
of Madrid dominated the whole system because
it alone could confer doctorates and because its
teachers were better paid. Advanced technical
schools supplemented the very traditional degree
courses offered in the faculties.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
UNIVERSITIES
Though overshadowed by the technical
schools, the Spanish universities were very slow to
welcome academic and modern disciplines. Two-
thirds of teachers were underpaid and to ensure
their futures were obliged to seek additional work
or hope for transfer to Madrid.
The movement for reform was started by a
modest group of teachers at Oviedo, the smallest
university in Spain. They were inspired by measures
taken from 1900 on by a new minister of public
education, among them the opening up of faculties
of arts and sciences to new disciplines, the intro-
duction of the social sciences into law departments,
and the establishment of scholarships. Chronic
shortages of funds, however, limited such advances.
The necessity of modernizing course content and
attracting students from new sectors was addressed
by adopting the English system of university exten-
sions; this solution was initiated in the shape of
public courses at the University of Saragossa in
1893, and later spread to other Spanish universities.
Russia: The impossibility of liberalization
Russian higher education during this period was
inhabited by contradictory tendencies. On the
one hand, in accordance with the Russian tradition
of benevolent despotism, the state was striving to
make the system into an integral part of the mod-
ernization and Westernization of the country. On
the other hand, the reactionary tendencies of the
autocracy reemerged from time to time in response
to endemic revolutionary agitation, enforcing
authoritarian measures designed to reassert control
over universities viewed as hotbeds of subversive
ideas and a threat to the social order.
The expansion in the student population dur-
ing the period is even more striking in view of
the very low initial tally: a total of five thousand
students in nine universities in 1860 swelled to
thirty-seven thousand students fifty years later.
That this trend was unstoppable, despite restrictive
measures (including quotas for Jews and those of
modest means) passed in the wake of the assassina-
tion of Tsar Alexander II in 1881, is accounted for
by the appeal of higher education in a society in
which bureaucratic positions were the most presti-
gious of all. Aside from the study of law, which led
to such positions, medicine also exerted a growing
attraction in view of the country’s immense health
2389
UNIVERSITIES
care needs and the perception that science was the
prime weapon in the fight against poverty and
ignorance. As a result of the rise of social aspira-
tions in the middle and lower socioeconomic strata,
the proportion of students of noble background
dropped between 1865 and 1914 from 67 percent
to 35 percent in the technical schools and from 55
percent to 25 percent in the universities. Mean-
while, aspirants from petty bourgeois, middle-class,
or Jewish families who failed to enter higher
education because of obstacles placed in their way
by official policies were quick to go abroad, and
indeed in great numbers, to obtain degrees. Thus
Paris, Berlin, and the Swiss universities acquired
large communities of Russian students whose num-
ber should really be added to the empire’s official
figures.
It was during this period too that women
entered the Russian student population in force: in
1914–1915, women constituted 30 percent of all
students in Russian higher education as compared
with an almost negligible proportion in 1900.
Political agitation among students did not end
with the century; rather, it continued to reflect
the failure of the Russian system to adapt to the
emerging modern society. The growth of student
militancy was a response to the refusal of the
authorities to recognize student associations and
their recurrent reassertion of the most authoritarian
regulations. The high point of student agitation
was reached with the Revolution of 1905, when
the universities served as centers of the mobiliza-
tion that led to the general strike of October.
The growing inadequacy of the Russian uni-
versity system was reflected in the fact that teachers
in higher education, though drawn in the majority
from privileged backgrounds (39 percent of them
were nobles as late as 1904), inclined overall
toward liberalism and reform. Their ideals were
Humboldtian, even as tsarism continued to bar
the way to the scientific freedom indispensable to
progress. But both the statute of 1884, which
sought to bring the universities back under control
following the assassination of Alexander II, and an
orientation toward vocational rather than scholarly
and scientific goals were gradually brought into
question in actual practice. The institution of
privatdocenten in the German mold failed to pro-
duce the desired effect absent an adequate pool of
2390
teachers. Mediocre remuneration and the difficulty
of obtaining a post made an academic career unap-
pealing. Between 1900 and 1914, the situation in
the Russian universities deteriorated sharply for
lack of revenues (the state met only 60 percent of
the budget, the remainder coming from fees) and
because the creation of teaching positions failed to
keep pace with student enrollment. Ever-growing
internal and external tensions (between tenured
and untenured teachers, between teachers, students,
and the authorities, and so forth) further contrib-
uted to the disorganization of a system that,
despite a government commission set up in 1902,
shrank in fear from any idea of reform.
CONCLUSION: A EUROPEAN SYSTEM?
Despite the multiplicity of university systems and
the persistence of national and cultural differences,
the last years of the nineteenth century saw the
birth of a truly ‘‘European’’ university, albeit a
university that was invisible and without institu-
tional boundaries. Its basis was the incessant and
ever-increasing movement not just of students but
also of teachers between different cultural environ-
ments. For students such migrations represented
ways of escape from the political and institutional
obstacles that faced them in ‘‘backward’’ or oppres-
sive countries, mostly in eastern and southern
Europe. Teachers for their part traveled a good
deal between the main centers, attending con-
gresses, joining scientific associations, and setting
up exchange programs. This invisible academy
realized the Humboldtian ideal inasmuch as it
was based on a true desire for knowledge, despite
geographical or institutional obstacles, and on
the freedom to teach and learn outside official
curricula. The fact that students could choose
between competing university centers was one
index among others of the intellectual reach of
those institutions, and hence of their capacity for
innovation and excellence in particular disciplines.
As for teacher exchanges, they attested to the inten-
sity of intellectual relations between different linguis-
tic and cultural regions, and to the strong influence
of this country or that in a particular branch of
learning. Even though it issued into the most mur-
derous explosion of nationalism in European history,
this period nevertheless suggested the possible shape
of a reconstructed academic Europe firmly linked
to the most ancient medieval traditions.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

See also Education; Humboldt, Alexander and Wilhelm
von; Intellectuals; Intelligentsia; Professions;
Schleiermacher, Friedrich.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Charle, Christophe, and Jacques Verger. Histoire des uni-
versités. Paris, 1994.
Jarausch, Konrad H., ed. The Transformation of Higher
Learning, 1860–1930: Expansion, Diversification,
Social Opening, and Professionalization in England,
Germany, Russia, and the United States. Stuttgart,
Germany, 1982.
Ringer, Fritz K. Education and Society in Modern Europe.
Bloomington, Ind., 1979.
Rothblatt, Sheldon, and Björn Wittrock, eds. The European
and American University since 1800: Historical and
Sociological Essays. Cambridge, U.K., 1993.
Rüegg, Walter, ed. A History of the University in Europe.
Vol. 3: Universities in the Nineteenth and Early Twen-
tieth Centuries (1800–1945). Cambridge, U.K., 2004.
Schriewer, Jürgen, Christophe Charle, and Edwin Keiner,
eds. Sozialer Raum und akademische Kulturen: Stu-
dien zur europäischen Hochschul- und Wissenschafts-
geschichte im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert/A la recherche
de l’espace universitaire européen: Études sur l’enseigne-
ment supérieur aux XIXe et XXe siècles. Frankfurt am
Main, 1993.
Schubring, Gert, ed. ‘‘Einsamkeit und Freiheit’’ neu besich-
tigt: Universitätsreformen und Disziplinenbildung in
Preussen als Modell für Wissenschaftspolitik im Europa
des 19. Jahrhunderts. Stuttgart, Germany, 1991.
Stone, Lawrence, ed. The University in Society. 2 vols.
Princeton, N.J., 1974.
CHRISTOPHE CHARLE
n Cyprus, and Adana to his vassal’s control. Faced
UNKIAR-SKELESSI, TREATY OF.
On 8 July 1833, representatives of the Russian and
Ottoman governments signed a ‘‘treaty of defensive
alliance’’ in Unkiar-Skelessi (Hunkar Iskelesi), a
suburb of Constantinople. The treaty consisted of
two parts, a section of six articles in addition to a
secret ‘‘separate article.’’ The first section recorded
the signatories’ pledge of common defense and
mutual aid ‘‘against all attack,’’ in addition to con-
sultation and cooperation in matters affecting each
empire’s ‘‘tranquility and safety.’’ Unkiar-Skelessi
confirmed the terms of the 1829 Treaty of Adrianople,
which had concluded the Russo-Turkish conflict
arising from the War of Greek Independence.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
UNKIAR-SKELESSI, TREATY OF
Now, Russian emperor Nicholas I (r. 1825–1855)
promised to provide, when requested by the Sub-
lime Porte (the Ottoman government), such forces
as necessary to maintain Turkey’s independence.
For its part, the Ottoman government of Sultan
Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) would pay for provi-
sioning these forces. The empires’ representatives
agreed that the treaty’s terms would last for eight
years, at which time they would discuss renewal.
The treaty’s ‘‘separate’’ and secret article modified
the terms of the public document by stating that,
to spare the expense of direct aid to Russia when
the latter came under attack, the Sublime Porte
would instead close the Dardanelles to any foreign
warships ‘‘under any pretext whatsoever.’’
Unkiar-Skelessi closed one phase and began
another in the history of the ‘‘Eastern Question’’—
that is, the international complications stemming
from the Ottoman Empire’s chronic weakness. The
Greek revolution had inspired the Ottoman gover-
nor of Egypt, Mehmet Ali (1769–1849), to mount
his own rebellion. In 1831, his French-trained
troops invaded Syria under the command of his
son Ibrahim Pasha (1789–1848). By the spring of
1833, Ibrahim’s armies had seized Syria and were
advancing on Constantinople. Unable to turn to
Great Britain—where the government was embroiled
in debates over the Reform Bill—the sultan reluc-
tantly accepted Russian offers of military support,
remarking that a drowning man would even cling
to a serpent. In April 1833, 10,000 Russian troops
landed on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus Straits.
In May, Mahmud II and Mehmet Ali concluded a
peace at Kutahia; the sultan ceded Egypt, Syria,
with the continuing presence of Russian troops,
and amid potential tension created by the arrival
in the Straits of French and British naval vessels,
Mahmud II accepted the offer of an alliance extended
by Nicholas I’s emissary Count A. F. Orlov. The day
following the treaty’s signature, Russian troops
received orders to withdraw, as Ibrahim Pasha’s
armies had returned to their new territories.
The treaty signaled a triumph for Russia’s ideo-
logical and strategic interests, but provoked con-
tention with Great Britain and France over the
fate of the ‘‘sick man,’’ as contemporaries called
the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas and his advisors
believed that they had protected a legitimate ruler
2391
UTILITARIANISM
against the forces of disorder, in keeping with their
conservative view of international relations. Unkiar-
Skelessi also assured Russia’s ability to intervene in
Ottoman affairs, in support of Nicholas I’s wish to
maintain a weak but unified neighbor on Russia’s
southern flank. These principles served as the basis
of an agreement with Austria, signed at Münchengrätz
in September 1833, thus resurrecting a Holy
Alliance broken by the events in Greece. Russia’s
new dominance in Turkey also excited suspicions in
London and Paris, especially after the terms of the
treaty appeared in the British press in August 1833.
British officials, particularly Foreign Secretary John
Henry Temple, Lord Palmerston (1784–1865),
feared Russia’s larger designs, as well as the security
of the route to India. French statesmen sought to
bolster the position of their protégé Mehmet Ali.
The Eastern Question re-emerged with new
urgency in April 1839, when Mahmud II sought
revenge from Mehmet Ali by invading Syria.
Within months his armies were routed, his fleet
defected to Egypt; Mahmud II himself died, leav-
ing the throne to his adolescent son Abdul Mejid
(1823–1861). The new crisis led to an Anglo-Russian
rapprochement arising from two missions to London
by Russian diplomat Ernst Brunnow (Brunnov),
who offered to allow the lapse of Unkiar-Skelessi
and other concessions. This turn allowed for an
international intervention in support of Ottoman
integrity and an end to the conflict by late 1840.
In July 1841, Unkiar-Skelessi was replaced by a
convention on the Straits signed in London by
Russia, Britain, France, Prussia, and Austria. The
new convention stipulated that in peacetime
the sultan would admit no foreign warships into
the Straits. It also brought a temporary pause to
Anglo-Russian tensions over Ottoman affairs.
See also Eastern Question; Holy Alliance; Metternich,
Clemens von; Münchengrätz, Treaty of; Ottoman
Empire; Russo-Turkish War.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Florinsky, Michael T. Russia: A History and an Interpreta-
tion. New York, 1953.
Hertslet, Edward, Sir. ‘‘Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi.’’ In Map
of Europe by Treaty, vol. 2, 925–928. London, 1875–
1891.
Marriott, J. A. R. The Eastern Question: An Historical Study
in European Diplomacy. Oxford, U.K., 1917.
2392
Rich, Norman. Great Power Diplomacy, 1814–1914. New
York, 1992.
Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European
Politics, 1763–1848. Oxford, U.K., 1994.
DAVID M. MCDONALD
n
UTILITARIANISM. One of the founda-
tional doctrines of modern ethics in relation
to political philosophy and public administration,
utilitarianism has since the late eighteenth century
pursued the implications of a number of intercon-
nected ideas. These include the claim that the
promotion of pleasure and avoidance of pain are
the chief springs of human action, from which it
was thought to follow, allowing for considerable
complexities of measurement, that the concept of
utility could be defined for each individual as the
maximization of his or her happiness. The function
of governments aiming to enhance public utility, it
was argued, thus consisted in promoting ‘‘the
greatest happiness of the greatest number.’’ Since
such propositions were believed to accord with
psychology, utilitarians contended that their doc-
trine was superior to classical, Christian, and nat-
ural law conceptions of virtue or duty, which were
articulated only as abstract ideals. In putting
forward policies they held to be beneficial and
expedient, utilitarians judged that what should be
done required assessments of human conduct’s
tangible consequences and less attention than had
been given by other thinkers to its arcane motives.
Their ethics therefore placed greater emphasis on
manifest standards of the good than on presumed
notions of what was intrinsically right.
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY ORIGINS
These beliefs, as articulated by Jeremy Bentham
(1748–1832), James Mill (1773–1836), and John
Stuart Mill (1806–1873), owed much to both
ancient and modern sources, including Greek
sophists’ denial of the existence of moral absolutes
on the grounds that man is the measure of all
things, as well as Epicurean portraits of our species’
hedonism, Hobbesian conceptions of felicity, and
French empiricist and materialist accounts of
human nature’s malleability. It was only in the late
eighteenth and early nineteenth century, however,
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

that utilitarianism came to be developed as a sys-
tematic doctrine amenable to implementation by
progressive rulers and radical political movements
alike. This was partly because it was in this period
of European intellectual history that admirers
of the seventeenth-century scientific revolution
undertook to extend its scope from natural phenom-
ena to human affairs, endeavoring to formulate a
science of man that also included a science of ethics
and government. Utilitarianism served that purpose
admirably. It was designed to promote strategies
of public policy based on an empirical understanding
of human nature, to derive values from facts and
to dispose of all prescriptions that masqueraded
prejudice and intuition as truth. To define both
individual and public utility it required no strictures
of Christian altruism nor, apparently, any suppres-
sion of men’s and women’s actual ambitions.
If in these respects it seemed to provide a more
democratic ethos than any competing philosophy
and was hence suitable for an age of self-government,
it in fact took root in the public domain in the
late eighteenth century largely because progres-
sively minded kings and queens embraced it.
Although utilitarianism was to achieve its apotheo-
sis in England in the course of the nineteenth
century, many of its principles, and especially its
commitment to legislative reforms designed to pro-
mote public happiness, were first adopted in
regimes already at the time portrayed as examples
of enlightened despotism. Frederick II of Prussia’s
(r. 1740–1786) prohibition of torture and Joseph
II’s (Holy Roman emperor, 1765–1790; and
Habsburg ruler of Austria, 1780–1790) abolition
of serfdom were each inspired by utilitarian
doctrines as interpreted by German and Austrian
proponents of cameralism who, like Bentham and
his followers in England, sought to reorganize
government’s structures and functions to make it
more rational and accountable to the public inter-
est. In France physiocratic ministers and advisors
of King Louis XVI (r. 1774–1792) likewise set
themselves the task of reforming feudal systems of
agriculture and trade, to avert an already percepti-
ble crisis of the old regime that would in time
provoke the French Revolution of 1789.
In both theory and practice eighteenth-century
utilitarianism was perhaps more concerned with
alleviating suffering than with securing happiness
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
UTILITARIANISM
in a positive way, its chief proponents of the period
addressing their attention above all to the criminal
law. Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794) made the dis-
tinction between crime and sin and the insuscept-
ibility of religious beliefs to political enforcement
central pillars of his tract of 1764, On Crimes and
Punishment, where the expression ‘‘the greatest
happiness of the greatest number,’’ makes its first
printed appearance (in Italian) in a work of political
theory, although it had been anticipated by Francis
Hutcheson (1694–1746) in 1725 in his Inquiry
into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue.
Torture, argued Beccaria, served no rational
purpose in the affairs of a civilized state, since it
could not deter future crimes and only managed
to brutalize its victims, propositions soon taken to
heart by Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet; 1694–
1778) in his own denunciations of the violence
of religious bigotry sanctioned against Protestants
by the Catholic Church in France.
In his Fragment on Government of 1776
Bentham invoked Hutcheson’s and Beccaria’s
formulation of the expression that would come to
be regarded as his legacy and to encapsulate utili-
tarianism’s meaning, by this time given currency
as well in Joseph Priestley’s Essay on the First Prin-
ciples of Government of 1768. In 1789, in
his Introduction to the Principles of Morals and
Legislation, Bentham elaborated his conception
of utility at greater length. Like Beccaria, he was
initially most concerned with policies warranting
the minimization of pain. In the late 1780s and
early 1790s he developed a scheme for the reform
of Britain’s prison system through a strategy of
benign surveillance, termed Panopticon, whose
disciplinary character in the absence of physical
violence would come to be regarded by Michel
Foucault (1926–1984) as one of the modern
state’s insidious bureaucratic trappings. While most
utilitarians after Bentham have been committed
to liberal ideals, they have often been charged with
inconsistency on the grounds that their principle
of aggregating benefits for ‘‘the greatest number’’
is inescapably hostile to individual freedom.
NINETEENTH-CENTURY UTILITARIANISM
Bentham welcomed the French Revolution and
was eventually nominated a citizen of France, but
he at first sought reform through philanthropy and
2393
UTILITARIANISM
not democracy and remarked that he would only
agree to become a republican in Paris if permitted
to remain a Royalist in London. In England it was
less through his own endeavors than the influence
of his chief and far more radical acolyte, James Mill,
that utilitarianism became a potent political force.
Under Mill’s guidance Bentham began early in the
nineteenth century to campaign for major consti-
tutional and social reform in England by way of
such instruments as a free press, a parliament more
manifestly accountable to the British electorate,
and, eventually, universal suffrage. His Plan of
Parliamentary Reform of 1818, together with
Mill’s essays ‘‘Education’’ and ‘‘Government’’ for
the Encyclopaedia Britannica and the Westminster
Review, a political journal that the two men
founded in 1824, were to make the philosophy of
English utilitarianism, by now described as philo-
sophic radicalism, one of the principal motors of
British constitutional change that was to culminate
in the great Reform Act of 1832 and the transfor-
mation around this time of the old Whigs into the
modern Liberal Party. Other currents of English
radicalism, including the Chartist movement, also
contributed to these developments, but none
sprang from so deep a source of reflection on
human nature in general or, thanks above all to
Mill, from its by now tributary doctrine of political
representation.
Mill’s son was to prove Britain’s preeminent,
or at least most famous, political philosopher of
the nineteenth century, less for his writings on
utilitarianism than for his System of Logic and his
essay On Liberty, still today liberalism’s chief
manifesto. That Benthamite utilitarianism was an
insufficient foundation for ethics seemed plain
to John Stuart Mill for much of his life, and in
essays on Bentham and Samuel Taylor Coleridge
(1772–1834) dating from the late 1830s he held
that this doctrine, for all its admirable decon-
struction of purely abstract ideals and blind intui-
tions, offered a defense of empiricism that lacked
depth, subtlety, or any appreciation of aesthetic
delight or the merits of received opinion. Utili-
tarianism as Bentham conceived it was a prag-
matic and critical philosophy that had come to
be compellingly radicalized, but it had never been
informed by the terrors and passions of real experi-
ence, Mill remarked. In his essay Utilitarianism,
2394
dating from 1861, he continued to defend the
principles of a philosophy he had mastered from
his father, but he also set himself the task of distin-
guishing individuals’ higher from their lower
pleasures, insisting, contrary to Bentham’s own
scheme, that some kinds of pleasure, particularly
of the mind, are more desirable and valuable than
others.
Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900), in his Methods
of Ethics, first published in 1874, developed Mill’s
objections to pure utilitarianism by way of contrast-
ing both its virtues and faults from those of egoism
and intuitionism, with which it competed for pride
of place among other ethical doctrines. According
to Sidgwick, each of these approaches taken sepa-
rately was ultimately at variance with the more
complex conceptions of reasonable conduct that
did not admit of the formal definitions of the
concepts of obligation and duty advocated by their
proponents. To Sidgwick’s analysis in particular
moral philosophers of the past century have owed
many of their distinctions between consequentialist
and duty-based or deontological moral philoso-
phies, and between Benthamite consequentialism
and the deontology of Immanuel Kant (1724–
1804) in particular, some of which were already
anticipated by Kant himself in his treatment of
empiricism and the philosophy of David Hume
(1711–1776).
See also Bentham, Jeremy; Coleridge, Samuel Taylor;
Dickens, Charles; Great Britain; Liberalism; Mill,
James; Mill, John Stuart.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Bentham, Jeremy. An Introduction to the Principles of
Morals and Legislation. London, 1789.
Mill, John Stuart. Utilitarianism. London, 1863.
Sidgwick, Henry. The Methods of Ethics. London, 1874.
Secondary Sources
Halévy, Elie. The Growth of Philosophic Radicalism. Trans-
lated by Mary Morris. With a preface by A. D. Lindsay.
London, 1928.
Plamenatz, John Petrov. The English Utilitarians. Oxford,
U.K., 1949.
Thomas, William. The Philosophic Radicals. Oxford, U.K., 1979.
ROBERT WOKLER
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

n Despite its polemical origins, ‘‘Socialism: Uto-
UTOPIAN SOCIALISM. The term uto-
pian socialism was first given currency by Friedrich
Engels in his pamphlet ‘‘Socialism: Utopian and
Scientific’’ (1880). For Engels the term referred
to a group of early-nineteenth-century social the-
ories and movements that criticized nascent capit-
alism and contrasted to it visions of an ideal
society of plenty and social harmony. The three
principal utopian socialists were the Frenchmen
Henri de Saint-Simon (1760–1825) and Charles
Fourier (1772–1837) and the British factory
owner Robert Owen (1771–1858). Although
these thinkers differed in significant ways—only
Fourier was in any strict sense a utopian—all three
attempted to find some solution for the social and
economic dislocations caused by the French and
Industrial Revolutions. All three began to write
around 1800, published major works a decade
later, and attracted followers who created Owe-
nite, Saint-Simonian, and Fourierist movements in
the 1820s and 1830s.
‘‘Socialism: Utopian and Scientific’’ offers a
shrewd, well-informed, and sympathetic interpreta-
tion of the work of the utopian socialists. But this
essay (originally part of a polemic against the
German economist Eugen Dühring) was never
intended to provide a comprehensive assessment
of utopian socialism. Instead Engels emphasized
aspects of utopian socialism that anticipated the
Marxist critique of capitalism and dismissed much
of the rest as ‘‘fantasy’’ unavoidable at a time when
capitalist production was ‘‘still very incompletely
developed.’’ Engels praised Fourier as a brilliant
satirist of bourgeois society, Owen as an articulate
spokesman for the demands of the working class,
and Saint-Simon as the inspired prophet of a
postcapitalist industrial order. At the same time,
however, Engels criticized the utopian socialists
for ignoring the importance of class conflict and
failing to think seriously about the problem of
how the ideal society might be brought into
being. What the utopian socialists had failed to
grasp, in Engels’s view, was that the development
of capitalism and the growth of the factory system
were themselves creating the material conditions
both of proletarian revolution and of humanity’s
ultimate regeneration.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
UTOPIAN SOCIALISM
pian and Scientific’’ provided a paradigm within
which historians worked for almost a century. In
histories of socialism from G. D. H. Cole to George
Lichtheim, the utopian socialists were seen as ‘‘pre-
cursors’’ whose theories were flawed by their faulty
understanding of history and class conflict. The
problem with this perspective is that it is both tele-
ological and reductionist: teleological because it
assumes that socialism reached its final ‘‘scientific’’
form in the writings of Karl Marx, and that the work
of the utopians was valuable only insofar as it antici-
pated that of Marx; reductionist because it treats the
development of socialism largely as a reflection of
the rise of the working-class movement.
FEATURES OF UTOPIAN SOCIALISM
Since the late twentieth century, however, some
historians have called for a reassessment of utopian
socialism that would grasp its inner logic and place
it in its historical context. Viewed in this perspec-
tive, utopian socialism would seem to have four
main features.
First, it can be seen in economic terms as a
reaction to the rise of commercial capitalism and as
a rejection of the prevailing economic theory that
the best and most natural economic system is one in
which the individual is free to pursue private inter-
ests. Coming at an early point in the development of
capitalism, the utopian socialists had a firsthand view
of the results of unregulated economic growth. They
shared a sense of outrage at the suffering and waste
produced by early capitalism, and they all called for
at least some measure of social control over the new
productive forces unleashed by capitalism.
Second, the critique and the remedies pro-
posed by the utopian socialists were not, however,
merely economic. They were writing out of a
broader sense of social and moral disintegration.
Competition for them was as much a moral as an
economic phenomenon, and its effects could be
seen just as clearly in the home as in the market-
place. Thus the utopian socialist critique of bour-
geois society resembled that of conservatives such
as Thomas Carlyle and socially conscious novelists
such as Honoré de Balzac and Charles Dickens.
Utopian socialists believed that the French and
Industrial Revolutions had produced a breakdown
of traditional associations and group ties, that
2395
UTOPIAN SOCIALISM
individuals were becoming increasingly detached
from any kind of corporate structure, and that
society as a whole was becoming increasingly frag-
mented and individualistic. Egoism was the great
problem: the Saint-Simonians called it ‘‘the deep-
est wound of modern society.’’ And the utopian
socialists’ vision of a better world was clearly the
result of a search for some substitute for the old
forms of community that egoism and individual-
ism were destroying.
Third, the utopian socialists all disliked violence
and believed in the possibility of the peaceful trans-
formation of society. Fourier and Saint-Simon had
lived through the French Revolution and had been
imprisoned during the Terror; they had no desire to
see their ideas imposed by force or violent revolu-
tion. In any case they believed that this would not
be necessary. Like Owen, Fourier and Saint-Simon
expected to receive support for their ideas from
members of the privileged classes. In that sense they
were social optimists, and their optimism was
rooted in their belief in the existence of a common
good. Like the Enlightenment philosophes, they
were convinced that there was no fundamental or
unbridgeable conflict of interests between the rich
and the poor, the propertied and the propertyless.
Finally, there is an important point to be made
about the form in which the utopian socialists pre-
sented their ideas. Each described himself as the
founder of an exact science—a science of social
organization—that would make it possible for
humankind to turn away from sterile philosophical
controversy and from the destructive arena of pol-
itics and to resolve, in scientific fashion, the prob-
lem of social harmony. But one of the striking
features of the thought of the utopian socialists is
that while they consistently presented their theories
as rooted in the discovery of the true laws of
human nature and society, they also spoke in the
tones of religious prophets. For them the laws of
nature were the laws of God, and the new science
was the true religion. This blending of science and
religion, and prophecy and sociology, was one of
the hallmarks of the thinking of the utopian socia-
lists and their followers in the period prior to 1848.
UTOPIAN SOCIALIST MOVEMENTS
The movements created by the followers of Saint-
Simon, Owen, and Fourier flourished during the
2396
period 1830–1848. First on the scene were the
Saint-Simonians, a group of brilliant young people,
many of them graduates of the École Polytechni-
que, the most prestigious school of engineering
and applied science in France. Gathering around
Saint-Simon in his last years, they regarded him as
the prophet of a new world in which science and
love would work together to bring about the mate-
rial and moral regeneration of humanity. After his
death in 1825, they founded journals and orga-
nized lecture tours designed to elaborate and
spread his ideas. By 1830 they had created what
they themselves described as a ‘‘faith’’—a new reli-
gion that aimed simultaneously at harnessing the
productive forces of the emerging industrial
society, at bettering the condition of ‘‘the poorest
and most numerous class,’’ and at filling what they
perceived as the moral and religious vacuum of the
age. Eventually the movement was torn apart by a
series of painful schisms, in the course of which the
charismatic Prosper Enfantin (1796–1864) made
himself ‘‘supreme father,’’ excommunicated various
‘‘heretics,’’ and issued a call for the ‘‘rehabilitation
of the flesh.’’ After a brief period of communal
living, a spectacular trial, and a general exodus
to Egypt in search of the ‘‘female messiah,’’ the
Saint-Simonian movement broke up. But in their
sober years of maturity many of the former Saint-
Simonians went on to play important roles in
French public life, promoting the colonization of
North Africa, the development of railroads, and the
industrialization of France during the Second
Empire (1852–1870).
The Owenites and the Fourierists were less
spectacularly eccentric than the Saint-Simonians.
But each group attracted many followers during
the 1830s and 1840s. For a time in the early
1830s the Owenites were deeply involved in labor
organization and the effort to create a great
national federation of trade unions. This effort
peaked in 1833–1834, but for another decade the
principal Owenite journal, The New Moral World,
continued to attract a substantial working-class
readership. Most of the energy of the Owenites,
however, went into a series of attempts to create
working-class communities in which property was
held in common and social and economic activity
was organized on a cooperative basis. Inspired
to some degree by the successful model factory
that Owen himself had created at New Lanark in
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Scotland, seven such communities were created
in Britain between 1825 and 1847 and another in
America at New Harmony, Indiana. None of them
lasted very long. But the cooperative trading stores
created by working-class followers of Owen were
more successful, and the history of the modern
cooperative movement is generally traced back to
the founding of an Owenite store in Rochdale,
England, in 1844.
The followers of Fourier also attempted to
create experimental communities or ‘‘phalanxes’’
based on his theory (or rather on a watered-down
version of his theory). Their efforts focused parti-
cularly on America, where some twenty-five Fou-
rierist phalanxes were established in the 1840s. In
France the Fourierists turned away from commu-
nity building in the late 1840s and drew closer to
the democratic and republican critics of the July
Monarchy of King Louis-Philippe (r. 1830–1848).
Under the leadership of the social reformer Victor
Considerant (1808–1893), Fourierism became a
political movement for ‘‘peaceful democracy,’’
which was to play a brief but significant role in
1848.
The 1840s in France were also marked by the
rise of a new generation of utopian socialists who
emerged to create sects and ideologies of their
own. Étienne Cabet (1788–1856), a former con-
spiratorial revolutionary who had been influenced
by Owen while an exile in England, attracted a
substantial working-class following with the austere
and authoritarian communist utopia described in
his novel, Voyage en Icarie (1839). Pierre Leroux
(1797–1871), a former Saint-Simonian, pro-
pounded a mystical humanitarian socialism,
arguing that social reform should be guided by a
new religion of humanity. The Christian socialist
Philippe Buchez (1796–1865) helped found a
working-class journal, L’Atelier, and inspired
groups of artisans to form producers’ cooperatives.
There was also an important group of feminist
socialists, many of whom had passed through
Saint-Simonianism or Fourierism, who began to
find a voice in the 1840s. Flora Tristan (1803–
1844), Pauline Roland (1805–1852), and Désirée
Véret (1810–1891?) all pursued and deepened
Fourier’s insight that the emancipation of women
is the key to all social progress. And Tristan’s pro-
posal for a workers’ union in L’Union ouvrière
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
UTOPIAN SOCIALISM
(1843) can now be seen as a kind of early syndicalist
utopia.
As they spread and multiplied, the ideologies of
utopian socialism became part of a broad current of
democratic and humanitarian thought in which the
boundary lines between socialism and democratic
republicanism became blurred. By 1848 utopian
socialism had merged with other ideologies of the
democratic Left to form a single movement that
was broadly democratic and socialist. The shared
foundation that held this movement together
included a faith in the right to work and in uni-
versal (male) suffrage, a belief that the differences
between classes and nations were not irreconcil-
able, and a program of ‘‘peaceful democracy’’
which assumed that if politicians would only appeal
to the higher impulses of ‘‘the people,’’ a new era
of class harmony and social peace would begin.
In 1848 with the fall of the July Monarchy in
France and of repressive police states in much of the
rest of Europe, European radicals at last had their
chance at power. But universal suffrage proved to be
no panacea for the Left. In France the working-class
insurrection of June 1848 shattered the dream of
the utopian socialists that a ‘‘democratic and social
republic’’ might usher in a new age of class har-
mony. Thereafter the program of ‘‘peaceful democ-
racy’’ ceased to have any political meaning. The
result of the failure of the 1848 revolutions, then,
was to crush the idealistic and humanitarian aspira-
tions of the second generation of utopian socialists
and to destroy the vision of class collaboration that
had been central to their thought.
See also Fourier, Charles; Owen, Robert; Roland,
Pauline; Saint-Simon, Henri de; Socialism; Tristan,
Flora.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beecher, Jonathan. Charles Fourier: The Visionary and His
World. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1986.
———. Victor Considerant and the Rise and Fall of French
Romantic Socialism. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2001.
Carlisle, Robert B. The Proffered Crown: Saint-Simonianism
and the Doctrine of Hope. Baltimore, Md., 1987.
Claeys, Gregory. Machinery, Money, and the Millennium:
From Moral Economy to Socialism, 1815–1860. Prince-
ton, N.J., 1987. On the Owenites.
2397
UTOPIAN SOCIALISM

Engels, Friedrich. ‘‘Socialism: Utopian and Scientific.’’ In
The Marx-Engels Reader, edited by Robert C. Tucker,
683–717. 2nd ed. New York, 1978.
Harrison, J. F. C. Quest for the New Moral World: Robert
Owen and the Owenites in Britain and America. New
York, 1969.
Johnson, Christopher H. Utopian Communism in France:
Cabet and the Icarians, 1839–1851. Ithaca, N.Y.,
1974.
Lichtheim, George. The Origins of Socialism. New York,
1969.
Manuel, Frank E. The Prophets of Paris. Cambridge, Mass.,
1962.
Stedman Jones, Gareth. Introduction to The Communist
Manifesto, by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, 3–187.
London, 2002.
JONATHAN BEECHER

2398 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 V
n
VAN GOGH, VINCENT (1853–1890),
Dutch painter.
Vincent Willem van Gogh is a classic example
of the self-taught artist who, possessed of a unique
talent and despite numerous setbacks, succeeded
in securing a place in history. Although he drew
passable landscapes and cityscapes in his youth, he
did not become an artist until he was twenty-seven.
It is remarkable, then, that in the ten years from
1880 to 1890 he was able to produce an impressive
oeuvre, which by the time of his death included
approximately nine hundred paintings and eleven
hundred works on paper. In addition, he left some
nine hundred letters filled with penetrating obser-
vations about his life and the role of art, artists, and
literature. This correspondence is considered one
of the most important of his era.
CHILDHOOD
Van Gogh had a carefree childhood. He was the
eldest son of a close-knit minister’s family in the rural
village of Zundert, in the south of Holland. The
rural surroundings gave him not only a lifelong love
of nature but also an enduring nostalgia for the
country of his youth. His Protestant upbringing
was marked by an individualistic avowal of faith in
which Christ’s humanity was central. Even though
Van Gogh would later execrate the church as an
institution, a symbolic and personal appreciation of
nature as revelation remained a feature of his work.
Until he opted for brush and pen in 1880, he
was the proverbial jack-of-all-trades and master of
none. After a fragmentary education, he was hired
as the youngest shop assistant in The Hague’s
branch of the French art and print dealer Goupil
and Company, in which his uncle Vincent Van
Gogh (1820–1880) was a partner. He learned the
trade and developed a respectable knowledge of the
visual arts. He was especially drawn to the work of
the Dutch seventeenth century, the Barbizon
school, and the Hague school. In the evenings, he
immersed himself in religiohistorical and theolo-
gical questions, in the course of which he was
deeply moved by the book La vie de Jésus by the
French theologian Ernest Renan (1823–1892). He
gradually linked every experience to biblical texts,
becoming preoccupied above all with the possibi-
lity of bringing consolation to humanity. He lost
interest in the art business and was finally dismissed
in 1876.
Convinced that he had a social mission to
fulfill, he successively tried to earn his keep as a
teacher and assistant preacher in England’s Ramsgate
(1876) and as a bookseller in Holland’s Dordrecht
(1877). Having failed at both, he decided to follow
in his father’s footsteps. But despite unremitting
application, an attempt to study theology in
Amsterdam in 1877 and 1878 was also unsuccess-
ful. His appointment as evangelist among miners in
Belgium’s Borinage district (1879) likewise ended
badly. To his parents, who were close to despair,
this signified the end of a conventional career.
Van Gogh too was at his wits’ end. He dismissed
suggestions that he become a lithographer, book-
keeper, carpenter’s apprentice, and even a baker.
2399
VAN GOGH, VINCENT
Finally, his brother Theo (1857–1891), who had
also been employed at Goupil’s since 1873, sug-
gested he become an artist.
DUTCH PERIOD
Doggedly, Van Gogh strove to master the funda-
mentals of drawing, relying on textbooks. For a
long time, his guiding lights were the French the-
oretician Armand Cassagne (1823–1907) and the
artist Charles Bargue (c.1825–1883). He taught
himself perspective, proportion, and human anat-
omy by copying old master drawings. He applied
himself to social-realistic subject matter, which led,
among other things, to such striking results as
The Bearers of the Burden (1881). After moving in
with his parents in Brabant’s Etten, in southern
Holland, at the beginning of 1881, he took his
themes from the rural setting and local peasant
community. In this, he was inspired by the French
rural realists Jules Dupré (1811–1889) and especially
Jean-François Millet (1814–1875), who for many
years became his artistic and spiritual mentor.
Mounting friction with his parents prompted
Van Gogh’s departure for The Hague, where he
briefly took drawing and painting lessons from
Anton Mauve (1838–1888), a well-known repre-
sentative of the Hague school, and got to know
Dutch painters such as George Hendrik Breitner
(1857–1923), with whom he explored the city’s
environs. Van Gogh underwent further training in
perspective and life drawing, resulting in an impor-
tant series of cityscapes, something that would
remain a fixed genre in his oeuvre, along with
numerous figure studies, among them Sorrow
(1882), and studies of heads for which he got the
local population to pose. As a great admirer of prints
with social-realist themes from such illustrated maga-
zines as the Graphic, he attempted to imbue his
figures with a robust, expressive force. In addition,
he explored the possibilities of color, which resulted
in drawings such as The Poor and Money (1882).
Following Millet, Van Gogh decided to aban-
don The Hague in order to further his skills as rural
realist in unspoiled nature. The breakup of his
difficult relationship with Sien Hoornik (1850–
1904), a former prostitute with whom he had lived
since 1882, hastened his decision, and at the end of
1883 he set out for the northern Dutch province of
Drenthe, where landscape and peasant life moved
2400
to the foreground of his work. He stayed for three
months, given over to profound loneliness.
Themes that paralleled those of Millet contin-
ued to preoccupy him during his stay in the still
largely pristine Neunen in Brabant (1883–1885),
although local weavers at work also appear. Paint-
ing became his principal activity, and although Van
Gogh tested his ideas against those of his fellow
artist and correspondent Anthon van Rappard
(1858–1892), he was once again thrown back pri-
marily on himself, relying for guidance on the color
theories of the Romantic painter Eugène Delacroix
(1798–1863), as formulated by, among others, the
French art historian Charles Blanc (1814–1881).
Employing a rich impasto stroke and dark palette—
for which he was indebted to painters of the Hague
school and the Barbizon school—he attempted
to apply Delacroix’s ideas on color in numerous
studies without having seen any of Delacroix’s
paintings. Convinced of his progress and believing
that before long he would be able to make market-
able art, he attempted to complete fully developed
paintings, of which The Potato Eaters (1885) was
the first.
TO PARIS
The death of his father in 1885 and subsequent
familial tensions obliged Van Gogh to leave
Nuenen. He went to Antwerp with the goal of
making saleable art and honed his skill in portraiture
and cityscape; he also took lessons at the academy.
Toward the end of February 1886, he rather sud-
denly departed for Paris, moving in with Theo, who
had been supporting him since 1881. Two years of
experimentation and artistic encounters followed.
His style and repertoire underwent a radical trans-
formation and expanded considerably. After a short
period in the studio of the history painter Fernand
Cormon (1845–1926), where he did a great deal
of drawing from nude and plaster models, he fell
under the influence of the impasto-rich and
brightly colored work of the Provençal artist
Adolphe Monticelli (1824–1886). He made a study
of the color work of Delacroix and became fasci-
nated by Japanese prints, which he collected passion-
ately, and by the work of the contemporary
French impressionists and young avant-garde of
painters, including Émile Bernard (1861–1941)
and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901).
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Self portrait by Van Gogh, 1887. MUSÉE D’ORSAY, PARIS,
FRANCE/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY
He experimented intensively with the impression-
istic brush stroke technique, applied the post-
impressionists’ pointillist technique, began using a
much lighter palette, and incorporated decorative
elements in his work. This led to such noteworthy
results as Portrait of Père Tanguy, Park Voyer
d’Argenson, and series after series of cityscapes in
watercolor.
THE STUDIO OF THE SOUTH
In the beginning of 1888, fatigued by city life and
yearning for unspoiled regions, Van Gogh left for
Arles, in the south of France, which reminded him
of the bright colors of Japan as he had seen it in
prints. In the meantime, he had developed into a
complete artist with a spontaneous, vigorous style
who increasingly applied such elements of form as
color and line independently, without sacrificing
the expressive power of his subject matter. The rural
setting around Arles inspired a remarkable series of
drawings and paintings filled with harmonious color
effects: blooming orchards, The Sunflowers, and The
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
VAN GOGH, VINCENT
Harvest. Convinced that he could make an artistic
contribution, he urged Theo, to whom he sent his
works in exchange for his support, to make sure he
kept these works well secured.
His desire to form an artists’ community in
the south appeared to have become a reality with
the arrival, in October 1888, of his mentor Paul
Gauguin (1849–1903). The two artists worked
closely, discussing all sorts of painterly issues,
including whether or not it was possible to work
from the imagination. But only nine weeks later,
the collaboration was interrupted when the first
signs of Van Gogh’s mental illness manifested
themselves and he cut off his left earlobe. From
then until his death, he would know long periods
of depression, anxiety attacks, self-mutilation, and
profound despair.
In April 1889, Van Gogh voluntarily com-
mitted himself to a psychiatric clinic in nearby Saint
Rémy. His former optimism had been replaced
with a feeling of gloom about the future. Never-
theless, as he had before, he made a virtue of
necessity. He discovered new subject matter, such
as the irises in the overgrown and walled-in clinic
garden, and translated several beloved black and
white prints of Millet and Rembrandt into colorful
canvasses. Whenever his health permitted, he would
also work outside, where he added Provence’s
cypresses and olive trees to his repertoire.
RETURN TO THE NORTH
In May 1890, exhausted, he left the south of
France and settled in the Auvers-sur-Oise, near
Paris. Here he once again took up what he called
‘‘the study of landscape and peasant life,’’ which
had fascinated him throughout his painting life. He
was enthusiastic about the village and the rustic
setting and worked feverishly on a variety of land-
scapes—spacious fields, wheat stacks, and sunsets—
in his characteristic, expressive language of form
and brilliant color. He seemed to have recovered.
The shock therefore was great when on 27 July he
fatally wounded himself with a shot to the chest in
a field near the village. Two days later he died in
the arms of Theo, his anchor and support.
See also Avant-Garde; Barbizon Painters; Delacroix,
Eugène; Gauguin, Paul; Millet, Jean-François;
Painting.
2401
VENICE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Druick, Douglas, and Peter Kort Zegers. Van Gogh and
Gauguin: The Studio of the South. New York, 2001.
Faille, J.-B. de la. The Works of Vincent Van Gogh: His
Paintings and Drawings. Amsterdam, 1970.
Hulsker, Jan. Vincent and Theo Van Gogh: A Dual Biogra-
phy. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1990.
———. The New Complete Van Gogh: Paintings, Drawings,
Sketches. Rev. ed. Amsterdam, 1996.
Ives, Colta, et al. Vincent Van Gogh: The Drawings. New
York, 2005.
Stolwijk, Chris, et al. Vincent’s Choice: The Musée Imaginaire
of Van Gogh. Amsterdam, 2003.
Van Gogh, Vincent. The Complete Letters of Vincent Van
Gogh, with Reproductions of All the Drawings in the
Correspondence. 3 vols. New York, 1958.
Van Heugten, Sjraar et al. Vincent Van Gogh: Drawings.
3 vols. Amsterdam, 1996–2001.
CHRIS STOLWIJK
n
VENICE. On the eve of the French Revolution,
as the capital of an independent Republic, Venice
still ruled over an extensive territory stretching
along the Adriatic coast into Dalmatia, and deep
into Lombardy. Venice had long before lost its
position as the Mediterranean’s dominant commer-
cial center, falling victim to the rise of the Atlantic
economy, and due to an inability to compete with
bigger states. Indeed, by the mid-eighteenth century,
the Habsburg free port of Trieste had begun to
emerge as a rival even within the Adriatic. Never-
theless, Venice—still ruled by a narrow patrician
oligarchy—was by no means the decadent and
marginalized state often portrayed by contempor-
aries and subsequent historians alike. It remained a
significant trading center, could deploy a sizeable
fleet, and, in cultural terms, could still produce
figures of the caliber of the playwright Carlo Goldoni
(1707–1793) and the sculptor Antonio Canova
(1757–1822).
THE END OF THE VENETIAN REPUBLIC
The collapse of the Republic of Saint Mark in 1797
was not the consequence, as has frequently been
suggested, of the cowardice and corruption of
Venice’s patrician class, but a direct result of
changes in international relations brought about
2402
by the French Revolution. During the second half
of the eighteenth century, the Venetian government
had recognized that the only possible means of
surviving in the face of expansionist neighbors was
to adopt a policy of neutrality. When the Directory’s
Army of Italy invaded Italy in 1796 under the
command of Napoleon Bonaparte (later Napoleon I,
r. 1804–1814/15), the Venetian state had attempted
to keep to this policy, but Austrian and French forces
soon violated Venice’s neutrality. In the spring of
1797, Napoleon invaded the Republic’s mainland
territories, establishing Jacobin satellite municipalities
in many of the cities hitherto under its rule. Napoleon
used a popular anti-French rising in Verona and
resistance to French incursion into the lagoon as a
pretext to occupy Venice itself. Faced with a French
ultimatum, and anxious to avoid bloodshed or French
reprisals, the last Doge, Ludovico Manin (r. 1789–
1797), transferred power to the French authorities.
Napoleon briefly set up a Jacobin municipal republic
in the city, but almost immediately entered secret
negotiations with the Austrians. In October 1797,
these resulted in the Treaty of Campoformido. By
this treaty, Venice and most of its former mainland
territories to the east of the river Mincio were trans-
ferred to Habsburg rule in exchange for territorial
concessions elsewhere.
AUSTRIAN AND NAPOLEONIC RULE
Austrian troops arrived in Venice in January 1798.
The city remained under the relatively benign rule
of the Habsburgs until January 1806, when, by the
Treaty of Pressburg, Napoleon (now crowned
Emperor) annexed the city and its remaining
territory to his satellite Kingdom of Italy. Until its
liberation by Austrian forces in the spring of 1814,
Venice languished under Napoleonic rule. Reduced
to the status of a provincial capital, and with its
remnants of trade destroyed because of Anglo-
French naval rivalry and economic warfare, the
plight of the Venetians under Napoleon was further
exacerbated by heavy conscription, rapacious taxa-
tion, and the systematic plundering of Venice’s art.
The Vienna settlement acknowledged the
Austrian Emperor, Francis I (r. 1804–1835), as
ruler of Venetia. Although the newly created
Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia was technically
separate from the rest of the empire, in practice
most key decisions were made in Vienna. Such
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

centralized rule was unpopular among Venetians.
There was also disappointment that much of the
machinery and personnel of the Napoleonic system
was retained. Venice continued to suffer from a
heavy tax burden and conscription, and many
Venetians were angered by the large numbers of
‘‘foreigners’’ (both German-speakers and Lombards)
who dominated the higher ranks of the civil service.
Nevertheless, government expenditure rose mas-
sively under Austrian rule, and the reign of Francis
I saw a gradual increase in the numbers of Venetians
playing a role in the administration. A major source
of resentment remained the apparently preferential
treatment given to Trieste, although in 1830 Venice
was granted the same free port status as its rival.
Another fillip to the Venetian economy came in
the form of causeway linking the city with the main-
land, completed in 1846. Despite such measures,
Venice was characterized by poverty and unemploy-
ment. Surprisingly, until the later 1840s there was
very little active opposition to Habsburg rule. The
one attempted rising—a naval mutiny led by the
Bandiera brothers, Attilio (1810–1844) and Emilio
(1819–1844)—failed spectacularly.
CULTURAL RESPONSES IN THE EARLY
NINETEENTH CENTURY
In the Napoleonic and Restoration periods, Venice’s
greatest artist was the sculptor Canova, whose
exquisite marbles were valued throughout Europe.
In literary terms, the city was famous for the work of
Ugo Foscolo (1778–1827), who flirted with the
Napoleonic regime but went into exile in 1815.
In the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars,
Venice began again to attract steadily larger num-
bers of travelers, including such figures as the
French Romantic François-René de Chateaubriand
(1768–1848), the novelist Stendhal (Henri Beyle;
1783–1842), the Irish poet Thomas Moore
(1779–1852), and Lord Byron (1788–1824).
Literary reactions to Venice were far from consistent,
but few writers engaged with its current political and
economic state; they preferred instead to explore a
mythologized version of its past, and used the
modern city as a trope for decay. This was echoed
in representations by painters such as Joseph Mallord
William Turner (1775–1851) and Richard Parkes
Bonington (1802–1828) whose sketches showed
contemporary Venice, but whose finished works
tended to populate it with figures from much earlier
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
VENICE
periods. To the extent that foreign travelers did
address the contemporary situation, they were gen-
erally critical of Austrian rule. One notable exception
to this was John Ruskin (1819–1900), who loathed
contemporary Venetians and bizarrely located the
start of Venice’s decline in 1418. However, the
general trend was reflected in the description of
the city offered by Charles Dickens (1812–1870) in
his Pictures from Italy (1846): in contrast with the
gritty realism of the rest of the book, his chapter on
Venice is entitled ‘‘An Italian Dream.’’
THE 1848 REVOLUTION AND THE
UNIFICATION OF ITALY
The passive nature of Venice completely changed in
1848. Grievances had been growing since the late
1830s, as Venetians became increasingly intolerant
of the bureaucratic and unresponsive nature of
Austrian rule, of high taxation used to service the
imperial debt, and of heavy-handed censorship.
Matters were aggravated by the rule of the mentally
weak Ferdinand I (r. 1835–1848), whose inability to
provide direction was highlighted by the economic
crisis of the so-called hungry forties. During 1846
and 1847, the people of Venice and its mainland
increasingly criticized Austrian rule. The most
eloquent opponent of the regime was Daniele Manin
(1804–1857), who had risen to prominence during
debates over the construction of a railway line
between Venice and Milan. His persistent—although
initially far from radical—attacks on Habsburg mis-
rule landed him briefly in prison; on his release he
assumed the role of champion of Venetian interests
against alleged Austrian oppression. Revolution in
France, the fall of Prince Clemens von Metternich
(1773–1859) in the face of popular demonstrations
in Vienna, increasing agitation in Hungary, and
unrest elsewhere in Italy—including insurrection in
Milan, which led to the retreat of the Austrian com-
mander Count Joseph Radetzky (1766–1858)—
generated panic among the authorities in Venice,
and the governor, Aloys Palffy, evacuated the city.
A provisional regime was swiftly established under
the direction of Manin, who declared the establish-
ment of a Republic of Saint Mark. The threat from
Austria encouraged the population of the main-
land to seek closer links with Milan and Sardinia-
Piedmont, tying Manin’s policy more closely to that
of Piedmontese King, Charles Albert (r. 1831–1849),
than he would have wished. However, defeat of
2403
VENICE
Venice, 1840 Painting by J. M. W. Turner. Turner visited Venice three times between 1819 and 1840 and was much attracted by its
luminous atmosphere. It became one of his favorite subjects for landscape. VICTORIA & ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON/ART RESOURCE, NY
Charles Albert by Habsburg forces at Custoza (July
1848) forced the Venetians to rely on their own
resources to safeguard their newly won indepen-
dence. Although the rest of the peninsula experi-
enced risings in 1848 and 1849, the Venetian
revolution endured longer than any other, even-
tually succumbing to military blockade and cholera.
In the aftermath of revolution, Venice was
subjected to the stern administration of the elderly
Radetzky, before a milder regime was introduced
under Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg (1832–
1867) in 1857. Nevertheless, relations between
Vienna and the local population had been badly
damaged, and many Venetians increasingly looked
toward Italian unity as a means to escape from
Austrian rule. This stance was strengthened when
Manin publicly renounced his former republican
sympathies and called on Italians to support uni-
fication under the Piedmontese monarchy. Hopes
that Venice might be annexed by the Piedmontese
evaporated in 1859, when the French emperor
2404
Napoleon III (r. 1852–1871) broke his promise
to the prime minister Count Cavour (Camillo
Benso; 1810–1861) that he would free all of
northern Italy from Austria. The creation of the
new Kingdom of Italy in 1860 led to intermittent
calls for the seizure of Venetia. In 1865, the
Austrians rebuffed an Italian offer to purchase
the region. Acquisition of Venetia finally took
place in 1866, when the Italians fought against
Austria in alliance with Prussia. Despite defeats
on land and sea by the Austrians, the Italians were
still able to gain Venice and its mainland provinces,
thanks to Prussian victory and the diplomatic invol-
vement of Napoleon III. Legitimacy was given to
the annexation by an overwhelmingly positive vote
in a plebiscite, which was nevertheless marred by
rigging and intimidation.
VENICE UNDER ITALIAN RULE
Neither Venice nor the Venetian mainland initially
benefited from Italian unity. As a port Venice
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

continued to decline in the face of competition
from other maritime cities in the peninsula. The
opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and Venice’s
selection as chief port of the India Mail in 1872
did act as a slight stimulus to trade, which was
increasingly located in the west of the city (near
the railway) rather than around Saint Mark’s
Square. Venetians, however, remained generally
indifferent or hostile to their new status as Italians,
a fact reflected in their unwillingness to stand as
parliamentary candidates in the 1870s.
Economic problems persisted in the late nine-
teenth century, and, until the 1890s, Venetia
witnessed some of Italy’s highest rates of emigration,
albeit usually to European destinations rather than to
the New World. Yet, despite the poverty of the
region, Venice gradually reconciled itself to Italian
rule in the decades before World War I. This in
part reflected a gradually improving economy,
helped by the growth of industry in the 1880s
(including the establishment of the Stucky grain mill
and pasta factory on the Giudecca and construction
of warships in the Arsenale), and, more significantly,
by the massive expansion of tourism. Venice now
appealed not only because of its romantic past, but
also because of the development of the Lido as a
center for sea bathing.
VENICE AND CULTURE, 1866–1915
Despite the establishment of a biennial interna-
tional art festival in 1895, the later nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries were not an especially
fertile period for Venetian art or literature. In gen-
eral, however, the city was more interesting as a
stimulus to foreign artists, writers, poets, and com-
posers than to homegrown ones. The most famous
resident Italian writer in the years before World
War I was the nationalist firebrand Gabriele
d’Annunzio (1863–1938), whose novel The Flame
of Life (1900) played with the contrasts between
Venice past and modern. In very different ways,
Henry James (1843–1916) and Thomas Mann
(1875–1955) loaded Venice with symbolic
significance.
The tension between Venice past and present
was evident in the city’s treatment by other creative
artists. Many remained obsessed with Venice’s exotic
past, as evidenced in Hans Markart’s painting
Homage to Queen Caterina Cornaro (1873), in the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
VERDI, GIUSEPPE
Johann Strauss (1825–1899) opera A Night in
Venice (1883), and the Venetian plays of Hugo von
Hofmannsthal (1874–1929), as well as in many of
the canvases of the Venetian painter Giacomo
Favretto (1898–1964). British views of the city
continued to be heavily influenced by the backward-
looking legacy of Ruskin. However, the city was
also periodically home to a wide range of British,
including the historians Rawdon Brown (1803–
1883) and Horatio Brown (1854–1926), the poet
and historian John Addington Symonds (1840–
1893), and the novelist and fantasist Frederick
Rolfe (1860–1913), who, while deeply interested
in its past, engaged passionately with the modern
city and its inhabitants. A similar preoccupation
characterized the work of many American and
British painters, such as Robert Frederick Blum
(1857–1903), John Singer Sargent (1856–1925),
Maurice Brazil Prendergast (1859–1924), and Sir
Samuel Luke Fildes (1843–1927), who sought to
portray a living city (albeit in a sometimes senti-
mentalized form). In so doing they echoed local
painters, such as Ettore Tito (1867–1941), who
was anxious to portray scenes of everyday Venetian
life rather than turning the city into a symbol of
past glory. The most radical response to the city
in this period, however, came in 1910 when the
leader of the Futurists, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
(1876–1944), declared rhetorical war against a
Venice that he saw as no more than a ridiculous
museum.
See also Milan; Naples; Rome; Trieste; Vienna.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Laven, David. Venice and Venetia Under the Habsburgs,
1815–1835. Oxford, U.K., 2002.
Pemble, John. Venice Rediscovered. Oxford, U.K., 1995.
Plant, Margaret. Venice: Fragile City 1797–1997. New
Haven, Conn., 2002.
Zorzi, Alvise. Venezia austriaca, 1798–1866. Rome, 1985.
DAVID LAVEN
n
VERDI, GIUSEPPE (1813–1901), Italian
operatic composer.
Giuseppe Verdi was the most influential and
popular composer of Italian opera during the
2405
VERDI, GIUSEPPE
second half of the nineteenth century. Born on 9 or
10 October 1813 to a family of small farmers and
tavern keepers in the hamlet of Roncole, near Bus-
seto, his musical talents were recognized early and
cultivated by his parents, as well as by a local priest
who instructed him in organ performance. Having
spent his teenage years as church organist of San
Michele in Roncole, he applied to the Milan Con-
servatory but was denied admission in part because,
at eighteen, he exceeded the usual entering age. He
relocated to Milan anyway, studying composition
privately and working as a rehearsal pianist for the
Milanese Società Filarmonica. Verdi received his
first important break at the age of twenty-six when
Bartolomeo Merelli, the impresario of Milan’s Tea-
tro alla Scala, agreed to produce his first opera,
Oberto, conte di San Bonifacio (1839; Oberto, count
of St. Boniface). The work was enormously success-
ful for a composer of such youth and inexperience,
and it served as the catalyst for a career that was to
span six full decades. During these years, Verdi
composed twenty-eight operas for cities throughout
Italy, as well as for Paris, London, St. Petersburg,
and Cairo, and he was celebrated throughout
Europe as the greatest Italian musical dramatist of
the century. In the early twenty-first century, Verdi
retains a place of honor in the pantheon of the
nineteenth century’s great composers, and his
operas remain among the most beloved in the
repertory.
Verdi experienced one of his only true failures
early in his career with his second work, the comic
opera Un giorno di regno (Milan, 1840; King for a
day), which was removed from La Scala’s boards
following its one and only disastrous performance.
Embittered by this setback, and still reeling over
the closely spaced deaths of his only two children
(Virginia on 12 August 1838 and Icilio Romano
on 22 October 1839) and his first wife (Margherita
on 18 June 1840), Verdi allegedly resolved to quit
composing (though he continued to participate in
Milan’s musical life, rewriting portions of Oberto
and overseeing rehearsals of the work). His next
opera, Nabucco, was produced less than two years
later (also at La Scala), and was an unprecedented
success, catapulting Verdi from a local hero into a
national and international superstar. His career
thereafter was characterized by a steady stream of
commissions and triumphs, and it has become
common to divide his output into three periods:
2406
‘‘early’’ (1839–1849), ‘‘middle’’ (1849–1862),
and ‘‘late’’ (1863–1891). His early period was his
busiest, yielding fourteen operas including Ernani
(Venice, 1844), Attila (Venice, 1846), and Mac-
beth (Florence, 1847). During the middle period,
Verdi completed ten works, seven of which remain
in today’s repertory: Luisa Miller (Naples, 1849),
Rigoletto (Venice, 1851), Il trovatore (Rome,
1853; The troubadour), La traviata (Venice,
1853; The fallen woman), Les Vêpres siciliennes
(Paris, 1855; The Sicilian vespers), Simon Boccane-
gra (Venice, 1857; revised, Milan, 1881), and Un
ballo in maschera (Rome, 1859; A masked ball).
Verdi’s final period was his least productive, in
large part because his firmly established reputation
and finances permitted him the leisure to compose
only when he desired. During this quarter century,
he wrote the Messa di Requiem (Milan, 1874) and
four operas: Don Carlos (Paris, 1867; revised,
Milan, 1884), Aı̈da (Cairo, 1871), Otello (Milan,
1887), and Falstaff (Milan, 1893). Throughout
most of his career, Verdi was accompanied by
the soprano Giuseppina Strepponi (1815–1897),
who created the leading female role in Nabucco
and was one of Verdi’s staunchest advocates.
They lived together for over a decade before
marrying in 1859. Verdi died in Milan on 27
January 1901.
The early decades of Verdi’s career overlapped
with the Risorgimento (the movement for Italian
unification), and his role as patriot and politician
formed an integral component of his reputation.
Beginning in 1858, the acronym VERDI was used
to promote the popular choice for king (Vittorio
Emmanuele, Re d’Italia), and the slogan ‘‘Viva
Verdi!’’ became a common rallying call among
patriots. Following independence, Verdi was
elected to the first Italian parliament and later
honored as senator for life. His most important
role in the Risorgimento, however, was as a com-
poser whose operas, especially their choruses,
served as anthems symbolizing a burgeoning
national identity. Since the early 1990s, however,
the political significance of this music has come
under question. Some have suggested that the
composer’s preunification reputation has been mis-
represented and that his choruses became political
anthems only after Italian unification. This argu-
ment has encouraged a new round of research that
has reconfirmed Verdi’s position as the vate (bard)
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

of the Risorgimento and has opened the discussion
to inquiries about political messages woven into
the works of Verdi’s contemporaries as well as his
own. That such debate still surrounds Verdi’s
operas is a clear sign of the immediacy with which
this music still speaks to audiences of the early
twenty-first century, and with which it will con-
tinue to move opera lovers for years to come.
See also Music; Opera; Rossini, Gioachino.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Balthazar, Scott L., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Verdi.
Cambridge, U.K., 2004.
Budden, Julian. The Operas of Verdi. 3 vols. London, 1973–
1981. Rev. ed., Oxford, U.K., 1992.
Parker, Roger. Leonora’s Last Act: Essays in Verdian
Discourse. Princeton, N.J., 1997.
Phillips-Matz, Mary Jane. Verdi: A Biography. Oxford,
U.K., 1993.
HILARY PORISS
n tions (Vita dei campi, [1880; Life in the fields],
VERGA, GIOVANNI (1840–1922), Italian
novelist.
Giovanni Verga was the greatest Italian novelist
of the second half of the nineteenth century
and the most important exponent of verismo
(nineteenth-century Italian realism). He was born
in Catania into a family of wealthy landowners with
noble ascendancy on the paternal side (the father
had the right to bear the title of knight). An earnest
supporter of the Italian national cause, he served in
the National Guard from 1860 to 1864, when he
left due to his increasing uneasiness with the way
the Italian army was repressing ‘‘brigandage’’ in the
southern regions following unification. His early
literary training took place in Sicily, but in 1869
he moved to Florence, at the time the capital of
Italy, where he developed a lasting friendship
with Luigi Capuana (1839–1915), the theorist of
verismo. He left Florence in 1872 to move to
Milan, then the center of a thriving publishing
industry and of a lively literary and society scene,
in which he became an untiring participant. He
resided in the Lombard city for twenty years before
returning permanently to Sicily. In his later years,
with the advent of mass politics and frequent social
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
VERGA, GIOVANNI
and political turmoil in Italy, his political conserva-
tism and nationalism became more vehement.
Shortly before he died, he was appointed senator.
After a literary debut with novels that dealt
with patriotic themes, including I carbonari della
montagna (1861–1862; The Carbonari in the
mountains) and Sulle lagune (1863; In the
lagoons), he wrote stories featuring mostly society
men and women and focusing on tragic love
entanglements, at times based on the author’s
experiences, such as Una peccatrice (1866; A sin-
ner), Storia di una capinera (1869; Story of a
blackcap), Eva (1873), and Eros (1875). In 1874
he published his first short story on a different
subject, the harsh life of a poor Sicilian woman
(‘‘Nedda’’). In the following years, under the
influence of French naturalism and of positivism
(especially the emerging investigative literature on
the Southern Question, the problem of govern-
ance of and the persistent poverty of the southern
regions after unification of the country), he
further devoted himself to the representation of
Sicily and the Sicilians both in short story collec-
Novelle rusticane [1883; Little novels of Sicily])
and in novels that abandoned the conventions of
the picturesque then dominating the literature
on Sicily.
In his greatest realistic novel, I Malavoglia
(1881; The house by the medlar tree), he describes
the vicissitudes of the Toscano family, Sicilian
fishermen whose traditional ways are disrupted by
the demands of the Italian state (which ‘‘steals’’ the
first son for service in the army) and by the
economic difficulties that ensue from a bad busi-
ness deal. The solidarity among the members of the
old family clan becomes a casualty in the struggle
for material well-being and in the new and harsher
conditions of an increasingly competitive society.
Stylistically and linguistically the novel is original
and unconventional. In its attempt to tell the story
from the point of view of the community in which
the Malavoglia family’s vicissitudes unfolded, it is
replete with popular sayings that are supposed to
express the wisdom of the community. And in
order to render the language of ordinary Sicilians
it is written in a ‘‘spoken’’ Italian that tries to
reproduce the syntactical structures of the local
dialect.
2407
VERNE, JULES
Verga intended I Malavoglia to be the first in a
cycle of five novels describing the vinti (con-
quered), those vanquished by the crushing tide of
progress in five different social strata. However,
after writing I Malavoglia, Verga completed only
the second novel in the series, entitled Mastro-don
Gesualdo (1889). Powerfully imbued with Verga’s
pessimistic view of social life, this is the grim but
vivid tale of a self-made Sicilian commoner, ruth-
lessly devoted to increasing his possessions, who
tries to gain acceptance into the status-conscious
local nobility by marrying an impoverished noble-
woman. Having failed in this and other respects, he
dies a lonely death in the house of the only daugh-
ter, who is ashamed of his low origins.
Italian verismo shared several features with
French naturalism, from the desire to represent
contemporary society in a manner ‘‘true to reality,’’
to the focus on the determinants of life in different
social strata, to the rhetoric of impersonality. In
contrast to the urban focus of French naturalism,
however, Italian veristi mainly represented a rural
world under pressure from a changing political and
economic order. Also in contrast to French natur-
alism, verismo never achieved fame abroad. Not
even in Italy did I Malavoglia encounter the favor
of the public and the critics and it was only after
World War II and in the context of the rise of
literary neo-realism that this masterpiece of Italian
realism was fully appreciated and became enshrined
in the literary canon. More positive was the recep-
tion of Maestro-don Gesualdo, but during Verga’s
lifetime fame came to him primarily with the
theatrical and then operatic adaptation, by Pietro
Mascagni, of one of his Sicilian short stories,
‘‘Cavalleria rusticana,’’ (1884; Rustic chivalry)
which premiered in Rome in 1890.
See also Carducci, Giosuè; D’Annunzio, Gabriele;
Realism and Naturalism; Zola, Émile.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Asor Rosa, Alberto, ed. Il caso Verga. Palermo, 1972.
Brand, Peter, and Lino Pertile, eds. The Cambridge History
of Italian Literature. New York, 1996.
Merola, Nicola. Giovanni Verga. Florence, 1993.
Moe, Nelson. The View from Vesuvius: Italian Culture and
the Southern Question. Berkely, Calif., 2002.
2408
Verga, Giovanni. Tutte le novelle. Edited by Carla Riccardi.
Milan, 1979.
———. Tutti i romanzi. Edited by Enrico Ghidetti. Flor-
ence, 1983.
SILVANA PATRIARCA
n
VERNE, JULES (1828–1905), French novelist.
For many years, Jules Verne was routinely
paired with H. G. Wells as one of the founding
fathers of modern science fiction. It is increasingly
clear that the true picture is more complex. In his
‘‘Scientific Romances,’’ Wells composed extrapola-
tions; the main axis of his work—as in most science
fiction—is Time. Verne, who published fifty-five
Voyages Extraordinaires between 1863 and the year
of his death, was less interested in the fate of the
Western world than in the explosive growth of
Europe over the years of his career; his main axis
is Space. Verne is perhaps the ultimate prose poet
of geography. His early work in particular can
therefore be understood as a geography of the
European explosion; these early novels celebrate a
sense that to travel the world is to possess the
world. The explorers, scientists, military adven-
turers, and daring entrepreneurs who populate
most of his early fiction transform the darkness of
the world. They are light-bringers. Tales that have
been understand as manuals for young imperialists
include Cinq semaines en ballon (Five Weeks in a
Balloon, 1863); Voyage au centre de la terre (Jour-
ney to the Center of the Earth, 1864); Vingt mille
lieues sous les mers (Twenty Thousand Leagues Under
the Sea, 1870), and Le Tour du monde en quatre-
vingts jours (Around the World in Eighty Days,
1874). Verne’s novels have rarely been out of print.
Unfortunately for his reputation, however,
Verne’s work has persistently been misunderstood.
Anglophone students have in general been reluc-
tant, therefore, to examine his work for more
comprehensive insights into that period (1860–
1880) when the scientific and industrial progress
of Europe seemed an entirely natural justification
for imperialism. But even the most eager scholar
would have found the texts themselves, as they
have been known for a century or more, almost
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

impenetrable, because the true complexity of
Verne’s imaginative take on the late nineteenth cen-
tury has been deeply obscured by the notorious
badness, until well into the twentieth century, of
almost all translations of his work. It was normal
for his early translators to cut up to 40 percent of
the original texts and to bowdlerize what remained
to render the result ‘‘suitable’’ for the juvenile audi-
ences to which it was assumed Verne catered exclu-
sively; moreover, the multiple ironies and ambiva-
lences of these tales, which often sternly addressed
political issues, were systematically expunged.
Furthermore, almost a century after his death,
French scholars have begun to discover that even
Verne’s original French texts had suffered prior
emasculations at the hands of his longtime pub-
lisher, Pierre-Jules Hetzel (1814–1886), who went
so far as to reject an entire 1863 novel (Paris au
XXe Siècle [Paris in the Twentieth Century])
because it took a mildly iconoclastic view of the
‘‘triumph’’ of Europe. As Verne’s novels dealt
directly with Europe’s conquering of the world
through applied science and technology, it is some-
thing of a tragedy that the full range of his under-
standing of these vital decades was so thoroughly
obscured.
In later years, it became more difficult to
conceal from readers Verne’s examinations of the
darker implications of the conquest of the planet—
though even in the twenty-first century, Anglo-
phone readers will have no access to the harsher
implications of L’ı̂le à hélice (Propeller island,
1895)—as all political satire was stripped out of
the English translation, The Floating Island
(1896), though Verne’s final, devastating image
of the consequences of travel does remain. The
two communities on this artificial island, unable
to agree on where they should go next, rip their
habitat apart. Verne’s original French text has
never been published; but the image of empires
about to burst asunder did survive his censors.
There is, of course, much of Verne’s work that
combined didactism and a purer joy of storytelling.
The dawn-like elation of discovering something
new around the next corner of the world has never
been so ringingly narrated. And the thousands of
pages of his work as a whole constitute, in classic
late nineteenth-century style, an exposition of the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
VICTOR EMMANUEL II
world, a glittering narrative of the world on display.
In the end, Verne was his century’s great romancer.
See also Explorers; Wells, H. G.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Evans, Arthur B. Jules Verne Rediscovered: Didacticism and
the Scientific Novel. New York, 1988.
Evans, Arthur B., ed. ‘‘A Jules Verne Centenary.’’ Special issue
of Science Fiction Studies 95, vol. 32, part 1 (March 2005).
Lottman, Herbert R. Jules Verne: An Exploratory Biography.
New York, 1996.
Smyth, Edmund J., ed. Jules Verne: Narratives of Moder-
nity. Liverpool, 2000.
JOHN CLUTE
n
VICTOR EMMANUEL II (1820–1878;
ruled 1861–1878), first king of Italy.
Victor Emmanuel (born 14 March 1820) took
the throne of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia
at age twenty-eight. He succeeded his father,
Charles Albert (r. 1831–1849), who abdicated
after the Austrians defeated Piedmontese forces
at the Battle of Novara in 1849. Twelve years
later, 17 March 1861, with all but Venice, Rome,
Trieste, and the Trentino united under the aegis
of Piedmont, he accepted the title King of Italy.
When he took power in 1849, Victor Emmanuel
II endorsed the constitution granted by his father
the year before and reluctantly agreed to Austria’s
stiff terms for an armistice. Parliament rejected the
armistice, and the new king dissolved it (29 March
1849) and called new elections only to see the
voters reaffirm democratic control. The king
dissolved the Chamber again and appealed to the
people to return a more favorable majority with
the Proclamation of Moncalieri, 20 November
1849. This time moderates took charge (9
December 1849), and they endorsed the peace
treaty with Austria on 5 January 1850.
Victor Emmanuel’s ability to stand up to the
Austrians and to undercut the democrats without
using force or violating the constitution won him
the epithet ‘‘the gentleman king.’’ In this early
crisis, he insisted on the royal prerogative to make
war and peace and used his power to dissolve
2409
VICTOR EMMANUEL II
Right Leg in the Boot at Last. Cartoon from the English
satirical journal Punch, 17 November 1860. Garibaldi’s conquest
of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the subsequent unification
of the peninsula under Victor Emmanuel II are lampooned.
BIBLIOTHÈQUE NATIONALE, PARIS, FRANCE /BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY/GIRAUDON
parliament to bring it in line with his more moderate
views. His constitutional authority and his interest
in using it gave him political influence, especially
as the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia gained
prominence in the movement to unify Italy.
While he agreed with moderates on constitutional
rule and Piedmont-Sardinia’s national mission, Victor
Emmanuel remained conservative on religious mat-
ters. He resisted a bill to dissolve monastic orders, but
at the urging of close advisors, he signed the law
(29 May 1855). At odds over religious policy, the
king and his prime minister Count Cavour (Camillo
Benso, 1810–1861) found common ground on
foreign affairs, agreeing to join France and England
against Russia in the Crimean War (4 March 1855).
Contributions to the war gave Piedmont-Sardinia a
place at the Congress of Paris (opened 25 February
1856) and brought acknowledgment of the Italian
2410
question. As Piedmont-Sardinia gained promi-
nence, republicans and patriots elsewhere on the
peninsula increasingly looked to Victor Emmanuel
for leadership of the national movement.
The exact nature of Victor Emmanuel’s role
in the events leading to unification remains the sub-
ject of debate. Historians attribute the creation of
Italy under Piedmontese rule to some combination
of the diplomatic finesse of Cavour, the actions of the
French emperor Napoleon III (1808–1873), the
success of Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) and his
Red Shirts, the popular drive for liberation, and the
pressure of events. At the least, Victor Emmanuel did
not obstruct unification, and according to most
assessments, he assisted the process in key ways.
In particular, he managed in volatile conditions to
maintain contacts with the democratic movement
while successfully presenting himself to moderates
and frightened foreign governments as the only
plausible guarantee against popular revolution.
The attempt of the Italian Felice Orsini (1819–
1858) on Emperor Napoleon III’s life (14 January
1858) opened a critical sequence of events. Napo-
leon III met with Cavour (July 20–21) and agreed
to support Piedmont’s effort to expel Austria from
northern Italy. He accepted the creation of a
northern Italian kingdom under Victor Emmanuel
as part of an Italian confederation of states. Victor
Emmanuel agreed in turn to cede Nice and Savoy
to France and to marry his daughter Clotilde to the
emperor’s cousin, Prince Napoleon (alliance signed
24 January 1859). War broke out with Austria 27
April 1859, and French and Piedmontese troops
forced an Austrian retreat. Under pressure from
Napoleon III and over strong protests from
Cavour, Victor Emmanuel accepted the truce of
Villafranca (8 July 1859) and received control over
Lombardy, causing Cavour to resign.
Meanwhile the duchies of central Italy (Tuscany,
Modena, Parma, Bologna) collapsed, and moderate
leaders moved rapidly to take control. They
requested annexation to Piedmont-Sardinia, and
with the encouragement of England and the sanction
of plebiscites, Victor Emmanuel agreed. With the
king’s support and against the wishes of Cavour
(who returned to power 21 January 1860), Garibaldi
organized an army of volunteers and prepared to
invade Sicily. The rapid liberation of Sicily from the
Spanish Bourbons alarmed European powers, and
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Victor Emmanuel publicly warned Garibaldi against
crossing to the mainland, while privately urging
him on. When Garibaldi landed in southern Italy
(18 August), the Piedmontese army invaded the
Papal States to stop him (10 September 1860). The
forces met at Teano (26 October), and Garibaldi
ceded Sicily and Naples to Victor Emmanuel.
As the first king of united Italy, Victor Emmanuel
actively influenced foreign policy, working with
his ministers to annex Venice (1866) and Rome
(1870). Because parliamentary factionalism weak-
ened cabinets, his authority to appoint ministers
drew him into internal politics as well. Initially
he favored the Right and then, with the ‘‘parlia-
mentary revolution’’ of March 1876, he accepted
the Left’s arrival in power. His actions helped
reduce the opposition of republicans to monarchy
and of the South to unification under the North.
Victor Emmanuel died 9 January 1878 and was
buried in the Pantheon in Rome.
See also Crimean War; Italy; Risorgimento (Italian
Unification); Umberto I.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Victor Emmanuel II. Le lettere di Vittorio Emanuele II,
raccolte da Francesco Cognasso. Turin, 1961. A collec-
tion of the king’s letters.
Secondary Sources
Mack Smith, Denis. Victor Emanuel, Cavour, and the Risor-
gimento. London, 1971.
———. Italy and Its Monarchy. New Haven, Conn., 1989.
SUSAN A. ASHLEY
n
VICTORIA, QUEEN (1819–1901; ruled
1837–1901), queen of the United Kingdom.
The future Queen Victoria was born at Kensing-
ton Palace in the greater London area on 24 May
1819. She became queen of the United Kingdom of
England, Scotland, and Ireland on 20 June 1837.
After a reign of sixty-three-and-a-half years, the long-
est in British history, she died on 22 January 1901 at
Osborne House, her winter home on the Isle of
Wight. Her name became an adjective, ‘‘Victorian,’’
because people increasingly associated her life and
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
VICTORIA, QUEEN
her reign with such nineteenth-century ideals as a
devoted family life, earnestness, public and private
respectability, and obedience to the law. As the per-
sonal embodiment of her kingdom and her empire,
she was ever eager to ensure that her land was held in
high esteem by its European neighbors and through-
out the world for its economic and military strength
and as a model of modern civilization. During her
lifetime, Great Britain was noted for its pioneering
developments in science, industry, and finance; for
its rapid growth of population; and for becoming
the first large country in which the majority of the
population lived in cities. Queen Victoria was the
official head of state not only of the United Kingdom
but also of the expanding worldwide British empire,
which included Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
India, and parts of Africa.
BACKGROUND AND CHILDHOOD
Although King George III, who reigned from
1760 to 1820, had fifteen children, his three eldest
sons had no legitimate children who survived. In
1817 his fourth son, Edward Augustus, duke of
Kent, married a German noblewoman, Victoire
Marie Louise (the daughter of one duke and the
widow of another), for the specific purposes of
producing an heir to Britain’s throne. He brought
her to England just in time for little Victoria’s
birth. When the baby princess was just eight
months old, her father died. Victoria’s mother,
the duchess of Kent, raised her in Kensington
Palace with the help of German governesses,
private English tutors, and the duchess’s brother,
Leopold. The last had been married briefly to an
earlier heir to the British throne, Princess Charlotte,
who had died in childbirth, and in 1831 he
became king of the newly independent state of
Belgium.
Victoria learned to speak and write German
and French as readily as English. She was also
taught literature, history, geography, and the Bible.
She was given lessons in singing and in playing the
piano, as well as in painting, a hobby that she
enjoyed into her sixties. On the accession of her
uncle, King William IV, in 1830, she became heir
apparent to the throne and, at the behest of her
mother, she took several lengthy summer tours
through England and Wales that included both
country estates and city centers. Had King William
IV died any sooner, Victoria’s mother would have
2411
VICTORIA, QUEEN
become princess regent, but he lived just long
enough—until 20 June 1837—to enable Victoria
at age eighteen to inherit the throne in her own
right.
EARLY REIGN
Immediately on becoming queen, Victoria began
regular meetings with William Lamb, second viscount
Melbourne, Britain’s prime minister at the time.
The two grew very close, and the grandfatherly
Lord Melbourne (1779–1848) taught Victoria
how the government of her country worked on a
day-to-day basis. Britain in the nineteenth century
was a constitutional monarchy, and the king or
queen was the head of state who was expected to
rule by means of a prime minister as the head of
government, with the members of his cabinet serving
as the heads of administrative departments. They
were also members of, and required the support of,
the United Kingdom Parliament, made up of an
elected House of Commons and a (largely) heredi-
tary House of Lords. When a general election left no
single political party with an overall majority, the
monarch initiated the process of government forma-
tion by inviting a particular parliamentarian to serve
as prime minister and ‘‘form a government.’’
In practice, ultimate executive authority no
longer lay with Queen Victoria, but a significant
degree of influence remained to her—in matters of
policy as well as in the appointment of cabinet
members, ambassadors, and archbishops and
bishops of the Church of England, an institution
that the monarch served as ‘‘supreme governor.’’
On a daily basis she perused boxes of cabinet papers
and diplomatic correspondence, and she conferred
regularly by letter and in person with all ten of her
prime ministers. In private, Queen Victoria was
ever prepared to speak her mind. Much of the
queen’s time was also devoted to ceremonial acti-
vities such as the award of honors and the official
opening and (until the 1850s) closing of each
year’s session of Parliament.
Because Melbourne led the Whig Party (later
known as the Liberal Party), Victoria became
publicly identified with that party rather than with
the opposition Tory (or Conservative) Party.
The Whigs were known for their relative sympathy
for freedom of speech and of the press and for
greater religious liberty for those Britons who (as
2412
independent Protestants or Roman Catholics or
Jews) did not belong to the established Church of
England. They were also becoming increasingly
sympathetic to the promotion of international free
trade. For the time being, the Tories were more
concerned with maintaining the land’s established
institutions and with keeping the electorate within
the limits—one adult male in five—set by the
Reform Act of 1832.
The young queen hoped that the Whigs and
their parliamentary allies would maintain their
House of Commons majority and that Melbourne
would remain prime minister. When it appeared in
1839 that he might have to give up the post, the
queen successfully used her influence to keep him.
In the so-called Bedchamber Crisis, she refused to
allow the Tory leader, Sir Robert Peel (1788–
1850), to change the aristocratic Whig ladies at
her court. Peel then gave up the task of ‘‘forming
a government,’’ and Melbourne continued as
prime minister for two more years. A new general
election in 1841 resulted in a decisive Tory
majority in the House of Commons, however,
and Victoria was compelled to accept Peel in
his place.
THE YEARS WITH ALBERT (1840–1861)
Victoria’s early years as queen were filled not only
with government papers but also with parties,
dances, concerts, and with visits by eligible poten-
tial husbands. In 1839 Victoria fell in love with
one of these, her first cousin, Prince Albert of the
small German duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. They
were married on 10 February 1840, and Albert
soon came to take a keen interest in the govern-
ment of his new country. He served as his wife’s
private secretary, and he persuaded her that, even
as they both took an intense behind-the-scenes
interest in the ministries that governed in Victor-
ia’s name, publicly she should stand above party.
Albert was an exceptionally serious and studious
young prince who was more interested in science,
music, and scholarship than in traditional aristo-
cratic sports and pastimes. He served as chancellor
of Cambridge University and he became the prime
inspirer of the Great Exhibition of the Works of All
Nations, the first true World’s Fair, which was held
in London’s Hyde Park during the summer of
1851.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Queen Victoria, Prince Albert and the Prince of Wales at Windsor Park with Their Herd of Llamas. Anonymous
painting, nineteenth century. PRIVATE COLLECTION/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY
Back in 1846 the royal couple had encouraged
the efforts of Sir Robert Peel to abolish the Corn
Laws and lead Britain toward international free
trade, but in the process Peel’s Conservative Party
split in two. During the 1850s, with a two-party
tradition in temporary disarray, the influence of the
monarch on the formation of nineteenth-century
ministries reached a nineteenth-century highpoint.
In 1851, royal initiative led to the dismissal of
the popular Henry John Temple, third viscount
Palmerston, from his post. The foreign secretary
appeared too sympathetic to liberal nationalist groups
undermining their fellow European monarchs, and
he had failed too often to consult the queen before
sending dispatches to British diplomats abroad.
Although initially unhappy with the manner in which
their kingdom drifted into the Crimean War (1854–
1856) against Russia, Queen Victoria became an
enthusiastic supporter of the conflict once fighting
had begun, and on 5 February 1855 she named
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
VICTORIA, QUEEN
Palmerston as wartime prime minister. She personally
instituted the Victoria Cross as Britain’s highest
award for wartime valor.
Although respected by most of his new country-
men, Albert was little loved; he was sometimes
criticized as an interfering foreigner, and his heavy
German accent did not help. For the emotional
Victoria, the stalwart Albert resembled a knight
in shining armor, however, and between 1840 and
1857 they became the parents of nine children, all of
whom grew to adulthood: Victoria (b. 1840),
Albert Edward (b. 1841), Alice (b. 1843), Alfred
(b. 1844), Helena (b. 1846), Louise (b. 1848),
Arthur (b. 1850), Leopold (b. 1853), and Beatrice
(b. 1857). The royal family seemed to be a model
family, a family that increasingly enjoyed a private
domestic life either at Windsor or at Osborne House
(on the English Channel coast) or at Balmoral
Castle (in the Scottish Highlands), both of the latter
rebuilt on the basis of Albert’s designs. Victoria and
2413
VICTORIA, QUEEN

Albert took an intense personal interest in the

upbringing of their children, which they did not
leave solely to nannies and governesses.

THE YEARS OF WIDOWHOOD

Queen Victoria never recovered entirely from
Albert’s death on 14 December 1861 at the age
of forty-two. For almost a decade she remained in
strict mourning. She rarely set foot in London, and
she avoided most public occasions (such as the
state opening of Parliament). She made exceptions
for the unveiling of statues dedicated to Prince
Albert and, after a few years, for attendance at
army reviews. During the later 1860s her absence
from the public stage caused several respectable
politicians as well as radical agitators to propose
that the United Kingdom be transformed into a
republic. Behind the scenes, the queen continued
to peruse papers and to talk and write to her
ministers. She also found comfort in a loyal
domestic staff headed by her favorite attendant, a
Scottish Highlander named John Brown. Her
influence determined the appointments of several
bishops and archbishops. It also led to the passage Caricature of Queen Victoria. From Le Musée de Sires,
of statutes such as an act of 1876 that restricted the feuille de caricatures, by Auguste Roubille, 1901. PRIVATE
COLLECTION/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY/ THE STAPLETON COLLECTION
right of scientists to experiment on living animals
and an act of the same year that proclaimed
Victoria empress of India. governed Britain during most of the final fifteen
In her youth she had been known as ‘‘Queen years of the nineteenth century.
of the Whigs,’’ but in the course of the 1870s
she privately came to prefer Benjamin Disraeli, THE GRANDMOTHER OF EUROPE
the leader of the Conservative Party (1868– During the decades after Albert’s death, Queen
1881) to William Ewart Gladstone, the leader of Victoria remained increasingly concerned with
the Liberal Party (1868–1875, 1880–1894). In her ever-growing family. All nine of her children
Victoria’s eyes, Disraeli seemed more concerned married, and eight of them had children of their
with upholding Britain’s international prestige own. Most of those children and grandchildren
and consolidating its empire. She made little married into the nobility of Europe. Thus one
secret of her disappointment with the results of granddaughter became the tsarina of Russia and
the general election of 1880, which left her others the queens of Spain, Romania, Greece, and
no choice but to reappoint Gladstone as prime Norway; the aging matriarch become known as the
minister. He impressed her as too much the ‘‘Grandmother of Europe.’’
popular demagogue prepared to tamper with The most important of such dynastic marriages
the kingdom’s institutions. She interpreted involved Victoria’s eldest child, also known as
Gladstone’s unsuccessful proposals in 1886 and Victoria, who in 1858 at age seventeen wed Crown
again in 1893 to grant ‘‘Home Rule’’ (domestic Prince Frederick, the heir to the kingdom of Prus-
self-government) to Ireland as a step to break up sia and (after 1871) also the German Empire.
the British Empire. She was more sympathetic to Albert and Victoria hoped that the marriage would
the Conservative ministries led by Robert Arthur strengthen Anglo-German relations and help trans-
Gascoyne-Cecil, third marquess of Salisbury, that form Prussia into a liberal constitutional monarchy

2414 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Queen Victoria with her granddaughter Alexandra (left,
holding baby daughter Tatiana), her grandson-in-law,
Tsar Nicholas II of Russia (standing, left), and her son
Albert Edward (later King Edward VII). ªHULTON-DEUTSCH
COLLECTION/CORBIS
like that of Britain. Such hopes were to be disap-
pointed as the crown prince was to be limited by
cancer to a reign of ninety-nine days in 1888.
Frederick’s son (Queen Victoria’s eldest grandson),
the German emperor William II, was to lead the
Central Powers during World War I (1914–1918)
against the Allied coalition formally headed by
another grandson (King George V of Great
Britain) and by the husband (Tsar Nicholas II of
Russia) of a granddaughter. Queen Victoria was
often disappointed in her own immediate heir,
Albert Edward, a slow learner who generally pre-
ferred play to work. His marriage in 1863 to the
beautiful Alexandra of Denmark was popular, how-
ever, and the prince and princess of Wales enjoyed
their role as social arbiters.
The prince of Wales had to wait patiently to
inherit the kingship, as during the 1880s his
mother become more visible again and regained
her earlier popularity. Excerpts from her private
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
VICTORIA, QUEEN
journals published in 1868 and 1884 helped human-
ize her in the eyes of her subjects. Her Golden
Jubilee (the fiftieth anniversary on the throne),
which brought monarchs from all over Europe to
London, was celebrated with great enthusiasm in
1887, and her Diamond Jubilee of 1897 evoked an
even greater spirit of national and imperial pride.
British political leaders and military regiments from
five continents marched in London; the gathering
provided the occasion for the very first meeting of
colonial prime ministers—a precedent for the
twentieth-century Commonwealth. After the Boer
War (1899–1902) began, the aged queen became a
single-minded champion of the British war effort,
which included a state visit to Ireland in April 1900
(only the fourth of her reign) to thank Irish soldiers
in the British army in Africa for their bravery. She
both endured military defeats and celebrated vic-
tories before her own life ended on 22 January
1901 at Osborne House. A week-and-a-half later,
after an elaborate military procession from Osborne
to Windsor by ship, train, and horse-drawn gun
carriage, her funeral was followed by a burial next
to Albert in the Frogmore Mausoleum.
CONCLUSIONS
The very length of Queen Victoria’s sixty-three-
and-a-half-year reign gives a deceptive impression
of continuity and stability to what proved a period
of dynamic change within the British Isles and the
world. The queen sympathized with many of these
changes such as the railroad, the camera, and the
use of anesthetics in childbirth. She was more
doubtful about others, such as the rapid increase
in the size of an electorate that by 1901 included
most men and (in local government elections)
some women. She preferred to see women preside
over the home and to serve as matchmakers, hos-
tesses, and volunteer social workers rather than as
doctors or lawyers. A more disciplined political
party system diminished her political influence only
a little in the course of her reign, and by the time of
her death she had become the world’s best-known
and most admired ruler and its most famous
woman. She also remained a symbol of strict mor-
ality, good manners, and devotion to duty. She
took great pride in her role as the formal head of
the world’s largest multiracial and multireligious
empire, and (unlike some of her ministers) she
believed in the civil rights of all her subjects. Thus
2415
VIENNA
she became the first modern British monarch to
confer a hereditary peerage on a Roman Catholic
and the first ever to confer one on a professing Jew.
In a world familiar with authoritarian rulers, she
remained a symbol of the type of constitutional
government in which change came by election
and by parliamentary legislation rather than by
revolution.
See also Alexandra; Corn Laws, Repeal of; Crystal Palace;
George IV; Imperialism; India; Nicholas I; Tories;
William II; William IV.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Hibbert, Christopher, ed. Queen Victoria in Her Letters
and Journals. London, 1984. A chronological compi-
lation of many of the queen’s own writings that enables
the reader to see the world through her eyes.
The Letters of Queen Victoria. First series edited by Arthur
Christopher Benson and Viscount Reginald Baliol
Brett Esher, London, 1908; second series edited by
George Earl Buckle, London, 1926–1928; third series
edited by George Earl Buckle, 1930–1932. The single
largest series of letters, nine volumes in all, by and to
the queen. Emphasizes her political roles rather than
her family life.
Secondary Sources
Arnstein, Walter L. Queen Victoria. Basingstoke, U.K., and
New York, 2003. Focuses on the monarch’s political,
military, and religious roles.
Hibbert, Christopher. Queen Victoria: A Personal History.
London, 2000.
Longford, Elizabeth. Victoria, R. I. London and New York,
1964. The first biography to make full documented
use of the unpublished Royal Archives at Windsor.
A sympathetic yet balanced account.
Strachey, Lytton. Queen Victoria. London, 1921. The single
most widely read life and a notable example of bio-
graphy as a work of literary art.
Vallone, Lynne. Becoming Victoria. New Haven, Conn.,
2001. The fullest account of the queen’s early years.
Warner, Marina. Queen Victoria’s Sketchbook. London and
New York, 1979.
Weintraub, Stanley. Victoria: An Intimate Biography. New
York, 1987.
Williams, Richard. The Contentious Crown: Public Discus-
sion of the British Monarchy in the Reign of Queen
Victoria. Aldershot, U.K., 1997.
Woodham-Smith, Cecil. Queen Victoria from Her Birth to
the Death of the Prince Consort. London, 1972. The
2416
most detailed fully documented account of the first
half of Victoria’s life.
WALTER L. ARNSTEIN
n
VIENNA. Traditionally the seat of the Habs-
burg dynasty and the capital of its central European
territories, Vienna experienced both great develop-
ment and relative decline in the nineteenth century.
With a population in 1789 of roughly 200,000,
Vienna was the third-largest city in Europe after
London and Paris. It experienced, like most major
cities, an extraordinary population boom in the per-
iod. By 1914 Vienna’s population was over two
million, but the city was now only fourth-largest in
Europe, having been overtaken by Berlin. This was
symbolic of the waning significance of Vienna as a
political center, due to the checkered career of the
Habsburg dynasty. It is indeed virtually impossible
to disentangle Viennese history from Austrian
history in general, and the name Vienna came to
symbolize for the national communities of the Habs-
burg Monarchy not simply a city but rather the
whole nexus of central power of the Habsburg state.
Vienna was not only a political and administra-
tive but also a major economic and cultural center.
It underwent dramatic modernization, especially
after midcentury, even though the relative slowness
of this development compared to Berlin’s explosive
growth gave rise to an image of Vienna as the
conservative, even backward, other capital of central
Europe. By 1900 it enjoyed a cultural reputation as
a more old-fashioned, less avant-garde center than
either Paris or Berlin, and it is only in retrospect
that fin-de-siècle Vienna, the capital of a decadent
multinational empire at the crossroads of so many
of the positive and negative movements in the
coming modern world, has come to be seen as a
major center of innovation in its own right.
1789–1815: WAR AND PEACE
In 1789 Vienna was still a walled city, surrounded
on three sides by steep banks (on the fourth by a
short stretch of the Danube River), beyond which
the city’s suburbs spread. Architecturally the city
was dominated by the baroque. The enlightened
absolutism of Joseph II’s rule had liberalized Vien-
nese cultural and intellectual life, and the city had
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

The New Market, Vienna. Engraving, 1799. ªHISTORICAL PICTURE ARCHIVE/CORBIS
become the center of the German musical world.
Combining both tendencies, Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart’s hymn to (Masonic) reason, Die Zauber-
flöte (The Magic Flute) was premiered at Vienna’s
Theater auf der Wieden in September 1791. The
outlook for enlightened reform was already darken-
ing by 1789, however, and the consequences of
the French Revolution, along with the deaths in
quick succession of Joseph II and Leopold II, set
Austria on a course by which Vienna, as seat of the
Habsburgs, came to represent the ideological nem-
esis of the revolution.
Revolutionary opposition in Vienna itself was
slight and was snuffed out ruthlessly, but Austria lost
a series of wars to Revolutionary and Napoleonic
France, and Vienna was occupied twice by French
armies, in 1805 and 1809. On the second occasion
a part of Vienna’s fortifications, at the Hofburg, was
razed. The cost of these lost wars had a devasta-
ting effect on Habsburg finances, leading to state
bankruptcy in 1811, with long-term damage to the
Austrian, and Viennese, economies.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
VIENNA
Cultural life, however, carried on. During these
bleak years Ludwig van Beethoven premiered most
of his symphonies in Vienna, and the premiere of
his opera Fidelio in November 1805 occurred
during the French occupation, with many of the
audience being French officers. Habsburg efforts
after 1805 to encourage German nationalism even
attracted a group of conservative German Roman-
tic poets to the city as Germany’s ‘‘capital,’’
although the defeat of 1809 ended this project.
Count Metternich’s astute diplomacy after 1809
and the defeat of the French in Russia in 1812–
1813 brought about a radical reversal of Austria’s,
and Vienna’s, fortunes by 1814. In September 1814
Vienna became the site of the congress that was to
reconstruct pre-Napoleonic Europe. The Congress
of Vienna was an opportunity for Austria and the
Viennese to entertain the other European powers
and to persuade them to see Europe Metternich’s
conservative way, which to a large extent they did.
The congress also confirmed Vienna’s reputation
as a city of many amusements but not one at the
2417
VIENNA
vanguard of progress. The Prince de Ligne com-
mented that: ‘‘Le congrès ne marche pas; il danse’’
(the congress does not walk [i.e., make progress]; it
dances). The congress ended in June 1815 with a
fairly durable settlement, but the comment was
quite prescient about Vienna in the coming years.
1815–1848: BIEDERMEIER AND VORMÄRZ
By the 1820s Vienna’s population, including the
suburbs, had risen to roughly 300,000, with sur-
plus labor from the countryside flooding into the
city’s proto-industrial outskirts. Economic growth,
however, lagged, and population growth was not
matched by modernization of the city’s infrastruc-
ture. Gas lighting was introduced in 1817 but not
systematically. The Danube flooded disastrously in
1830, and the lack of an adequate water supply
resulted in a cholera epidemic in 1831 and 1832.
A new water supply system, built after 1835, was
ineffective. A new gate was punched through the
walls at the Kärntnertor, but otherwise the old city
remained walled in.
The city’s political life was similarly stifled.
Metternich and his master, Francis I, reacting to
the upheavals of the French Revolution, were
determined to stop all political change, and the
public sense of relief after the revolutionary crisis
soon turned to a sense of stagnation. Under Met-
ternich’s ‘‘system,’’ Austria and Vienna became
watchwords throughout Europe for oppression,
and although this reputation was exaggerated, the
secret police and censorship system was quite well
developed. Viennese intellectual life suffered as a
result, and even Austria’s greatest writer of the era,
Franz Grillparzer, a loyal bureaucrat, was seriously
affected by the censor’s interventions.
Yet musical life continued to flourish. Beetho-
ven’s Ninth Symphony was first performed in
Vienna in 1824, and Franz Schubert produced all
of his great work in the period, dying in 1828. The
waltz, developed by Joseph Lanner and Johann
Strauss the Elder, first became part of Viennese life.
In drama, Vienna’s Burgtheater under Joseph
Schreyvogel became the premier German stage.
Given the political and intellectual climate, the
dominant style of the period was one of domestic,
private, inward-looking simplicity, which came to
be known as Biedermeier.
2418
The revolutions in western Europe in 1830
and the death of Francis I in 1835 ushered in a
new era of frustration with the ‘‘system’’ and a
shift toward optimism about the possibilities of
progress that came to be known in retrospect as
Vormärz (Before March 1848). In popular theater
the change could be seen in the succession from
the fantasy plays of Ferdinand Raimund to the
ribald satire of Johann Nestroy. The most obvious
expression of the new approach was Eduard
Bauernfeld’s play Grossjährig (Of age), performed,
remarkably, at the Burgtheater in 1847. This cultural
shift paralleled and reflected economic and techno-
logical change in the city. In 1838 the Nordbahn,
Austria’s first steam railway, financed by the Roths-
childs, reached Vienna, and by the 1840s Vienna was
linked up to the Continental rail system; in the
1840s a proper gas distribution system was being
installed. In 1847 the Austrian Academy of Sciences
was founded. Vienna was, haphazardly, becoming a
modern city.
1848–1861: REVOLUTION,
REACTION, REFORM?
With the population of Vienna approaching
400,000 by 1848, such incoherent improvements
were not keeping pace with the basic needs of the
populace. The harvest failures of 1846 and 1847
led to economic depression and near-starvation in
Vienna’s ever-growing lower classes. Meanwhile
the Habsburg machinery of government had effec-
tively ground to a halt and was pressed on all sides,
especially in Hungary, by calls for greater auton-
omy and freedoms. News of revolution in France
in late February 1848 led to a demonstration in
Vienna on 13 March. This turned to revolt when
troops fired on the crowd and to revolution when a
panicked Habsburg family sacked Metternich,
acceding in the days following to many of the
demands of the ‘‘revolutionaries.’’
The revolution of 13 March 1848 marked the
high point of Vienna’s involvement in Austrian
politics in the nineteenth century. Over the next
months Vienna remained at the center of the revo-
lution in the Austrian Empire. An elected constitu-
ent assembly, the Reichstag, met there in July.
However, national divisions in the monarchy and
social and ideological divisions within Vienna
severely compromised the revolution. Most deci-
sive was the failure of the revolutionaries to wrest
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Bird’s eye view of Vienna. Engraving by Gustav Veith, 1873. ERICH LESSING/ART RESOURCE, NY
control of the military from the Habsburgs. After
another radical revolt in Vienna in October, a
Habsburg army under Prince Alfred Windischgrätz
bombarded and then conquered the city. Several
revolutionary leaders were executed, and the city
was put under martial law until 1853.
The revolution had a detrimental effect on the
city’s economy, but culturally and intellectually it
produced a huge outpouring of pent-up creativity,
reflected in the flood of publications in the period.
It is telling, however, that one of the most memor-
able plays of the period was Nestroy’s Freiheit in
Krähwinkel (Freedom in Krähwinkel), a positive
but skeptical account of the revolution’s dynamics,
and that the most famous musical piece was Johann
Strauss the Elder’s Radetzkymarsch, a loyalist cele-
bration of Habsburg victory against the Italians
(and the revolution).
Under the ‘‘decreed constitution’’ (1849–
1852), Vienna was given a Provisional Communal
Ordinance on 6 March 1850. This integrated the
suburbs fully into the city administration, creating
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
VIENNA
a nine-district municipality that lasted until 1890.
It allowed for an elected 120-man council (on a
very narrow, tax-based, tri-curial franchise), which
in turn elected a mayor. Theoretically, the law gave
Vienna considerable autonomy, but the imposition
of (neo-)absolutism in 1852 ended this. The
centralist neoabsolutist regime wanted, however,
to develop Vienna as a suitable capital for a modern
absolutist Habsburg state. Hence it initiated
in 1857 one of the most beneficial changes in
Vienna’s modern history: the demolition of the
city walls and their replacement by a broad boule-
vard, the Ringstrasse (Ring Street). The collapse of
the neoabsolutist regime in 1859 and 1860 led to
the restitution of the 1850 ordinance in 1860,
and the March 1861 municipal elections created a
large liberal majority that set about modernizing
Vienna in earnest.
1861–1890: RINGSTRASSE LIBERALISM
By 1859 Vienna had a population of over 500,000;
in 1869 it reached 607,000; in 1890, 828,000.
This population increase reflected Vienna’s growth
2419
VIENNA
as an economic center, but as a political center
Vienna declined in importance. The catastrophic
defeat by Prussia in 1866 meant that Austria, and
hence Vienna, was shut out of Germany. The Aus-
gleich (compromise) with Hungary in the same
year also greatly reduced the range of Vienna’s
administrative rule, which now only extended over
Cisleithania, the Austrian half of Austria-Hungary.
Vienna enjoyed a much larger degree of municipal
autonomy after the Reichsgemeindegesetz (Imperial
Communal Law) of 1862. From 1861 it hosted the
new representative assembly, the Reichsrat; after
1867, however, this was only for Cisleithania.
Vienna did remain the seat of the ‘‘common’’ min-
istries (foreign, defense, and financial) of Dualist
Austria-Hungary and the main residence of the
emperor and court.
In the economic sphere Vienna developed
spectacularly in the early liberal era of 1860 to
1873. Known as the Gründerjahre (founders’
years), this period saw massive gains for Austrian
entrepreneurs (hence the name), who invested
much of their profits in the imperial center, espe-
cially in the new developments around the Ring-
strasse. Of particular note were the many ‘‘palaces’’
built by Jewish financiers such as Gustav Epstein and
Friedrich Schey, who, with their families, became an
important part of Vienna’s ‘‘second society’’ (the
‘‘first’’ being the court and high nobility).
The new liberal administration modernized
major parts of Vienna’s infrastructure: new banks
were built for the Danube (1862–1875), a new
aqueduct providing water from the Alps was fin-
ished in 1873, a large number of schools and hos-
pitals were built, and the Central Cemetery was
opened in 1874. The Ringstrasse became the site
for major civic and imperial—and heavily represen-
tational—buildings, among them the twin Natural
and Art History Museums, the university, the new
Burgtheater; the Greek classical parliament, and the
Belgian-Gothic Rathaus (city hall) among them. By
the 1880s Vienna had been transformed into an
exemplary modern nineteenth-century capital.
Yet by then, the German liberal hegemony in
Austria no longer existed. The economic boom
came to a halt in the crash of 1873, brought on
by a wave of speculation surrounding Vienna’s
hosting of the International Exhibition that year
combined with another cholera outbreak. The Lib-
2420
erals lost their majority in the Reichsrat in 1879 to
the conservative and federalist ‘‘Iron Ring.’’ Vienna
remained a bastion of liberalism, but only because
of its restrictive franchise. The emergence in the
1880s of anti-Semitic German nationalism in stu-
dent and middle-class circles and the anti-Semitic
Christian Social movement in the lower middle
classes, together with the reconstitution of the
Social Democrats in 1888 at nearby Hainburg,
signaled by 1890 the approaching end of the liberal
era in Viennese politics.
Culturally and intellectually this period is
usually seen as relatively barren as Vienna became,
in Hermann Broch’s phrase, a ‘‘value vacuum.’’
The 1860s had seen the emergence of Viennese
operetta, inspired by Jacques Offenbach’s works.
Johann Strauss the Younger’s Die Fledermaus was
first performed in 1874. (His ‘‘Blue Danube’’ waltz
appeared in 1867.) Vienna also became the home
of Johannes Brahms in 1878 and remained a major
center of the German musical world. In art the
period was dominated by the sensual historicism
of Hans Makart, whose orchestration of the Ring-
strasse parade celebrating the Silver Wedding of
Francis Joseph and Elisabeth in 1879 is seen by
many as the epitome of the parvenu kitsch of the
Ringstrasse style. At the same time, the university
prospered, especially its renowned medical school,
and a sophisticated press, most notably the Neue
Freie Presse (founded 1864), developed to serve the
emergent, sizable educated class. The results were
soon evident.
1890–1914: VIENNA 1900
On 18 December 1890 the incorporation of
Vienna’s outlying suburbs was made law, effective
January 1892. Vienna became a city of nineteen
districts with a population of 1,365,000. Partly
due to this expansion, the municipal elections of
1895 saw a shocking defeat for the Liberals by a
Christian Social and German Nationalist coalition,
whose platform was anti-Semitism. This was initi-
ally resisted by the Habsburg authorities, and the
anti-Semites’ leader, Karl Lueger, was only con-
firmed as mayor by the emperor Francis Joseph
after much delay, in 1897. From that point on,
however, the Christian Socials were able to manip-
ulate the franchise to ensure their complete hege-
mony over Viennese politics. Lueger’s rule was in
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Head of a Woman. Sketch by Gustave Klimt. As founder
of the Vienna Sezession group, which was instrumental in
developing the art nouveau style in Austria, Klimt was one
notable example of the rich cultural environment in Vienna in
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. NEUE GALERIE,
LINZ, AUSTRIA/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY
practice much more moderate than his rhetoric
suggested, and his municipalization of the city’s
utilities and expansion of amenities are seen by
most as contributing to a golden era in Vienna’s
history. Nevertheless, his anti-Semitism, though
seen as opportunistic, had practical effects on city
policies and cast a pall over life for Vienna’s Jews, as
well as encouraging the prejudices of those who
were not mere opportunists, such as Adolf Hitler.
Vienna was around 1900 the central stage for
Cisleithanian mass politics. From 1890 there was
an annual mass march by the Social Democrats on
1 May along the Ring; in 1897 and 1898 the Badeni
affair, which touched on German-Czech relations, led
to clashes in parliament and the streets; and from 1905
to 1907 there were mass demonstrations in favor
of universal suffrage (passed in 1907). The national
divisions of the last years of the monarchy tended,
however, to see parliament stagnate and power
pass from Vienna to the provincial, national centers.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
VIENNA
Yet this was also the period in which the
cultural and educational investments of previous
generations came to fruition in a series of great
cultural and intellectual achievements, known col-
lectively as fin-de-siècle Vienna or ‘‘Vienna 1900.’’
These included Freud’s development of psycho-
analysis; the art of Gustav Klimt and the Secession
as well as of the Austrian expressionists, including
Egon Schiele and Oskar Kokoschka; the music of
Gustav Mahler and the young Arnold Schoenberg;
the beginnings of the philosophical Vienna Circle;
Austromarxism; and major contributions in such
fields as physics, physiology, economics, medicine,
law, and sociology. Vienna had a flourishing literary
world that comprised far more than mere ‘‘coffee-
house wits’’ and included major writers such as
Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Arthur Schnitzler, and
Karl Kraus. It also developed a thriving popular
mass culture, especially in operetta.
Part of this was to be expected in a city that by
1910 had a population of more than 2,031,000 and
had continued to expand as the major educational
and economic hub of the Dual Monarchy. In retro-
spect, however, the achievement of Vienna 1900,
especially its very early insights into the modern
world’s problems, requires explanation. Some see
this as a result of the alienation of liberals from power
and the retreat of the next generation into the refuge
of art; others have, more narrowly perhaps, pointed
to the very large presence, even predominance, of
Jews as creators and supporters of this culture.
Jews were not the largest minority group in
Vienna: estimates put those of Czech origin as about
a quarter of Vienna’s quite polyglot populace before
1914, whereas Jews were by then under 10 percent
of the whole. Yet the Jews were the group that
became the designated ‘‘outsiders’’; they also were
the group that invested by far the most
proportionally in secondary and higher education.
This, combined with their position within Vienna’s
social and economic structures (heavily overrepre-
sented in commerce and the liberal professions), as
well as the alienation caused by the success of poli-
tical anti-Semitism in the city, helps account for the
remarkable Jewish presence in the circles of the
modern culture that has made Vienna 1900 so
famous. In this view, it is precisely because Jews
were threatened by the developments in late Habs-
burg Vienna that they recognized the problems with
2421
V I O L L E T - L E - D U C , E U G È N E
modernity and progress that only appeared later to
others and so were forced to come up with solutions
that anticipated later developments elsewhere.
See also Austria-Hungary; Cities and Towns.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Musil, Robert. The Man without Qualities. 2 vols. Trans-
lated by Sophie Wilkins. New York, 1995. Translated
from Der Mann ohn Eigenschaften, edited by Adolf
Frisé. 2 vols. Reinbek, Germany, 1978.
Schnitzler, Arthur. The Road to the Open. Translated
by Horace Samuel, with a foreword by William M.
Johnston. Evanston, Ill., 1991. Translated from Der
Weg ins Freie. Frankfurt-am-Main, 1961.
Secondary Sources
Barea, Ilsa. Vienna. New York, 1966.
Beller, Steven. Vienna and the Jews, 1867–1938: A Cultural
History. Cambridge, U.K., and New York, 1989.
Beller, Steven, ed. Rethinking Vienna 1900. New York and
Oxford, U.K., 2001.
Boyer, John W. Political Radicalism in Late Imperial
Vienna. Chicago, 1981.
———. Culture and Political Crisis in Vienna. Chicago,
1995.
Broch, Hermann. Hugo von Hofmannsthal and His Time.
Translated by Michael P. Steinberg. Chicago, 1984.
Csendes, Peter. Geschichte Wiens. Vienna, 1990.
Janik, Allan, and Stephen Toulmin. Wittgenstein’s Vienna.
Chicago, 1996.
Schorske, Carl E. Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture.
London, 1980.
Spiel, Hilde. Vienna’s Golden Autumn, 1866–1938. New
York, 1987.
STEVEN BELLER
n polymath his other writings ranged from a book on
VIOLLET-LE-DUC, EUGÈNE (1814–
1879), French architect.
Considered by many to be one of the most
important theoreticians of architecture in the mod-
ern era, Eugène Viollet-le-Duc is renowned for his
restorations of Gothic architecture in France during
the nineteenth century. He began his professional
career at a very young age with the Commission des
Monuments Historiques soon after its formation
2422
as a government bureau in 1837. The commission
was responsible for the classification of buildings as
historical monuments, which rendered them eligible
to receive credits from the state for their restoration
and upkeep. Viollet-le-Duc quickly became the pub-
lic and intellectual face of the commission, working
alongside the director Prosper Mérimée, who was
his close friend and lifelong supporter.
Viollet-le-Duc’s most famous restoration proj-
ects were carried out under the auspices of the
commission: the abbey church at Vézelay, begun in
December 1839; the cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris
with Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Lassus (from 1844); the
abbey church of Saint-Denis (from 1846); the walled
town of Carcassonne (from 1849); Amiens cathedral
(from 1849); and the Chateâu de Pierrefonds
(from 1858, and funded by Napoleon III’s perso-
nal treasury). In addition to actual restoration
work, Viollet-le-Duc was a prolific writer, with
numerous books and articles to his credit. His
famous Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture
française du XIe au XVIe siècle (Reasoned diction-
ary of French architecture from the eleventh to the
sixteenth century), published in ten volumes
(1854–1868), is his philosophy of gothic architec-
ture in the form of a dictionary. These writings
influenced modern architects, such as Le Corbusier
and Frank Lloyd Wright. Beginning in 1858, Viollet-
le-Duc published the first volume of his equally
ambitious but lesser known Dictionnaire raisonné
du mobilier français de l’époque carlovingienne à la
Rénaissance (1858–1875; Reasoned dictionary of
the French bank from the Carlovingians to the
Renaissance). His more forthrightly personal and
polemical two-volume Entretiens sur l’architecture
(1863 and 1872; Discourses on Architecture, 1875)
contrasts his architectural pedagogy and epistemol-
ogy with the given course of education provided
by the state-run École des Beaux-Arts. As a true
Mont Blanc in the French Alps to a series of
pedagogical books/novels for adolescents and
articles on politics and military strategy.
Although Viollet-le-Duc’s reputation as a the-
orist of architecture has fared well over the years,
his restoration practice has undergone significant
reevaluations in the last century. Until the 1960s,
his restoration work was vilified, the responses
ranging from mild criticism to vitriolic attack.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Notre Dame de Paris c. 1835, before Viollet-le-Duc’s addition of the spire. Engraving by J. H. Le Keux after a
drawing by Thomas Allom. MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY
Whereas architects of the modern tradition valor-
ized his emphasis on a ‘‘constructive’’ relationship
to the past—which has been reduced in historio-
graphy to Viollet-le-Duc’s supposed championing
of ‘‘structural rationalism’’—others, such as the
architectural historian Achille Carlier, severely cri-
ticized Viollet-le-Duc’s interventionist approach
to restoration. With the ‘‘fantastic’’ restoration
of Pierrefonds serving as the prime example of
his supposedly overzealous imagination, his
restorations were taken to be ‘‘monstrous’’ in
the literal sense of that term: producing a new
entity out of the previous remains of the given
building. From this perspective, Viollet-le-Duc
was judged rather harshly in comparison to the
anti-interventionist philosophies of restoration
personified by John Ruskin and Marcel Proust
(often conveniently overlooking the fact that both
had a profound admiration for Viollet-le-Duc’s
work). Beginning in 1980, a more even-handed
approach to Viollet-le-Duc’s restoration work
became the norm with the spate of catalogs and
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
V I O L L E T - L E - D U C , E U G È N E
collected essays published to mark the centennial
of his death.
See also Paris; Ruskin, John; Schinkel, Karl Friedrich.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
‘‘Ouvrages de Viollet-le-Duc.’’ In Viollet-le-Duc: Catalo-
gue d’exposition, 397–404. Paris, 1980. This section
contains a fairly comprehensive bibliography of Viol-
let-le-Duc’s publications including books, articles,
prefaces, and work done in collaboration with other
scholars.
Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène. The Foundations of Architecture:
Selections from the ‘‘Dictionnaire raisonné.’’ Translated
by Kenneth D. Whitehead. New York, 1990. Includes
good translations of some key entries in the Diction-
naire raisonné.
Secondary Sources
Bergdoll, Barry. Introduction to The Foundations of Archi-
tecture: Selections from the ‘‘Dictionnaire raisonné,’’ by
Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. New York, 1990.
2423
V I O L L E T - L E - D U C , E U G È N E
Notre Dame de Paris c. 1870, after the addition of the spire. Color lithograph by Kronheim from the periodical Sunday at
Home. MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY
Boudon, Françoise. ‘‘Le réel et l’imaginaire chez Viollet-le-
Duc: Les figures du Dictionnaire de l’architecture.’’
Revue de l’art 58–59 (1983): 95–114.
Bressani, Martin. ‘‘Notes on Viollet-le-Duc’s Philosophy of
History: Dialectics and Technology.’’ Journal of the Society
of Architectural Historians 48, no. 4 (1989): 327–350.
Damisch, Hubert. ‘‘The Space Between: A Structuralist
Approach to the Dictionnaire.’’ Architectural Design
Profile 17 (1980): 84–89.
Lee, Paula Young. ‘‘‘The Rational Point of View’: Eugène-
Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc and the Camera Lucida.’’
In Landscapes of Memory and Experience, edited by
Jan Birksted, 63–76. London, 2000.
Leniaud, Jean-Michel. Viollet-le-Duc; ou, Les délires du
systéme. Paris, 1994.
Middleton, Robin. ‘‘The Rationalist Interpretations of
Classicism of Léonce Reynaud and Viollet-le-Duc.’’
AA Files 11 (1986): 29–48.
2424
Murphy, Kevin D. Memory and Modernity: Viollet-le-Duc at
Vézelay. University Park, Pa., 2000.
O’Connell, Lauren M. ‘‘Viollet-le-Duc on Drawing, Photo-
graphy, and the ‘Space outside the Frame.’’’ History of
Photography 22, no. 2 (1998): 139–146.
Summerson, John. ‘‘Viollet-le-Duc and the Rational Point
of View.’’ In his Heavenly Mansions and Other Essays
on Architecture, 135–158. London, 1949. Reprint,
New York, 1963.
Vinegar, Aron. ‘‘Memory as Construction in Viollet-le-
Duc’s Architectural Imagination.’’ Paroles Gelées 16,
no. 2 (1998): 43–55.
———. ‘‘Viollet-le-Duc, Panoramic Photography, and the
Restoration of the Château de Pierrefonds.’’ In Inter-
national Viollet-le-Duc Colloquium, edited by Werner
Oechslin. Zürich, forthcoming.
ARON VINEGAR
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

n campaign for meat inspection in 1872. These
VIRCHOW, RUDOLF (1821–1902), Ger-
man pathologist and anthropologist.
Rudolf Virchow contributed to the transforma-
tion of medical knowledge in the nineteenth
century and was a founding figure for the discipline
of anthropology in Germany. He was born in
Schivelbein, Pomerania (today Swidwin in north-
west Poland), on 13 October 1821 and died in
Berlin on 5 September 1902. After receiving his
degree in 1843, Virchow practiced medicine in
Berlin until he was suspended for his radical poli-
tical views during the revolutions of 1848. He
accepted a faculty position in Würzburg and
returned to Berlin in 1856. He became the leading
figure at Berlin’s Pathological Institute, where he
worked for forty-six years and trained generations
of doctors and scientists.
As a coeditor and leading author of several
medical handbooks, Virchow published the findings
of contemporary clinical research. His pathbreaking
Die Cellularpathologie (1858; Cellular Pathology)
argued that cells are the building blocks of higher
units of life and that they are mutually dependent.
This attention to the vital nature of cells produced a
series of new ideas about the formation and spread
of disease. Before Virchow and his generation,
doctors viewed disease primarily as a problem in
the body’s blood stream (the humors) or as an
affliction of the nervous system. Virchow’s micro-
scopic study of cells challenged traditional views of
illness by arguing that cells themselves were healthy
or diseased. This discovery is central to modern
medicine’s understanding of tumors and cancer.
Virchow vigorously advocated applications of
scientific knowledge beyond the laboratory. His
reports on infectious diseases in central Europe
from 1848 and 1852 urged doctors to lead the
fight for better sanitation conditions and higher
levels of literacy and prosperity among rural popu-
lations. After his return to Berlin in 1856, Virchow
served on the city council as a public health expert.
He campaigned for a modern sewer system in the
city and promoted improvements in the heating
and ventilation of public institutions, such as
hospitals, schools, military barracks, and prisons.
Following his research on parasitic worms as the
cause of trichinosis, Virchow started a vigorous
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
VIRCHOW, RUDOLF
reforms grew out of Virchow’s belief that science
would bring progress to society, and they were part
of the broad program of nineteenth-century liber-
alism that championed rational thinking and posi-
tive state reforms.
Virchow also had a career on the national
political stage. In the 1860s, he opposed Prime
Minister Otto von Bismarck’s plans for military
spending in the Prussian Diet. After the unifica-
tion of Germany in 1871, Virchow supported the
national Kulturkampf (the ‘‘cultural struggle’’ to
eliminate the influence of Catholicism in politics
and education). He felt that science and rational-
ity would flourish in a state free of clerical influ-
ence. Virchow served as a delegate to the German
Empire’s Reichstag from 1880 to 1893.
From the 1860s until his death, Virchow shaped
the fields of prehistoric archaeology and anthropology
in Germany. He championed an empirical approach to
archaeology that eschewed patriotic or romantic con-
clusions and challenged the idea that prehistoric finds
were directly related to contemporary national com-
munities. Virchow was also active outside central
Europe as a delegate to international conferences
and as an archaeologist in Egypt, Turkey, and central
Asia. Virchow was equally significant as the organi-
zer of the German Anthropological Society and the
Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and
Prehistory, the most important networks for anthro-
pology and archaeology in Germany. Virchow’s
reputation as a leading scientist contributed to the
status of these organizations, and his efforts helped
to secure state support for Berlin’s Museum for Eth-
nology, which opened in 1886.
Traditional scholarship has admired Virchow’s
achievements in medicine and anthropology and
presented him as a champion of objective science
and rational reforms. Recent work, however, has
placed Virchow, German anthropology, and liber-
alism’s faith in science in a broader intellectual
context. In this rendering, Virchow’s interest in
studying human beings during an epoch of
national strength and imperialism contributed to
the rise of biological racism in Germany. This con-
trasts the idea of categorizing human differences,
which underpinned nineteenth-century anthropo-
logical thought, with Virchow’s liberal politics and
2425
VLADIVOSTOK
his public rejection of anti-Semitism and ethnic
definitions of nation-states. Beyond this debate
about the place of anthropology within German
history, Virchow stands as an extraordinary indivi-
dual. By the 1890s, he knew nine languages and
was recognized internationally as a tireless
researcher and a master synthesizer of medical and
anthropological knowledge. He was named to the
Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1873 and chosen
as rector of the University of Berlin in 1893.
Virchow was a true polymath who was able to grasp
and shape entire fields of study in a way that would
be unimaginable in the twenty-first century’s era of
scientific specialization.
See also Public Health.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ackerknecht, Erwin. Rudolf Virchow: Doctor, Statesman,
Anthropologist. Madison, Wisc., 1953. An admiring
survey of Virchow’s major ideas and publications.
McNeely, Ian. ‘‘Medicine on a Grand Scale’’: Rudolf
Virchow, Liberalism, and the Public Health. London,
2002. Draws attention to the connection between
political liberalism, science, and public health
policies.
Zimmerman, Andrew. Anthropology and Antihumanism
in Imperial Germany. Chicago, 2001. A recent study
that connects Virchow and German anthropology to
the history of imperialism and the rise of scientific
worldviews.
BRENT MANER
n founding of the Society for the Study of the Amur
VLADIVOSTOK. Founded in 1860, Vladi-
vostok became the major commercial and naval
port of the Russian Far East. Its history epitomizes
the challenges faced by tsarist Russia as a multi-
ethnic empire and as a military power in the north
Pacific.
Count Nikolai Muraviev-Amursky, governor-
general of Eastern Siberia, established the town
on the site of a Chinese hamlet before the region
was formally ceded by China to Russia. The name
he gave it, which translated to ‘‘Ruler of the
Orient,’’ belied its precariousness in an area con-
tested by the rival imperialist nations of Europe and
Japan. Situated at the end of a peninsula jutting 32
kilometers (20 miles) into Peter the Great Bay off
2426
the Sea of Japan, the Russian Navy had doubts
about moving its Far Eastern squadron there from
the more secure Nikolayevsk further north. The
port freezes over during winter, and maritime
access to the town can be controlled by hostile
navies (as occurred during the Russo-Japanese
War). Movement of settlers and transport of troops
to Vladivostok from the central Russian provinces
required travel along the slow and primitive over-
land routes across Siberia or over the high seas.
These communications deficiencies were among
the factors behind the decision to build the Trans-
Siberian Railroad. Groundbreaking for the railroad
took place at Vladivostok in 1892, but construction
along the Amur River, which connected the region
with the rest of Siberia, was deemed too expensive.
An alternative presented itself after 1896 when the
Russian government received permission to build
the Chinese Eastern Railroad through Manchuria.
In 1897 the Russians arranged a leasehold over the
Liaodong Peninsula, including the naval base at
Port Arthur and commercial port at Dalian
(Dalny), where a substantial amount of Vladivos-
tok’s commercial and naval traffic shifted. Tsarist
defeat in the subsequent Russo-Japanese War
(1904–1905) and withdrawal from southern
Manchuria led to the revival of Vladivostok, but
the strategic disadvantages remained.
By that time the town had grown from a
collection of huts to the largest city of Siberia, with
a population of nearly one hundred thousand. It
was the capital of the Maritime Territory and had
become a center of intellectual life with the
Region (1884) and the Oriental Institute (1899),
dedicated to the study of Asian languages. Com-
mercial activity also flourished in a modern district
featuring ten banks and branches of European,
Japanese, and Russian-owned firms. As a sign of
the growing reputation of the city, twelve nations
opened consulates there.
Russian policymakers were dissatisfied, how-
ever. The presence of ex-convicts, fugitives, and
Chinese bandits (hong huzi), along with a sizable
number of sailors and stevedores, made Vladivos-
tok the murder capital of Siberia. Foreign visitors
were struck by its cosmopolitanism, but also its
filth and violence. Russians who lived there lamen-
ted its isolation from European Russia.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

The demography of the city also alarmed the
central government, ever concerned about its loose
grip on a vast territory. In 1912 more than half the
legal residents of the city were Russians, but their
numbers were nearly balanced by 27,000 Chinese,
8,000 Koreans, and 3,000 Japanese. The city’s Asian
inhabitants dominated economic life, with Chinese
and Koreans making up 90 percent of the unskilled
labor force on the railroad and the docks and sup-
plying virtually all of the city’s produce, firewood,
water, and animal feed. The Japanese competed in
the service sector as barbers, servants, photographers,
and, most commonly, prostitutes—in brothels that
were often fronts for Japanese government espio-
nage operations. Although occasional fighting
broke out between Russians and Asians, intermar-
riage was a more common occurrence.
Russian officialdom’s fear of the ‘‘Yellow Peril’’
and desire to modernize through governmental
uniformity and Russification made the state of
affairs in Vladivostok seem a threat rather than an
opportunity. The Revolution of 1905 fueled these
anxieties as enlisted men awaiting repatriation from
the Russo-Japanese War rioted and Trans-Siberian
Railroad workers went out on strike. No major
socialist cells had been active in the city, and order
was restored quickly, but St. Petersburg felt com-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
VLADIVOSTOK
pelled to step up Russian migration to the town,
whose population grew by more than thirty
thousand before 1917. This ended up making the
town less secure for the government because
Russian workers were more politically conscious
and open to revolutionary agitation than the
Chinese coolies they displaced, although before
World War I the secret police kept these tendencies
in check. With an influx of refugees and prisoners
of war from the German and Austrian armies
and the rise of Bolshevik and Menshevik activism
after February 1917, the stage was set for the
upheavals experienced by the city in the coming
revolutionary and civil war years.
See also Russia; Russo-Japanese War; Siberia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kabuzan, V. M. Dal’nevostochnyi krai v XVII–nachale XX
vv., 1640–1917: Istoriko-demograficheskii ocherk.
Moscow, 1985.
Marks, Steven G. Road to Power: The Trans-Siberian Rail-
road and the Colonization of Asian Russia, 1850–1917.
Ithaca, N.Y., 1991.
Stephan, John J. The Russian Far East: A History. Stanford,
Calif., 1994.
STEVEN G. MARKS
2427
 W
n
WAGNER, RICHARD (1813–1883),
German composer.
Richard Wagner was the most prominent
German composer of the nineteenth century, but
he was much more than a musician; he was a social
movement in his own right, a focus of passionate
adulation and equally passionate condemnation.
Wagner was born on 22 May 1813. He came
into the world at a time of great political turmoil,
which was only fitting considering the turmoil he
would generate himself over the course of his life.
Napoleon I was defeated at the ‘‘Battle of the
Nations’’ near Leipzig in October 1813, a defeat
constituting the beginning of the end for the
French emperor but by no means the end of the
cascading changes brought on by the French Revo-
lution. Those changes helped define the political
and social context in which Wagner—a true Napoleon
of the arts—lived and worked.
EARLY YEARS
One of the victims of the typhus epidemic that swept
over Leipzig in the wake of the Battle of the Nations
was Friedrich Wagner, a police registrar and father of
nine children, the youngest being six-month-old
Richard. But in fact, Friedrich Wagner may not have
been Richard’s father at all, because Wagner’s
mother, Johanna, was intimate with a local painter
and poet named Ludwig Geyer, whom she then
married nine months after Friedrich’s death.
Although Geyer became the only father Richard
actually knew, the composer could never be sure
about the identity of his biological father. More
vexing still, at least in his eyes, was the suggestion
(since proven to be baseless) that Geyer was Jewish.
The thought that he might himself carry the ‘‘taint’’
of Jewish blood undoubtedly fueled Wagner’s grow-
ing anti-Semitic phobia. The composer’s enduring
anxieties about his origins also found expression in
his operas, which, among other idiosyncrasies,
betray an obsession with fatherless children.
The first years of Wagner’s childhood were
happy and secure enough, for Geyer obtained a
position in the court theater in Dresden and
dutifully cared for the large family he had inher-
ited. Geyer died, however, when Richard was only
eight, leaving an emotional hole in the boy’s life.
Before departing the scene, Geyer passed on to his
youngest son a budding passion for things thea-
trical. In introducing the boy to the Romantic
composer Carl Maria von Weber, Geyer also
kindled in him an enthusiasm for music. As a
schoolboy, however, Wagner did not demonstrate
any great skill in music—certainly he was no child
prodigy like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. His pri-
mary interest was in drama, especially William
Shakespeare, who appealed to his sense for the
fantastic and grotesque. He also cultivated a
passion for the ancient Greek tragedians, whose
influence, like that of Shakespeare’s, later
appeared prominently in his operas.
Wagner began his study of musical composi-
tion in his late teens, when he fell under the electri-
fying influence of Ludwig van Beethoven. His
first significant musical undertaking was a piano
2429
WAGNER, RICHARD
Richard Wagner. Chalk portrait by Franz von Lenbach.
SNARK/ART RESOURCE, NY
transcription of Beethoven’s Choral Symphony. At
Leipzig’s Thomasschule he took violin lessons from
a member of the Gewandhaus Orchestra, and he
studied counterpoint and harmony with the cantor
of the Thomaskirche, where Johann Sebastian Bach
had worked a century earlier. Yet musical study
was by no means Wagner’s sole preoccupation.
Upon entering Leipzig University he became
caught up in the rowdiness of student life, and in
1830, when the revolutionary spirit emanating from
France spread to Leipzig, Wagner enthusiastically
joined a mob of students in sacking a brothel and
laying siege to a prison.
FIRST OPERAS
Wagner’s initial forays into operatic composition did
not give much evidence of the innovative mold
breaker he was to become as a mature artist. His
first three operas, Die Feen (1833–1834; The fairies),
Das Liebesverbot (1834–1836; The ban on love), and
Rienzi (1837–1840), followed in the traditions of
German and Italian Romantic opera, employing
2430
the conventional recitative, aria, duet, and choral
forms. While writing these pieces, and for some time
thereafter, Wagner was forced to make his living
conducting other men’s works in provincial theaters.
Meagerly compensated for these duties, but deter-
mined not to live like a church mouse, Wagner began
to run up large debts. Money problems and creditor-
evasion would remain fixtures in his life.
The need to escape creditors lay partly behind
Wagner’s move to Paris in 1839. As an impover-
ished and unknown provincial from Germany,
Wagner was in no position to make an impact in
Louis-Philippe’s Paris, where charismatic virtuosi
such as Franz Liszt and Frédéric Chopin ruled the
day. While in Paris Wagner received invaluable
assistance from the German-Jewish composer Gia-
como Meyerbeer, whom Wagner later came to
despise and to blame for all the tribulations that
attended his sojourn in Paris. In his essay Das
Judentum in der Musik (1850; Judaism in music),
Wagner held up Meyerbeer as an example of
alleged creative sterility among Jews.
DER FLIEGENDE HOLLÄNDER AND
LATER WORKS
Wagner’s opera Der fliegende Holländer (The fly-
ing Dutchman) premiered (with Meyerbeer’s assis-
tance) in Dresden in 1843. Although this work
still contained many trappings of conventional
opera, it anticipated the composer’s later ‘‘music-
dramas’’ in its use of leitmotivs. Holländer was not
a critical or popular success, and Wagner began
increasingly to clash with the musical establish-
ment. The clashes continued during his tenure as
Kapellmeister (a conducting post) at the Royal
Court of Saxony in Dresden, where he served from
1843 to 1849. Although he was able to get his next
opera, Tannhäuser, mounted in Dresden in 1845,
he fought with the orchestra and court officials
over its staging. When the revolutionary turmoil
of 1848 swept into Saxony the following year he
joined in the fighting, motivated both by political
idealism and the hope that a new social-political
order might be more receptive to his work.
As a result of his participation in the abortive
Saxon revolution, Wagner was obliged to flee to
Switzerland, beginning an exile in that land that
would span, with various interruptions, some
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

twenty-three years. Here he composed Der Ring
des Nibelungen (1851–1874), Tristan und Isolde
(1857–1859), and Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg
(1862–1867), as well as his seminal prose essays
Die Kunst und die Revolution (1849; Art and revo-
lution) and Das Kunstwerk der Zukunft (1849; The
artwork of the future). In the prose works he called
for an artistic revolution through which traditional
operatic forms would give way to a ‘‘total work of
art’’ uniting poetry, music, drama, and dance in a
profound exploration of the human condition. His
music-dramas, above all Der Ring, Tristan, and
Parsifal (1877–1882), put this ambitious concep-
tion into practice.
BAYREUTH FESTIVAL
In order to translate his aesthetic ideals to the stage
Wagner felt he needed a new kind of opera house,
which in turn demanded a generous patron. The
composer believed he had found his ‘‘angel’’ in
young King Louis II of Bavaria, who upon coming
to the throne in 1864 called Wagner to Munich
and promised to build him a new theater there.
However, Wagner’s luxurious living at state
expense, his meddling in royal politics, and his
notorious affair with Cosima von Bülow, the wife
of the pianist and conductor Hans von Bülow and
illegitimate daughter of Liszt, so soured the people
of Munich that Louis was forced to send Wagner
away in late 1865. (Wagner married Cosima in
1870, following her divorce from Bülow.) He
returned to exile in Switzerland until 1872, when,
following the establishment of the new German
empire, he moved to Bayreuth, in northern
Bavaria, in hopes of finally realizing his dream of
building a special theater for the production of his
work. The choice of Bayreuth was motivated partly
by Wagner’s desire once again to exploit the
largesse of Louis, but also by his hope of casting
his envisaged annual music festival as an ‘‘artistic
sister’’ of German unification, thereby securing
financial support from the imperial government.
In the end Wagner proved unable to win significant
backing from Berlin, but with help from Louis and
an innovative subscription system he was able to
launch his ‘‘Richard Wagner Festival’’ with the first
complete Ring production in 1876.
The inaugural Bayreuth festival was not a success
financially, and Wagner was unable to put on another
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WAGNER, RICHARD
festival until 1882, when he premiered Parsifal. As
conductor for this performance Wagner employed
Hermann Levi, a Jew, whose services he was
obliged to accept under an agreement with Louis.
Among the harshest critics of Parsifal, and
indeed of the entire Bayreuth enterprise, was the
philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. Earlier on
Nietzsche had been a fervent admirer of Wagner,
whose concept of the ‘‘total work of art’’ helped
inspire Nietzsche’s first book, The Birth of Tragedy
(1872). But Nietzsche was disgusted by what he saw
as Wagner’s surrender to Christianity in Parsifal, and
by the composer’s toadying to the imperial govern-
ment in his efforts to fund Bayreuth. Wagner, who
had been flattered by Nietzsche’s adulation, was dee-
ply wounded by the criticism. The two former friends
remained estranged on Wagner’s death in 1883.
WAGNER AND NAZISM
In addition to launching the Bayreuth music festi-
val, which Cosima Wagner carried on after his
death, Wagner brought together in Bayreuth a
coterie of disciples who dedicated themselves to
perpetuating his musical and philosophical legacy.
Known as the Bayreuth Circle, this group inter-
preted the composer’s contradictory ideas one-
sidedly as an endorsement of the authoritarian,
racist, and chauvinistic views they themselves
championed. Their influence, along with Adolf
Hitler’s personal infatuation with Wagner’s operas,
later turned Bayreuth into a kind of ‘‘court thea-
ter’’ for the Third Reich. Ever since, some com-
mentators have seen Wagner as an intellectual
‘‘forefather’’ of Nazism.
The question of Wagner’s connection to
Nazism continues to inspire impassioned debate
among historians and cultural critics, as does the
relationship between his political ideas and his
music. Is Wagner’s art indelibly ‘‘corrupted’’ by his
sociopolitical views? Can one enjoy his music with
a clear conscience? These questions will probably
persist as long as Wagner’s operas are performed.
See also Beethoven, Ludwig van; Liszt, Franz; Louis II;
Nietzsche, Friedrich; Revolutions of 1848.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gray, Howard. Wagner. London, 1990.
2431
W A L D E C K - R O U S S E A U , R E N É
Gregor-Dellin, Martin. Richard Wagner: His Life, His
Work, His Century. Translated by J. Maxwell Brown-
john. San Diego, Calif., 1983.
Gutman, Robert W. Richard Wagner: The Man, His Mind,
and His Music. New York, 1968.
Large, David Clay, and William Weber, eds. Wagnerism in
European Culture and Politics. Ithaca, N.Y., 1984.
Millington, Barry, ed. The Wagner Compendium: A Guide
to Wagner’s Life and Music. London, 1992.
DAVID CLAY LARGE
n
WALDECK-ROUSSEAU, RENÉ (1846–
1904), prime minister of France (1899–1902) and
a central figure in the campaign to separate church
and state.
Pierre-Marie-René Waldeck-Rousseau was born
in western France, the son of a lawyer from Nantes
who served in the Constituent Assembly of 1848
that established the Second Republic. He followed
his father’s career, but had only moderate success in
his practice at Rennes (Brittany). Waldeck-Rousseau
was educated in Catholic schools, but had left the
church and supported the anticlerical republicanism
of Léon Gambetta (1838–1882). He joined the
Gambettist republican party at Rennes and was
elected at age thirty-two to the Chamber of Depu-
ties in the republican landslide of 1879.
Waldeck-Rousseau joined Gambetta’s oppor-
tunist faction in the Chamber, and was rewarded
with the Ministry of the Interior in Gambetta’s
only cabinet (1881–1882). In these years he devel-
oped a liberal republicanism, supporting individual
liberty and championing the Press Law of 1881
that created broad freedom of the press. When he
stood for reelection in 1881, his program stressed
the freedom of labor. As minister, Waldeck-
Rousseau drafted a law of associations granting
workers full rights of unionization. Gambetta died
before this law could be adopted, and Waldeck-
Rousseau joined many Gambettists in supporting
Jules Ferry (1832–1893). He received the Ministry
of the Interior in Ferry’s government of
1884–1885, in which post he won adoption of
the Law of Associations in 1884, a law often
referred to as the Waldeck-Rousseau Law.
2432
When Ferry was driven from office in 1885, and
the climate of opinion shifted against liberal reforms,
Waldeck-Rousseau lost interest in parliamentary
life. He chose not to stand for reelection in 1889
and devoted himself to his Parisian legal practice.
Waldeck-Rousseau’s mastery of the civil code, atten-
tion to detail, and skill at untangling complexity
earned him considerable wealth in commercial law.
CHURCH AND STATE
After a decade in retirement from politics, Waldeck-
Rousseau was persuaded to run for a vacant senate
seat from the Loire in 1894 and was elected by such
an overwhelming margin that friends persuaded him
to run for the presidency in 1895, although he lost to
Félix Faure (1841–1899). He returned to the senate
for a full term in 1897, again by a huge margin.
Rather than champion legislative causes, Waldeck-
Rousseau used his political popularity to work behind
the scenes to construct a ‘‘great republican circle’’
linking all elements of French republicanism. This
put Waldeck-Rousseau in a respected, centrist repub-
lican position during the most tumultuous phase of
the Dreyfus affair, with the result that he was asked to
form a cabinet in June 1899, following the repub-
lican electoral victory.
Waldeck-Rousseau served as prime minister for
one of the longest terms of the Third Republic
(1899–1902) and did so at a time of great national
crisis. He tried to create a cabinet with broad
appeal, taking the Ministry of the Interior and
Religion for himself, retaining Theophile Delcassé
(1852–1923) at the Quai d’Orsay, and including
such diverse figures as General Gaston-Alexandre-
Auguste de Galliffet (1830–1909, who had led the
suppression of the Paris Commune of 1871 and
was detested on the left) at the Ministry of War and
Alexandre Millerand (1859–1943, the first socialist
to sit in a government) at the Ministry of Com-
merce and Industry.
Waldeck-Rousseau steered France through a
period of labor unrest, critical court cases asso-
ciated with the Dreyfus affair, and the beginning
phases of the radical anticlericalism of the early
twentieth century. He strove to maintain a moder-
ate course on questions concerning the church, and
he opposed the separation of church and state,
although he merely postponed it for a few years.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

The debate on religion under Waldeck-Rousseau
focused on revising the Law of Associations. In
November 1899, he drafted a bill to apply this
law to religious congregations. The debate on this
bill, and the application of the resulting Law of
Associations of 1901, accelerated the demand for
the separation of church and state, and this ulti-
mately led to Waldeck-Rousseau’s resignation. He
had wanted government control over the Catholic
religious orders, allowing them some freedom to
act (analogous to his law for workers in 1884).
Instead, the Law of Associations of 1901 became
the instrument by which most religious orders were
disbanded.
Although his republican coalition won a major
electoral victory in June 1902, the discouraged
prime minister chose to retire, citing his health.
His successor, Emile Combes (1835–1921), then
carried out the anticlerical agenda of separation;
Waldeck-Rousseau died following an operation
for cancer of the pancreas in 1904.
See also Caillaux, Joseph; Clemenceau, Georges;
Gambetta, Léon-Michel; Separation of Church
and State (France, 1905).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Waldeck-Rousseau, René. La Défense républicaine. Paris,
1902.
———. Action républicaine et sociale. Paris, 1903.
———. Politique française et étrangère. Paris, 1903.
Secondary Sources
Partin, Martin O. Waldeck-Rousseau, Combes, and the
Church: The Politics of Anti-Clericalism, 1899–1905.
Durham, N.C., 1969.
Sorlin, Pierre. Waldeck-Rousseau. Paris, 1966.
STEVEN C. HAUSE
n graphic change was striking. Population growth
WALES. In 1845 Frederick Engels commented
that the Welsh ‘‘retain pertinaciously’’ their separate
nationality. This sense of nationality was often
retained against the condescension of the English.
The position of Wales in the United Kingdom
differed from that of Scotland or Ireland because
Wales had been ‘‘incorporated’’ in the English realm
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WALES
in the sixteenth century rather than joined by parlia-
mentary union as Scotland had been in 1707 or as
Ireland would be in 1800. Consequently, Wales had
few institutional expressions of its identity, and the
nineteenth century would see the creation of many
of its modern national institutions. Initially, how-
ever, this lack of distinctively Welsh institutions
created a cultural space for religion, especially Pro-
testant Nonconformity, to thrive and become a
powerful marker of national identity. During the
nineteenth century the national movement would
be primarily concerned with achieving parity with
the other nations of Britain, a brief attempt in the
1880s and 1890s to achieve self-government within
the United Kingdom notwithstanding. With the
expansion of the franchise during the century, most
Welsh people developed a sense of citizenship
rooted in a dual identity based on their linguistic
and religious particularity on the one hand and
loyalty to the British state on the other.
At the end of the eighteenth century Wales was a
thinly peopled country on the verge of momentous
new changes. The majority of the people worked the
land on poor upland farms dominated by a tiny
aristocratic elite, while towns were small-scale and
functioned as hubs of regional markets and cultural
life. The impact of industrialization in the late eight-
eenth and early nineteenth centuries was profound.
This first phase consisted of mining and the
manufacture of metals like copper and iron in some
of the biggest industrial concerns in the world. These
developments were mainly financed by English capi-
talists. In the south of the country, small villages like
Merthyr Tydfil were transformed into thriving, if
socially unstable, urban centers, whereas ports like
Swansea experienced more measured growth. The
country was affected by the political ferment of the
late eighteenth century, with Welshmen like Richard
Price and David Williams becoming philosophers of
the American and French Revolutions.
In a country with a sparse population, demo-
comfortably exceeded 10 percent in every decade
during the first half of the nineteenth century,
rising to nearly 18 percent in the decade from
1811 to 1821. Much of this growth was experienced
in the countryside, where agriculture was unable to
absorb the excess and migration to the towns acted
as a safety valve. Even so, major agrarian disturbances
2433
WALES
TABLE 1
Population of Wales, 1801–1911
Year Population
1801 601,767
1811 688,774
1821 811,381
1831 924,329
1841 1,068,547
1851 1,188,914
1861 1,312,834
1871 1,421,670
1881 1,577,559
1891 1,776,405
1901 2,015,012
1911 2,442,041
SOURCE: Data from Census of England and Wales, 1801–1911.
erupted in southwest Wales in the form of the
Rebecca riots (1839–1844). Whereas some histor-
ians see this episode as an expression of anger by the
small farmers, others interpret it as community revolt
with much wider social appeal. At the same time, the
Chartist movement took root in other parts of the
country. By mid-1839 about one-fifth of the popu-
lation of south Wales were Chartists. Thousands of
armed rebels marched on Newport on 4 November
1839 in what was intended to be the first step in a
British rising. At least twenty-two were shot by the
waiting soldiers and the rising failed. The movement
revived in 1842 and 1848 but never regained the
same momentum as in its early days.
STABILITY AND PROGRESS
The transition from the agrarian and industrial
revolt of the 1830s and 1840s to the period of
mid-Victorian stability and political quiescence is
one of the most striking developments of nine-
teenth-century Wales. It was a result of the stabiliz-
ing effect of the growth of railways, an increasing
attachment to political reformism following the
failure of Chartism, and the growing influence of
the Nonconformist chapels. Public debate in these
decades was shaped by religious allegiances. In
1851 a little more than half the population
attended a place of worship, over three-quarters
of whom did so in a Nonconformist chapel. Reli-
gious revivalism—like the trans-Atlantic revival of
1859—swelled the ranks of the denominations in
both rural and industrial areas. Together with a
popular culture rooted in the ideals of respectabil-
2434
ity and sobriety, the country was provided with the
components for a new sense of national identity.
Central to this was an episode known as ‘‘the
% Change
Treachery of the Blue Books.’’ In 1847 govern-
—
ment education commissioners published a report
14.5 that denigrated the morals of the Welsh people as a
17.8
13.9 whole, and more particularly those of women. This
15.6 inaugurated a campaign to restore the reputation
11.3
10.6 of the Welsh people, conducted from the pulpit, in
9.7 public meetings and especially in the newspaper
11.1
12.6 and periodical press in both Welsh and English
13.5
18.6
languages. As well as the respectable public face of
Wales, however, social tensions occasionally pro-
duced conflict, such as with the frequent anti-Irish
riots in the towns and the widespread conflicts over
poaching in rural areas.
This period of cultural change is epitomized by
the re-establishment, from 1858, of the annual
National Eisteddfod, a popular cultural festival
based on literary and musical competition, which
was held in a different part of the country each
year. Although drawing heavily on ‘‘traditional’’
culture, it ensured mass appeal because of a combi-
nation of the rise in literacy and the expansion of
the press in both languages. Such cultural innova-
tions were underpinned by economic change. The
coal industry grew rapidly in south Wales in mid-
century, as did slate quarrying in the northeast.
Whereas in 1851 less than 20 percent of the popu-
lation lived in settlements of more than five
thousand inhabitants, just under 50 percent did
so by 1891, and the trend was inexorably in this
direction. Between 1850 and 1870 some 2,300
kilometers of railway were built to connect these
towns. The creation of a dense railway network
linked the different parts of the country in ways
previously unthought of and went some way
toward unifying the country.
LIBERALISM AND THE NATION
A striking feature of politics after the Reform Act
of 1867 was the overwhelming dominance of the
Liberal Party, which won a clear majority of Welsh
parliamentary seats in every election until 1922.
As a result, some historians see this one-party
domination as the creation of a national move-
ment, while others portray the Liberal hegemony
in terms of the rise of middle-class leadership. The
party provided a voice for those outside the estab-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Portrait of a Welsh market woman, Carmarthen,
Wales, c. 1900. ªHULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS
lishment, including industrialists, professionals,
farmers, and other members of the middle class.
In an attempt to mobilize the people against an
Anglicized aristocracy and the established church,
the Liberal MP Henry Richard asserted that ‘‘the
Nonconformists of Wales are the people of
Wales.’’ In the 1880s and 1890s the party was a
vehicle for ambitious young men like Tom Ellis
and David Lloyd George, who combined a radical
social agenda with nationalism. Their aim was
parity with the other nations of the United King-
dom, rather than separatism, and parliament
passed distinctive legislation for Wales for the first
time in the 1880s on matters such as temperance
and education. In 1893 a federal University of
Wales was established, and it rapidly became an
influential cultural institution.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WALES
Some major issues remained unresolved.
Although not as serious as the Irish land question,
rural grievances remained intractable. Between
1886 and 1891 a tithe war broke out throughout
rural Wales, partly as a consequence of the interna-
tional agricultural depression. In 1887 only 10.2
percent of the land was owned by the men and
women who farmed it, and landlordism remained
a powerful force. But between 1910 and 1914 all
the major landowners began to sell land, and it was
bought overwhelmingly by their tenants; thus on
the eve of war, power relations in rural society
were changing dramatically. This was a harbinger
of a more fundamental social revolution in the
countryside after 1918. The cornerstone of
Welsh Liberal demands, disestablishment of the
Church of England in Wales, remained unresolved
until 1919.
A concern with establishing national institu-
tions permeated popular culture, as witnessed by
the creation of the Football Association of Wales
(1876) and the Welsh Rugby Union (1881), both
of which facilitated competition on the inter-
national stage; the competition of nonstate nation-
alities in international sporting competitions is a
peculiar feature of British life that originated at this
time. Rugby, in particular, came to be regarded as a
popular embodiment of Welsh identity. Other
sports, like boxing, also flourished, with boxers
such as Jim Driscoll and Freddie Welsh winning
international acclaim.
PEOPLE, LANGUAGE, AND GENDER
Population growth quickened once again from the
1880s and in-migration was mainly responsible for
an increase of more than 18 percent during the first
decade of the twentieth century. Regional dispari-
ties became acute from this decade, with 46 per-
cent of the country’s population residing in the
single county of Glamorgan by 1911. The export-
oriented coal industry drew in large numbers of
migrants from rural Wales and from England and
transformed the industrial valleys of south Wales
into frontier towns, while at the same time fueling
the dramatic growth of ports like Cardiff and Barry.
These far-reaching changes produced two long-
term social trends: first, regarding language, and
second, regarding the balance between the sexes in
industrial society. By 1901 only a little over half the
2435
WALES
Young miners wash coal in Bargoed, Wales, 1910. ªHULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS
population spoke the Welsh language, a proportion
that dropped below half during the following
decade for the first time in history. By 1891 nearly
17 percent of the population was English-born.
Industrial society was skewed numerically in favor
of males, and the quintessential symbols of this
culture were masculine: the coalminer, slate quarry-
man, rugby player, and male chorister. By contrast,
the only significant female symbol in this period was
the Welsh ‘‘mam’’ (mother), a figure associated with
home and hearth. Such gendered conceptions of
class and national identity were influential for
much of the following century.
Liberalism still dominated the political land-
scape, with not a single Conservative MP being
elected from Wales in the landslide election of
1906. The first socialist MP, Keir Hardie, was elected
at Merthyr Tydfil in 1900. Mass trade unions gained
increasing importance; the South Wales Miners’
2436
Federation, which became the most important insti-
tution in Welsh life during the first half of the twen-
tieth century, was founded in 1898. The years after
1909, usually termed the Great Unrest, mark some-
thing of a watershed in industrial society. Industrial
disputes were numerous during these years and ser-
ious riots erupted, including anti-Semitic and anti-
Chinese disturbances. Syndicalist ideas found a
receptive audience in some quarters. The consensual
politics of the older trade union leaders were brus-
quely swept aside. At the same time, the women’s
suffrage movement became more militant, contri-
buting to an atmosphere of general social malaise.
These events stand in stark contrast to the extrava-
gant royal pageantry associated with the Investiture
of the Prince of Wales at Caernarfon Castle in north
Wales in 1911.
By the eve of World War I, Wales had been
transformed by economic, demographic, cultural,
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

and political developments. It was overwhelmingly
an industrial and urban country and had one of the
densest railway networks in the world. It remained
one of Engels’s submerged ‘‘unhistoric nations,’’
but a national revival had taken place, and new
national cultural institutions had been created.
See also Great Britain; Ireland; Scotland.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Davies, John. A History of Wales. London, 1993.
Jenkins, Geraint H., ed. The Welsh Language and Social
Domains in the Nineteenth Century, 1801–1911.
Cardiff, 2000.
Jenkins, Philip. A History of Modern Wales, 1536–1990.
London, 1992.
John, Angela V., ed. Our Mothers’ Land: Chapters in Welsh
Women’s History, 1800–1939. Cardiff, 1991.
Jones, David J. V. Rebecca’s Children: A Study of Rural
Society, Crime and Protest. Oxford, U.K., and New
York, 1989.
Jones, Gareth Elwyn, and Dai Smith, eds. The Peoples of
Wales. Llandysul, Wales, 1999.
Jones, Ieuan Gwynedd. Mid-Victorian Wales: The Observers
and the Observed. Cardiff, 1992.
Morgan, Kenneth O. Wales in British Politics, 1868–1922.
3rd ed. Cardiff, 1980.
O’Leary, Paul. Immigration and Integration: The Irish in
Wales, 1798–1922. Cardiff, 2000.
Williams, Gwyn A. When Was Wales? A History of the Welsh.
Harmondsworth, U.K., 1985.
PAUL O’LEARY
n thereafter. Wallace learned the rugged ropes of
WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823–
1913), British naturalist, geographer, humanist,
and social critic.
Discoverer and champion of the theory of
evolution by natural selection, Wallace was one of
nineteenth-century Britain’s most outspoken intel-
lectuals. His insights into evolution are his most
enduring legacy, and much has been written about
his relationship with his famous friend and col-
league, Charles Darwin (1809–1882). Wallace’s
interests and publications ranged beyond evolu-
tionary biology into political and spiritual arenas,
much to the disappointment of Darwin and many
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL
of his scientific colleagues. The disagreements
between the two founders of modern evolutionary
theory remain unresolved, both within and beyond
the scientific community. In his later years Wallace
believed in a unity that underlay all physical, biolo-
gical, social, and spiritual phenomena. Some of his
later books, such as Darwinism (1889) and Studies
Scientific and Social (1900), exemplify the evolu-
tionary theism that surrounded his scientific ana-
lyses of the whole of nature.
He was the eighth of nine children born to
Mary Anne Greenell and Thomas Vere Wallace,
but only Alfred and two of his siblings survived
past early adulthood. His family could barely afford
the six years of formal education he received at the
one-room Hertford Grammar School. Wallace, like
his father, never held a permanent job and suffered
from financial difficulties throughout his life. He
married in 1866 and two of his three children
survived to adulthood.
In his youth, Wallace was exposed to secular
and reformist political ideas as well as to phrenol-
ogy and mesmerism. He became self-educated in
various branches of science and natural history
while working as a surveyor, and for a short
time as a teacher. Well-read in the natural history
literature of the day, Wallace shared his reactions
with his new friend Henry Walter Bates, who intro-
duced him to entomology. Deeply intrigued by
the question of the origin of species, Wallace pro-
posed to Bates that they travel to South America
as self-employed specimen collectors for the then-
growing natural history trade. The traveled
together to Brazil in 1848 and parted ways shortly
tropical fieldwork during four years of collecting
in the Amazon basin. Although he amassed thou-
sands of birds and insects, his specimens and most
of his notes were destroyed in a fire at sea. Never-
theless, Wallace published several scientific articles
and two books, and made enough of a name for
himself in London’s scientific circles to embark
on a journey to the Malay Archipelago (Malaysia,
Indonesia, and part of New Guinea) as a fellow of
the Royal Geographical Society.
Wallace traveled widely among the islands from
1854 to 1862, collecting biological specimens for
his own research and for sale, and writing scores of
2437
WARFARE
scientific articles. He would be well known to nat-
uralists for his collections alone, amassing more
than 125,000 specimens, hundreds of which were
new to science. Here he penned the essay for which
he is now best known, in which he proposed that
new species arise by the progression and continued
divergence of varieties.
Wallace returned to England at the age of
thirty-nine and continued to make significant con-
tributions to natural history, especially The Geogra-
phical Distribution of Animals in 1876, but his
views on spiritualism and human evolution fell out-
side of the scientific naturalism that dominated
scientific thought.
He died at the age of ninety, having published
twenty-one books, including a two-volume autobio-
graphy in 1905, and over seven hundred articles,
essays, and letters. Wallace has been variously char-
acterized as the nineteenth century’s greatest
explorer-naturalist, the quintessential outsider, a spur
to Darwin, and a crank. In the early twenty-first
century scholars have begun to expand on the lim-
ited biographies of Wallace that prevailed in the
twentieth century. These works (especially those
by Fichman and Slotten) present a more complex
figure, a fiercely intellectual but no less spiritual man,
a brave and original thinker, who while shaping the
history of modern Western science was also shaped
by progressivism and by a rising tide of socialist and
spiritualist beliefs. He believed that his most impor-
tant contribution was the extension of natural selec-
tion into the social realm. For Wallace, improvement
of the human race depended on natural selection
acting on well-educated, economically free men and
women in an egalitarian social system.
See also Darwin, Charles; Evolution; Huxley, Thomas
Henry.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Camerini, Jane R., ed. The Alfred Russel Wallace Reader: A
Selection of Writings from the Field. Baltimore, Md.,
2002.
Fichman, Martin. An Elusive Victorian: The Evolution of
Alfred Russel Wallace. Chicago, 2003.
Moore, James. ‘‘Wallace’s Malthusian Moment: The Com-
mon Context Revisited.’’ In Victorian Science in Context,
edited by Bernard Lightman, 290–311. Chicago, 1997.
Raby, Peter. Alfred Russel Wallace: A Life. London, 2001.
2438
Slotten, Ross A. The Heretic in Darwin’s Court.
New York, 2004.
JANE R. CAMERINI
WARFARE. See Armies; Military Tactics.
n
WAR OF 1812. The war that began in 1812
between the United States and Great Britain
resulted from the French Revolutionary and Napo-
leonic Wars of the 1790s and early 1800s. Both
France and Britain violated American neutral rights,
and the United States objected to these transgres-
sions. Ultimately, America exhausted both its
diplomacy and its patience, declaring war on Brit-
ain on 18 June 1812. Preoccupied by its fight with
Napoleon, Great Britain tried at the last minute to
avoid war with the United States, and efforts were
under way from its outset to conclude it. None-
theless, the war lasted for two and a half years and
would be instrumental in transforming Anglo-
American relations from suspicious enmity to grud-
ging respect and eventually firm partnership.
CAUSES
During the early years of the Franco-British con-
flict, the United States prospered because Euro-
pean powers used neutral shippers to supply their
colonies. Yet the breakdown of the Peace of Amiens
(1802) in 1803 abruptly changed that situation as
France renewed its war against Britain. When
Admiral Horatio Nelson decisively defeated the
French fleet off Trafalgar (21 October 1805) and
Napoleon crushed Britain’s continental allies at
Austerlitz (2 December 1805), a stalemate resulted
with Britain’s Royal Navy supreme on the seas and
Napoleon’s Grande Armée apparently invincible in
Europe. Unable to fight each other by force of
arms, the two powers resorted to commercial war-
fare, a move that unavoidably targeted the United
States, which was claiming the right as a neutral to
trade with both countries. Although both Britain’s
Orders in Council and France’s Berlin and Milan
decrees restricted American trade, most Americans
found British behavior more offensive because of
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

the Royal Navy’s use of impressment—the abduc-
tion of sailors from American merchant vessels—to
man British warships.
In 1807, impressment nearly provoked war
when HMS Leopard waylaid the U.S. Navy frigate
Chesapeake and seized four of her sailors. Rather
than resorting to war, however, President Thomas
Jefferson persuaded Congress to pass the Embargo
Act in December 1807. The plan was to deprive
warring Europeans of U.S. trade until they respected
American neutral rights, but commercial restriction
failed as Americans openly flouted the embargo
and seethed under government efforts to enforce
it. Congress repealed the unsuccessful embargo in
1809 but continued commercial restriction with
the temporary Non-Intercourse Act (1809) and
Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810). Both were failures,
but Macon’s Bill No. 2 was an embarrassing one:
the United States resumed trade with the entire
world, including Britain and France, but pledged
to sustain it with the country that ended trade
restrictions and stop it with the other. Napoleon,
a master of deceit, hinted he would drop his restric-
tions, an obvious lie that President James Madison
chose to treat as truth. The United States stopped
trade with Britain.
As Anglo-American tensions mounted in
1811, other issues drove the countries toward
war. Indian unrest on America’s western frontier
was actually the result of indigenous native resis-
tance led by the Shawnee Tecumseh and his
brother Tenskwatawa (‘‘the Prophet’’), but many
Americans believed it to be the product of British
agitation. When Indiana territorial governor William
Henry Harrison destroyed Tecumseh and the
Prophet’s town at the Battle of Tippecanoe
(7 November 1811), it drove the Indians into a
British alliance.
In late 1811, Madison called Congress into
special session, and a prominent faction, the War
Hawks, urged a resolute defense of American
honor and security. The most popular War Hawk,
Kentuckian Henry Clay, was elected Speaker of the
House and steered a course that finally compelled
Madison to send a war message to Congress on 1
June 1812. Congress responded with a formal
declaration of war on 18 June 1812, but the divi-
sive congressional debates and close votes on the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WAR OF 1812
declaration were a portent of American disunity in
the coming conflict.
The minority Federalist Party doubted the
stated reasons for going to war with Great Britain.
Federalists accused Republicans of wanting to
expand American territory with the conquest of
Canada, not reclaim American honor and preserve
neutral rights. The war’s proponents were primarily
western and southern farmers, they noted, who were
improbable champions of free trade and sailors’
rights. New Englanders, who had the greater
material interest in protecting trade, were the war’s
most adamant opponents. Most scholars have con-
cluded, however, that these appearances are decep-
tive. Farmers had a stake in preserving access to
foreign markets for their produce and yearned to
protect American honor. Aside from any expansio-
nist schemes, the plan to invade Canada was dictated
by the fact that Canada was where the British were.
The United States declared war in 1812 to avenge
the insult of impressment and stop injuries caused
by the Royal Navy’s interference with America’s
overseas trade. Britain finally did realize the danger
of alienating the United States and was in the pro-
cess of repealing the Orders in Council while Con-
gress was voting for war, but the delay in receiving
this news from London made it irrelevant. Fighting
had already begun, and Britain, in any case, was
unwilling to abandon impressment.
THE WAR
Although Americans regarded Canada as a realistic
military objective, repeated attempts to invade and
occupy it proved fruitless. Occasionally they were
disastrous, as when Michigan territorial governor
William Hull’s 1812 campaign ended with his
surrendering Detroit, a catastrophe that exposed
the entire Northwest to British occupation and
Indian depredations. Hull’s replacement, William
Henry Harrison, barely kept an army together under
the British onslaught. Elsewhere along the Canadian
border in 1812 American plans proved equally inef-
fective, if not quite as ruinous. Brigadier General
Henry Dearborn’s political clashes with unwilling
New England state militias prevented a campaign
against Montreal, and the Niagara frontier proved
invulnerable to American invasion attempts.
This dismal chronicle might have sunk American
hopes altogether had it not been for the small U.S.
2439
WAR OF 1812
Navy’s unexpected success during the war’s open-
ing months. Because the Royal Navy was blockad-
ing Napoleonic Europe, it was short of ships for
the American conflict, and aggressive American
captains commanded skilled crews aboard powerful
frigates that were more than a match for their
British counterparts. Victories by celebrated ships
such as the USS United States and USS Constitu-
tion (dubbed ‘‘Old Ironsides’’ by her crew) thrilled
Americans and dismayed Britain. In 1813, how-
ever, the consequences of Napoleon’s ill-advised
invasion of Russia signaled a dramatic decline in
his fortunes, and more British ships could prose-
cute the American conflict. The Royal Navy
asserted its dominance in 1813, bottling up the
dangerous American frigates and mounting damag-
ing raids along the coast, especially in Chesapeake
Bay where Admiral Sir George Cockburn was
particularly destructive.
American attempts in 1813 to invade Canada at
first appeared to be just as futile as the previous
year’s had been. Dearborn crossed the Niagara River
but had limited success and lost all gains as he tried
to move into Upper Canada. The northeastern
Canadian border remained impervious as well.
Although the ineffectual Dearborn resigned, his
replacements, Major Generals James Wilkinson and
Wade Hampton, could not overcome personal dif-
ferences to stage a march on Montreal. On 10
September 1813, however, American commodore
Oliver Hazard Perry’s stunning victory over Sir
Robert Barclay’s squadron secured American con-
trol of Lake Erie. Perry’s soon famous message
of ‘‘we have met the enemy and he is ours’’ marked
the war’s turning point in the Northwest. William
Henry Harrison retook Detroit and hounded
its fleeing defenders under Brigadier General Henry
Procter, defeating them at the Battle of the Thames
(5 October 1813). Tecumseh’s death in the battle
ended Anglo-Indian cooperation in the region.
The contest’s decisive year would be 1814, for
Napoleon’s defeat and abdication (April 1814)
allowed Britain to shift veteran soldiers from Europe
to North America; meanwhile competent, aggres-
sive officers were given command of American
armies. In the spring, Major General Andrew Jackson
defeated Red Stick Creeks in the Mississippi Terri-
tory, and Major General Jacob Brown crossed the
Niagara River, took Fort Erie, and marched north
2440
to rendezvous with Commodore Isaac Chauncey’s
Lake Ontario squadron. Chauncey’s squadron
failed to appear, and Brown retreated, but not
before fighting the war’s bloodiest battle, a stalemate
at Lundy’s Lane (25 July 1814). Meanwhile, the
British launched offensive operations in upstate
New York and Chesapeake Bay. Major General
Robert Ross scattered green American militia at
Bladensburg, Maryland, and occupied Washington,
D.C. (24 August 1814), burning its public build-
ings, including the Capitol and Executive Mansion.
Following this symbolic but strategically irrelevant
success, the British attacked Baltimore (12–13
September 1814), but Fort McHenry, which pro-
tected Baltimore’s Inner Harbor, withstood a
relentless naval bombardment. When an American
sharpshooter’s bullet mortally wounded General
Ross, the British called off the attack. The British
invasion along Lake Champlain ended when an
American naval squadron under Commodore
Thomas Macdonough crippled Captain George
Downie’s ships on Plattsburgh Bay (11 September
1814), and at Plattsburgh, New York, Alexander
Macomb’s Americans repulsed veterans under
Canada’s governor-general Sir George Prevost.
PEACE
Despite these victories, New England dissidents
met at Hartford, Connecticut, in late 1814 to
voice grievances and protest the war. Occurring
in the shadow of recent American successes, the
Hartford Convention caused the rest of the coun-
try to question New England’s loyalty and the
Federalist Party’s patriotism. In addition, New
England dissent that insisted the war could only
end badly coincided with the war’s relatively accep-
table conclusion. American and British peace com-
missioners who had been meeting in Ghent since
late summer finally signed a peace treaty on Christ-
mas Eve, 1814. Although the Treaty of Ghent did
not address impressment or neutral rights, both
parties regarded it as a satisfactory termination of
the conflict. Britain had endured a quarter century
of war in Europe and was eager to rid itself of the
distraction of one in North America. The United
States was relieved to escape the grave conse-
quences of serious military defeat. The treaty thus
restored all territory to the status quo antebellum,
literally the situation as it existed before the war.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

The United States emerged from the contest
more energized and united than it had been before
or during it. Andrew Jackson’s crushing defeat of
Lieutenant General Sir Edward Pakenham’s forces
outside New Orleans on 8 January 1815 had
occurred after the signing at Ghent but before the
treaty’s ratification. The nearly simultaneous occur-
rence of Jackson’s victory and the news of the peace
convinced many Americans that they had won the
war. Britain, on the other hand, was ready to pursue
diplomatic efforts to conciliate Americans and reha-
bilitate relations with them. In the coming years,
important agreements both fixed and demilitarized
the U.S.-Canada border, and other disputes were
frequently submitted to arbitration. Anglo-Ameri-
can relations would occasionally be strained, but
they would never again break, marking an evolving
partnership that was to have a continuing and pro-
found impact on Europe and the rest of the world.
See also French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic
Wars; Great Britain; Imperialism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Coles, Harry L. The War of 1812. Chicago, 1965.
Heidler, David S., and Jeanne T. Heidler, eds. Encyclopedia
of the War of 1812. Annapolis, Md., 2004.
———. The War of 1812. Westport, Conn., 2002.
Hickey, Donald R. The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict.
Urbana, Ill., 1989.
Horsman, Reginald. The War of 1812. New York, 1969.
Mahon, John K. The War of 1812. Gainesville, Fla., 1972.
DAVID S. HEIDLER, JEANNE T. HEIDLER
n
WARSAW. Warsaw first rose to prominence in
the sixteenth century, when Poland and Lithuania
joined to form a united republic. Because the city
is located conveniently between the two capitals
of Cracow (Kraków) and Vilnius, and along the
Vistula River leading to the major port city of Gdańsk,
it was used for meetings of the Sejm (parliament)
from 1569, and as a royal residence from 1596.
During the next two centuries Warsaw was repeat-
edly damaged by warfare and political turmoil, and
the city’s economy was severely crippled. When
Poland was conquered and partitioned in 1795,
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WARSAW
Warsaw was relegated to the status of a provincial
town within the Kingdom of Prussia. The population
of the city fell in a few short years from a pre-partition
size of 150,000 to a mere 60,000 inhabitants.
Napoleon fashioned a puppet state called the
Duchy of Warsaw in 1807, thus returning a bit of
the city’s former importance. Although the duchy
fell with its founder, Warsaw remained a capital
after 1815 when the Congress of Vienna sponsored
the creation of the ‘‘Kingdom of Poland’’ as a
semiautonomous state linked to the Russian
Empire by a common hereditary ruler. The tsars
steadily eroded the self-rule of the kingdom, but
Warsaw retained its role as an administrative center.
Above all, though, it was the focal point of the
Polish national movement: Warsaw was the primary
site for political agitation and public demonstra-
tions, and it was the launching point for major
uprisings in 1830 and 1863. Because of Warsaw’s
symbolic importance, national independence is
traditionally dated from the moment the city came
under Polish authority on 11 November 1918.
After Warsaw was linked to the major regional
capitals by rail lines (Vienna from 1848, St. Petersburg
from 1862), it developed rapidly into a major
industrial and commercial center. Already in 1880
Warsaw had nearly 400,000 people, and by 1910 it
had 750,000, making it the third-largest city in the
Russian Empire and one of the fastest-growing
cities in Europe. It continued to expand after the
restoration of Polish independence, exceeding one
million people by 1925. Warsaw’s urban infrastruc-
ture and architecture grew apace with this popula-
tion growth: a modern sewage system was installed
in 1872, gas lines were laid in 1856, the first tram
line (horse-drawn) began service in 1866, a tele-
phone system was in place from 1881, and electric
power was available from 1903.
Most of Warsaw’s inhabitants in the nineteenth
century were Polish-speaking Roman Catholics,
but Jews made up more than one-third of the
population. Assimilation was limited, but certainly
more common in Warsaw than in the countryside
(the city’s main synagogue featured sermons in
Polish from the 1850s onward). An influx of rural
Jews at the end of the century increased the domi-
nance of the Yiddish-speaking population. There
were also about forty thousand Russian soldiers
2441
WATERLOO
stationed in and around Warsaw at the start of
the twentieth century.
Even during the era of the partitions, Warsaw
continued to be a focal point for Polish cultural,
intellectual, and artistic life. The city’s vibrant
theatrical scene featured the National Theater
Company, which was founded in 1765 and
housed from 1833 in a magnificent opera house
known as the Wielki Teatr (Great Theater).
Warsaw’s first major public art museum was cre-
ated in 1862 and renamed the National Museum
in 1916. The University of Warsaw was founded
in 1816, but it had a troubled history: between
1831 and 1862 it was closed because the tsarist
authorities feared student unrest, and between
1869 and 1915 Russian was the exclusive lan-
guage of instruction. Nonetheless, the university
produced many of the greatest intellectual and
cultural figures of the era, including most of the
so-callled Warsaw positivists (a late-nineteenth-
century political and literary movement defined
by a liberal worldview and a naturalistic style).
Though unable to serve as a center of political
authority in the nineteenth century, Warsaw
remained the symbolic capital of the country for
many cultural and intellectual purposes.
See also Austria-Hungary; Cities and Towns; Lithuania;
Nationalism; Poland; Prague; Russia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Corrsin, Stephen D. Warsaw before the First World War:
Poles and Jews in the Third City of the Russian Empire,
1880–1914. Boulder, Colo., 1989.
Drozdowski, Marian M., and Andrzej Zahorski. Historia
Warszawy. 4th ed. Warsaw, 1997.
Kieniewicz, Stefan. Warszawa w latach, 1795–1914.
Warsaw, 1976.
BRIAN PORTER
n After receiving Blücher’s promise of support,
WATERLOO. After eleven months of exile on
the Mediterranean island of Elba, Napoleon
Bonaparte returned to France in March 1815
and restored his empire. Meeting in Vienna to
discuss the postwar reorganization of Europe,
the Allies who had vanquished Napoleon one year
earlier wasted no time. Renewing their alliance to
2442
form the Seventh Coalition, Great Britain, Prussia,
Russia, and Austria planned to have armies totaling
almost 1 million men invade France by July. After
Napoleon failed to convince the allies of his peace-
ful intentions, he devised a strategy of knocking
one or more of the belligerents out of the war
before they could combine their forces and over-
whelm him.
Napoleon’s return did not catch the allies
wholly unprepared. Allied observation corps in
Belgium steadily received reinforcements during
the spring of 1815 to create an Anglo-Dutch army
of 90,000 men under the command of Arthur
Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington, and the Royal
Prussian Army of the Lower Rhine: 120,000 Prus-
sians under Field Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von
Blücher. Napoleon decided to strike these allied
forces with his own 125,000-man Army of the
North. After smashing through the Prussian forward
posts on 14 and 15 June, the emperor inflicted a
bruising defeat on Blücher at Ligny on the 16th
with the right wing of the French army. On the
same day, the left wing, under the command of
Marshal Michel Ney, encountered Wellington’s
army at Quatre Bras. The resulting stalemate
allowed Wellington to withdraw to Waterloo. The
confusion of the French I Corps, which marched
back and forth between Ligny and Quatre Bras
without participating in either battle, also allowed
the Prussian army to retreat unhindered north to
Wavre, fifteen miles east of Waterloo. A series of
blunders on the rainy day of 17 June placed the
French at a decided disadvantage. Napoleon incor-
rectly assumed that the Prussians had retreated
eastward along their line of communications, and
assigned 33,000 men under the command of
Marshal Emmanuel de Grouchy to drive Blücher
out of Belgium. He did not release the pursuit
until 11:00 A.M. Then Grouchy took the wrong
direction and failed to close the road between
Waterloo and Wavre.
Wellington took up a defensive position south of
Waterloo with 68,000 men and awaited Napoleon
and his 72,000 men on 18 June. While mud
prevented Napoleon from launching his attack until
11:30 A.M., the Prussian IV Corps commenced its
march to Waterloo at 4:30 A.M. followed by II and I
Corps—a total of 70,000 men. Blücher’s III Corps
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

remained at Wavre as rear guard and was eventually
attacked by Grouchy, but the combat had no
influence on the monumental events at Waterloo.
Napoleon opened the attack with a spirited
assault by his II Corps on the entrenched farm of
Hougoumont on Wellington’s right wing. The
garrison held, and two hours later, at 1:30 P.M.,
the French I Corps tested Wellington’s left and
eventually had to fall back. The British then coun-
tered with a cavalry charge that ground to a halt
before massed French artillery. Shortly thereafter
Napoleon noticed troops moving on his extreme
right; by 2:00 P.M. reports confirmed the approach
of Blücher’s Prussians. While Napoleon shifted
his reserves to meet the new threat on his right,
Ney squandered the French cavalry in massed,
unsupported charges between 3:45 and 5:00 P.M.
that failed to break the British infantry squares in
Wellington’s center. Just as the survivors of Ney’s
charges limped back to the French line, Blücher’s
IV Corps attacked the French right. As more
Prussian units arrived, Blücher extended his front
to threaten Napoleon’s line of retreat. While Napo-
leon oversaw the struggle against the Prussians
around the village of Plancenoit, Ney managed to
capture the fortified farm of La Haie Sainte around
6:00 P.M. With Wellington’s center almost bled
dry, Ney called for reinforcements, but all available
units had to be committed against the Prussians.
Napoleon eventually managed to shift his Imperial
Guard from Plancenoit to his center, but the
opportunity to destroy Wellington had passed. At
7:30 P.M., Napoleon ordered eight battalions of the
guard to spearhead one final assault against Well-
ington’s center. Wellington brought up his
last reserves, which repulsed the attacking guard.
Seeing the elite guardsmen routed and realizing
that Grouchy would not arrive in time, the French
army began fleeing the battlefield around 8:30 P.M.
Only two battalions of the Old Guard maintained
order to cover Napoleon’s exit from the battlefield.
French losses amounted to 33,000 men and
220 guns, while the Allied armies sustained
22,000 casualties.
The battle of Waterloo represents the climax of
Napoleon’s way of war. During the latter years
of his reign, he had experienced the consequences
of failing to develop an adequate general staff
system to direct the operations of multiple armies
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WEBB, BEATRICE POTTER
in theaters as far apart as Portugal and Russia. His
reluctance to nurture his subordinates in the art of
strategy and to create advanced military schools
for the training of officers inhibited the French
army’s ability to produce commanders who could
conduct independent operations. Just as Napoleon
exited the stage of history following the battle of
Waterloo, so too ended the age when operations
and battle could be directed solely by the genius
of one man.
See also French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic
Wars; Hundred Days; Napoleon; Wellington, Duke
of (Arthur Wellesley).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Siborne, William. History of the War in France and Belgium
in 1815. London, 1844.
Secondary Sources
Bowden, Scott. Armies at Waterloo. Arlington, Tex., 1983.
Chandler, David. Waterloo: The Hundred Days. London,
1980.
MICHAEL V. LEGGIERE
n
WEBB, BEATRICE POTTER (1858–
1943), British socialist.
Best known as a leader of the British Fabian
Society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, Beatrice Potter Webb was also an early
empirical sociologist, the author of important
works of social and political history, and a brilliant
diarist and autobiographer. The daughter of
Richard Potter (1817–1892), a railway magnate
and lumber merchant, and Lawrencina Heyworth
Potter (1821–1882), a bluestocking and would-be
novelist, she was raised with her eight sisters by
nannies and governesses on a Gloucestershire
estate and in a London flat during the Season.
Her grandfathers, businessmen who made their
fortunes in cotton and trade in the north of England,
were Radicals and Nonconformists. In rebellion
against the privileged and yet constraining social
ethos of her immediate family, she invoked the
political and religious dissent of her Lancashire
ancestry as her true heritage. As a young woman
she chafed at the idea that an advantageous marriage
2443
WEBB, BEATRICE POTTER
Why this demand for State intervention from a
generation reared amidst rapidly rising riches and
disciplined in the school of philosophic radicalism
and orthodox political economy?. . . The origin of
the ferment is to be discovered in a new conscious-
ness of sin among men of intellect and men of
property; a consciousness at first philanthropic
and practical . . .; then literary and artistic . . .; and
finally, analytic, historical and explanatory. . . . The
consciousness of sin was a collective or class
consciousness; a growing uneasiness, amounting
to conviction, that the industrial organization, which
had yielded rent, interest and profits on a stupen-
dous scale, had failed to provide a decent livelihood
and tolerable living conditions for a majority of the
inhabitants of Great Britain.
Beatrice Webb, My Apprenticeship (pp. 178–180).
was the only imaginable vocation for a woman
of her class and sought refuge in the intellectual
tutelage of her mother’s friend Herbert Spencer
(1820–1903), the Potter family’s ‘‘philosopher on
the hearth.’’ She surprised both Spencer and her
family when she married the socialist Sidney James
Webb (1859–1947), the son of a milliner and hair-
dresser, in 1892. Together, along with colleagues
George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950), Sydney Olivier
(1859–1943), Graham Wallas (1858–1932),
Edward Reynolds Pease (1857–1955), and William
Clarke (1852-1901), they led the Fabian Society
in its early years.
Webb’s autobiography, My Apprenticeship (1926),
tells a story that is in many ways paradigmatic of the
spiritual struggles, political transformations, and per-
sonal conflicts of many members of her generation.
She describes the first half of her life as a search for
‘‘creed’’ and ‘‘craft’’ carried out within the context of
what she called the ‘‘mid-Victorian Time-Spirit,’’ an
ethos in which, as she put it, ‘‘the impulse of self-
subordinating service was transferred, consciously
and overtly, from God to man’’ (My Apprenticeship,
pp. 142–143). As a protégée of Spencer, the indivi-
dualist philosopher, and daughter of laissez-faire capi-
talists, she questioned the principles of self-interest
2444
that left vast numbers of citizens in poverty and was
drawn to a collectivist approach to economic and
social organization. As a religious spirit, she moved
away from Christian orthodoxies and gravitated to
the ‘‘religion of humanity’’ of Auguste Comte
(1798–1857) and the beliefs of English positivists
like Frederic Harrison (1831–1923). As a woman,
she railed against the marriage market of the London
Season, rejected the idea of a husband who would
completely eclipse her and her own aspirations, and
sought a vocation outside of wedlock. During the
1880s, Webb considered the possibility of marriage
to Joseph Chamberlain (1836–1914), then a leader
in the Radical Party. Webb resisted Chamberlain’s
political ideas, then more radical than her own, and
his imperious personality, even as she felt deeply
drawn to him. In the end, she wrote in her diary,
marriage to someone like him might be disastrous: ‘‘I
shall be absorbed into the life of a man whose aims
are not my aims; who will refuse me all freedom of
thought in my intercourse with him; to whose career
I shall have to subordinate all my life, mental and
physical’’ (Diary, vol. 1, p. 111).
Webb was saved from the depressing aftermath
of her failed relationship with Chamberlain and her
stultifying life as dutiful, unmarried daughter by an
invitation from her cousin Charles Booth (1840–
1916) to assist him in his mammoth survey of
poverty in London. Booth, himself influenced by
positivism and moved by current debates about the
extent of poverty in England, left his work as a
Liverpool shipowner and devoted himself to a proj-
ect that lasted over fourteen years. If Comte and
Spencer led Webb to an interest in the study of
society, Booth gave her the opportunity to practice—
and partly to invent—the craft of social investiga-
tion. Her contributions to Booth’s Life and Labour
of the People in London (1889–1903) consisted of
empirical studies of three metropolitan groups:
dock laborers, sweatshop workers, and Jewish
immigrants. At times using disguise and the tech-
nique of what would come to be known as partici-
patory observation, Webb was able to produce
both vivid accounts of East End life and analyses
of the structure of labor.
Now embarked on a craft, Webb began to
move toward the creed of socialism. She was drawn
to Fabianism because of her experiences with
research, interest in the cooperative movement,
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Beatrice Webb. Undated photograph taken by George
Bernard Shaw. NATIONAL TRUST, SHAW CORNER, HERTFORDSHIRE, UK/
BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY. THE SOCIETY OF AUTHORS, ON BEHALF OF THE
BERNARD SHAW ESTATE.
and growing belief in the need for state regulation
of labor, as well as by reading Fabian Essays, edited
by Shaw and published in 1889. Although the
origins of the Fabian Society were utopian and
quasi religious, its leading members had, by this
time, become gradualists committed to a scientific
understanding of the historical evolution of society
and to the propagation of state socialism, begin-
ning with municipal collectivism. Sidney Webb’s
own contribution to the Essays, on the ‘‘historic
basis’’ of socialism, relied on theorists like Spencer
and Comte, as well as John Stuart Mill (1806–
1873). When Beatrice married Sidney Webb, she
embraced a political and intellectual way of life that
combined belief, work, and what she called a
‘‘loving partnership.’’
As co-authors, husband and wife produced
many tomes of political and economic history,
among them The History of Trade Unionism
(1894), Industrial Democracy (1897), and the
nine-volume English Local Government (1903–
1929). They also founded the London School of
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WEBB, BEATRICE POTTER
Economics and launched The New Statesman.
In 1905, Webb was appointed by Arthur James
Balfour (1848–1930) to the Royal Commission
on the Poor Law that investigated the state and
efficacy of relief in Britain. Ultimately she and
Sidney crafted and then campaigned for a minority
report. The report dissented from the majority view
that destitution could be alleviated through reform
rather than, as the Webbs believed, wholly abo-
lished. Sidney Webb joined the Labour govern-
ments of 1924 and 1929, while Beatrice engaged
in campaigning and Labour Party politics and
embarked on the writing of her autobiography.
After the defeat of the second Labour government
the Webbs turned their investigative attentions to
the Soviet Union, which seemed to them to repre-
sent a ‘‘new civilization’’ that could enact the
social, economic, and political principles for which
they had long worked. Of all the aspects of the
Webbs’ long careers, this idealization of Soviet
communism was the most controversial and the
most criticized.
The Webbs have often been caricatured as
Gradgrinds and ultra-rationalists. H. G. Wells
(1866–1946), their colleague in the Fabian
Society, satirized them in The New Machiavelli
(1911). Virginia Woolf (1882–1941) wrote with
bemusement of the Webbs’ visits to her home to
discuss politics with her husband, Leonard, also a
Fabian, and famously recorded in her diary that
Beatrice declared marriage to be ‘‘necessary as a
waste pipe for emotion’’ (Woolf, p. 196). Since
the mid-1990s or so the Fabians—and the Webbs
in particular—have warranted a second look from
theorists in search of non-communist strains of
socialism. Reevaluations of Webb have regarded
her as a figure in her own right and have often
focused on the literary dimensions of her work,
her contribution to sociology, and her exemplary
struggles with the constraints of Victorian femi-
ninity.
See also Fabians; Shaw, George Bernard; Socialism;
Spencer, Herbert.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Webb, Beatrice. Our Partnership. Edited by Barbara Drake
and Margaret I. Cole. London, 1948.
2445
WEBER, MAX
———. My Apprenticeship. Cambridge, U.K., 1979.
———. The Diary of Beatrice Webb. Edited by Norman
and Jeanne MacKenzie. 4 vols. Cambridge, Mass.,
1982–1985.
Webb, Sidney, and Beatrice Webb. The Letters of Sidney and
Beatrice Webb. Edited by Norman MacKenzie. 3 vols.
Cambridge, U.K., 1978.
Woolf, Virginia. The Diary of Virginia Woolf. Edited by
Anne Olivier Bell. Vol. 1. London, 1977.
Secondary Sources
Adam, Ruth, and Kitty Muggeridge. Beatrice Webb: A Life,
1858–1943. London, 1967.
Caine, Barbara. ‘‘Beatrice Webb and the ‘Woman Ques-
tion.’’’ History Workshop Journal 14 (Autumn 1982):
23–43.
Hynes, Samuel. ‘‘The Art of Beatrice Webb.’’ In Edwardian
Occasions, 153–173. New York, 1972.
Lewis, Jane. Women and Social Action in Victorian and
Edwardian England. Stanford, Calif., 1991.
Nord, Deborah Epstein. The Apprenticeship of Beatrice
Webb. London, 1985.
DEBORAH EPSTEIN NORD
n Weber was intensely interested in politics and
WEBER, MAX (1864–1920), German social
scientist.
While posterity views Max Weber primarily as a
sociologist, his contemporaries knew him as an
economist. He also made seminal contributions to
economic history, political science, the history of
law, and the philosophy of social science. Weber, in
brief, is one of the giants of social science and his
knowledge was truly encyclopedic.
Weber was born into a wealthy and well-
connected upper-middle-class family in Erfurt. His
father was a magistrate and later a member of the
Reichstag, and his mother a deeply religious person
of Huguenot ancestry. As a child Weber already
showed a strong interest in reading and taking
notes, especially in historical topics. As a student he
focused on law, especially the history of law, but he
also studied history, philosophy, and economics.
Though he wrote his dissertation as well as his
Habilitation thesis in the field of law, Weber was
soon offered a professorship in economics; the
reason for this was his impressive writings in this
2446
field as a member of the Verein für Sozialpolitik
(Association for Social Policy). His academic career
continued to be spectacularly successful until the
end of the 1890s, when he had a nervous break-
down that stopped him from further academic work.
Though he never fully recovered, Weber soon
began to write again and lived most of his remain-
ing years as a private scholar. In 1904–1905 he
published The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism, which made him famous inside as well
as outside of Germany. A few years later he started
to work on what was to become another landmark
study, Economy and Society (1910–1914). He also
completed several volumes in a project called The
Economic Ethics of the World Religions (1920–1921).
Weber was a friend of major intellectuals of his
time such as Georg Simmel (1858–1918), Ernst
Troeltsch (1865–1923), and Georg Jellinek (1851–
1911). In 1893 he married a distant relative,
Marianne Schnitger (1870–1954), who became
active in the women’s movement and a scholar in
her own right. After her husband’s death, Marianne
Weber organized his work for publication and in
other ways nurtured his reputation.
repeatedly tried to get a foothold in professional
politics. This failed, and he was probably also
temperamentally unsuited for routine political
activity, which he famously described in ‘‘Politics
as a Vocation’’ (1921) as the slow drilling through
hard boards. Weber was, in contrast, quite influen-
tial through his many newspaper articles on poli-
tical topics, especially during World War I. He also
helped to write the constitution of the Weimar
Republic.
Weber wrote in several different social science
disciplines. Besides his two dissertations in the
history of law, he also wrote voluminously on the
legal aspects of the stock exchange. In economic
history, there is his famous economic and social
history of antiquity, as well as his early study of
rural workers in imperial Germany. A volume on
general economic history also exists, reconstructed
from students’ notes. Weber’s most important arti-
cles in the philosophy of social science have been
collected in a separate volume, and so have his
writings on politics. Finally, there are Weber’s
works in sociology: The Protestant Ethic and the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Spirit of Capitalism, Economy and Society, and The
Economic Ethics of the World Religions.
The Protestant Ethic is without doubt Weber’s
most famous as well as his most controversial work.
Its main thesis is that a certain type of Protestant-
ism (‘‘ascetic Protestantism’’) helped to create the
spirit of modern, rational capitalism. In doing so, it
also helped to put an end to traditional capitalism
and usher in a new period in the history of the West
that Weber describes as an ‘‘iron cage.’’ What had
started out as an attempt by Martin Luther (1483–
1546), John Calvin (1509–1564), and other Prot-
estant reformers to improve the relationship of the
believer to God, had paradoxically ended up as a
more efficient way to make money.
Exactly how this whole development came
about constitutes the most controversial part of
the so-called Weber thesis. According to what
may be termed Weber’s hypothetical reconstruc-
tion, the typical Calvinist tried to counter religious
anxiety by looking for signs that he or she was
doing well in the eyes of an inscrutable God. One
of these signs was material wealth, which made
the Calvinists invest their business activities with
religious energy and methodical intent. Soon the
economic mentality of the Calvinists and other
ascetic Protestants became the norm in economic
life—and Western capitalism had acquired a new
mentality. This mentality eventually translated into a
set of new capitalist institutions, such as the modern
factory, the joint-stock corporation, and so on.
The Weber thesis had hardly been published
before it was attacked. Much of the criticism in
Weber’s time and into the twenty-first century,
however, is based on a misreading of his argument.
It is often claimed, for example, that Weber regarded
‘‘Protestantism’’ as ‘‘the cause’’ of ‘‘capitalism,’’
while what he argues is that ascetic Protestantism
was one of the causes of a new capitalist mentality.
Nonetheless, Weber’s work contains little empirical
support of his thesis, perhaps because he primarily
tried to show how modern rational capitalism could
have emerged, drawing on the type of cultural
analysis in which Weber at this point of his life
was deeply interested. One way of summing up a
century of debate about The Protestant Ethic is to
say that while most social scientists reject Weber’s
argument, it still has a number of defenders.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WEBER, MAX
The Protestant Ethic was part of a larger
research project that Weber spent much of World
War I working on. This project, which Weber
called ‘‘The Economic Ethics of the World Reli-
gions,’’ had two major goals. First, Weber wanted
to explore the role of religions other than Protes-
tantism in promoting or blocking the birth of
modern rational capitalism. And second, Weber
wanted to explore what role rational forms of beha-
vior and culture played in making the West into
the leader of the modern world.
Weber never completed this project, but the
work that he did produce gives a clear indication
of his findings. As to the first question, he estab-
lished that most of the major religions in the world
have in one way or another blocked the emergence
of modern, rational capitalism. Hinduism, as
Weber explains in The Religion of India (1958),
legitimated the caste system. Buddhism, in con-
trast, set a high priority on withdrawing from the
concerns of life in this world, something that led
to a disinterest in material wealth. Taoism helped
to prevent rational capitalism from emerging in
Southeast Asia by exalting magic, according to
The Religion of China (1951); Confucianism had
a similar affect through its ethical justification of
traditionalism.
The rise of the West, according to Weber, is
intimately connected to the central role that ration-
alism came to play in a number of areas of social
life. Besides the economy, there is also art, archi-
tecture, music, and the state. In all of these areas,
and more can be added, the West developed a
certain mentality that made it possible for Europe
to take the lead in the world and impose its leader-
ship on other civilizations.
While some see The Protestant Ethic and the
volumes that make up The Economic Ethics of
the World Religions as Weber’s most important
achievement, others point to Economy and Society.
Again, this was a work that he never completed.
When he died he had finished the first four chap-
ters and various drafts for the rest of the work,
leaving it to posterity to figure out what he had
intended to include.
While controversy still rages over whether the
content of the existing editions adequately captures
Weber’s intentions, the scholarly quality of his
2447
WEININGER, OTTO
work has never been questioned. In chapter 1 of
Economy and Society, Weber presents a very ambi-
tious program for what he terms an interpretive
sociology: that is, a sociology that is concerned with
social action and the meaning with which actors
invest their behavior. Chapter 1 also contains a
famous typology of sociological concepts.
In addition, Economy and Society contains
important chapters on economic sociology, sociol-
ogy of law, and sociology of religion. Other chap-
ters contain Weber’s famous theory of bureaucracy,
the concept of status, and the typology of domina-
tion (rational, traditional, and charismatic). To this
may be added a wealth of historical material as well
as a superb account (in the current English edition)
of the political situation in imperial Germany.
While Economy and Society contains a highly
sophisticated analysis of various social mechanisms
that operate throughout society, it also gives voice
to Weber’s view of the modern world. According
to Weber, the modern world is becoming increas-
ingly rationalized, a process that is taking place in
all of society’s different spheres. Religion and the
economy, for example, are becoming more method-
ical and rational. In several spheres, bureaucracy—
defined by Weber as efficient and dutiful adminis-
tration—is also becoming ever more present.
There exist good reasons to regard Weber as
one of the most important social scientists of
all times, and of the same stature as scholars like
Montesquieu (1689–1755), Alexis de Tocqueville
(1805–1859), and Karl Marx (1818–1883). While
an enormous secondary literature has been devoted
to Weber’s writings, many parts of his work are still
relatively unexplored or little understood. His con-
sistent focus on the most central and difficult prob-
lems in social science—such as causality, culture,
and social structure—makes his work ever modern.
See also Capitalism; Protestantism; Sociology.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Weber, Max. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capital-
ism. Translated by Talcott Parsons. London, 1930.
———. Max Weber on the Methodology of the Social Sciences.
Translated and edited by Edward A. Shils and Henry
A. Finch. New York, 1949.
2448
———. The Religion of China. Translated and edited by
Hans H. Gerth. New York, 1951.
———. The Religion of India. Translated and edited by
Hans H. Gerth and Don Martindale. New York, 1958.
———. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive
Sociology. Edited by Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich.
Translated by Ephraim Fischoff. New York, 1978.
———. General Economic History. New Brunswick, N.J.,
1981.
———. Gesamtausgabe. Frankfurt, 1984.
———. Weber: Political Writings. Edited by Peter Lassman
and Ronald Speirs. Cambridge, U.K., 1994.
Secondary Sources
Bendix, Reinhard. Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait.
Garden City, N.Y., 1960. An important introduction
to Weber’s work, minus his methodology.
Käsler, Dirk. Max Weber: An Introduction to His Life
and Work. Chicago, 1988. This is the best overall
introduction to Weber’s work and life.
Marshall, Gordon. In Search of the Spirit of Capitalism: An
Essay on Max Weber’s Protestant Ethic Thesis. London,
1982. An excellent introduction to the debate
surrounding The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism.
Mommsen, Wolfgang. Max Weber and German Politics
1890–1920. Translated by Michael S. Steinberg.
Chicago, 1984. The major study of Weber’s political
ideas.
Sica, Alan. Max Weber: A Comprehensive Bibliography.
New Brunswick, N.J., 2004. A major bibliography of
the secondary material on Weber as well as existing
translations of his work.
Swedberg, Richard. The Max Weber Dictionary. Stanford,
Calif., 2005. A helpful guide to key words and central
concepts in Weber’s work.
Weber, Marianne. Max Weber: A Biography. Edited and
translated by Harry Zohn. New York, 1975. The only
existing biography of Weber’s life, written by his wife.
RICHARD SWEDBERG
n
WEININGER, OTTO (1880–1903), Aus-
trian writer.
Otto Weininger is a notorious figure in modern
European history, largely because of his one book,
Geschlecht und Charakter: Eine prinzipielle Untersu-
chung (1903; Sex and character: An investigation of
principles), a voluminous treatise that ‘‘proved’’ that
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

women and Jews did not possess rational and moral
selves and, therefore, neither deserved nor needed
equality with Aryan men or even simple liberty.
Writers and thinkers as different as Franz Kafka
(1883–1924), Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951),
Karl Kraus (1874–1936), James Joyce (1882–
1941), Robert von Musil (1880–1942), Elias
Canetti (1905–1994), Günter Grass (b. 1927), and
Germaine Greer (b. 1939) were struck, although not
necessarily persuaded, by Weininger’s racist and
misogynist vision of the world.
Otto Weininger was born on 3 April 1880 to a
Jewish family of Vienna, the second child and oldest
son of Adelheid Frey (1857–1912) and Leopold
Weininger (1854–1922). After graduating from
high school in 1898, he enrolled in the philosophi-
cal faculty of the University of Vienna, where he
attended lectures on logic, experimental psycho-
logy, pedagogy, the history of philosophy, and a
wide range of scientific and medical topics. His
friends remembered him as a somber and serious
youth who scorned the alcoholic and lubricious
pursuits of average university students and spent
his free hours discussing ‘‘the most difficult philo-
sophical subjects.’’
In 1900 Weininger’s friend Hermann Swoboda
embarked on psychoanalysis with Sigmund Freud
(1856–1939), who told him that all human beings
were partly male and partly female, or ‘‘bisexual.’’
Swoboda reported Freud’s observation to Weininger,
who, galvanized by this idea, immediately decided
to write a monograph on sexuality entitled Eros
und Psyche: Eine biologisch-psychologische Studie
(Eros and Psyche: A biopsychological study).
He eventually developed this tract, which argued
that human beings were androgynous in their
bodies as well as minds, into a Ph.D. dissertation
under the supervision of the noted philosopher
Friedrich Jodl. It was completed in 1902 and
published the next year by the renowned firm of
Wilhelm Braumüller as Geschlecht und Charakter:
Eine prinzipielle Untersuchung.
Long before the completion of the disserta-
tion, however, Weininger had become increasingly
preoccupied with Kantian philosophy, ‘‘Jewishness,’’
‘‘the woman question,’’ and the shortcomings of
modern experimental psychology. A project that
had begun by arguing the ambiguity of sexual
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WEININGER, OTTO
difference thus became a somewhat heterogeneous
text that was still organized around the notion of
sexual difference but now included long and dense
discussions of woman’s place in the universe, the
masculine character of genius, the nature of the
Jew, and the contamination of modern reason,
thought, and art by effeminacy. This was not as
eccentric as it might seem: the meanings of femi-
ninity (and indeed, of gender itself) were at the
very heart of turn-of-the-twentieth-century debates
about the nature and future of civilization—to deal
with the former was to deal with the latter and
vice versa. Woman, Weininger concluded, was
amoral, soulless and utterly and pervasively sex-
ual; the Jew was largely similar. Man, on the other
hand, was microcosmic and protean—genius, mor-
ality, and creativity were always exclusively and
necessarily male. Many of these arguments were
linked with (or framed in response to) contempor-
ary scientific and medical theories of sexuality and
psychology, and documented in an enormous cri-
tical apparatus.
The book attracted little notice after publi-
cation but then its author, returning deeply
depressed from a holiday, killed himself in the
house where Beethoven had died. This dramatic
suicide boosted sales of Geschlecht und Charak-
ter, and some of Weininger’s drafts and aphorisms
were hastily collected by his friends and published
as Über die letzten Dinge (On last things). Reviews
of Geschlecht und Charakter appeared in profusion,
Weininger’s life was pored over by psychiatrists,
and his work was championed by Vienna’s most
pugnacious cultural critic, Karl Kraus. Although
not a straightforward misogynist, Kraus strongly
endorsed Weininger’s views about the pervasive
sexuality of Woman and shared his anxieties about
the degeneracy of Western civilization. After World
War II, however, scholars have tended to approach
Geschlecht und Charakter as an encyclopedic reposi-
tory of fin-de-siècle racist and misogynist thought.
While some continue to focus on Weininger’s
own prejudices in relative isolation, most now use
Geschlecht und Charakter to explore the racial
and sexual anxieties that pervaded the world in
which the book was written and which it sought
to influence.
See also Anti-Semitism; Feminism; Freud, Sigmund;
Vienna.
2449
WELFARE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Weininger, Otto. Sex and Character: An Investigation of
Fundamental Principles, translated by Ladislaus Löb,
edited by Daniel Steuer and Laura Marcus, Blooming-
ton, Ind., 2005. New and complete translation of
Geschlect und Charakter (1903), superseding the
incomplete English version of 1906.
Secondary Sources
Harrowitz, Nancy A., and Barbara Hyams, eds. Jews and
Gender: Responses to Otto Weininger. Philadelphia,
1995. Collection of informative articles on Weininger,
his work, and his milieu.
Janik, Allan. Essays on Wittgenstein and Weininger. Amster-
dam, 1985. Pioneering essays on the importance of
contextualizing Weininger.
Sengoopta, Chandak. Otto Weininger: Sex, Science, and Self
in Imperial Vienna. Chicago, 2000. Emphasizes
the importance of biological and medical themes in
Weininger’s work.
CHANDAK SENGOOPTA
n fically the men, responsible for their own survival.
WELFARE. The European public welfare state
began in the late nineteenth century, supplement-
ing and sometimes supplanting private charity.
Private charity, usually religious, had long dis-
pensed alms, but increasingly public, generally
secular state-welfare programs developed, especially
beginning in the 1870s. Although some scholars
had argued that the welfare state began in Germany
during the time of Otto von Bismarck (chancellor,
1871–1890), when modern historians use the lens
of gender, they understand that welfare began in
many countries of western Europe at approximately
the same time, but took different forms.
WELFARE AND THE ‘‘DESERVING POOR ,’’
1815–1870
Moral and religious convictions about poverty
shaped charity and welfare policies. Religious
charities believed that the poor would always form
the bottom of the social and economic hierarchy,
but sought to help those whom they thought
deserved aid. Definitions of the ‘‘deserving poor’’
differed little by region or religion. They were the
honest poor whose misfortunes were unpreventable,
or those who could not care for themselves: aban-
doned or orphaned children, the insane, men and
2450
women too old or sick to work, and morally upstand-
ing people who faced a sudden disaster. The able-
bodied poor, customarily adult men, who would
not work were labeled ‘‘undeserving’’ of poor relief.
In Britain, as well as on the Continent, poor
relief was locally based. Municipalities in England,
France, and the German states required recipients
to have lived in the community for a number of
years to become eligible. Married women belonged
to the domicile of their husbands, which denied
them a right to poor relief as individuals. In the
1820s settlement and domicile requirements began
to break down in Europe, as people increasingly
moved around to get better jobs in response to
labor demand. Legal settlement in new parishes
was harder to acquire, and many poor barely sub-
sisted on the margins of their new residences.
New ideologies and conditions gave rise to the
New Poor Laws of 1834 in Britain. This reform
sought to restore the middle-class work ethic and
moral values by tightening the criteria for aid and
fostering self-support. It held poor families, speci-
The New Poor Law developed prison-like work-
houses as a punishment for those, especially men,
who committed the ‘‘crime’’ of being a pauper.
Indigent mothers of ex-nuptial children could also
be taken into the workhouse and separated from
their children as a disciplinary measure. Poor Law
guardians incarcerated nonproviding fathers or
indigent mothers in separate workhouse wards
from each other and from their children. There
was no clear separation between charity and public
poor relief, with close cooperation between local
Poor Law authorities and charitable organizations.
Across Europe, religious charities and secular
welfare attempted to buttress the family as the
bulwark of the social order. On the Continent
almost every major European city enlarged the
parameters of welfare to include policies for mater-
nal assistance to prevent infant mortality. Moscow,
St. Petersburg, and Hamburg, as well as most of
the major cities of the Habsburg Empire, France,
Italy, Spain, and Portugal inaugurated free mater-
nity hospitals where poor pregnant women could
deliver their babies in secret. These same cities and
countries often established foundling homes to
permit abandonment as an alternative to abortion
and infanticide, and to save the honor of the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

woman and her family. In predominantly Catholic
countries such as France, Portugal, and Spain, and
in cities such as Brussels and those on the Italian
peninsula, foundling hospitals became the most
important form of public welfare until late in the
nineteenth century.
PUBLIC WELFARE, 1870–1914
Between 1870 and 1914 traditional local poor
relief coexisted with modern centralized state
intervention, as welfare greatly expanded. State
bureaucracies and legislators established new criteria
for welfare, pertaining more to the needs of the
state and less to the older moral strictures. Many
local private charities that developed earlier in the
century expanded and flourished. But they dimin-
ished in importance on a national level vis-à-vis a
new interest in state insurance programs and the
developing rationalized welfare state. For a welfare
state to develop, local politicians had to accept the
notion that poor relief was less a gift from the rich
and more the right of the poor, which they did by
the end of the century.
Poverty became a social disease rather than a
moral disorder under the powerful discourse of
medical professionals, their allies in government,
and the positivist philosophy of the era. Needs of
state in terms of the health of the population,
educational reform, industrial and military expan-
sion, urban unrest, and agricultural development
came to outweigh the religious and moral impera-
tives so powerful in earlier decades and affected
welfare programs accordingly. Furthermore, the
difficult conditions of industry and the growing
militancy of male laborers led to debates about
the need for the state to protect workers. As a
result, after 1870 public welfare institutions
increased. Welfare did not so much take over from
declining charity as it added additional layers of
assistance. In Germany, the country that reputedly
began the national welfare state in the 1870s
and developed an interventionist state in the
1890s, there was little opposition between private
charity and public welfare. Rather, the two worked
in tandem.
The valorization of maternity during the later
nineteenth century translated into legislation, as
social reformers enacted family welfare reforms
centered on mothers and children. Social welfare
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WELFARE
programs designed to keep mothers and babies
together started throughout Europe in the early
1870s and took similar forms in France, England,
Germany, and Russia. Politicians and reformers
in many western countries became increasingly
willing to intervene directly in the family in order
to protect children. At the same time, they glori-
fied, dignified, and sought to protect motherhood.
Public welfare authorities in England, France, and
Germany perceived that underprivileged families
were in a state of crisis contributing to high infant
mortality, and thought the problem could be par-
tially resolved by providing some subsidies to needy
mothers who were breastfeeding their infants,
establishing well-baby clinics and free milk dispen-
saries, teaching women how to be better mothers,
and by providing school meals.
Child protection was inseparable from the
protection of motherhood, and it included legisla-
tion regulating children’s and women’s labor in
Britain, Germany, and France. Authorities in western
Europe regarded women as mothers, and mother-
hood became a social function. Politicians conse-
quently enacted aid programs to support maternity.
In Germany, this led to the protection of working
mothers through maternity insurance and preg-
nancy leave. Generally, German infant welfare
organizations fell under private auspices, such as
the League for Protection of Mothers. In Russia,
day nurseries and boarding institutions for infants
of widowed, deserted, or working mothers devel-
oped as part of an effort to reduce infant mortality.
Russian efforts were in keeping with their philo-
sophy that the state could raise children better than
poor, uneducated, working mothers. The major
difference between child protection reforms in
Russia and in countries of western Europe revolved
around concepts of women’s roles as workers.
Western European authorities viewed women
primarily as mothers; Russians viewed women pri-
marily as workers.
To defend children from abusive parents, the
French, British, and German governments enacted
almost identical legislation enabling state welfare
authorities to decide which parents were placing
their children in moral danger and then deprive
those parents of authority over their children.
Police and welfare agents would subsequently
remove the children from their parental homes
2451
WELFARE
and place the children with relatives, in foster care,
or in institutions. In these instances, as in many
other aspects of welfare, public authorities entered
the private spaces of the underprivileged. The
French Parliament enacted a law protecting these
‘‘morally abandoned’’ children in 1889, the same
year that the British Parliament enacted the law
for the Prevention of Cruelty and Protection of
Children that allowed state authorities to remove
children from their families when circumstances
warranted it. Scottish Poor Law authorities, who
had been separating children from abusive or dan-
gerous family situations for decades and boarding
them out, continued this process in the interest of
protecting the children and imbuing them with
sober work habits. Comparable German legislation
came about a decade later.
The significance of motherhood is evident in
legislation in Britain, Germany, and France that
treated childbirth as an illness entitled to medical
assistance. The French law of 1893 on free medical
assistance assimilated childbirth with other illnesses
and allowed women in labor free admission to the
public hospitals. Britain’s National Health Insur-
ance Act of 1911 allotted a pittance to women who
had enrolled in the insurance program, either on
their own or through their husbands. The 1883
German law on health insurance entitled insured
women factory workers to minimal benefits for
three weeks of maternity leave after childbirth,
but coverage was optional and rarely paid. Even
Russia had a workers’ insurance law in 1912 that
provided for maternity benefits.
In France, the creation of mothers’ pensions,
or aid to mothers (including the unwed) to encou-
rage breast-feeding and prevent child abandonment
provided another building block to the welfare
state. Despite the opposition of church authorities
who regarded payments to unwed mothers as a
‘‘subsidy to debauchery,’’ mothers’ pensions began
in France in the 1870s and 1880s with programs
of aid to single and married mothers. Portugal
developed an equivalent system called a ‘‘subsidy
of lactation’’ to aid indigent parents and widows or
widowers, as well as unwed mothers. Despite
opposition from church authorities, regions of Italy
almost immediately followed France with similar
programs of subsidies to single mothers who
nursed their babies. In Italy, however, the motive
2452
was not a perceived depopulation but rather the
desire to moralize poor, unwed mothers. Although
much of the British, German, and Russian legis-
lation for the protection of children and mothers
resembled French programs, the differences
between France and the other countries are two-
fold. One is a question of timing. France’s various
programs for the protection of motherhood began
in Paris and other cities in the 1870s, developed
through the 1880s, and became nationally legis-
lated in 1893, 1904, and 1913. Second, France was
among the first to offer programs of aid to non-
married mothers to prevent infant mortality on a
national scale in 1904. Except for Russia, Italy, and
Portugal, other nations’ laws restricted mothers’
pensions to widows or married mothers.
Welfare in the form of maternity leaves varied
in their comprehensiveness and remuneration. The
Swiss were pioneers in this area; their 1877 law
provided for eight weeks of leave, before and after
delivery, and prohibited women from returning to
factory work until six weeks after childbirth. One
year later, in 1878, Germany enacted a three-week
leave after childbirth, but neither the Swiss nor the
German leaves included benefits or pay. By 1883
both Germany and Austria-Hungary had paid
maternity leaves of three weeks after delivery for
insured women, but the amount varied with each
insurance program. Sweden put family policies into
law in 1900 when it gave mothers a four-week
maternity leave after the birth of a child. Mothers
received no money, just time off from work
to breast-feed. By 1900, Great Britain, Portugal,
Norway, Sweden, Holland, and Belgium provided
unpaid maternity leaves after delivery. France,
along with Spain, Italy, Denmark, and Russia,
lagged behind these other countries in instituting
any kind of maternity leave, even without pay. In
1911 Sweden instituted a program to protect and
care for women and their babies through maternity
and convalescent homes as well as by giving women
a subsidy to breastfeed their babies. In 1913 when
France legislated paid maternity leaves before and
after childbirth, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland,
Sweden, and Austria-Hungary had paid leaves,
and only Switzerland had a maternity leave before
delivery. Maternity leaves and child welfare were
just some examples of welfare at the turn of the
century designed to keep families together.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 WELFARE

The revolving table at the foundling home, Paris. Lithograph, 1862. The use of a revolving table to allow people to preserve
their anonymity while relinquishing infants to the care of foundling homes was mandated in France in 1811, when responsibility for the
care of such infants was transferred from the central government to the departments. The number of children brought to the
homes subsequently increased dramatically, leading to the abolition of the practice. BIBLIOTHÈQUE NATIONALE, PARIS, FRANCE/
THE BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY

Politicians in all countries sought to use welfare
to form a moral citizenry and create a stable work-
ing class. The German town of Elberfeld provides
one example of how cities used poor relief to
further their agenda of social discipline of the
poor through inspections. The central goal of the
Elberfeld system was to find work for the poor with
a fixed domicile. Many German cities followed the
Elberfeld model, but increased industrialization
and migration after German unification made the
Elberfeld system unworkable; reformers replaced
it with a new, centralized, national system. The
Bismarckian social insurance provisions of the
1880s and family welfare schemes of the 1890s
aimed to integrate the working class into estab-
lished society. To win support from male workers,
in the 1880s the German government provided a
welfare plan that included health insurance and
old-age pensions for many of them.
The impetus for welfare reforms at the end of
the century may have come as a result of the general
depression and fears of mass unemployment that
struck most of Europe from the mid-1880s to
mid-1890s. During these years the poor became
more visible, and thus more of a perceived threat
to an orderly society. The rise of industrial capital-
ism transformed poverty from a social into a politi-
cal problem, as welfare state capitalism developed in
response to crises in classical capitalism. Politicians
redefined poverty to justify the state’s intervention
in support of the patriarchal ideal and the raison

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2453
WELFARE
d’état. Specifically, the decline in agriculture and the
migration of young to the cities in the late 1880s
added to a large pool of urban labor (with many
unemployed) and an elderly population remaining
in the rural areas.
Public welfare began to try to address some of
the problems of workers and the elderly, beginning
with national insurance programs for sickness, dis-
ability, and old age. In Germany, social reformers
eventually recognized that deserving workers had a
right to experience old age without financial hard-
ships, and that it would be unjust to let them live
out their lives under conditions worse than while
they were still working. When old age came to be
recognized as a separate stage of life in the late
nineteenth century, old-age pensions became a
subject of legislation. In England and France the
debate continued over the divisions in how much
families bore responsibility for the elderly and how
much that responsibility devolved on welfare insti-
tutions. At the end of the century, public assistance
made pensions available to proportionally fewer of
the aged than it had before 1870, and the amount
was reduced. In the absence of sufficient welfare,
elder care devolved on families.
State welfare was insufficient to deal with the
problems of poverty and unemployment. In many
countries, charitable organizations and mutual aid
societies existed alongside public poor relief. Stable
breadwinner working men in almost all countries
established voluntary mutual aid societies designed
to protect their members, and women formed
cooperative guilds for self-help. Private charities
remained important everywhere, although many
became more secular.
By the end of the nineteenth century neither
charities nor welfare had enough money or facilities
to meet the demand. Layers of institutions and
of jurisdictions—municipal, local, regional, and
national—provided private charity and public
welfare. They combined their recognition of eco-
nomic need, however, with a moral commitment to
promote and reward working-class women’s
domesticity and men’s steady work habits. Welfare
measures in the last decades of the century involved
a change in cultural concepts. Reformers recast the
relationship between the sexual and social order,
between the family and the state, and between what
they thought of as the public and private spheres.
2454
The family remained the linchpin of the social
order, but public welfare permitted a greater variety
in acceptable family structures. With the change in
attitudes came increased programs to provide
medical, old-age, and accident insurance to workers.
USING WELFARE, 1815–1914
The poor became knowledgeable consumers in the
welfare market as they negotiated their way within
the available programs. Unlike the middle classes
who blamed the poor for their own plight, the
poor themselves blamed the wider world over
which they had no control. Therefore they
regarded poor relief as a ‘‘right’’ during a crisis:
an unexpected death (especially of the male
breadwinner), illness or accident to the male
breadwinner, childbirth, old age, unemployment,
or having many young children at home. By the
end of the century, some reformers also asserted
that welfare was a right.
Welfare allowed men and women a form of
‘‘disciplinary individualism’’ in which a person
voluntarily conformed to requirements and tried
to use the laws and institutions to their own ends.
They used institutions as a safety net. In England,
Ireland, Belgium, and Holland families used the
workhouses as institutions of last resort. Entering
one meant loss of respectability, and the elderly felt
this sense of shame quite keenly. Others, perhaps
those less needy, decided not to request poor relief
to avoid the disgrace of pauperism. Outdoor relief
(assistance in the poor’s own homes and outside
of institutions) was preferable to the detested
workhouses, although it was an income subsidy
insufficient to provide food, fuel, and shelter for
its recipients. In England, between 60 and 80 percent
of the recipients of poor relief, both in the work-
house and outdoors, were adult women and chil-
dren, equally divided. More than half of the
women were single parents. Changes in the British
Poor Laws (1834 and 1871) making outdoor relief
more restrictive led to adaptive family strategies. If
neighbors and relatives possibly could feed another
mouth, they stood ready to help by taking in young
children so the child might avoid the parish work-
houses.
In France, Italy, and Russia, in acts of despera-
tion, women abandoned hundreds of thousands
of children at institutions each year. At the height
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Destitute Men Applying for Admittance to a London
Night Refuge. Engraving by Gustave Doré c. 1869–1871.
IMAGE SELECT/ART RESOURCE, NY
of child abandonment around midcentury,
approximately twenty-six thousand children per
year were abandoned in Moscow and St. Peters-
burg. In Paris during the peak decade of the 1830s,
around five thousand per year were abandoned,
and more than forty-four thousand abandoned
children under twelve were alive in all of France
in a given year of that decade. Spain and Portugal
saw fifteen thousand per year abandoned; a fifth of
all babies were abandoned in Warsaw; half of all
babies in Vienna and two-fifths in Prague; a third
of all babies in Milan and Florence.
Mothers, especially the unwed, may have been
driven to abandon their babies because of their
impoverishment and their working conditions that
precluded work and care for their infant. The
higher rates of illegitimacy and rural-to-urban
migration also contributed to a greater proportion
of abandoned ex-nuptial children. The baby’s gender
did not matter to single mothers, but married
women abandoned more girls than boys. Welfare
policies also affected mothers’ decisions to aban-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WELFARE
don. When government policy permitted, families
used institutions to their own advantage, allowing
the state to raise the children until they could
reclaim them. When public authorities imposed
restrictions on child abandonment, the desperate
continued to abandon their babies. However, other
welfare resources for mothers, such as aid for
maternal breast-feeding or day-care centers,
often accompanied restrictions on infant abandon-
ment, especially in France. Few questioned the
entitlement of children to food and sustenance
through welfare when their mothers could not
provide. Dealing with the elderly was a different
matter.
Family support of the elderly was critical.
Widowhood amplified problems of economic
insecurity and possible destitution for women
more than men. The aged in Britain relied on
complex systems of support from their own wages
and pensions, and from their children and Poor
Law relief. At the turn of the twentieth century,
the establishment of widows’ pensions in England
enabled fortunate men and women to benefit
from that insurance, and in 1908 all deserving
poor were eligible for old-age pensions. The
Dutch government established regulated and regi-
mented old-folks’ homes for widows and unmar-
ried elderly women. In Paris, poor widows were
approximately half of those on the welfare roles of
public assistance. In Germany old age was not
used as a category to determine the distribution
of poor relief, which was geared for the sick and
disabled.
Until after World War I, state insurance
schemes were geared to help the individual, includ-
ing the aged, whereas poor relief was understood as
a subsidiary measure that kicked in when all family
support had failed. Europe was not a monolithic
entity and a multiplicity of regional and national
patterns prevailed. In England, a strong desire
to imbue the poor with the donors’ concepts of
morality and respectability influenced welfare and
poor relief. Authorities in England and Germany
channeled welfare through the male breadwinner.
France, however, tried to reconcile women’s pro-
ductive and reproductive roles, and welfare went
directly to the mothers, with guidelines and super-
vision from the state. In Russia, quite unlike Great
Britain, poverty was not considered a sin, and
2455
WELFARE
authorities did not noticeably distinguish between
the deserving and undeserving poor. Russia also
did not develop a national welfare system. By
1914, British paupers had a right to public assis-
tance in the parish of their birth or settlement.
In Germany, national insurance plans developed
for workers, all towns provided some poor relief,
and rural areas were required to establish relief
commissions for the poor. The French enacted
comparable legislation, and approximately three-
fourths of French men and woman had access
to assistance for hospital care or other forms of
temporary relief on the eve of World War I. A
welfare system is a product of an urban society. It
developed more completely during the nineteenth
century in more urban countries with an ideology
that understood that a welfare system benefited the
entire nation.
See also Bismarck, Otto von; Class and Social Relations;
Poor Law; Poverty; Trade and Economic Growth;
Working Class.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Accampo, Elinor, Rachel G. Fuchs, and Mary Lynn Stewart.
Gender and the Politics of Social Reform in France,
1870–1914. Baltimore, Md., 1995.
Baldwin, Peter. The Politics of Social Solidarity: Class Bases of
the European Welfare State, 1875–1975. New York,
1990.
Barry, Jonathan, and Colin Jones, eds. Medicine and Charity
before the Welfare State. London and New York, 1991.
Behlmer, George K. Friends of the Family: The English
Home and Its Guardians, 1850–1940. Stanford, Calif.,
1998.
Bock, Gisela, and Pat Thane, eds. Maternity and
Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European
Welfare States, 1880s–1950s. London and New York,
1991.
Boyer, George R. An Economic History of the English Poor
Law, 1750–1850. Cambridge, U.K., 1990.
Cunningham, Hugh, and Joanna Innes, eds. Charity,
Philanthropy, and Reform from the 1690s to 1850.
New York, 1998.
Daunton, Martin, ed. Charity, Self-Interest, and Welfare in
the English Past. London, 1996.
Dickinson, Edward Ross. The Politics of German Child
Welfare from the Empire to the Federal Republic.
Cambridge, Mass., 1996.
Finalyson, Geoffrey. Citizen, State, and Social Welfare in
Britain, 1830–1990. Oxford, U.K., 1994.
2456
Fuchs, Rachel G. Abandoned Children: Foundlings and
Child Welfare in Nineteenth-Century France. Albany,
N.Y., 1984.
______. Poor and Pregnant in Paris: Strategies for Survival
in the Nineteenth Century. New Brunswick, N.J.,
1992.
Gouda, Frances. Poverty and Political Culture: The Rhetoric
of Social Welfare in the Netherlands and France, 1815–
1854. Lanham, Md., 1995.
Horn, Pamela. Children’s Work and Welfare, 1780–1890.
Cambridge, U.K., 1995.
Humphreys, Robert. Sin, Organized Charity, and the Poor
Law in Victorian England. New York, 1995.
Katz, Michael B., and Christoph Sachße, eds. The Mixed
Economy of Social Welfare: Public/Private Relations
in England, Germany, and the United States, the
1870s to the 1930s. Baden-Baden, 1996.
Kertzer, David I. Sacrificed for Honor: Italian Infant
Abandonment and the Politics of Reproductive Control.
Boston, 1993.
Kidd, Alan J. State, Society, and the Poor in Nineteenth-
Century England. New York, 1999.
Lees, Lynn Hollen. The Solidarities of Strangers: The English
Poor Laws and the People, 1700–1948. Cambridge,
U.K., 1998.
Lewis, Jane. The Voluntary Sector, the State, and Social
Work in Britain: The Charity Organisation Society/
Family Welfare Association since 1869. Aldershot,
U.K., 1995.
Lindemann, Mary. Patriots and Paupers: Hamburg,
1712–1830. New York, 1990.
Lindenmeyr, Adele. Poverty Is Not a Vice: Charity, Society,
and the State in Imperial Russia. Princeton, N.J.,
1996.
Mandler, Peter. ed. The Uses of Charity: The Poor on Relief
in the Nineteenth-Century Metropolis. Philadelphia,
1990.
Prochaska, Frank. Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-
Century England. Oxford, U.K., 1980.
Ransel, David L. Mothers of Misery: Child Abandonment in
Russia. Princeton, N.J., 1988.
Steinmetz, George. Regulating the Social: The Welfare State
and Local Politics in Imperial Germany. Princeton,
N.J., 1993.
Thane, Pat. Foundations of the Welfare State. London, 1982.
Van Leeuwen, Marco H. D. The Logic of Charity,
Amsterdam, 1800–50. Houndmills Basingstoke,
U.K., 2000.
RACHEL G. FUCHS
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

n by 1814 had pushed the French out of Spain and
WELLINGTON, DUKE OF (ARTHUR
WELLESLEY) (1769–1852), British army gen-
eral and politician.
The Duke of Wellington has been admired
far more for his command of the British army than
for his contribution to parliamentary politics. He
was Britain’s most revered and respected army
general during the nineteenth century, but also a
very unpopular prime minister. Born in Ireland into
the Anglo-Irish aristocracy, Arthur Wesley (later
Wellesley) was the third surviving son of Garret
Wesley, the first Earl of Mornington, and Lady Anne.
His family’s difficult financial circumstances after
the early death of his father in 1781, in addition to
his poor performance at Eton and a French military
academy, dampened his prospects. His ambitious
but less talented eldest brother, Richard, launched
Wellington’s military career in 1787 by obtaining for
him a commission in the 73rd regiment.
Wellington started at the bottom of the officer
ranks but quickly worked his way up by transferring
from regiment to regiment and by serving as aide-
de-camp to the lord lieutenant of Ireland beginning
in 1787. With the outbreak of war between Britain
and revolutionary France in 1793 came Wellington’s
first serious battlefield test. In 1794 he sailed for
the Netherlands with the 33rd regiment, and
while it was a disastrous campaign, he later claimed
to have learned from his commanders’ mistakes.
Success in the field would have to wait for India,
where he served from 1797 to 1805. He gained
notable victories in Mysore (1799), where he was
appointed governor, and at Assaye (1803). At the
same time, he obtained valuable experience in
administration and diplomacy.
Though recognized for his military success in
India with a knighthood, Wellington’s greatest
renown came during the Napoleonic Wars, espe-
cially in the Iberian Peninsula, where Napoleon’s
military occupation caused deep anger and resent-
ment. Wellington arrived in 1808 to assist the
rebelling Spanish and Portuguese. He drove off the
French at Rolica and repulsed a French attack at
Vimeiro, but was ordered by a newly arrived senior
officer to sign an armistice. The unpopularity at
home of the Convention of Cintra resulted in an
official inquiry, but Wellington suffered no serious
harm. In 1809 he was in command in Portugal and
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WELLINGTON, DUKE OF (ARTHUR WELLESLEY)
back across the French border. A series of major
victories, for example at Talavera (1809), Salamanca
(1812), and Vitoria (1813), catapulted him to war-
hero status and earned him the titles of duke and
field marshal. Wellington’s military success can be
attributed to his stunning grasp of defensive tactics,
his attention to supply lines, and his ability to act
decisively under pressure. When the Napoleonic
Wars ended, he was appointed ambassador to the
restored Bourbon court and served as a delegate
to the Congress of Vienna, but was recalled to the
army when Napoleon escaped from Elba. Wellington
and Napoleon faced each other for the first and last
time at the battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815.
Napoleon suffered a terrible defeat after the Prus-
sians, commanded by Gebhard von Blücher, joined
Wellington’s battered but unyielding troops.
In command of the army of occupation in
France until 1818, Wellington never fought
another military battle, just political ones. His poli-
tical career began early. He represented Trim in the
Irish Parliament (1790–1797) and served as mem-
ber of Parliament (MP) for Rye (elected 1806) and
chief secretary to Ireland (1807–1809). When he
returned from France, he joined the cabinet of Lord
Liverpool (Robert Banks Jenkinson; 1770–1828)
as master-general of the ordnance (1818–1827).
While positioning himself above party politics, he
was firmly aligned with the Tories. He distrusted
the liberal wing of the party but was more pragmatic
and less reactionary than the ultra-Tories. He thus
opposed the expansion of democracy but retreated
from entrenched positions in the interest of poli-
tical order. This pragmatism helps to explain why
during his term as prime minister (1828–1830)
progressive reforms were enacted, including the
repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts (1828)
and the passage of Catholic Emancipation (1829),
which together opened political office to Protes-
tant dissenters and Roman Catholics.
Wellington’s most costly political blunder was
refusing to compromise over parliamentary reform
and the expansion of the electorate, which brought
the opposition Whigs into power. Wellington con-
tinued to be politically active, serving in Robert
Peel’s cabinet as foreign secretary (1834–1835)
and minister without portfolio (1841–1846).
Though his opposition to parliamentary reform
2457
WELLS, H. G.
tarnished his public standing, by the time of his
death he had recovered his status as a selfless elder
statesman, which a state funeral, burial in Saint
Paul’s Cathedral, and numerous public statues
make abundantly clear.
See also French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic
Wars; Great Britain; Tories.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Gurwood, John, ed. The Dispatches of . . . the Duke of
Wellington. 13 vols. London, 1834–1839.
Wellington, Arthur Wellesley. Supplementary Despatches,
Correspondence, and Memoranda of . . . the Duke of
Wellington . . . Edited by His Son, the Duke of Wellington.
15 vols. London, 1858–1872.
Secondary Sources
Gash, Norman, ed. Wellington: Studies in the Military and
Political Career of the First Duke of Wellington. Man-
chester, U.K., 1990.
Longford, Elizabeth. Wellington. 2 vols. London and New
York, 1969–1972. Remains the classic account.
Thompson, Neville. Wellington after Waterloo. London,
1986.
ELISA R. MILKES
n
WELLS, H. G. (1866–1946), British novelist,
journalist, historian, sociologist, and futurologist.
Herbert George Wells was born into an
impoverished lower-middle-class family and was
apprenticed to a draper at age fourteen. He won
a scholarship to the Normal School of Science
(now part of Imperial College, London), where
he studied biology under Thomas Henry Huxley
(1825–1895). Subsequently, he worked as a teach-
er and then as a journalist, producing a series of
scientific speculations for a number of leading
periodicals including the Fortnightly Review and
Nature.
Wells began his varied and prolific literary
career with a succession of ‘‘scientific romances,’’
which are generally acknowledged as the pioneers
of science fiction. The Time Machine (1895) is a
fable set in the year 802701 and portrays the split
of the human race into two species—the dainty
Eloi and the monstrous, subterranean Morlocks—
2458
along class lines. This was followed by The Island
of Doctor Moreau (1896), The Invisible Man
(1897), The First Men in the Moon (1901),
and other works. These works were inspired by
the reassessment of humanity’s place in nature
initiated by the theory of natural selection
described by Charles Darwin (1809–1882). They
display Wells’s lifelong preoccupation with evolu-
tionary time and contain, to varying degrees,
social allegory, foreboding about the future (often
arising out of the laws of thermodynamics), and
an assessment of the impact of scientific advance-
ment upon the social order. Wells’s output as a
scientific romancer was paralleled by a series of
fantastic novels, notably The Wonderful Visit
(1895) and The Sea Lady (1902). In the 1890s,
he also embarked upon a career as the author of
such unforgettable short stories as ‘‘The Stolen
Bacillus’’ (1893), ‘‘The Red Room’’ (1896), and
‘‘The Door in the Wall’’ (1906).
After 1900, Wells diversified his energies into a
number of fields. His determination to establish
himself as a mainstream novelist began with Love
and Mr. Lewisham (1900) and culminated in Tono-
Bungay (1909). In Kipps (1905) and The History of
Mr. Polly (1910), Wells displayed considerable
sympathy for the ‘‘little man.’’ Ann Veronica
(1909), which considers sexual equality and the
issue of women’s rights, caused considerable
controversy. He famously feuded with Henry
James (1843–1916), whom he ruthlessly carica-
tured in Boon (1915). Wells’s insistence that nove-
lists should fulfill a didactic purpose, rather than
indulge in art for art’s sake, also caused his
estrangement from Joseph Conrad (1857–1924).
Anticipations (1902), his first major work of futur-
ology, examined the scientific and social trends that
might shape the twentieth century. Wells joined
the Fabian Society in 1903, but severed relations
after a polemical exchange with leading members
George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950), Beatrice Pot-
ter Webb (1858–1943), and Sidney James Webb
(1859–1947); he depicted the Fabians in The New
Machiavelli (1911). During his Fabian period,
Wells wrote A Modern Utopia (1905), which estab-
lished the popular conception of him as one of
the twentieth century’s few unequivocally utopian
writers. Wells foresaw many of the advancements in
modern warfare, including the use of poison gas in
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

World War I (In The War of the Worlds [1898]) and
the development of the tank (in the short story
‘‘The Land Ironclads’’ [1904]). In The World Set
Free (1913), he predicted the atomic bomb.
Wells was an outspoken critic of the League of
Nations but campaigned tirelessly towards global
unification, which he saw as the only alternative to
annihilating conflict. He was pivotal to the Sankey
Declaration on the Rights of Man, a precursor of
the United Nations Charter. Wells’s readership as a
novelist declined in the 1920s, as attention turned
to younger novelists such as Virginia Woolf (1882–
1941) and James Joyce (1882–1941). However, he
continued to reach a vast audience, particularly
with The Outline of History (1920, abridged as A
Short History of the World, 1922). Wells saw human
history as a ‘‘race between education and cata-
strophe,’’ and increasingly endeavored to facilitate
the synthesis of existing nations into a ‘‘World
State.’’ Wells famously debated with world leaders,
including U.S. presidents Theodore Roosevelt
(1858–1919) and Franklin Delano Roosevelt
(1882–1945). He met with Vladimir Lenin
(1870–1924) in 1920 and with Lenin’s successor,
Joseph Stalin (1879–1953), in 1934. Wells’s The
Shape of Things to Come (1933, with its cinematic
version, Things to Come, appearing in 1936), con-
firmed his status as a great popularizer of scientific
and political ideas. Wells’s last book, Mind at the
End of Its Tether (1945), is a deeply pessimistic
vision of humanity, which should be understood
as a despairing response to the outcome of World
War II. His Experiment in Autobiography (1934) is
a lively account of Wells’s involvement in the con-
troversies of his own age.
See also Fabians; Science and Technology; Verne, Jules.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Haynes, Roslynn D. H. G. Wells: Discoverer of the Future.
New York, 1980.
MacKenzie, Norman, and Jeanne MacKenzie. The Time
Traveller: The Life of H. G. Wells. London, 1973.
Parrinder, Patrick. Shadows of the Future: H. G. Wells,
Science Fiction, and Prophecy. Syracuse, N.Y., 1995.
Partington, John S. Building Cosmopolis: The Political
Thought of H. G. Wells. Aldershot, U.K., 2003.
STEVEN MCLEAN
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WESTERNIZERS
n
WESTERNIZERS. The Westernizers
(zapadniki) were a loosely organized group of
Russian intellectuals, who from the late 1830s to
the mid-1850s engaged the Slavophiles (slavianof-
ily) in a bitter debate about Russia’s past, its national
identity, and its probable future. The trigger for
this debate was Petr Chaadayev’s ‘‘First Philosophi-
cal Letter’’ (written 1828, published 1836), which
charged that Russians, cut off from the Roman
Catholic Church and therefore from the living
source of European civilization, were ‘‘orphans
with one foot in the air’’ who had contributed
nothing to the world. Stung to the quick, the Sla-
vophiles defended the Orthodox Church and Old
Russian social forms and folk traditions as superior
to the religious, social, and political institutions of
the ‘‘rotten,’’ ‘‘barbarous’’ West. In response, the
Westernizers claimed either that Russia had always
been a member of the European community of
nations or that Russia, in spite of its peculiar origins,
was gradually becoming Europeanized and would
eventually join the West as an equal partner in the
civilized community of nations. Aside from their role
in this pivotal debate, the Westernizers were signifi-
cant in another regard: they contributed to the birth
of a distinctively Russian agrarian socialism—the
genesis of Russian anarchism and liberalism. Their
tiny group was the intellectual seedbed of progressive
politics in mid-nineteenth-century Russia.
It is customary to divide the Westernizers into
two smaller groups. The moderate Westernizers
included the historians Timofei Granovsky (1813–
1855) and Sergei Soloviev (1820–1879), the legal
expert Konstantin Kavelin (1818–1885), and the
jurist Boris Chicherin (1828–1904). Sometimes
the literary critic Pavel Annenkov (1813–1887)
and the novelist Ivan Turgenev (1818–1883) are
also added to the list of moderates. The radical
Westernizers included the literary critic Vissarion
Belinsky (1811–1848), the great memoirist
Alexander Herzen (1812–1870), and the future
anarchist Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876).
As a historian of medieval and early modern
Europe, Granovsky traced the development of
centralized states, representative governments, and
educated civil societies in the West. His university
lectures strongly implied that Russian history had
belatedly followed the Western pattern of social
2459
WHIGS
evolution, so that contemporary Russians could see
their future in Europe’s immediate past. Solo-
viev’s classical History of Russia from Ancient Times
(published in twenty-eight volumes from 1851 to
1879) argued that Russia, like the West, had gra-
dually moved from an association of tribes to a
modern state, based on common religious and
political values and ruled by an enlightened govern-
ment. Although he thought that Peter the Great
(r. 1682–1725) had contributed much to this
development, Soloviev saw Peter and other Euro-
peanizers as organic products of a Russian past that
from time immemorial had begun slowly conver-
ging with the West. Kavelin emphasized the slow
development in Russia of abstract ideas (such as
duty to the state, citizenship, and the rule of law)
crucial to the appearance of a modern Europea-
nized polity. In his 1847 essay ‘‘An Analysis of
Juridical Life in Ancient Russia,’’ he pointed to the
complete development of the free individual (lich-
nost) as the final goal of Russian history. Chicherin,
younger by a generation than other moderates,
used their insights into Russian history and law as
the basis of a liberal political program. In his essay
‘‘Contemporary Tasks of Russian Life’’ (1855), he
made the case for the abolition of serfdom, free-
dom of conscience and the press, and an indepen-
dent court system. Annenkov and Turgenev wrote
memoirs chronicling the Westernizer–Slavophile
debate from perspectives agreeable to the Wester-
nizers. Turgenev’s early fiction, especially A Sports-
man’s Sketches (1852), contributed to the abolition
of serfdom by showing Russian serfs as sympathetic
human beings. Russian contemporaries and subse-
quent scholars (including Isaiah Berlin and Leonard
Schapiro) regarded Turgenev as a Westernizer and
moderate liberal.
Among the radical Westernizers the leader was
Belinsky, who contended in the article ‘‘Russia
before Peter the Great’’ (1842) that only Peter’s
forceful intervention in backward, semibarbarous
Russia had made it possible for Russia to join the
community of civilized nations. According to
Belinsky, Peter was ‘‘a god who breathed a living
soul into the colossal, sleeping body of ancient
Russia.’’ Belinsky’s ‘‘Letter to Gogol’’ (1847) lament-
ed Russian religious oppression and the existence
of serfdom, and pointed to Russian writers’ moral
responsibility to expose injustice. Belinsky had no
2460
patience with the Slavophiles’ apologies for pre-
Petrine Russia or for their religious ‘‘obscurant-
ism.’’ Bakunin’s polemic against conservatism,
‘‘The Reaction in Germany’’ (1842), was a thinly
veiled call for social revolution in the name of a
‘‘new religion of humanity.’’ By the late 1840s
both Bakunin and Herzen had come to believe that
Russia might actually precede the West in inaugu-
rating social justice, if only the peasant commune
could be emancipated, peacefully or forcefully,
from governmental interference. Herzen’s ‘‘The
Russian People and Socialism’’ (1851) made the
case for the Russian commune as socialist ideal.
Subsequently, Bakunin achieved fame as a revolu-
tionary Pan-Slav and as the apostle of Russian anar-
chism in Europe. Herzen achieved renown as the
‘‘father of Russian socialism.’’
See also Bakunin, Mikhail; Belinsky, Vissarion; Chaa-
dayev, Peter; Herzen, Alexander; Intelligentsia;
Russia; Slavophiles; Soloviev, Vladimir; Turgenev,
Ivan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Berlin, Isaiah. Russian Thinkers. New York, 1978.
Copleston, Frederick C. Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen
to Lenin and Berdyaev. Tunbridge Wells, U.K., 1986.
Edie, James M., James P. Scanlan, and Mary-Barbara
Zeldin, eds. Russian Philosophy. Vol. 1: The Beginnings
of Russian Philosophy: The Slavophiles; The Westernizers.
Chicago, 1965.
Hamburg, G. M. Boris Chicherin and Early Russian Liber-
alism, 1828–1866. Stanford, Calif., 1992.
Walicki, Andrzej. A History of Russian Thought from the
Enlightenment to Marxism. Translated by Hilda
Andrews-Rusiecka. Stanford, Calif., 1979.
G. M. HAMBURG
n
WHIGS. The Whigs were one of the two main
opposing political parties in Great Britain in the
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The
term originally referred to the opposition to James
II in the decade before the Glorious Revolution of
1688. The Whigs led Parliament from 1715 to
1760 before losing the confidence of the Crown
and electorate. In December 1783 King George III
selected William Pitt the Younger to lead a new
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Tory government. The Whigs would remain out of
power until 1830, save for Charles James Fox’s
participation in 1806 in the ‘‘ministry of all the
talents’’ under the conservative Lord Grenville.
PARTY IDENTITY
During the reign of George III (1760–1820) the
Whigs constituted less of a party per se than a net-
work of aristocratic families operating in Parliament
through patronage and influence. Unity relied on
personal loyalty, shared ideology, or the simple
desire for power. Modern party alignments emerged
after 1784, when new political crises, including the
controversy over the American Revolution, roused
public opinion. The most prominent Whig faction,
headed by the second Marquis of Rockingham,
advocated freedom for the American colonists and
counted the Irish-born philosopher and parliamen-
tarian Edmund Burke among its ranks.
The Whigs cherished fundamentally aristocratic
attitudes and regarded themselves as the natural
protectors of English liberties and civil institutions
against the influences of the Crown. They looked
upon society as a hierarchical set of interdependent
relationships and looked down upon the authoritar-
ian uses of state coercion. Their vision was of a
consensual and cooperative civil society bound
together by deferential citizens with reciprocal rights
and responsibilities, led by a socially responsible and
benevolent governing class. Government powers
were to be bounded by law, custom, and humane
principles. Whigs stood firmly against monopolies in
commerce, religion, and politics.
THE POLITICS OF OPPOSITION
Fox led the Whig opposition for many of these years,
representing the interests of religious dissenters, pro-
vincial industrialists, and a rising middle class. His
support for the French Revolution of 1789 and his
opposition to the war against France pushed some
moderate Whigs to support Pitt and isolated Foxites
from growing conservative sentiment. Between
1803 and 1806 the party rebuilt itself, as Fox
and Lord Grenville drew in Whigs who had left over
the French Revolution. A Foxite core, the more
conservative Grenvillites, and Samuel Whitbread’s
radical ‘‘Mountain’’ (named in ironic reference to
Maximilien Robespierre’s allies in the National
Convention) comprised the spectrum of Whig
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WHIGS
opposition until the defeat of Napoleon in 1815.
Though diverse in their principles, all factions sup-
ported Catholic emancipation and the general
expansion of civil liberties.
Between 1808 and 1830 the Whigs established
themselves as an effective opposition. Henry
Brougham, a Scottish barrister and leading Whig
parliamentarian, advanced his party’s fortunes by
extending party activity beyond Westminster to
the nation as a whole, appealing to provincial mer-
chants and manufacturers frustrated at their exclu-
sion from influence. He opened up county and
borough politics through contested parliamentary
elections and played to public opinion and the
press to keep Tory governments on the defensive.
The Whigs benefited from Tory Prime Minister
Liverpool’s stroke in 1827 and the government’s
split over Catholic Emancipation in 1829. In 1830
William IV (r. 1830–1837) turned to the Whigs
under the leadership of Earl Grey to form a gov-
ernment. Grey and his successor, Lord Melbourne,
pursued a general program of measured reform
over the next decade.
POWER, REFORM, AND DISSOLUTION
The government’s bold Reform Act of 1832
replaced notoriously ‘‘rotten’’ boroughs, which
had few voters, with representatives for the pre-
viously unrepresented manufacturing districts and
cities. It also increased the size of the electorate in
England and Wales by over two hundred thousand
persons, or almost 50 percent. The basis of voting,
however, remained a property qualification. Some
working-class voters lost the right to vote as a
result of the abolition of old franchise rights.
The 1832 Reform Act initiated a political re-
alignment that favored the Whigs and would fuel
the emerging Liberal Party well into the 1880s. The
Whig leadership had connected high politics with
middle-class provincial interests and public opinion,
forming the bedrock of Victorian liberalism.
Returned with a huge majority at the general
election of December 1832, the Whigs carried out
a number of other important reforms. A statute in
1833 ended slavery in the British colonies, while
another charter reduced the East India Company
from a monopolistic trading power to a purely
administrative organ.
2461
WHITE TERROR
In 1834 the new Poor Law was passed. The law
grouped parishes into unions and placed them
under the control of elected boards of guardians,
with a national Poor Law Board in London. Its
basic principle—that outdoor poor relief should
cease and that conditions in workhouses should
be ‘‘less eligible’’ than the worst conditions in the
labor market outside—was bitterly resented by
workers and many writers throughout the country
and led to outbreaks of violence. As the Whigs
provoked working-class hostility, they saw the
spread of Chartist campaigns, which attacked the
Reform Act as a sellout to the upper classes and
opposed the new Poor Law.
Lord Grey’s successor, Lord Melbourne, suc-
cessfully passed the Municipal Corporations Act
of 1835, which replaced old oligarchies in local
government with elected councils. Many unincor-
porated industrial communities received their first
governmental powers. Melbourne failed, however,
to find effective answers to the pressing financial,
economic, and social questions of the day. These
questions grew after 1836, when a financial crisis
unleashed an economic depression accompanied by
a series of bad harvests.
Once the Whigs began to live with the
reforms they had enacted in the early 1830s, they
lost their radical vitality and fell into decline. By
1840, they had alienated many of the groups that
had originally cooperated with their reforming
legislation, such as the Dissenters, Evangelicals,
and Benthamites. The Whigs also lost radical
members disillusioned with the limited nature of
factory reform and the failure to end squalor in
the towns, and they acquired a reputation for the
occasional endorsement of repressive measures, as
in the case of the Tolpuddle Martyrs of 1834.
The Tories under Robert Peel won the 1841
election. During the 1840s the Whig label lost its
political meaning as reformers gathered under the
Liberal banner.
See also Fox, Charles James; Liberalism; Poor Law;
Tories.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hay, William Anthony. The Whig Revival, 1808–1830. New
York, 2005.
2462
Jenkins, T. A. Gladstone, Whiggery, and the Liberal Party,
1874–1886. Oxford, U.K., 1988.
Mitchell, Leslie. The Whig World. London, 2005.
Parry, Jonathan. The Rise and Fall of Liberal Government in
Victorian Britain. New Haven, Conn., 1993.
Smith, E. A. Whig Principles and Party Politics: Earl Fitz-
william and the Whig Party, 1748–1833. Manchester,
U.K., 1975.
Wasson, Ellis Archer. Whig Renaissance: Lord Althorp and
the Whig Party, 1782–1845. New York, 1987.
STEPHEN VELLA
WHITE TERROR. See Counterrevolution.
n
WILBERFORCE, WILLIAM (1759–
1833), British statesman, philanthropist, and reli-
gious leader.
William Wilberforce led the campaign in the
British Parliament against slavery and was an influ-
ential philanthropist and religious leader. He was
born in Hull, Yorkshire, the son and grandson of
merchants who had grown rich through the
town’s trade with the Baltic. Wilberforce was edu-
cated at Hull Grammar School, Pocklington
School, and St John’s College, Cambridge. Due
to the early deaths of his father and uncle, he
inherited considerable wealth while still a teen-
ager. In 1797 he married Barbara Spooner and
had two daughters and four sons, including
Samuel Wilberforce (1805–1873), later Bishop
of Oxford.
In 1780 Wilberforce became member of Par-
liament (MP) for Hull, and in 1784 was elected
for Yorkshire, the largest constituency in Eng-
land, which gave him an important political
power base. He was also very well connected at
Westminster, being a close friend of the prime
minister, William Pitt the Younger (1759–1806),
and of other leading figures. In 1785–1786,
Wilberforce experienced a period of spiritual cri-
sis, which resulted in his conversion to evangeli-
cal Christianity and his subsequent conviction
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

that ‘‘God Almighty has set before me two great
objects, the suppression of the slave trade and
the reformation of manners’’ (Wilberforce and
Wilberforce, vol. 1, p. 149). Wilberforce com-
menced his parliamentary campaign against the
slave trade in May 1789. In January 1790 he
secured a Select Committee to examine the evi-
dence, and in April 1791 moved for leave
to bring in an abolition bill. Insecurity arising
from the context of the French Revolution made
Parliament fear such a measure could have sub-
versive consequences, and Wilberforce was initially
decisively defeated. An extensive campaign of pop-
ular agitation and petitioning ensued, causing the
House of Commons to vote in 1792 for gradual
abolition, but this measure was blocked by the
House of Lords. Wilberforce’s efforts had to be
maintained for a further sixteen years, until even-
tual victory was secured in 1807.
Meanwhile, Wilberforce was also pursuing his
agenda for moral and spiritual reform. In 1787 he
had helped to secure a Proclamation for the
Encouragement of Piety and Virtue and worked
hard to disseminate and implement it. In 1797 he
published A Practical View of the Prevailing Reli-
gious System of Professed Christians in the Higher
and Middle Classes of this Country Contrasted with
Real Christianity. This was a critique of nominal
Christianity and a call to widespread conversion to
evangelicalism, as a means of both personal and
national salvation. The book was widely read and
very influential in contributing to an ongoing
process of religious revival. During the 1790s
and 1800s, Wilberforce was a central figure in
the so-called Clapham Sect of wealthy lay evange-
licals that supported parliamentary campaigns on
the slave trade and other matters and was instru-
mental in the formation of numerous religious
societies.
After the abolition of the slave trade in 1807,
Wilberforce continued to have a prominent inde-
pendent role in Parliament, particularly as a kind
of national moral arbiter. In 1813 he played a
significant part in securing the admission of mis-
sionaries to India, and from 1814 campaigned
for the abolition of the slave trade by other
nations. He enjoyed only limited immediate suc-
cess, but ensured that the matter would remain
firmly on the diplomatic agenda.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WILBERFORCE, WILLIAM
In 1823 a parliamentary campaign for the abo-
lition of slavery itself was initiated. Wilberforce
gave it strong moral support, but he was aging fast
and unable to take a significant active part. He
retired from Parliament in 1825 and died in
1833, just three days after hearing that the aboli-
tion bill had passed its third and final reading in the
House of Commons.
Wilberforce’s career has given rise to contro-
versy on two specific issues. First, there is debate
regarding the real importance of his personal role
in the campaign against the slave trade. It is gen-
erally agreed, however, that he provided crucial
parliamentary leadership, although the wider
extraparliamentary campaign was primarily the
work of others. Second, there is an acknowledged
tension between his advocacy of the abolition of
slavery and other reforming causes, and his will-
ingness to countenance repression of political
radicalism, both in the 1790s and in the disturbed
years following the restoration of peace in 1815.
It was also alleged that his preoccupation with
slaves in the West Indies blinded him to the suf-
ferings of the poor at home.
Nevertheless, Wilberforce’s achievements were
undeniably substantial. In addition to specific leg-
islation, he was important in demonstrating how an
independent political campaign pursued with great
consistency and integrity could eventually bring
striking results, and in providing a moral and spiri-
tual example that stimulated significant changes in
cultural attitudes.
See also Great Britain; Slavery.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Wilberforce, Robert Isaac, and Samuel Wilberforce. The Life
of William Wilberforce. 5 vols. London, 1838. A
detailed account by two of Wilberforce’s sons, contain-
ing much rich material, but stronger on religious than
political aspects.
Secondary Sources
Oldfield, J. R. Popular Politics and British Anti-Slavery: The
Mobilisation of Public Opinion against the Slave Trade
1787–1807. London, 1998.
Pollock, John. Wilberforce. London, 1977. A scholarly
biography.
JOHN WOLFFE
2463
WILDE, OSCAR
n Wilde’s celebrity as a lecturer derived from his
WILDE, OSCAR (1854–1900), Irish play-
wright.
Oscar Fingal O’Flahertie Wills Wilde was, as he
said of himself, a ‘‘man who stood in symbolic
relation to his times’’ (De Profundis). He was born
on 16 October 1854, at 21 Westland Row in
Dublin. His father, Sir William Wilde, a leading
ear and eye surgeon, devoted himself to caring for
the city’s poor. His charitable dispensary later
developed into the Dublin Eye and Ear Hospital.
He also was the author of several noteworthy
books on archaeology and Irish folklore.
Wilde’s mother, Jane, was also a writer, as well
as an activist for Irish nationalism, an early suffra-
gist, and a socialist. Under the pen name Francesca
Esperanza Wilde, she drew note in Dublin’s poli-
tical circles by publishing a series of defenses of
Irish nationalism. After the family moved to more
fashionable quarters on Merrion Square in June of
1855, Lady Wilde convened a regular Saturday
afternoon salon with guests such as the writer Sher-
idan le Fanu, Samuel Lever, the lawyer and nation-
alist leader Isaac Butt, and the antiquarian and poet
Samuel Ferguson.
EDUCATION AND CAREER
This circle was Wilde’s milieu until the age of nine,
when he was enrolled at Portora Royal School in
Enniskillen, Fermanaugh. He graduated in 1871,
gained entrance to Trinity College, Dublin, and
studied classics there from 1871 to 1874. He won
the Berkeley Medal, the highest honor in classics
granted at Trinity, which helped him gain a schol-
arship to Magdalen College, Oxford. At the age of
twenty Wilde moved from Ireland to England and
continued to excel in his studies. He graduated
from Oxford in 1878 with a double first, and
won the 1878 Oxford Newdigate prize for his
poems Ravenna.
Wilde returned to Dublin after Oxford and fell
in love with Florence Balcome. She, however,
spurned Wilde and became engaged to Bram Stoker.
Wilde announced his intention to leave Ireland
permanently because of the romantic misfortune.
He took up quarters in London in 1878, and spent
the next six years living off a lucrative lecturing
career that took him to France and on a Continental
tour of the United States.
2464
involvement at Oxford in the aesthetics movement,
a new cult of decorative arts and aesthetic theory
originated by William Morris (1834–1896) and his
circle. Wilde captivated the media, who made him
spokesperson for the movement. By 1881 the cult
of the ‘‘Aesthetes’’ was important enough that
Gilbert and Sullivan lampooned it in the popular
operetta, Patience, which popularized Wilde as an
effete poet who ‘‘strolled down Picadilly with a
medieval lily in his hand.’’ The show was a hit,
and Wilde was a celebrity, though none of his
major writings had yet appeared.
The success of the operetta’s premiere in New
York prompted its producer, Richard D’Oyly Carte
(1844–1901), to arrange Wilde’s 1882 American
lecture tour. Newspapers in the larger cities
attacked Wilde, describing at length his pasty white
skin, and his odd, lyrical intonation. The mining
towns of the West, ironically, applauded Wilde; one
of the most favorable press notices about him
appeared in the Leadville, Colorado, Gazette
in 1881.
Wilde returned to Dublin only twice during
this period of lecturing. On one of those visits in
1884 he met Constance Lloyd, the daughter of a
wealthy London family, and proposed almost
instantaneously. They wed on 29 May 1884.
Lloyd’s allowance of 250 pounds yearly was a con-
siderable asset, and the couple cultivated a life of
luxury at 16 Tite Street in London. In the next two
years they had two sons, Cyril (1885) and Vyvyan
(1886).
Wilde commenced a series of journalistic
appointments. He reviewed for the Pall Mall Ga-
zette from 1887 to 1889, and then became editor
of Woman’s World, which he fashioned into a
laboratory for exploring the decorative arts and a
mouthpiece for socialist reformation. The period
immediately after taking the editorship was one of
extreme creative productivity for Wilde. In 1891
his most important prose writings appeared in the
collection Intentions, which included ‘‘The Decay
of Lying’’ and ‘‘The Critic as Artist,’’ and his only
novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray, was serialized in
Lipincott’s Magazine. Mainstream reviewers praised
Wilde’s prose but condemned his morality. Max
Nordau, whose influential book Degeneration
(1895) attacked aestheticism, used the novel as an
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Oscar Wilde. ªBETTMANN/CORBIS
example of how degenerate artists hasten the
‘‘moral laxity and decay’’ of a nation.
In 1891 Wilde also wrote Lady Windermere’s
Fan, the first of four stage hits that elevated Wilde
into a West End legend. It opened as an immediate
hit at St. James’ Theatre in London in February
1882, and earned Wilde an astonishing seven thou-
sand pounds. He followed it with A Woman of No
Importance at the Haymarket Theatre in London on
19 April 1893, which was hailed as the best ‘‘comedy
of manners’’ since Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751–
1816). In his third West End hit, An Ideal Hus-
band, Wilde crafted his epigrams and wit around a
political melodrama, prompting the socialist play-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WILDE, OSCAR
wright George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950) to call
him ‘‘our only serious playwright.’’ Wilde’s next—
and last—play, The Importance of Being Earnest,
opened at the Haymarket only a month after An
Ideal Husband, putting Wilde in the enviable posi-
tion of having two simultaneous West End hits.
TRIALS
The notes for works left by Wilde suggest he
intended to have a long career as a playwright.
However, 1891 also saw the beginning of Wilde’s
intimacies with Lord Alfred Bruce Douglas (1870–
1945), the son of John Sholto Douglas, 8th Mar-
quess of Queensberry. Douglas, a devotee of the
cult of aestheticism, became Wilde’s constant com-
panion in the London social world.
Douglas had not yet come of age and had no
allowance, and Wilde’s flagrant displays of spend-
ing and support, as well as the attention paid by the
public to the men’s extravagance, snubbed the
father’s position as financial authority. To retaliate,
the marquess made a plan to interrupt the opening
night of The Importance of Being Earnest with an
insulting delivery of vegetables made to the play-
wright while his play was in progress. Warned
of the plot, Wilde had the marquess barred from the
theater. The next day, 18 February 1895, the mar-
quess left a calling card for Wilde at the Albemarle
club. On the back he had written, ‘‘For Oscar
Wilde posing as a Somdomite [sic].’’
Goaded by Douglas, Wilde pressed charges of
criminal libel against the marquess. The ensuing
events ended any hopes Wilde had of sustaining
his career and left him financially and emotionally
destitute. In April the crown took over prosecu-
tion, and the solicitor Edward Clarke based his case
against the marquess almost entirely on Wilde’s
own assertions that the accusation of being a sodo-
mite had no basis. To challenge that claim, Edward
Henry Carson, barrister for the defense, located
several lower-class boys who claimed to have had
intimacies with Wilde. The revelation laid waste to
the prosecution, humiliated Wilde, and prompted
the dismissal of the case.
Carson’s witnesses, however, provided the
ground for the crown to arrest Wilde on 6 April
1895, on charges of ‘‘committing acts of gross inde-
cency with other male persons: under section 11 of
the 1885 Criminal Law Amendment Act.’’ Wilde,
2465
WILDE, OSCAR
along with Alfred Taylor, who had allegedly solicited
the services of young men for Wilde, faced twenty-
five counts. The jury deadlocked on all charges
except one, of which they acquitted Wilde.
Despite entreaties from luminaries such as
Bernard Shaw and even from the marquess’s own
attorney, Edward Carson, the crown stood ada-
mant in its desire to secure a conviction, and
pursued a second trial under the prosecution of
the solicitor-general himself, Frank Lockwood.
The crown’s motives are a matter for speculation.
Ambiguous letters between Queensberry and
Prime Minister Rosebery (Archibald Philip Prim-
rose), who was widely suspected of having had a
homosexual affair earlier in his career with another
of Queensberry’s sons, suggest that Rosebery
might have been blackmailed into pursuing prose-
cution. More generally, the British government
had become uncomfortably associated with pruri-
ence by several well-publicized scandals that called
into question the moral ethics of certain govern-
ment officials. The prosecution of Wilde might
have seemed a way to redeem the government
against its own transgressions.
Wilde himself, however, was the leading contri-
buting factor. In 1892 the lord chamberlain refused
to license the performance of Wilde’s newest play,
Salome, because it contained biblical characters.
Wilde reacted publicly and his anger resounded
across London society. In 1893 he published the
play in a French edition, as if to snub the parochial
taboos of the English system, and in 1894 he pub-
lished an English fine art edition with pornographic
illustrations by Aubrey Beardsley (1872–1898). Such
actions showed little respect for authority. Also,
Wilde’s Irish origins and his flaunting of new, com-
mercially derived money caused further contempt. In
many ways, this was a prosecution about nationality
and class as much as it was about sexual behavior.
The third trial resulted in the verdict of guilty
on all charges save one, and Wilde served two years
at hard labor in prison, the last eighteen months
of it at Reading Gaol. He was released on 19 May
1897. Penniless and abandoned by his wife and
sons (as well as by Douglas), he adopted the name
Sebastian Melmoth, after the title character of
Melmoth the Wanderer, and lived in self-imposed
exile from society and the aesthetic movement.
2466
Only two pieces of any significance issued from
Wilde after release. The Ballad of Reading Gaol
(1898), a poem seeking to elicit compassion for
prisoners, and De Profundis (1905), a long letter
written to Douglas from prison that provides
Wilde’s most personal statement of his philoso-
phies of art, life, and himself.
Wilde died of cerebral meningitis on 30
November 1900, only three years after his release.
He was buried in the Cimitière de Bagneux on the
outskirts of Paris, but was later relocated by gener-
ous friends to the more prestigious Père Lachaise
Cemetery, where his grave is marked by a commis-
sioned monument from sculptor Sir Jacob Epstein
(1880–1959).
See also Avant-Garde; Carpenter, Edward; Homosexual-
ity and Lesbianism; Morris, William; Symonds,
John Addington.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cohen, Ed. Talk on the Wilde Side: Toward a Genealogy of
Discourse on Male Sexualities. New York, 1993.
Cohen, Philip K. The Moral Vision of Oscar Wilde. Ruther-
ford, N.J., 1978.
Ellmann, Richard. Oscar Wilde. New York: Viking, 1987.
Ellmann, Richard, ed. Oscar Wilde: A Collection of Critical
Essays. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1969.
Foldy, Michael S. The Trials of Oscar Wilde: Deviance,
Morality, and Late-Victorian Society. New Haven,
Conn., 1997.
Gagnier, Regenia A. Idylls of the Marketplace: Oscar Wilde
and the Victorian Public. Stanford, Calif., 1986.
Hyde, H. Montgomery. Oscar Wilde: A Biography.
London, 1975.
Nassaar, Christopher S. Into the Demon Universe: A Lit-
erary Exploration of Oscar Wilde. New Haven, Conn.,
1974.
Nunokawa, Jeff. Oscar Wilde. New York, 1995.
Shewan, Rodney. Oscar Wilde: Art and Egotism. London,
1977.
Sinfield, Alan. The Wilde Century: Effeminacy, Oscar Wilde,
and the Queer Movement. London, 1994.
Summers, Claude J. Gay Fictions: Wilde to Stonewall:
Studies in a Male Homosexual Literary Tradition.
New York, 1990.
Woodcock, George. The Paradox of Oscar Wilde.
New York, 1950.
GREGORY BREDBECK
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

n abdicate. Liberals advocated the accession of
WILLIAM I (in German, Wilhelm I; 1797–
1888), emperor of Germany (1871–1888) and
king of Prussia (1861–1888).
William I was the second son of the future
King Frederick William III of Prussia and Louise
of Mecklenburg. As the younger brother of the
heir, William was expected to make a career in the
military, and this was a role that he relished. He
served in the wars against Napoleon I and was
devoted to the army.
In 1829 William married Princess Augusta of
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. The union produced two
children: Frederick, who later reigned as Frederick
III, and Louise, who married the grand duke of
Baden. William’s marriage was one of convenience;
he had abandoned his love affair with a Polish
countess, Elise Radziwill, who was not deemed to
be a suitable consort for a Prussian prince. William
and his wife were ill-suited temperamentally and
politically; he particularly had no use for his wife’s
more liberal political views.
William’s conservatism and advocacy of the use
of force against the forces of change earned him the
enmity of revolutionaries during the revolutions
of 1848, and he was forced to flee to England
incognito. When the tide of the revolution turned,
William returned to Prussia and commanded the
troops that put down a republican insurrection in
Baden.
As the result of the revolution, Prussia became
a constitutional monarchy. Although William was
no advocate of constitutionalism, he believed that
the monarch had the obligation to uphold the
constitution. His beliefs on this score were tested
in 1858 when he became regent of Prussia after his
brother, King Frederick William IV, was declared
unfit to rule. As regent, William gave hope for
progressive change when he appointed moderate
liberals to his cabinet. But after he became king in
1861, he introduced military reform bills that ran
afoul of liberals in parliament who believed that
it would create an army that would be used to
suppress reforms. Liberals in the Prussian parlia-
ment repeatedly rejected his army reform bills, as
government operations ground to a halt. For
weeks, relations between crown and parliament
stood at an impasse, and William threatened to
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WILLIAM I
William’s son Frederick, who was more liberal than
his father, whereas conservatives flocked to William’s
nephew Frederick Charles, who threatened to
do away with the constitution altogether.
In September 1862, at the height of the crisis,
William accepted his advisors’ suggestion to
appoint Otto von Bismarck as prime minister.
Bismarck found a convenient loophole in the con-
stitution that allowed him to push through the
king’s military reforms. Bismarck then proceeded
to assuage liberals’ anger over his manipulation
of the constitution by achieving their long-held
desire for a united Germany under Prussia, which
became a reality after Prussia’s victories over
Austria in 1866 and France in 1871. William I com-
manded troops during the Franco-Prussian War of
1870–1871, received the surrender of Napoleon
III at Sedan, France, and was proclaimed German
emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
William reigned as emperor for the next seven-
teen years, despite advanced age and two attempts
on his life. Although Bismarck told his biographers
he was a mere servant of his emperor, historians
usually refer to the period of William’s rule as the
Age of Bismarck, because the chancellor dominated
both domestic and foreign policy. Yet William was
no mere cipher of his chancellor; he often disagreed
with his policies. William did not favor Bismarck’s
struggle against the Roman Catholic Church dur-
ing the 1870s, and gave it only his tacit consent. In
the end, William was a modest, hard-working, and
conscientious ruler. His letters and memoranda
show that he carefully thought through issues
affecting his realm. Though his militarism and con-
servative views often put him at odds with radical
elements in the German Empire, he was a popular
monarch.
As William lay dying at the age of ninety-one,
his wife permitted a cameo of Elise Radziwill to be
placed in his hand. After clutching it briefly, the old
emperor passed away. He was succeeded by his son
Frederick, who was ill with cancer and reigned for
only three months. Frederick in turn was succeeded
by his son, who became Emperor William II.
Although the young emperor worshipped his late
grandfather, it was Germany’s misfortune that he
lacked the elder man’s conscientiousness and sense
of restraint.
2467
WILLIAM II
See also Austro-Prussian War; Bismarck, Otto von;
Danish-German War; Franco-Prussian War; Frederick
William IV; Germany; Prussia; Revolutions of 1848.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aronson, Theo. The Kaisers. London, 1971.
Börner, Karl Heinz. Kaiser Wilhelm I, 1797 bis 1888:
Deutscher Kaiser und König von Preussen. Cologne,
Germany, 1984.
Marcks, Erich. Kaiser Wilhelm I. Leipzig, Germany, 1897.
Schultze, Johannes, ed. Kaiser Wilhelms I: Weimarer Briefe.
Berlin, 1924.
PATRICIA KOLLANDER
n
WILLIAM II (in German, Wilhelm II, 1859–
1941, ruled 1888–1918), German kaiser and king
of Prussia.
William II, the last king of Prussia and German
emperor, possessed a royal lineage that might well
have been the envy of many another European
sovereign. He was the eldest grandson of both
the first German emperor, William I (r. 1871–
1888), and Queen Victoria (r. 1837–1901), and
was a descendant of Russian tsars as well. From the
moment of his birth in 1859 he was destined for a
great future but also beset by handicap, for as a
result of his protracted delivery his left arm was
paralyzed for life. Although the child learned to
accept this misfortune and became remarkably
adept at sports, his mother, Victoria, was mortified
that her son was less than physically perfect. She
made her disappointment evident, and thus began
the pronounced estrangement between mother
and son that endured until her death when William
was forty-two.
William’s education from the time that he was
seven until he reached eighteen and was ready for a
university was in the hands of the stern, unappeas-
able and relentless Georg Hinzpeter. No wonder
that in 1877, when William finally escaped his
grasp, he found great pleasure in his new life at
the University of Bonn, where, however, he was an
indifferent student. After two years he had had
enough and took up a military career that was
infinitely more to his liking. In the army, he would
declare, he found not only his true vocation but
2468
also the warm family atmosphere that his mother
had deliberately withheld. William’s fellow officers
greeted him cordially, but very few could detect
any real military talent in their future ruler. Gov-
ernment officials, who periodically attempted to
introduce William to diplomatic or domestic
affairs, similarly found him unimpressive.
By the time William was in his mid-twenties he
was an object of some concern. Willful, conceited,
lazy, and unjustifiably self-impressed, he was to his
father, the genuinely heroic Crown Prince, a bogus
‘‘compleat lieutenant’’ and to Otto von Bismarck
(1815–1898), the imperial chancellor, a loquacious
nullity. The thought of such a stripling on the
throne was disquieting, but William II would fol-
low old William I, born in 1797, and the Crown
Prince, born in 1831. Young William’s succession,
it seemed, would be postponed for at least a decade
or two, during which time he might somehow
manage to become more mature. That optimistic
hope fell to pieces in the fall of 1887, when the
Crown Prince was diagnosed as suffering from a
fatal carcinoma of the larynx. Whether he would
live to succeed his ninety-year-old father seemed in
doubt. William I died in March 1888, and ninety-
nine days later the Crown Prince, who had suc-
ceeded him as Emperor Frederick III, expired from
his malady. William II, at twenty-nine, was now the
German kaiser and king of Prussia.
As ruler, the new kaiser was persuaded that he
was endowed by God Almighty with powers and
responsibilities and that his authority, thoroughly
upheld by both the Prussian and imperial constitu-
tions, was to be personally exercised however he
wished. William was avidly supported in this estima-
tion by his entourage, men frequently military by
profession, almost entirely sycophantic in behavior,
and whose principal qualification for appointment to
the entourage was their unquestioning allegiance to
the young ruler. This inflation of William II’s ego
was also served by his wife, the Empress Augusta
Victoria (1858–1921), a lackluster, prosaic woman
who lived entirely in her consort’s shadow. The first
casualty of William’s personalized monarchy was
Bismarck, a man of titanic self-assurance and
Caesarian mien, who was sent packing early in
1890. The new chancellor, General Leo von Caprivi
(1831–1899), found that the emperor and his
entourage could not effectively be resisted, an experi-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

The Car of the German Empire Driven by Wilhelm II.
Cover illustration by Thomas Heine for the German satirical
journal Simplicissimus, 1907. PRIVATE COLLECTION/BRIDGEMAN ART
LIBRARY. ª 2005 ARTISTS RIGHTS SOCIETY (ARS), NEW YORK/ VG
BILD-KUNST, BONN.
ence that his successor in 1894, Prince Chlodwig
von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst (1819–1901), also
found to be true. Hohenlohe would last until
1900, when he yielded to Bernhard von Bülow
(1849–1929), who was known as ‘‘the eel’’ for his
oleaginous manner and suave handling of his imper-
ial master. Although insistent on making full use of
his prerogative, William was so inconstant and dila-
tory, so prone to sudden changes of opinion and to
new enthusiasms, he in fact was not the supreme
autocrat he believed himself to be. The so-called
persönliches Regiment (personal regime) was actually
exercised by his aristocratic minions in the military
and civil bureaucracy.
The work that William’s dutiful servants had to
perform was complicated because of the kaiser’s
incessant, bombastic intrusions. The last kaiser
believed himself to be a genius, especially at warfare
and diplomacy, two areas he preferred to domestic
affairs. Resolutely moral, anti-Catholic, and Fran-
cophobe, he wrote France off as racially inferior
and eternally inimical to the German Empire.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WILLIAM II
Toward Great Britain, the land of his disliked
mother’s birth, William was ambivalent. He envied
its wealth but loathed what he considered its moral
laxity and lust for power. The Slavs, like the
French, were a lesser breed, but the Russian tsars,
being like himself—autocrats of limitless power—
could be useful allies. Since the Italians were
beneath notice as Latins and degenerates and the
minuscule kings from the house of Savoy little
more than hairy dwarfs, only Austria-Hungary
was a truly suitable ally for imperial Germany.
William greatly admired Emperor Francis Joseph I
(r. 1848–1916), and one of the very few consistent
strands in his life was his devotion to the Habsburg
sovereign. In diplomacy, William fostered the alli-
ance of 1879 with Austria-Hungary, hoped in vain
to rope Russia in as an ally, and alienated the
British by his offensive behavior and by the
construction beginning in 1898 of a vast battle-
ship-based navy. By 1914, Germany had no allies
other than Austria-Hungary, and that was perhaps
more a liability than an asset.
Within Germany, William aspired to make him-
self popular, and to achieve this aim he began his
reign trying to pose as the friend of the working
class. This did not capture the multitudes and Wil-
liam eventually grew resentful of the ever increasing
rise of the doctrinarily Marxist Social Democratic
party, which following the elections of 1912
became the largest faction in the imperial legisla-
ture. Meanwhile, William had alienated the second
most numerous party, the Catholic Center, by his
resolute prejudice against Catholicism, nor did he
have many admirers among the middle parties
representing the interests of business and com-
merce. As a result, William’s governments stag-
gered through a series of parliamentary crises and
the regime was increasingly discredited. William’s
own stature sank in popularity as a result of these
difficulties and also because of a variety of scandals,
some of them surrounding accusations of homo-
sexuality involving a number of his closest associ-
ates in the entourage. The reign of the last kaiser
was not only full of unresolved crises, it was also
messy and unedifying.
Finally, William’s regime was dreary. The kai-
ser’s court, though splendid and run like clock-
work, was a bore. The throne was adamantly
2469
WILLIAM IV
opposed to any innovations in the arts and patron-
ized only those who praised the sovereign and
delivered traditional works of second- or third-rate
quality. There was no place in William’s artistic
galaxy for Richard Georg Strauss (1864–1949) or
Max Liebermann (1847–1935) or Gerhart Haupt-
mann (1862–1946).
Germany’s antediluvian political system was
paradoxically coexistent with one of the most
remarkable economic upsurges any nation in
Europe enjoyed in the nineteenth and early twen-
tieth centuries. Industry prospered and commerce
spread around the world. William II is not
entitled to any credit on this score, for he was
snobbish toward the middle class although he
envied their wealth. An occasional entrepreneur,
notably the Krupps of Essen or Albert Ballin
(1857–1918), the Hamburg shipping magnate,
might fraternize with the kaiser, but none was
ever part of the inner circle, and William remained
as ignorant of economics as he was of almost
everything else.
In 1913, William celebrated the twenty-fifth
anniversary of his ascension to the Prussian and
imperial throne. The occasion was appropriately
pompous but also rather contrived, for the sover-
eign being honored was neither popular nor nota-
bly respected. Throughout his reign there were
suspicions that he was mentally unbalanced, and
many who knew him well believed this to be the
case, citing as evidence William’s irrepressible
loquacity, incessant traveling, astounding tactless-
ness, and nervous prostration at moments of crisis.
William in fact may have been the victim of por-
phyria, a genetic disorder that has mental as well as
physical symptoms. The kaiser’s Germany was rich,
it was powerfully armed, but it had few friends, a
number of notable enemies, and a marked lack of
internal political stability. Just a year after the
observance of the anniversary, Germany found
itself at war, blockaded at sea and outnumbered
on land. The fate of Germany, in that ominous
moment in its history, rested on a man utterly
unequal to the challenge, an emperor who, for all
his splendor, was a vacuous, blundering epigone
who reduced his splendid inheritance to inglorious
ruin.
See also Bismarck, Otto von; Frederick III; Germany;
Nicholas II; William I.
2470
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Röhl, John C. G., ed. Philipp Eulenburgs Politische Korre-
spondenz. 3 vols. Boppard am Rhein, 1976–1983.
Secondary Sources
Cecil, Lamar. Wilhelm II: Prince and Emperor, 1859–1900.
Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989.
———. Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900–1941. Chapel
Hill, N.C., 1996.
Hull, Isabel V. The Entourage of Kaiser Wilhelm II, 1888–
1918. Cambridge, U.K., 1982.
Röhl, John C. G. Young Wilhelm: The Kaiser’s Early Life,
1859–1888. Translated by Jeremy Gaines and Rebecca
Wallach. Cambridge, U.K., 1998.
———. The Kaiser’s Personal Monarchy, 1888–1900.
Cambridge, U.K., 2004.
Röhl, John C. G., and Nicolaus Sombart, eds. Kaiser
Wilhelm II. New Interpretations: The Corfu Papers.
Cambridge, U.K., 1982.
LAMAR CECIL
n
WILLIAM IV (1765–1837), king of Great
Britain and Ireland (1830–1837) and king of
Hanover (1830–1837).
William Henry was the third son of George III
and Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. In 1779
he was sent to sea as a midshipman in the hope that
the Royal Navy would instill disciplined habits and
offer him a career of public service. He saw action
against the Spaniards off Cape St. Vincent, and
subsequently his competence as a naval officer won
the approval of his superiors who included Horatio
Nelson. From 1783 to 1785 he resided in Hanover.
In 1789 he became duke of Clarence and St.
Andrews and earl of Munster. He played no part in
the French Wars that commenced in 1793, and his
promotion to admiral in 1798 was a formality. He
resumed an active connection with the Navy in
1827 when he was appointed lord high admiral,
but he clashed with members of his advisory council
and resigned.
From 1791 William cohabited with Dorothy
Jordan, an actress. A caring father, he fostered the
marital and career prospects of their ten children
(surnamed FitzClarence). William terminated his
relationship with Jordan in 1811, and in 1818 he
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

married Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen. Although
their children died in early infancy, the marriage
was a happy one. William had no cultural or intel-
lectual interests. His undignified appearance and
eccentric mannerisms, together with behavior and
language that smacked of the quarterdeck, attracted
ridicule in polite society, but his bluff geniality
contributed to the popularity he enjoyed at various
times during his reign.
William became king in 1830 on the death of
his brother, George IV. He played a major part in
two episodes that altered the British constitution.
The first of these was the struggle for the Reform
Act by which Earl Grey’s Whig government
enlarged the parliamentary electorate in 1832 and
removed some anomalies from the representative
system. Wishing to restrict the extent of the change
and abate controversy, William would have preferred
to see the legislation carried by a coalition of Whigs
and Tories or by a Tory government, but at two
crucial junctures he supported his Whig ministers in
the face of strenuous Tory opposition. He deferred
to their insistence on a general election in 1831 at
which they won a majority in the House of Com-
mons, and, when the Tories blocked the legislation
in the House of Lords, he agreed to create enough
Whig peers to pass the Reform Act if the Tory lords
persisted in their opposition. The threat was enough
to carry the day, setting a precedent for the subor-
dination of the House of Lords to the wishes of the
House of Commons. William’s popularity during
the controversy was indicated by an illustration in
The Extraordinary Black Book, a radical tract that
contained an illustration showing a people’s king
surrounded by ministers who were ‘‘Friends of
Reform, Foes of Revolution.’’
The second episode counteracted this favor-
able impression. Alarmed by the liberalism of his
ministers and encouraged by Tory sympathizers,
who included his wife and some of his children,
William dismissed the Whigs in 1834 and installed
a Tory government led by Sir Robert Peel. He was
emboldened by a precedent from the years 1783
and 1784 when his father had ousted a Whig-
dominated coalition and appointed a more conge-
nial government that was confirmed in office by a
general election. William miscalculated; at the
ensuing general election, the voters rejected the
Tories. William had to endure the humiliation of
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WINDTHORST, LUDWIG
reinstating the Whigs, who not only pursued poli-
cies that were repugnant to him but also took the
opportunity to restrict the hostile activities of his
court circle. It was the last time that a British
monarch dismissed a government with a House of
Commons majority.
William’s enthusiasm for reform was always lim-
ited. Before coming to the throne he had supported
Catholic emancipation but defended the institution
of slavery. During the crisis that attended the pas-
sing of the Reform Act he was reluctant to depart
from the eighteenth-century constitutional theory
that envisaged a balance of power between the mon-
archy, the House of Lords, and the House of Com-
mons. After 1832 he attempted to protect the pri-
vileges of the Protestant church establishment in
Ireland, and he regarded the activities of the Irish
nationalist leader Daniel O’Connell as little better
than treasonous. William also disagreed with his
ministers’ policy of supporting liberals in Portugal,
Spain, and other parts of continental Europe.
The last years of his reign were uneventful.
William died in 1837 and was buried in Windsor
Castle. He was succeeded in the United Kingdom
by his niece, Victoria, and in Hanover, where the
Salic law of succession excluded women from the
throne, by his brother, Ernest Augustus.
See also George IV; Great Britain; Wellington, Duke of
(Arthur Wellesley); Whigs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brock, Michael G. The Great Reform Act. London, 1973.
The standard work on the 1832 Reform Act.
Newbould, Ian. Whiggery and Reform, 1830–1841. London,
1990. A modern study of the Whig reformers of the
1830s.
Ziegler, Philip. King William IV. London, 1971. A biogra-
phy that draws on the royal archives and other major
primary sources.
ALEX TYRRELL
n
WINDTHORST, LUDWIG (1812–1891),
German politician.
Germany’s greatest parliamentarian, Ludwig
Josef Ferdinand Gustav Windthorst, served simul-
2471
WINDTHORST, LUDWIG
taneously in the Prussian and the German national
parliament (Reichstag), where as leader of the
Center Party he took the floor more than any other
speaker. His wit, sang-froid, and tactical genius were
the marvel of all. When political upheavals in 1878
made the Center and its associate members the
Reichstag’s largest grouping, a position it would
keep until 1912, Windthorst held the parliamentary
balance of power.
EARLY CAREER
Windthorst’s politics were colored by an early
Anglophilia (born in Hanover, he was a subject of
the English crown until he was twenty-five) and a
libertarianism nourished by his experience as mem-
ber of a religious and political minority: as a Catholic
in Protestant Hanover, and after its annexation in
1866, as a Hanoverian loyalist in a Germany first
truncated and then dominated by Prussia. After
education at the Universities of Göttingen (1830–
1831) and Heidelberg (1832–1833), Windthorst
quickly became the leading lawyer in his native
Osnabrück, although he was functionally blind by
his thirtieth year. Appointed to several prestigious
offices, he was serving on the Hanoverian Supreme
Court when in 1848 revolution opened the possi-
bility of a political career. In 1849 he was elected to
the diet’s lower chamber, and in 1851, its president.
Windthorst was twice appointed Justice Minis-
ter (1851–1853 and 1862–1865), the only Catholic
to hold cabinet rank in the history of the kingdom.
In spite of Hanover’s chronic constitutional crisis,
he succeeded in putting the reforms of 1848 into
effect: public judicial proceedings, jury trials, reor-
ganization of the courts, separation of justice from
administration. Although distrusted by George V
(r. 1851–1866) as a ‘‘jesuit,’’ Windthorst’s support
for the German Confederation and his opposition
to Prussian-led nationalism made him well known
in particularist and pro-Austrian circles throughout
Germany. After Prussia’s annexation of Hanover in
1866, he represented his deposed monarch in
negotiations with Otto von Bismarck (r. 1871–
1890) over Hanoverian royal property (Welfen-
fonds), beginning an adversarial relationship that
would last a lifetime. Contrary to agreement,
Bismarck impounded the Welfenfonds in 1868,
feeding Windthorst’s pessimism about the future
of rule of law in a Prussian-dominated Germany.
2472
Elected to the Prussian lower house as deputy for
Meppen, Windthorst could find no party to his lik-
ing, yet isolation did not intimidate a man that wags
soon dubbed ‘‘the Meppen Party.’’ In the Reichstag
of the North German Confederation, he attracted
allies from other recently annexed or marginalized
states, forming a short-lived Federal-Constitutional
Union. Elections to the all-German Customs Parlia-
ment in 1867, by returning like-minded deputies
from the predominantly Catholic south, opened his
eyes to the advantages of a democratic franchise.
Working behind the scenes to unite particularists of
all stripes, Windthorst succeeded in thwarting Ger-
man nationalist hopes of turning the Customs Parlia-
ment into a forum for coaxing the southern states
voluntarily into Bismarck’s Confederation, foresha-
dowing his later reputation as ‘‘father of all hin-
drances.’’ Windthorst voted against the constitution
of the North German Confederation and later, of the
German Empire, for failing to provide a house of
lords, a supreme court, a cabinet collectively respon-
sible to the Reichstag, and safeguards for the rights
of member states. Cool to nationalism himself,
Windthorst offered irritating reminders of his coun-
trymen’s double standard in applying the nationality
principle. Thus he protested against annexing Alsace-
Lorraine without consulting its population,
demanded parliamentary representation for its citi-
zens, and excoriated the suspension of civil law under
the guise of military emergency.
AFTER 1870
In the Reichstag, Windthorst brought together in
the Center Party a diverse collection of outsiders in
the new empire—Prussian and southern Catholics,
Poles and Alsace-Lorrainers, and Lutheran legiti-
mists from Hanover (the latter as affiliated mem-
bers). Even as they instilled the concept of a loyal
opposition among their constituents, they were
branded as Reichsfeinde (‘‘enemies of the Reich’’)
by the Bismarckian press. Although his hopes
that the Center might attract Protestants beyond
Hanover were disappointed, Windthorst insisted that
his party champion the same rights for Protestants
and Jews that it demanded for Catholics. In Novem-
ber 1880 he repeatedly threatened to resign his
seat if the Center supported the anti-Semitic side
in a debate on the Jewish Question in the Prussian
House of Deputies. In January 1886 he sponsored
a successful Reichstag motion censuring the Prus-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

sian government for expelling, almost overnight,
more than thirty thousand undocumented Poles
and Jews in the East.
Windthorst’s distrust of state power had intensi-
fied during the Kulturkampf (‘‘battle for civilization,’’
1872–1887) , when Bismarck, with broad support in
parliament and the public, sponsored legislation to
subordinate the Catholic Church to the state. Wind-
thorst joined the bishops in calling for civil disobe-
dience to laws that conflicted with conscience.
Windthorst amazed contemporaries by his skill
not only in holding his extremely heterogeneous
party together, but in shifting it rapidly right and
left, as opportunities appeared. In 1873, hoping to
split the National Liberals or at least to force them
to choose between angering Bismarck or their own
voters, he persuaded his instinctively conservative
colleagues to sponsor a series of democratic
motions: to replace the plutocratic franchise and
open voting in Prussian state elections with the
Reichstag’s manhood suffrage and secret ballot; to
end the newspaper tax and other press restrictions;
and to institute salaries for Reichstag deputies.
Liberal leaders, warning that association with
Windthorst was a political ‘‘kiss of death,’’ suc-
ceeded in tabling the motions. Although the
defense of the Reichstag’s rights and its democratic
franchise became central to the Center Party’s
program, Windthorst’s residual monarchism, and
fears of the tyranny of the majority, kept him from
advocating parliamentary sovereignty.
Not alarmed by the rise of Social Democracy,
Windthorst worked to integrate socialism’s adher-
ents into parliamentary life, supporting motions
to release socialist deputies from prison and, when
they were too few to sponsor motions of their own,
lending them Center signatures to enable their
motions to come to the floor. Opposing all laws
designed against specific groups (‘‘exceptional
legislation’’) as contrary to the principle of equality
before the law, Windthorst led his party to reject
Bismarck’s Anti-Socialist Law in 1878 and, with
some defections, its biannual renewals thereafter.
Votes such as these incurred the displeasure of
Pope Leo XIII (r. 1878–1903), as did Wind-
thorst’s electoral alliances with Left Liberals in the
1880s. Already suspect for having voiced opposi-
tion in 1869, both privately and with other Catho-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WINDTHORST, LUDWIG
lic deputies in a hastily assembled ‘‘Berlin Laymen’s
Council,’’ to the prospective declaration of papal
infallibility, Windthorst was increasingly seen by
the pontiff as an obstacle to his own plans to
negotiate a solution to the Kulturkampf. Aiming
also to enlist Bismarck’s help in recovering Rome
for the Holy See (a cause Windthorst considered
not only lost, but no longer even desirable), Leo
kept Windthorst ignorant of the course of negotia-
tions and stymied Center Party initiatives in parlia-
ment, hoping to offer the chancellor the party’s
votes on political matters as an inducement for
ecclesiastical concessions. Windthorst declined to
oblige, suggesting that separation of church and
state on the North American model was preferable
to compromising constitutional principles.
In 1887, when the Center, in accord with its
platform’s demand for parliamentary control of
the purse, defeated Bismarck’s seven-year military
budget (Septennat), the chancellor dissolved the
Reichstag and waged an uproarious election cam-
paign against the Reichsfeinde. Leo gave Bismarck
permission to leak a papal note that had instructed
Windthorst to support the Septennat as quid pro
quo for a prospective settlement of the Kulturkampf.
The Bismarckian press, which had previously
scoffed at the Center’s professed independence
of church authority on political questions, now
expressed itself scandalized at Windthorst’s
‘‘disobedience,’’ gloating at the pope’s apparent
disavowal of the overwhelmingly Catholic party.
The Center was returned unscathed, but Wind-
thorst was forced to acquiesce in Leo’s ecclesias-
tical ‘‘Peace Settlement’’ that same year, although
it left many Catholic demands unsatisfied.
Windthorst shared little of the passion of
Catholic thinkers for social reform, although he
gave tepid support to the Center’s sponsorship of
factory legislation in 1877. His experience in
Osnabrück, whose Protestant patriciate controlled
access to guilds, made him sympathetic to free
enterprise and free trade. He resisted Bismarck’s
plans for a tobacco monopoly and for the natio-
nalization of railways, fearing abuses if vast num-
bers of workers became dependent on an employer-
state. The Center supported compulsory health
insurance for workers in 1883 and workman’s
compensation in 1884, financed by contributions
from workers and employers, or, in the latter case,
2473
WINDTHORST, LUDWIG
by employers alone. But in 1889, when substantial
numbers of older and conservative colleagues broke
ranks to support Bismarck’s old age and disability
insurance, partially funded by the state, Windthorst
felt betrayed.
Yet he was rarely dogmatic on economic ques-
tions. The demands of its constituency led the
Center to precede Bismarck in advocating tariffs
in 1879 and to support increases in grain duties
in 1885 and 1889. Even so, Windthorst succeeded
in passing a provision to distribute much of the
income generated by the tariff to Germany’s mem-
ber states, thus frustrating Bismarck’s hopes for
an imperial revenue-producing mechanism beyond
the control of representative bodies.
After years of Bismarck’s vilification (‘‘Two
things sustain my life and make it sweet: my wife
and Windthorst. One is for love, the other for
hate’’ [Tiedemann, vol. 2, p. 3]), it was to Wind-
thorst that the chancellor turned in March 1890,
when national elections deprived him of a reliable
majority. Bismarck agreed to a number of ecclesias-
tical concessions, but his approach to Windthorst
was itself a sign that the chancellor’s power was
waning. When word of the interview leaked out,
the ensuing scandal gave William II (r. 1888–
1918), furious at being left in the dark about so
signal a change of course, the excuse he needed for
Bismarck’s dismissal.
Though Windthorst insisted that the Center
was a political, not a religious party, the Catholic
clergy provided its electoral machinery and Ger-
many’s bishops, a power base that he employed
against both Leo XIII and the occasional obstrep-
erous clerical colleague. His own influence within
the church in Germany was unequaled, extending
to episcopal appointments and other ostensibly
ecclesiastical matters. Within the Center delega-
tion, priests were his most reliable allies. Although
by the 1880s some aristocratic rivals, dismayed by
their party’s continued oppositional course, chaffed
under one-man rule, they commanded no compar-
able support. Windthorst discouraged the forma-
tion of other mass organizations of Catholics,
whose moves outside parliament might limit his
own tactical flexibility. When in summer of 1890
Catholic aristocrats met to establish an organiza-
tion to respond in kind to the religious polemics of
the recently founded Protestant League, Wind-
2474
thorst reacted with horror. Marshalling allies in
party, clergy, and press, he transformed the nascent
Catholic League into the very different Volksverein
für das Katholische Deutschland (People’s Asso-
ciation for Catholic Germany), which combined
the functions of adult education, information
bureau, and training program for the Center’s
party workers. With 805,000 members by 1914,
it became one of the largest voluntary organiza-
tions in Germany.
More than any figure of his generation, Wind-
thorst embodied the transition from notable to
mass politics. Even in old age, he was a tireless
presence at rallies throughout the country, drawing
crowds of thousands, who burst into song (‘‘The
Little Excellency,’’ composed in his honor) at his
entrance. He turned disadvantages into assets: his
lack of the noble title customary among his peers
fostered the rumor (which he never denied) that
he was the son of peasants. Conspicuous ugliness
and a stature that did not reach five feet made
him the darling of cartoonists, especially during
debating duals with the giant Bismarck. The elfin,
bespectacled, eminently civilian parliamentarian
(‘‘the Civilian Moltke’’; ‘‘General Schlauberger’’ [sly
dog]) offered a counter-symbol to the authoritarian
values exemplified by Germany’s field marshals,
elite officials, and aristocratic chancellors. At his
death he was given all the honors of a state funeral,
critics complained, and the Social Democratic
press proclaimed him ‘‘the most popular man in
Germany.’’ Yet anti-parliamentary and anti-Catholic
sentiment continued to color his image among
nationalists of both liberal and conservative persua-
sions, and the currents that Windthorst embodied—
Catholic, federalist, and constitutionalist—became
fully acceptable to the majority only after the
founding of the Federal Republic of Germany
in 1949.
See also Catholicism, Political; Center Party; Germany;
Kulturkampf; Prussia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Tiedemann, Christoph von. Aus sieben Jahrzehnten.
Erinnerungen. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1905–1909.
Windthorst, Ludwig Josef Ferdinand Gustav. Ausgewählte
Reden gehalten in der Zeit von 1861–1891. 1903. 3 vols.
Reprint, Hildesheim, Zurich, and New York, 2003.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

———. Briefe 1834–1880. Edited by Hans-Georg Aschoff
with Heinz-Jörg Heinrich. Paderborn, Germany,
1995.
Briefe 1881–1891: um einen Nachtrag mit Briefen von
1834 bis 1880 ergänzt. Edited by Hans-Georg Aschoff
with Heinz-Jörg Heinrich. Paderborn, Germany,
2002.
———. Ludwig Windthorst, 1812–1891. Edited by Hans-
Georg Aschoff. Paderborn, Germany, 1991. Brief
edition of Windthorst’s most important speeches,
annotated and put in context.
Secondary Sources
Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. Windthorst: A Political Bio-
graphy. Oxford, U.K., and New York, 1981. Trans-
lated into German as Windthorst: Zentrumspolitiker
und Gegenspieler Bismarcks, with an expanded biblio-
graphy, 1988. First critical scholarly biography, nota-
ble for uncovering Windthorst’s close relations to the
clergy and conflicts with Leo XIII.
Bachem, Karl. Vorgeschichte, Geschichte und Politik der
Deutschen Zentrumspartei: Zugleich ein Beitrag zur
Geschichte der katholischen Bewegung, sowie zur
allgemeinen Geschichte des neueren und neuesten
Deutschland 1815–1914. Vols. 3–5. Cologne, 1927–
1932. Invaluable resource by knowledgeable Center
politician, personally close to Windthorst in his later
years, based on a rich collection of contemporary
materials.
Colonge, Paul. Ludwig Windthorst (1812–1891): (Sa pensée
et son action politiques jusqu’en 1875). 2 vols. Lille and
Paris, 1983. Exhaustive coverage.
Goldberg, Hans-Peter. Bismarck und seine Gegner: die poli-
tische Rhetorik im kaiserlichen Reichstag. Düsseldorf,
1998. Analyzes Bismarck’s rhetoric and that of his
principal parliamentary antagonists: Windthorst; the
Social Democrat August Bebel; and the Progressive
Eugen Richter.
Hüsgen, Eduard. Ludwig Windthorst. Cologne, 1907.
Classic, if uncritical, biography by editor of a Center
Party newspaper in Düsseldorf who was eyewitness
to some of the events described. Enriched with con-
temporary caricatures, campaign doggerel, and long
quotations.
Meemken, Hermann, ed. Ludwig Windthorst, 1812–1891:
christlicher Parlamentarier und Gegenspieler Bismarcks:
Begleitbuch zur Gedenkausstellung aus Anlass des
100. Todestages. Meppen, Germany, 1991. Revealing
photographs, caricatures, and other contemporary
graphics along with articles that are valuable for illumi-
nating Windthorst’s connections with his Emsland
constituency in northwestern Germany.
MARGARET LAVINIA ANDERSON
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WINE
n
WINE. Wine was one of the principal alcoholic
beverages consumed in Europe during the long
nineteenth century. Beer and wine had already
been staple elements in the daily diet throughout
Europe for centuries because they were safer to
drink than the available water, which was often
contaminated by human, animal, and industrial
waste.
Several themes bear on the history of wine
between 1789 and 1914. They include changes in
production and consumption patterns, the effects
of the temperance movements and phylloxera, and
shifts in the cultural status of wine.
WINE IN 1789
At the end of the eighteenth century, wine was
consumed by common people in areas where viti-
culture flourished, and where wine was inexpensive
because it did not have to be transported to market
or could be produced on a local or domestic scale.
Thus, wine consumption was widespread in Spain,
Portugal, France, Italy, and Greece, and those
regions of central and eastern Europe where grapes
were cultivated.
Elsewhere, beer, ale, and distilled spirits were
more commonly consumed, but because wine had
a social cachet, it was imported for consumption by
those who could afford it. The middle and upper
classes in northern Europe also consumed beer and
spirits, but wine was a socially valued beverage and
wine merchants did brisk business in England, the
Netherlands and Belgium, Scandinavia, and Russia.
The English market, for example, soaked up
huge volumes of wine from Bordeaux and Port
(wine fortified with brandy) from Portugal. A
1793 guide to St. Petersburg noted that wealthy
people there drank wines from Bordeaux, Burgundy,
and Champagne, and also Hungarian wines that
were also popular because they are ‘‘strong, very
alcoholic, and warm the blood’’ (Phillips, p. 202).
Even where wine was available locally, as in north-
ern Italy, wine was imported from France because it
was reputed to be of higher quality.
It is impossible to provide useful figures on per
capita consumption because total production is
often unknown and drinking patterns are unclear.
Enough wine was brought into Paris in the 1780s
2475
WINE
to enable each inhabitant—women, children, and
men—to consume between three and six liters of wine
a week. But adult men clearly drank more than women
and children, and some tavern records suggest that
men might have downed two liters of wine a day.
Although contemporary commentators con-
demned drunkenness, they accepted wine as a basic
part of the daily diet. The political scientist Jean-
Baptiste Moheau wrote in the 1780s that wine
is ‘‘an excellent beverage for the poor, not only
because it is a food but also because it is very good
protection against physical decay’’ (Phillips, p. 203).
The popularity of wine in eighteenth-century
France led to complaints that high taxes on it led to
clandestine wine-shops and smuggling. Wine was
regularly smuggled into Paris—sometimes through
channels bored through the city walls—and taverns
selling less expensive wine outside the walls (where
the city tax was not levied) did a roaring trade on
holidays.
In response to complaints about sales taxes, the
Revolutionary government abolished the tax on
wine in 1791 and, at midnight on 1 May, a convoy
of hundreds of carts brought an estimated 2 million
liters of wine into Paris for sale at the new, tax-free
price. Even when a tax was re-imposed in 1798,
wine was still cheaper than it had been before the
Revolution.
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
The Revolutionary and Napoleonic periods pro-
moted the wine industry in France, and annual
production rose by a third between the late 1780s
and the period from 1805 to 1812. The area under
viticulture increased, especially in southern France,
and governments subsidized the wine industry by
purchasing vast volumes of wine for military rations
and hospitals during the Revolutionary and Napo-
leonic Wars (1792–1815).
During the nineteenth century, several develop-
ments favored the spread of wine consumption
throughout Europe. One was an improvement in
transportation brought about by railroads from the
1850s onward. Until then, the cheapest means of
moving wine was by water (river or coastal ship-
ping), but trains could carry bulk wine inexpen-
sively, and the railroad extended the market reach
of wine regions. From the 1860s, the wines of
2476
southern France (especially Languedoc) began to
penetrate the large working-class markets in Paris
and France’s northern industrial cities.
There were also developments in elite wines,
and regions like Bordeaux consolidated their repu-
tations for producing premium wines. In 1855, at
the request of Napoleon III, the seventy-nine most
expensive wines from some of Bordeaux’s most
prestigious districts were classified into five cate-
gories (known as Crus or ‘‘Growths’’). In the same
period, in the Italian region of Tuscany, Baron
Ricasoli set out the approved grape varieties for
modern Chianti.
During the nineteenth century, too, modern
Champagne was born. In the 1820s Veuve Clicquot
introduced new techniques of production that
were widely adopted and became known as the
‘‘Champagne Method,’’ while in mid-century
Champagne began to move from the sweet spark-
ling wine it had been, to the drier styles now most
common.
TEMPERANCE
While the European wine industry was growing,
expanding its markets and developing expensive,
premium wines, two threats emerged. The first
was an unprecedented movement against the con-
sumption of any more alcohol than was needed for
basic dietary purposes. This temperance movement
was a coordinated expression of the concern that
had been articulated sporadically for centuries, as
civic and church commentators warned against the
social and personal consequences of excessive
drinking. By the end of the nineteenth century,
some temperance movements began to call for
total abstinence and a ban on the production of
beverage alcohol.
Anti-alcohol movements like these attracted
less support in Europe, especially Continental
Europe, than in North America and Australasia.
In Europe, wine and beer were entrenched in diet
and culture. And to the extent that sources of
potable water needed to be available before alco-
hol could be removed from the diet, much of
Europe lagged behind other parts of the Western
world.
Although the anti-alcohol campaigns made
some inroads in England, they were largely ineffec-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

tive in continental Europe. In France, a number of
temperance organizations focused their campaigns
solely on spirits and went so far as to encourage
wine-drinking on the ground that wine was healthy
and an antidote to alcoholism.
A side effect of the anti-alcohol campaigns was a
decline in the reputation of wine as having therapeu-
tic qualities. For centuries wine had been prescribed
for digestive and other problems, and it was believed
to have general tonic effects. In 1870–1871, one
hospital in Darmstadt, Germany, went through
4,633 bottles of white and 6,332 bottles of red wine
from the Rhine region, sixty bottles of Champagne, a
few dozen bottles of superior white and red Bor-
deaux, and about thirty dozen bottles of Port.
Yet in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, new drugs and painkillers (like aspirin),
sedatives, and tranquilizers came onto the market.
They were clinically tested and promised specific
results, unlike wine, which was promoted as merely
beneficial in a general sense.
PHYLLOXERA
The decline of wine as medicine had a long-term
effect. A more serious and immediate threat to
wine in nineteenth-century Europe was phylloxera,
a vine-disease imported from North America that
took hold in southern France in the 1860s and,
during the following decades, devastated vineyards
throughout almost the whole of Europe. For
years—the timing varied from region to region—
wine production fell and many consumers shifted
to other beverages.
The phylloxera epidemic was a short-term blow
to Europe’s wine industry (a solution was put in
place from the 1870s), but it had far-reaching
effects. For one thing, it changed the map of Euro-
pean viticulture. In France, many marginal vine-
yards in the north were not replanted and the
center of gravity shifted south, as the vineyards of
Languedoc-Roussillon (now with rail access to
northern markets) expanded dramatically.
All Europe’s wine industries were affected by
phylloxera. Spanish wine benefited at first, as an
influx of French winemakers left their dying vines
in regions like Bordeaux and began to work in
Spanish regions such as Rioja. But then, Spain’s
vines died in turn. Italy’s wine-producers experi-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WINE
enced a short sales boom as the French imported
wine to make up their own shortfall. But phylloxera
soon spread to Italy’s vineyards, too.
When phylloxera reduced the wine supply,
counterfeit and substitute wines (some made from
raisins, others adulterated with all kinds of addi-
tives) flooded the European market. They damaged
the reputation of established regions and led wine
consumers to shift to beer and spirits, such as
Scotch whisky in England and absinthe in France.
RECOVERY AFTER PHYLLOXERA
In an effort to recover its markets, the French wine
industry enacted rules that became a model for
wine laws in many countries in the twentieth cen-
tury. The rules restricted the ingredients in wine
and specified (for the first time) that it had to be
made from fresh grapes. At the turn of the century,
the French parliament declared wine to be a safe
and healthy beverage.
France also adopted Appellation d’Origine
Contrôlée laws to regulate the use of geographical
names on wines. From 1908, wines could not be
labeled ‘‘Champagne’’ unless they were made from
grapes grown there. These laws were extended to
other regions in the twentieth century and became
the basis for wine laws throughout Europe.
Developments in France through much of the
nineteenth century are so important not only
because French wine was reputed to be the best
in the world (winemakers came to France from
across Europe and around the world to learn tech-
niques), but also because France made more wine
than any other country. In 1828, French wine
production accounted for 40 percent of world out-
put and France’s 2 million hectares of land under
vines was far greater than Italy’s 400,000 hectares,
Austria’s 625,000, and Hungary’s 550,000.
France was also the site of many of the techni-
cal advances in winemaking in the nineteenth cen-
tury. The great French scientist Louis Pasteur
devoted much of his time to research on wine,
especially to understanding the process of fermen-
tation. Ironically, the process of heating liquids
to kill off bacteria (pasteurization) was used to
produce unfermented grape juice that many tem-
perance campaigners argued should replace wine in
the Christian communion.
2477
WITTE, SERGEI
Despite the phylloxera episode and the efforts
of anti-alcohol movements, wine retained its popu-
larity among Europeans whether they drank cheap,
ordinary wine or could afford the prestigious
brands. Even when regular supplies of reliable fresh
water became available, and even when the medical
properties of wine were called into question, con-
sumption rates remained high in many parts of
Europe, especially Italy, Spain, and France.
Nonetheless, by 1900, production outpaced
demand in some regions, prices fell, and some
industries faced a crisis. In several French regions,
producers and workers in wine-related jobs demon-
strated in large numbers. Protests attracted 300,000
in Ni̊mes and 600,000 in Montpellier in 1907.
In 1911, workers in Champagne destroyed hun-
dreds of thousands of liters of Champagne during
disturbances.
The outbreak of war in 1914 came to the aid of
the French wine industry. Although the call-up of
troops in August left wineries short-handed for
what would prove a bumper harvest, the grapes
were picked by older men, women, and children.
The wineries of Languedoc donated 20 million
liters to military hospitals, and soon the govern-
ment was buying vast amounts of wine for soldiers’
rations. The military wine ration was increased
steadily as the war dragged on, and in 1917 French
troops at the front consumed 1.2 billion liters
of wine.
The long nineteenth century was bracketed by
political upheavals that, in the short term at least,
were good for the wine industry. In the one hun-
dred years between, the industry and the status of
wine in material, cultural, and medical terms went
through a series of transformations that set the
stage for wine’s playing a different role in twentieth-
century European society and culture.
See also Alcohol and Temperance; Diet and Nutrition;
Phylloxera.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Guy, Kolleen M. When Champagne became French: Wine
and the Making of a National Identity. Baltimore,
2003.
Haine, W. Scott The World of the Paris Café: Sociability
among the French Working Class, 1789–1914. Baltimore,
1996.
2478
Loubère, Leo. The Red and the White: The History of Wine
in France and Italy in the Nineteenth Century. Albany,
N.Y., 1978.
Phillips, Rod. A Short History of Wine. New York, 2001.
Prestwich, Patricia E. Drink and the Politics of Social
Reform: Antialcoholism in France since 1870. Palo
Alto, Calif., 1988.
ROD PHILLIPS
n
WITTE, SERGEI (1849–1915), Russian
politician.
Sergei Yulyevich Witte was born in Tiflis,
Georgia, in 1849. His father was a Baltic German
who moved up Peter the Great’s Table of Ranks
to become a hereditary noble. His mother was
related to the ancient Dolgoruky princes; to
Helena Blavatsky, a founder of theosophy; and to
Rostislav Fadeyev, a leader of the Pan-Slavs. Witte
shared the Pan-Slav view that the Russian autocracy
united the empire’s disparate nationalities. Married
twice, Witte had two adopted daughters.
Following his degree in mathematics from the
University of Novorossiisk, Witte entered the new
field of railroading in Ukraine. He always consid-
ered railways key economic levers. His expert man-
agement of the southwestern railways and ideas on
financing railways and strengthening the economy
of the empire catapulted him to St. Petersburg to
head the new Department of Railroad Affairs in the
Ministry of Finance and then to the position of
minister of finance.
As minister of finance (1892–1903), Witte
supervised construction of the Trans-Siberian Rail-
road, put Russia on the gold standard, forged tar-
iffs with Germany that included fairly favorable
conditions for Russia, encouraged foreign invest-
ment, and stimulated industrialization through
government purchase of domestically produced
rails and equipment at above-market prices. During
his administration technical and commercial
schools increased seventeenfold. Small-scale busi-
nesses continued to proliferate. Witte published on
economic subjects and to supplement the ministry
of finance newspaper established a commercial-
trade newspaper and a scholarly economic journal.
He transmuted information received from chairing
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

the Special Conference on the Needs of Agricul-
tural Industry or Rural Industry into measures for
agrarian improvement.
Although he used a loan from France in 1895
to finance the Chinese Eastern Railway through
Manchuria, Witte opposed the Russian adventur-
ism in Korea and Port Arthur that precipitated
the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Palace
intrigue resulted in Witte’s dismissal as finance
minister in 1903. As chair of the Committee of
Ministers (1903–1905), however, Witte super-
vised significant laws and proposals. One imple-
mented an imperial decree adding corporately
elected members to the State Council, a legislative
body dating from the early nineteenth century,
composed of appointed officials. Other proposals
concerned replacing peasant communes with
private farmsteads, improving the position of
ethnic and religious minorities, and expanding
self-government—proposals that Peter Stolypin
fleshed out and strove to implement between
1906 and 1911. In September 1905 Witte parti-
cipated in the peace conference in Portsmouth,
New Hampshire, ending the Russo-Japanese War
and achieved favorable terms for Russia. He
had reservations about local, popularly elected
assemblies (zemstvos) and the establishment of
a parliament, but to quell the general strike that
erupted in the fall of 1905, Witte urged Tsar
Nicholas II to institute a popularly elected, legis-
lative Duma to complement the State Council. As
chair of the Council of Ministers (October 1905–
April 1906), a quasi–prime ministerial position,
Witte tried to co-opt moderate liberal opposition
leaders into the government. He worked out
electoral regulations for the Duma, which repre-
sented all categories of adult males, though not
fully and equally. Witte was awarded the title
count for arranging a 2.25 billion franc loan from
French, British, Dutch, Austrian, and Russian
bankers, finalized in April 1906. He simulta-
neously resigned as head of the government
because hostile political groups dominated the
First Duma and because of tension with Tsar
Nicholas.
Appointed to the State Council, Witte served
in that upper parliamentary chamber until his
death, on 13 March (28 February, old style)
1915. He opposed extension of zemstvos to the
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WOLLSTONECRAFT, MARY
western provinces of the empire, on which Stolypin
staked his career in 1911. Witte also opposed war
with Germany, which broke out in 1914. Though
not entirely due to Witte, the Russian economy
was the fifth strongest in the world in the early
twentieth century, with high growth rates that
plunged during the 1904–1905 revolution but
rebounded through 1913.
See also Austria-Hungary; Nicholas II; Russia; Stolypin,
Peter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Witte, Sergei. The Memoirs of Count Witte. Translated and
edited by Sidney Harcave. Armonk, N.Y., 1990.
Secondary Sources
Gregory, Paul R. Before Command: An Economic History of
Russia from Emancipation to the First Five-Year Plan.
Princeton, N.J., 1994.
Harcave, Sidney. Count Sergei Witte and the Twilight of
Imperial Russia: A Biography. Armonk, N.Y., 2004.
Mehlinger, Howard D., and John M. Thompson. Count
Witte and the Tsarist Government in the 1905 Revolu-
tion. Bloomington, Ind., 1972.
Von Laue, Theodore H. Sergei Witte and the Industrializa-
tion of Russia. New York, 1963.
MARY SCHAEFFER CONROY
n
WOLLSTONECRAFT, MARY (1759–
1797), radical thinker, polemicist, translator, and
writer of fiction and educational and historical
works.
Mary Wollstonecraft was the eldest of three
daughters and the second of six children born to
Edward John Wollstonecraft, a silk weaver of
Spitalfields, London, and Elizabeth Dixon, from
Ballyshannon, Ireland. Her father’s subsequent
failure as a gentleman farmer had the conse-
quence that she spent her adult life constantly
seeking independence by earning enough to sup-
port herself, her sisters, and later, her child. Her
early educational works, Thoughts on the Educa-
tion of Daughters (1786), Original Stories from
Real Life (1788), and the anthology The Female
Reader (1788) are fruits of her experiences as
lady’s companion, mistress of a school set up
2479
WOLLSTONECRAFT, MARY
Mary Wollstonecraft. Engraving after the portrait by
John Opie. PRIVATE COLLECTION/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY
with her sisters Eliza and Everina, and as governess to
the Kingsborough family at Mitchelstown near
Corke in Ireland; while her first novel Mary, a Fiction
(1787) is based on an intense friendship with Fanny
Blood. Her London publisher Joseph Johnson also
employed her to review and abstract for his Analytical
Review, founded in 1788, and to translate contem-
porary works.
Wollstonecraft’s two best known works, A
Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790), published
anonymously in reply to Edmund Burke’s Reflec-
tions on the Revolution in France (1790), and Vin-
dication of the Rights of Woman (1792), published
under her own name, owe their genesis to a Lon-
don group of Dissenter friends in Newington
Green, including Dr. Richard Price (1723–1791),
whom Wollstonecraft met when running the
school in the area, and to Joseph Johnson’s cir-
cle—including the artist Henry Fuseli (1741–
1825) and the radical thinker Thomas Paine
(1737–1809). In these two works, stimulated by
discussions on the French Revolution, Wollstone-
craft argued for enfranchising those who had no
2480
political rights because franchise was then based on
ownership of property. She advocated representa-
tion and citizenship for both men and women,
including the right to useful employment for both
sexes.
In 1792, Wollstonecraft went to France to
report on the French Revolution for Johnson,
which enabled her to recover from an unhappy love
for Fuseli. Her observations became An Historical
and Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the
French Revolution and the Effect It Has Produced in
Europe (1794). In 1793, the year of the execution
of the king of France, Louis XVI (r. 1774–1792),
she began a relationship with Gilbert Imlay (c.
1754–1828), an American writer and trader, who,
on the passing of the Law of Suspects (17 Septem-
ber 1793), registered her as his wife at the Amer-
ican Embassy. Wollstonecraft bore his child, Fanny,
named after her friend who died in Portugal in
1785. After attempting suicide in 1795, she agreed
to act as Imlay’s business associate in an attempt to
gain redress for the loss of a cargo of silver reput-
edly lost in Scandinavia. Her Letters Written Dur-
ing a Short Residence in Norway, Denmark, and
Sweden (1796) was the literary spin-off from intri-
cate and difficult negotiations on Imlay’s behalf
while traveling in Scandinavia with her baby daugh-
ter and maid. On her return to London, her reac-
tion to Imlay’s repeated unfaithfulness was a sec-
ond suicide attempt. Miraculously saved from
drowning in the River Thames in October 1795,
she lived to marry the philosopher William Godwin
(1756–1836) in 1797. Wollstonecraft wrote the
never-finished ‘‘Lessons’’ for her daughter Fanny
and worked on a further development of her
feminist ideas in the novel Maria; or, The Wrongs
of Woman (published posthumously in 1798), in
which she presented an acute analysis of the intri-
cate interrelation of class, gender, and love. Woll-
stonecraft died of puerperal fever on 10 September
1797, eleven days after the birth of her second
daughter, Mary, the future Mary Shelley (1797–
1851).
The publication by Godwin of Memoirs of the
Author of the Rights of Woman (1798) continued
the trend of turning Wollstonecraft the celebrity
into an object of censure on account of her
unconventional personal life, by revealing details
of her sexual history. Less than a century later,
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

however, the suffragist movement found in
Wollstonecraft a champion for their cause. As
antidote to the appropriation of Wollstonecraft
by a variety of feminist persuasions, scholarship
of the late twentieth and early twenty-first cen-
turies has tended to concentrate on two areas:
situating Wollstonecraft within the intellectual
and social parameters of the late eighteenth
century and making known further details of
her eventful life. Mary Poovey (1984) discusses
Wollstonecraft in relation to concepts of approp-
riate behavior of her time, and Barbara Taylor
(2003) stresses the theistic framework of
her thought. Lyndall Gordon’s research on Mary
Wollstonecraft’s travels in Scandinavia (2005)
reveals hitherto unknown details of that hazar-
dous and demanding journey.
See also Burke, Edmund; Feminism; French Revolution;
Godwin, William; Shelley, Mary.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Todd, Janet, and Marilyn Butler, eds. The Works of Mary
Wollstonecraft. 7 volumes. London, 1989.
Secondary Sources
Gordon, Lyndall. Mary Wollstonecraft: A New Genus.
London, 2005.
Poovey, Mary. The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer:
Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft,
Mary Shelley, and Jane Austen. Chicago, 1984.
Taylor, Barbara. Mary Wollstonecraft and the Feminist Ima-
gination. Cambridge, U.K., 2003.
JENNIFER LORCH
n depleted funds and a looming Terror had forced
WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM (1770–
1850), British Romantic poet.
William Wordsworth is so synonymous with
‘‘Romanticism’’ that the period used to be called
‘‘The Age of Wordsworth.’’ Born 7 April 1770,
Wordsworth lived into the middle of the next
century, when Victoria (r. 1837–1901) was Queen
and Alfred Tennyson (1809–1892) and Robert
Browning (1812–1889) the celebrated new poets.
It is often said that Wordsworth ‘‘the poet’’ died in
1807, survived by stodgy didactic work, minor new
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM
verse, repackaged older work, and a belated Poet
Laureateship in 1843, yet his influence was consid-
erable. Amid the encroachments of modern life,
Wordsworth provided an enduring image of the
poet as disciple of ‘‘Nature’’ and representative
voice of feeling, whether of quiet sentiment,
troubled passion, or moral severity. No less in life
than in verse, he embodied ‘‘plain living and high
thinking,’’ at home in the Lake District in North-
west England, a region marked by natural beauty
that he made famous. He was happy in his family
life, yet often withdrew into meditation and depths
of emotion.
Born in the Lake District, Wordsworth was
one of five children. His father was a steward for
a powerful local landlord, and the poet’s boyhood
was enjoyed in the market town of Cockermouth,
with adventures in the nearby outdoors. The
death of his mother when he was eight changed
everything: his father, frequently away on busi-
ness, sent William’s sister Dorothy off to relatives
and the brothers to school in distant Hawkshead.
Five years later, his father died, and legal wran-
gling prevented the estate from being settled until
1802. In 1787 Wordsworth entered St John’s Col-
lege, Cambridge, to prepare for a living in the
Church but Cambridge seemed an alien world to
this native of the Lakelands. Vacationing in Europe
in the summer of 1790, one year after the French
Revolution, he caught the enchantment of millen-
arian hopes. He took his degree in 1791; that
summer he toured Wales (climbing Mount Snow-
don) and then returned to France in November
1791. Wordsworth was at once excited and
troubled by the new politics of France. He found
love with Annette Vallon, who bore their daughter,
Caroline, in December 1792. But by then,
Wordsworth home, and, because of the ensuing
war between England and France, it was not until
1802 (the Peace of Amiens) that he would see
Annette and Caroline, just once more, prior to
marrying a childhood sweetheart, Mary Hutchin-
son.
Across the turmoil of the 1790s Wordsworth
grew ‘‘Sick, wearied out with contrarieties,’’ and
relinquished ‘‘moral questions in despair’’ (Prelude
10.900–01). The record of Wordsworth’s activities
from 1792 to 1795 is obscure. He may have
2481
WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM
become involved with radical politics at home and
may have ventured to France. In 1795 a legacy of
£900 enabled him to devote himself to poetry and
reunite with his sister Dorothy (1771–1855), who
was always to be his encourager, companion,
scribe, and housekeeper. A new friend, the poet
and journalist Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–
1834), inspired Wordsworth with a fresh sense of
mission and power. In 1797, he and Dorothy
moved to Somerset to be near Coleridge, and the
poets were soon collaborating on Lyrical Ballads.
Regarded today as a landmark of Romanticism, this
volume was published anonymously in 1798 to
mixed reviews. When local political anxieties put
the group under suspicion, the Wordsworths’ lease
was not renewed, and the trio decided to go to
Germany for winter, to soak up the language, cul-
ture, and philosophy.
With more financial resources, Coleridge
enjoyed the university towns, while the Wordsworths
spent a miserable winter in the remote village of
Goslar. It was here that Wordsworth drafted new
poems for Lyrical Ballads and his first fragments of
autobiography. Coleridge was urging him to write a
major philosophical epic, and could abide the auto-
biographical turn only as preparatory, but for Words-
worth ‘‘the story of my life’’ (1.668) would become
compelling epic in its own right. Returning to the
Lake District in late 1799, the Wordsworths settled
in Grasmere, their home for the rest of their lives.
In 1800 a two-volume Lyrical Ballads, now signed as
Wordsworth’s, appeared with a controversial Preface
declaring such principles as inspiration from ‘‘emo-
tion recollected in tranquillity,’’ the equation of ‘‘all
good poetry’’ with ‘‘the spontaneous overflow of
powerful feelings,’’ and the tuning of poetic
language to ordinary conversation, rooted in ‘‘nat-
ure’’ and ‘‘rural society.’’ This manifesto was in part
an exercise in mythmaking; but it also marked, said
the critic William Hazlitt (1778–1830) in retrospect,
‘‘a new style and a new spirit.’’ It set the terms of
Wordsworth’s fame, even as it focused the charges of
his critics for decades on.
The steadily expanding household finally
settled at Rydal Mount in 1813, when Wordsworth
received a patronage position from the Tory
government. The decade prior had been pained
by several losses: his brother John, a sea captain,
perished in a shipwreck in 1805; two of his and
2482
Mary’s five children died in 1812; and by 1810
Coleridge’s opium addiction and truancy from his
own family led to strains in his relationship with
Wordsworth. This resulted in a bitter alienation
that was not mended until the late 1820s. Leading
reviewers ridiculed Poems in Two Volumes (1807),
and would be no kinder to The Excursion (1814), a
nine-book epic ‘‘On Man, On Nature, and On
Human Life.’’ Yet the attention, and the advent
of a collected Poems (in which the poems were
arranged by conceptual category rather than by
date) in 1815, confirmed Wordsworth’s fame and
importance, and he continued to write and publish
in every decade of his long life.
During this life, The Excursion was regarded as
his major work. The story of a ruined cottage in its
first book was widely admired, and overall Words-
worth was prized for poems filled with pathos, such
as ‘‘Michael’’ and ‘‘The Brothers’’ (in which, as he
said in his Preface to Lyrical Ballads, the feeling
gives importance to the action and situation); odes
of crisis and troubled consolation, such as ‘‘Tintern
Abbey’’ and ‘‘Intimations of Immortality from
Recollections of Early Childhood’’; and a wealth
of exquisite sonnets, songs, and lyrics (‘‘The Soli-
tary Reaper’’ was among the most famous). Victor-
ians revered the poet whose love of ‘‘Nature’’ could
heal their ‘‘iron age,’’ whose images of childhood
and youth evoked simple joys, whose mature
poetry gave unembarrassed voice to feeling. The
poet John Keats (1795–1821) preferred the ‘‘dark
passages’’ and ‘‘the burden of the mystery’’—the
poetry also of most interest to twentieth-century
readers, for whom The Prelude (that preparatory
autobiography) is the recognized major work. Just
weeks after Wordsworth’s death, this fourteen-
book epic, composed across fifty years, appeared
in print. Prelude it was: another version completed
in 1805 was published in 1926, and then, further
into the twentieth century, a two-book version
from 1798–1799, and a five-book version from
1804. In this array of narrative forms and ceaseless
revisions, of multiple selves, of writing reflexively as
a poet about becoming a poet, The Prelude seems a
venture of prescient modernism, but it also endures
as a vivid imaginative reckoning with a life ani-
mated by the contradictory currents of its age.
See also Coleridge, Samuel Taylor; Great Britain;
Romanticism; Shelley, Percy Bysshe.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
The Poetical Works of William Wordsworth, ed. Ernest de
Selincourt, revised by Helen Darbishire. Oxford, U.K.,
1949–1959.
Wordsworth, William. Poems. Edited by John O. Hayden.
Harmondsworth, U.K., 1977.
———. The Prelude, 1798, 1805, 1850: Authoritative Texts,
Context and Reception; Recent critical essays. Edited by
Jonathan Wordsworth, M. H. Abrams, and Stephen
Gill. New York, 1979.
———. The Prose Works of William Wordsworth. Edited by
W. J. B. Owen and Jane Worthington Smyser. Oxford,
U.K., 1974.
Wordsworth, William, and Dorothy Wordsworth. The Let-
ters of William and Dorothy Wordsworth. Edited and
arranged by Ernest de Selincourt and revised by Che-
ster L. Shaver, Mary Moorman, and Alan G. Hill.
Oxford, U.K., 1967–1993.
Secondary Sources
Chandler, James K. Wordsworth’s Second Nature: A Study of
the Poetry and Politics. Chicago, 1981.
Ferguson, Frances. Wordsworth: Language as Counter-
Spirit. New Haven, Conn., 1977.
Ferry, David. The Limits of Mortality: An Essay on
Wordsworth’s Major Poems. Middletown, Conn., 1959.
Gill, Stephen. William Wordsworth: A Life. Oxford, U.K.
and New York, 1989.
Johnston, Kenneth R.. The Hidden Wordsworth: Poet, Lover,
Spy. New York, 1998.
Jones, John. The Egotistical Sublime: A History of
Wordsworth’s Imagination. London, 1954.
Mahoney, John L. William Wordsworth: A Poetic Life. New
York, 1997.
Onorato, Richard J. The Character of the Poet: Wordsworth
in ‘‘The Prelude.’’ Princeton, N.J., 1971.
Wolfson, Susan J. The Questioning Presence: Wordsworth,
Keats, and the Interrogative Mode in Romantic Poetry.
Ithaca, N.Y., 1987.
Wordsworth, Jonathan. William Wordsworth: The Borders of
Vision. Oxford, U.K., 1982.
SUSAN J. WOLFSON
n discourses on property, domesticity, and family
WORKING CLASS. The concept of class
became a central organizing myth of nineteenth-
century Europe. A narrative was constructed telling
of the rise of the bourgeoisie and the working class’s
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WORKING CLASS
challenges to its hegemony. The invention of this
terminology in approximately 1830 cannot be
explained simply by the structural social changes
generated by industrialization. Eighteenth-century
Britain already had wage laborers in artisanal trades,
protoindustry, agriculture, and new factories. They
engaged in strikes, grain and anti-enclosure riots,
and machine breaking—struggles underpinned by
craft and community solidarity and justified as
defense of a moral economy against emerging free-
market practices. But the participants in these class
conflicts before the emergence of a working class
were called, variously, the crowd, the mob, or the
people. Crucial changes in vocabulary emerged from
the French Revolution. The bourgeoisie denounced
‘‘idle, parasitic’’ aristocrats and proclaimed its own
virtues: industry, productivity, rationality, and mod-
eration. British advocates of parliamentary reform
eulogized the disenfranchised middle class of
expanding industrial towns, claiming for them simi-
lar qualities. The rhetoric of liberty, equality, and
fraternity and the rights of man was sufficiently
inclusive to arouse popular support. However, both
the Revolution of 1830 in France and the Reform
Act of 1832 in Britain excluded workers from
enlarged franchises. Outraged by this betrayal, poli-
ticized workers appropriated aspects of bourgeois
discourse. They asked whether workers were not
the truly productive class. A new terminology was
born, generating mobilizing myths that were ca-
pable of providing a sense of identity for disparate
groups and constructing a sociopolitical constitu-
ency. Soon contributions from Lyon silk weavers
to a Saint Etienne miners’ strike funds included
messages of solidarity to ‘‘fellow members of the
working class (la classe ouvrière).’’
THE CONSTRUCTION OF A CLASS IDENTITY
Older usages persisted, however. In England,
Chartist rhetoric still used the tropes of eigh-
teenth-century radicals’ denunciation of aristocratic
‘‘Old Corruption.’’ Workers responded to narra-
tives of ‘‘the people’’ promulgated by English
Gladstonian liberals or French republicans. Yet
workers proved adept at appropriating bourgeois
values for their own (class) purposes. Spitalfields
silk weavers defended their threatened jobs by
citing their rights to ‘‘property in labour’’ and
insisted on male workers’ need for a ‘‘family wage’’
2483
WORKING CLASS
to support their wives and children. Hence the
concept of the working class emerged as a result
of changing self-awareness, marked by a sharp lin-
guistic shift.
Stories told by individuals and groups about
themselves nurtured class consciousness. Most of
the hundreds of nineteenth-century worker auto-
biographers used class as the central category for
their interpreting life experiences, viewing the
world through the prism of class differences.
These were not typical workers. Most workers
with the literacy and inclination to write were
male and skilled and they valued education not
because it would bring them social promotion
but for the self-emancipation it offered, and for
its use in the emancipation of what they consid-
ered their class. Their fascination with ideas led
some of them to be dismissed as eccentrics by
their workmates. Some were scathing about the
fecklessness, lack of intellectual curiosity, and bru-
tality of some fellow workers. Although some
made contacts with bourgeois liberals, most
rejected liberalism. Marginal to their own class,
they were acutely aware of nuances of class dis-
tinctions. Some were what Antonio Gramsci later
called organic intellectuals—still close to their
own class yet aware of broad issues and active in
constructing a plebeian public sphere. Crucially,
the stories they told about themselves shaped a
working-class identity by imposing coherent nar-
ratives on the flux of complex social realities.
These—secular versions of Christian conversion
stories—emphasized how early poverty, exploita-
tion, and humiliations were transformed once
reading opened their eyes to the system of capi-
talist exploitation. They metamorphosed from vic-
tims into agents. Their duty was to educate their
fellow workers who, once aware of their situation,
could build a better society. Whereas the United
States constructed narratives of individual upward
mobility that might be possible for ambitious
immigrants, Europe produced narratives of class
salvation via collective struggle. These autobiogra-
phers also reminded readers of both the history
and myths of workers’ struggles. One prerequisite
for a critical, counterhegemonic view of the world,
critical of dominant bourgeois identity, was con-
sciousness of who one was, rooted in a sense of
where one had come from.
2484
CLASS AND SOLIDARITY
By 1914 the working class had become a sociopoli-
tical actor. Karl Marx’s goal, ‘‘the constitution of the
working class into a political party,’’ appeared achiev-
able. Germany’s Social Democratic Party (SPD), with
one million members, secured 34 percent of the vote.
Trade unions, once confined to craft elites, were
becoming centralized, industrial, mass organizations.
Britain and Germany each had four million union
members by 1914. France regularly experienced over
a thousand strikes per year, five times the 1880s
average. Strike rituals—street demonstrations, appeals
for worker solidarity—became part of everyday
experience in industrial Europe. Whereas elites once
feared disorder and disease from what they consid-
ered to be criminal and dangerous classes, now they
devised strategies to counter challenges from orga-
nized labor, including electoral concessions, welfare
and municipal reforms, and social imperialism.
Widespread structural proletarianization under-
lay these developments. But one cannot simply
assume levels of working-class consciousness or
mobilization from the processes of industrialization.
Marx had explained the defeat of the revolutions of
1848 by arguing that, outside of Britain and parts of
France and Germany, Europe’s proletariat remained
small and immature. The success of future revolu-
tions required industrialization. Subsequent trends
partly confirmed Marx’s predictions of a polarization
between capital and labor. Some homogenization of
labor occurred. Artisanal trades declined and casual
and migrant workers were recruited into semiskilled
jobs in large mechanized factories, mines, steel
works, and on railways. However, no monolithic
trend emerged, rather development was combined
and uneven. Everywhere, the heavy industry of
the Second Industrial Revolution coexisted in sym-
biotic relationship with dispersed, archaic sectors,
and relied on pools of migrant or protoindustrial
labor. Despite Germany’s spectacular industrial
development—coal and heavy engineering, chemi-
cals and railways—28 percent of its labor force
remained agricultural in 1900; substantial artisanal
and protoindustrial sectors remained (Solingen cut-
lery; Saxon textiles). France remained 60 percent
rural, with peasant proprietors and sharecroppers
outnumbering agricultural laborers. Northern coal-
fields, Lorraine steel, and heavy engineering in Par-
isian and Lyonnais banlieues (suburbs) coexisted
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

with small, high-quality artisanal production. Two-
thirds of Italy’s industrial workers were in the
Milan/Turin/Genoa triangle. Spain’s industries
(Asturias coal; Bilbao steel and shipyards; Catalan
textiles and engineering) were islands in a rural
sea. After the emancipation of the serfs in the
1860s, tsarist Russia’s state-sponsored industrializa-
tion quintupled the industrial workforce, to three
million, between 1890 and 1914. But alongside
St. Petersburg’s large engineering plants, Moscow
textile factories, and Donbas coal mines, a huge
peasantry remained. The proletariat exceeded
50 percent of the population only in Britain. Yet
there, as in France and Germany, many new workers
were white-collar employees (bank clerks, shop assis-
tants) whose identification with blue-collar proletar-
ians was problematic.
Such structural developments engendered
changes in family patterns and communities. Arti-
sans’ children, who once married largely within their
craft communities, now chose marriage partners
from a wider working-class background. Wage
differentials between British skilled and unskilled
occupations narrowed steadily. Upward mobility
remained rare: 90 percent of British manual workers’
sons themselves did manual jobs. Hereditary work-
ing-class communities emerged—later idealized for
their neighborly values, which contrasted with bour-
geois individualism and the crass commercialism of
an emerging mass consumer culture. The Paris Com-
mune of 1871 was underpinned by community soli-
darities of popular faubourgs (suburbs) after
Georges-Eugène Haussmann’s large-scale urban
renewal projects threw together displaced inner-
city artisans and recent migrants. But no single,
model working-class community existed. Metal-
lurgical workers might live in single-industry com-
pany towns, such as the Schneider family’s
Le Creusot, run by one paternalist employer,
or in industrial cities such as Düsseldorf. Large
cities provided workers with a range of potential
industries and employers, and wider possibilities of
relations with other social groups. Yet there was
often little contact between the older Parisian fau-
bourgs and the industrial banlieues that emerged
around the city’s periphery. Lifestyles, cultures,
and experiences inevitably differed widely between
these and other types of community. Marx
assumed that industrial concentration, by drawing
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WORKING CLASS
workers together and creating shared experiences
and grievances, would nurture class consciousness
and organization. ‘‘Class-in-itself’’ would emerge
naturally from ‘‘class-for-itself.’’ However no
simple correlation existed between levels of indus-
trialization and worker militancy. Some workers
in dispersed sectors proved more militant than
others in what Marx considered more advanced
sectors. Agricultural laborers, who were widely
assumed to be deferential, supported anarchosyn-
dicalist strikes in Apulia and the Po Valley in Italy,
Andalusia in Spain, or the lower Languedoc vine-
yards in France. Half of unionized Italian workers
in 1914 were in the Agricultural Workers’ Federa-
tion (Federterra). The proletarianized peasants of
southwest Russia were prominent in the Revolu-
tion of 1905. The Captain Swing revolt of rural
workers in southern England in the early 1830s
suggested that even ‘‘Hodge’’—the stereotypical
deferential, cowed English laborer—might resort
to machine breaking and cattle maiming. Protoin-
dustrial textile workers—favored by capitalists as a
cheap, dispersed, and quiescent labor force—orga-
nized strikes in Dauphiné, France, and northern
Italy in the 1890s. Marxists were suspicious of
what they considered to be backward rural
migrants to the city, whom they stereotyped as
prone to drink and violence. Yet in late tsarist
Russia, many such immigrants were radicalized by
ongoing social conflict in their native villages,
where some owned plots of land, and by their
capacity to recreate the solidarities of the village
commune (mir) in their urban neighborhoods.
Cross-national comparisons bring into ques-
tion any rigid occupational determinism. Skilled
engineering workers provided the backbone of
the Marxist Social Democratic Party in Germany
as well as key Bolshevik cadres in St. Petersburg,
Russia. In Paris in 1900s, they supported syndical-
ist strikes against ‘‘scientific management,’’ which
threatened their shop-floor autonomy. Yet the
Victorian labor movement’s reformism has been
ascribed to the moderation of a relatively privileged
labor aristocracy—including engineers, whose
union proved keen to exclude the unskilled and
avoid strikes by bargaining with employers.
Yet occupational groups were strongly marked
by the nature of their jobs. Dockers were low-skilled,
2485
WORKING CLASS
Working men’s bar, Paris. Illustration by Steinlen from
the French satirical journal Gil Blas, 11 August 1895. The
illustrator emphasizes the grim faces of the patrons. MARY
EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY
low-status workers operating in casual labor markets
within tough waterfront cultures (Barcelona, Mar-
seille, Hamburg). Their levels of unionization were
erratic, and their strikes marked by violence against
strikebreakers. By contrast, printers were natural
labor aristocrats—literate, self-taught worker-intel-
lectuals, and among the first to unionize. Even Rus-
sian printers were moderates—requesting respect
from employers and the state; they were pushed
reluctantly toward menshevism only by tsarist brutal-
ity. Miners’ politics varied widely with location and
with the national political culture but the shared
dangers of mining created intense workplace solidar-
ity, reinforced by the strong community identities of
isolated pit villages.
RADICAL ARTISANS AND INDUSTRIAL
WORKERS
Radical artisans dominated the early labor move-
ments. Paris was Europe’s revolutionary capital.
The thousands killed or arrested during the Paris
Commune of 1871, which Marx called the first
2486
example of the working class in power, were tailors,
shoemakers, building craftsmen, and furniture
makers—an occupational profile strikingly similar
to that of the sans-culotte activists of 1793. In
Britain the factory system came earlier than in
France. Northern mill workers were active in Char-
tist agitation and strikes in the 1830s. But skilled
workers—handloom weavers, London craftsmen,
and Sheffield cutlers—were central to early labor
protest. Militancy among France’s emerging indus-
trial proletariat was sporadic and unorganized.
Many miners and forge workers lived in tightly
controlled, isolated, paternalist company towns
such as Decazeville. Textile mill workers were often
women and children—unskilled, new to industrial
work, lacking organizational traditions. The notor-
ious slums of Lille engendered more drunken
despair than they did organized protest. France
relied on artisanal skills for high-quality goods—
silks, porcelain, fashions, and furniture—for niche
markets. But the skilled trades faced varied threats.
Less skilled, sometimes rural, labor was employed
to do simpler, subdivided tasks. Apprenticeship
training deteriorated. The chances of journeymen
becoming small masters declined. Trades came to
be dominated by merchants, who put out raw
materials and orders and controlled credit. Never-
theless, artisans possessed the resources to resist.
Their skills were still required in up-market sectors.
High literacy sustained a radical artisan press.
Craft-dominated neighborhoods (the silk weavers’
Croix- Rousse in Lyon; Faubourg Saint Antoine in
Paris) had community solidarity, mutual aid, and
cooperative schemes. Journeymen and small mas-
ters, united by their hatred of big merchants, often
drank and sang together in cafés or goguettes (pop-
ular singing societies). They drew on traditions
of artisanal organization, such as that of the com-
pagnonnages, associations that aided ‘‘tramping’’
journeymen, which had roots in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries. Where once artisans
dreamed of a republic of small, independent pro-
ducers, the inexorable advance of capitalism pushed
them toward collective solutions. In 1848 French
artisans hoped that an associationist republic—one
sympathetic to their cooperative aspirations—
would establish banks offering cheap credit and
put out orders to producer cooperatives, which
had fifty thousand members in Paris alone.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

However, before one accepts that labor move-
ments originated in the work-based culture and
grievances of artisans, question need to be raised.
Were French artisans militant less because of occu-
pational grievances—which were present in other
industrializing societies—than because their poli-
tical aspirations were raised in the decades after
the revolution by contact with neo-Jacobin repub-
licans? Was the craft-proud radical artisan a myth
constructed by radical journalists, some of them
former artisans—an image designed to counter
bourgeois stereotypes about the drunken, brutal
dangerous classes? Artisans in relatively secure
trades (for example, carpenters) proved less mili-
tant than shoemakers and tailors, many of whom
wished to escape from trades degraded by the
practice of sweating, which forced them to work
ever-longer hours performing increasingly subdi-
vided tasks for inexorably declining wages. Were
artisans less precursors of later proletarian activists
than reactionary radicals, their desperate rearguard
actions fueled by awareness that the industrial
juggernaut would overwhelm their culture and
communities? Factory proletarians, by contrast,
could envisage no alternative to the new industrial
system on which their jobs depended. They took
time to develop the solidarity required for effec-
tive class mobilization. Hence the gap in popular
protest—in Britain after 1850, in France after
1870—as artisan radicalism faded and before new
proletarian militancy surfaced.
Multiple frictions existed within the artisanal
world. Pressures on specific trades could lead to
conflicts between journeymen and masters, as hap-
pened in Germany, where masters’ guilds persisted.
Generational tensions also existed. In Paris in 1848,
older journeymen fought on the barricades but
younger workers were recruited into the Garde
Mobile (Mobile Guard) to fight for order. Journey-
men’s compagnonnages had a heritage of internecine,
ritualized violence and job competition that could
obstruct trade union solidarity. But the major myopia
of artisan culture was the issue of gender.
GENDER
The construction of the working class was always
gendered. Although some utopian socialists did
support women’s rights and employment opportu-
nities, Chartism championed male suffrage. Miso-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WORKING CLASS
gynistic artisanal spokesmen portrayed ‘‘cheap and
docile’’ female workers as the primary threat to
their jobs and skills. Textile mills, which destroyed
the handloom weavers’ livelihoods, employed
mainly female and child labor. Seamstresses
replaced male tailors. Friedrich Engels depicted
the ‘‘unsexing’’ of Manchester workers, whose
patriarchal power ebbed away when their wives
and daughters worked in the mills while the men
performed domestic chores. Their status was
bound up with the independence derived from
what they considered honorable labor and property
in skill. British trade unionists campaigned for
votes for ‘‘heads of families’’ and for a family
wage. Capitalist exploitation of female labor was
considered an evil, exposing women to physical
degradation and sexual harassment, depriving
workers’ homes of women’s domestic skills. Trade
unionists welcomed protective legislation, hoping
that restrictions on the hours women could work
would disqualify them from key jobs.
Labor movement iconography depicting
brawny steelworkers and miners reflected the male
domination of key Second Industrial Revolution
industries. Yet the ideal of the wife remaining at
home was attainable only for skilled workers.
Women constituted a high proportion of the labor
force—over 35 percent in France, where many
married as well as single women worked. Yet
women’s work was imagined as marginal and sup-
plementary, even for single women. With rare
exceptions, as for example in tobacco factories,
women’s jobs were viewed as unskilled. Many
worked in deplorable conditions in the sweated
domestic trades, beyond the reach of factory
inspectors or unions. Unsurprisingly, women rarely
expressed a strong sense of identity with their jobs.
By 1900 the SPD was arguing in principle for
women’s equality as workers and citizens while
denouncing ‘‘bourgeois feminism’’ and insisting
that female oppression was a product of capitalism
and could be abolished only after the revolution.
Marxist textile unions in Germany and northern
France recruited female workers, but their male
leaders marginalized women’s specific demands to
focus on men, who were able to vote. Women’s
proportion of French union membership doubled
to 10 percent between 1900 and 1914, but the
printers’ craft union fought rearguard actions
2487
WORKING CLASS
Wigan colliery workers, Lancashire, England. Postcard
photograph c. 1890. The young women pictured here were
employed as surface workers, whose job was to move and
sort the coal. The growing need for coal throughout Europe in
the nineteenth century created many jobs, but the work was
extremely hazardous and accidents claiming hundreds of lives
were common. MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY
against admitting them. Yet working-class women
were active in protests outside the sphere of orga-
nized labor. They had long participated in food
riots. Miners’ wives policed pit villages during
strikes, harassing and shaming strikebreakers. In
Italy and southern French vineyards, women on
picket lines dared troops to shoot the ‘‘weaker
sex.’’ Women’s networks underpinned neighbor-
hood solidarity, organizing tenant protests against
landlords and providing abortion advice. As left-
wing parties began to win control of some town
councils in Britain, France, and Italy by the 1890s,
2488
their municipal socialism aroused women’s interest,
since it offered the possibility of child care, health
clinics, and similar services. Despite this, when
women were enfranchised in parts of Europe after
1918 many proved reluctant to vote for workers’
parties, which they perceived as male dominated
and insensitive to women’s concerns.
THE LEFT AND THE RIGHT
Labor movements sought to construct a cohesive
working class that would act as a class by shaping
disorderly social realities into a coherent narra-
tive. But prioritizing the story of certain types
of workers risked ignoring or alienating others.
Workers—as postmodernists emphasize—had a
variety of potential identities. Class, which was
constructed in the workplace, was but one. The
European right wing’s strength in the era of mass
politics lay both in its appeal to popular strata—
peasants, the petty-bourgeoisie, white-collar
workers—who were alienated by the proletarian
discourse of socialism and in its appeal to ele-
ments of a working class fragmented along lines
of religion, nationality, and ethnicity.
There was no necessary incompatibility between
being a devout Christian and a class-conscious
worker. The Christian socialism of Britain’s Inde-
pendent Labour Party was rooted, like popular
liberalism, in the nonconformist chapels of northern
England. Images of Christ the carpenter adorned
the walls of French producer cooperatives in 1848.
However, Catholicism’s ties to the right wing meant
that the French labor movement was stronger where
workers were recruited from anticlerical rural
regions—the Limousin, the Centre—than from
clerical bastions such as Brittany. Catholic workers
were alienated by the Left’s militant anticlericalism.
In 1871 the Paris Commune executed clerical hos-
tages. Churches were burned during Barcelona’s
semana trágica, the ‘‘tragic week’’ in 1909 during
which a popular insurrection took over the city.
Spanish anarchism tapped the fury of a religious
people outraged by the clergy’s alliance with the
rich. Obreros conscientes (self-educated ‘‘conscious
workers’’), spreading the anarchist gospel to
wretched landless laborers of Andalusian latifundia,
preached of a millennium of social justice once the
countryside was purged of taxmen, landowners, the
Civil Guard, and priests. Catholic workers in devout
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

regions such as Galicia and New Castile supported the
right wing. The gulf between anticlerical male workers
and their devout womenfolk was a feature of Latin
Europe, fueling the men’s suspicions that women’s
irrational superstition made them unfit for socialism.
German socialism recruited among lapsed Protestants.
Catholic workers in the Rhineland and Ruhr often
supported the Center Party and Catholic unions.
Religious and ethnic tensions overlapped.
Flemish migrants in northeastern French textile
towns were criticized by French workers for their
clericalism as well as for being strikebreakers.
The Catholicism of Liverpool’s Irish immigrants
provoked a Tory vote among native Protestant
workers. Ruhr trade union leaders oscillated
between criticizing Polish miners for their docility
and clericalism and lamenting their propensity for
ill-disciplined wildcat strikes. French steel magnates
in Lorraine exploited the cheap labor of Italian
immigrants—who lacked the vote—while simulta-
neously playing on the xenophobia of French
workers, who monopolized the skilled jobs,
received company housing and voted for the radical
Right in the 1890s. Jewish artisans in Paris’s Marais
district or London’s East End were the targets of
populist anti-Semitism.
In a Europe of economic rivalries and social
Darwinism, workers were not immune to the lure
of social imperialism. Elites had long exhibited
what might be called class racism, viewing workers
as a dark, inferior species—criminal and dangerous
classes, who were diagnosed in quasi-biological
terms and categorized by emerging criminology
as pathologically degenerate. Eugenicists debated
restricting the breeding of the poor in the East
End slums of outcast London. But welfare legisla-
tion was introduced to improve the imperial ‘‘racial
stock’’ and workers were re-classified as white.
Birmingham workers voted for Tory municipal
reformer Joseph Chamberlain, who argued that
imperial protection guaranteed the export markets
on which jobs depended. On the eve of 1914, mass
demonstrations denounced South African mine
owners for opening skilled jobs to black workers.
REFORMIST AND REVOLUTIONARY
LABOR MOVEMENTS
However, socialist parties were built, and they
countered the power of organized capitalism,
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WORKING CLASS
including cartels and employers’ associations. The
German model—a mass party affiliated to industrial
unions—set the pattern for northern and central
Europe, achieving 40 percent electoral support in
Finland and 25 percent in Austria, despite growing
tensions between German and nationally conscious
Czech workers. However, no two societies had
identical experiences of class formation and mobi-
lization. The peculiarities of each labor movement
reflected historical experiences, culture, the nature
of the particular state, employer strategies, and the
ideologies available to workers. A plausible—if
banal—generalization is that liberal states engen-
dered reformist labor movements and authoritarian
regimes engendered radical or revolutionary labor
movements.
This latter was clearly true of tsarist autocracy.
Unions were illegal in Russia, political protest was
clandestine, and troop massacres of workers’
demonstrations (Bloody Sunday in 1905; the Lena
goldfields shootings in 1912) eroded residual
popular loyalty to the tsar. Pragmatic reformism
was impossible. While populists placed their
hopes in the huge, discontented peasantry, Marx-
ists targeted the small but rapidly growing urban
proletariat, particularly St. Petersburg’s skilled
metalworkers. Yet it is difficult to locate Russian
protest in any specific section of the working
class, for it involved broad strata of the people.
The urban population’s ties to village Russia made
it difficult to disentangle worker and peasant griev-
ances. Workers’ attitudes toward the revolutionary
intelligentsia were ambivalent; gratitude was tinged
with resentment at their claims that only intellec-
tuals could bring full class consciousness to the
workers and channel spontaneous protest into
coherent strategies.
The liberal British model was very different.
The first industrial nation eliminated its peasantry
before 1800. By 1900, it was 80 percent urban.
It had a parliamentary tradition. The franchise was
gradually extended to broad strata of the working
class. The early Industrial Revolution had been a
bleak age, marked by appalling slum and factory
conditions, periodic mass unemployment, and
stagnant real wages. But during the mid-Victorian
economic boom, wages rose and employers
accepted negotiation with unions, which had been
legal since the 1820s. Many trade unionists
2489
WORKING CLASS

supported the Liberal Party of Prime Minister

William Gladstone, perceived as sympathetic to
workers’ democratic interests. Popular politics and
labor relations became harsher in the Great Depres-
sion of 1873–1896. Rising unemployment and
employer intransigence challenged illusions of
ongoing progress under capitalism. Eventually the
Labour Party (1900) emerged because of worker
alarm at legal threats to union rights. But the party,
which was designed for the pragmatic defense of
trade union interests, not to build socialism,
attracted only 7 percent of the vote. The British
paradox is, thus, that the world’s first and largest
proletariat produced a small, nonsocialist, workers’
party. A dense working-class culture did exist, a
distinctive lifestyle identifiable by the 1870s that
persisted into the 1950s. This was a world of flat
caps, fish and chips, Saturday afternoon soccer, sea-
side rail excursions, hobbies, and allotment gardens.
Its communal and collective values were incarnated
in friendly societies (consumer cooperatives with
millions of members) and unions. Yet it was an
introverted culture, more fatalistic and consolatory
than radical, exhibiting little aspiration to challenge
Caney the Clown. Photograph from Street Life in London,
bourgeois hegemony. Valuing the liberties guaran- 1878, by John Thomson and Adolphe Smith. Like other
teed by the state, including the freedom to bargain photographic surveys of the period, Thomson and Smith’s
collectively, it otherwise wished to be left alone. work was intended to draw attention to the problems encoun-
Monarchy was widely accepted as symbolic of British tered by the poor and working classes. The text accompanying
this photograph describes the difficult life of ‘‘Caney,’’ who had
fair play and a regime that rarely used troops against been a successful comedic performer until injury forced his
strikers. Socialism revived after 1880 but found retirement. He subsequently supported himself by performing
difficulty in penetrating this culture. minor repairs for households in the neighborhood of Drury
Lane. MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY
In Germany, certain factors encouraged a similar
integration of labor into the national political scene.
bargaining and reformist unionism. Heavy indirect
Universal male suffrage came relatively early (1870),
taxation penalized working-class consumers and
as did welfare legislation (the 1880s), which was
funded armaments programs. By 1914 labor reform-
introduced to woo workers from socialism. Real
ists and radicals were evenly balanced, the latter
wages rose gradually. Workers could take patriotic
insisting that hopes of gradual democratization of
pride in Germany’s burgeoning industrial strength,
the Reich were illusory.
and many were employed in defense industries.
However if the labor movement’s daily practice was Socialism in Germany emerged in the 1870s
pragmatic, the SPD’s official ideology was Marxist. alongside an emerging working-class culture and
Its revolutionary stance was a response to the more before unions were free to organize. It sought to
authoritarian face of the Reich. Real power lay with mold working-class life, nurturing an unparalleled
the Junkers, army, and bureaucracy, not with a large- alternative culture of libraries, choral and theater
ly impotent Reichstag. The regime treated labor groups, and sports clubs. Ninety-five socialist
as enemies of the Reich. Three-tier local suffrage papers sold 1.5 million copies daily. The ideologi-
systems kept the left from municipal power. Anti- cal impact of this remains unclear. Perhaps workers
union laws (1878–1890) and intransigent heavy borrowed escapist novels from party libraries rather
industrialists hindered the development of collective than Marxist tracts. An emphasis on the classic

2490 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

German musical and literary repertoire may have
encouraged bourgeoisification of the tastes of
respectable elements of the working class. Fears of
jeopardizing this associational infrastructure may
have made party officials reluctant to undertake
open resistance to the Reich. Meanwhile, millions
of workers outside this subculture, including rough
elements of the working class, remained vulnerable
to the lure of official patriotic propaganda and of an
emerging mass commercial culture.
Reformist strands in French working-class cul-
ture were encouraged by the democratic Third
Republic. Since the Revolution, labor activists had
collaborated with radical republican lawyers and
doctors who had flirted with associationist socialist
rhetoric. Trade unions were belatedly legalized
(1884). The republic sought to normalize indus-
trial relations through arbitration procedures,
encouraging reformist trends in the miners’ unions
through state enforcement of pit safety. Republican
secular education appealed to working-class anti-
clericalism and fed their republican patriotism.
Workers’ autobiographies spoke affectionately of
dedicated republican schoolteachers. Yet the
republican/revolutionary tradition was deeply
ambiguous. Workers felt betrayed by failures to
implement the revolution’s egalitarian promises
by establishing a social republic. It was republicans
who suppressed the Paris Commune in 1871 and
still used troops to shoot strikers in major incidents
(1891, 1900, 1908). Intransigent employers,
reluctant to accept collective bargaining, used
company paternalism or scientific management to
deny unions shop-floor influence. Welfare was
introduced later in France than in Germany and was
less extensive. A revolutionary legacy of popular
direct action inspired syndicalists, who dominated
the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT) union
confederation in the 1900s. Syndicalism’s emphasis
on worker control appealed to craftsmen and
skilled workers, who had once supported producer
cooperatives. But it attracted unskilled laborers,
dock workers, vineyard laborers, and dissident
miners and rail workers critical of their unions’
reformism. Bourses du Travail, where workers from
various occupations met, coordinated regional
strike strategies. The French labor movement was
notoriously fragmented. Despite the foundation of
a single Socialist Party in 1906, squabbling
between reformist, Marxist, and quasi-syndicalist
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WORKING CLASS
factions persisted. French socialist voting (16 per-
cent) and union membership (10 percent) were
below the levels in much of Europe. Yet levels of
strike militancy and direct action were high.
After 1900, under Giovanni Giolitti, oligarchic
Italian liberalism sought to integrate an emerging
working class and woo reformist socialists by
extending the franchise (1912) and introducing
modest welfare measures and industrial relations
reforms. But popular national identity remained
weak in a peninsula fragmented by linguistic and
regional diversities. Po Valley and Apulian land-
owners, suspicious of Giolitti’s conciliatory strat-
egy, hired gunmen to break strikes. Troops were
also used against strikers, although fewer proletar-
ian massacres took place than had happened in the
1890s. Maximalist socialists, who indulged in revo-
lutionary rhetoric, and syndicalists were influential,
particularly outside the northern industrial towns,
whose workers were the principal beneficiaries of
Giolitti’s policies. Camera del lavoro, drawing
together both skilled and unskilled workers from
a variety of occupations, sustained a radical subver-
sive culture (souversismo) that was at odds with the
cautious reformism of the Socialist Party and the
union confederation leaderships.
DIVERSITY AND CHANGE
The European working class was too diverse to
embrace any single strategy or ideology. Many
patriotic, religious, deferential, or female workers
were beyond the reach of organized labor,
although some joined Catholic, company, or other
unions. Much worker protest was unorganized.
Despite integrationist governmental strategies and
rising real wages in western, northern, and central
Europe, the scale of labor unrest in the decade
before 1914 suggests widespread—although
diverse and uncoordinated—frustration and anger.
Even Britain experienced quasi-syndicalist strike
waves from 1911 through 1914, with miners, rail
workers, and dock workers expressing dissatisfac-
tion with union bureaucracies and Labour Party
reformism. Syndicalist aspirations for job control,
dismissed as archaic by centralized industrial
unions, still resonated with craft workers such as
the Solingen cutlers in Germany. From Paris to
St. Petersburg, skilled workers, faced with the
tough work discipline imposed by scientific man-
2491
WORKING CLASS
agement, which eroded shop-floor autonomy,
responded with small-scale acts of everyday pro-
test—mocking foremen, slowing down their work,
sabotaging, and pilfering. In the rapidly expanding
Ruhr mining towns of Germany, with low levels
of union organization, workers clashed violently
with management and police. Labor organizers
struggled to contain what they considered the less
respectable forms of worker protest. SPD leaders
were delighted by a massive Hamburg suffrage
reform demonstration in 1905 but blamed lum-
pen, criminal elements from the docks for subse-
quent looting and clashes with the police.
The disintegration of labor movement and of
working-class communities in late-twentieth- and
early-twenty-first-century Europe has prompted
skepticism about working-class agency in earlier pe-
riods. Postmodernism’s emphasis on multiple, flex-
ible identities questions the primacy of work-based
identities. It has become difficult to envisage a world
where millions of people proclaimed themselves
working class and proud of it and saw themselves
as the salt, not the scum, of the earth. It is true that
many workers’ allegiance to labor movements
was conditional, pragmatic, and instrumental. No
working class is ever definitively made. Capitalism
endlessly undermines communities, establishing
new industries in fresh locations where workers
struggle to establish new solidarities. Doubtless,
workers’ grasp of socialist theories was sketchy. Yet
many workers did believe that history was on their
side. The reports of police spies who listened to
Hamburg workers’ conversations in bars suggested
that many ordinary workers had internalized the
SPD’s vision of the world.
Outside of the repressive regimes of eastern
and southern Europe, labor movements had bene-
fited from the liberal constitutional systems estab-
lished after the 1860s. But, as European liberalism
proved reluctant to adapt to mass politics, it was
workers’ movements that carried progressive hopes
for a future world of social justice. Perhaps the
march to war in August 1914 suggests that in the
last resort patriotism trumped class identity and
internationalist class solidarity. Yet many French
workers imagined that they were defending their
republican homeland against reactionary Kaiserism,
just as German workers believed they were defend-
ing their hard-won gains against repressive tsarism.
2492
Many such workers, and their counterparts across
Europe, participated in the massive labor unrest of
1917 through 1921, which swept away three
empires.
See also Chartism; Class and Social Relations; Coopera-
tive Movements; Engels, Friedrich; Industrial
Revolution, Second; Labor Movements; Marx,
Karl; Peasants; Socialism; Syndicalism; Utopian
Socialism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bell, Donald H. Sesto San Giovanni: Workers, Culture,
and Politics in an Italian Town, 1880–1922. New
Brunswick, N.J., 1986.
Berger, Stefan, and Angel Smith, eds. Nationalism, Labour,
and Ethnicity: 1870–1939. Manchester, U.K., 1999.
Berlanstein, Lenard, ed. Re-Thinking Labor History: Essays
on Discourse and Class Analysis. Urbana, Ill., 1993.
Bonnell, Victoria. Roots of Rebellion: Workers, Politics, and
Organizations in St. Petersburg and Moscow: 1900–
1914. Berkeley, Calif., 1983.
Calhoun, Craig. The Question of Class Struggle: Social Foun-
dations of Popular Radicalism during the Industrial
Revolution. Chicago, 1982.
Canning, Kathleen. Gender and Changing Meanings of
Work: Structure and Rhetoric in the Making of the
Textile Factory Labor Force in Germany: 1850–1914.
Ithaca, N.Y., 1995.
Clark, Anna. The Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the
Making of the British Working Class. Berkeley, Calif.,
1995.
Evans, Richard. Proletarians and Politics: Socialism, Protest,
and the Working Class in Germany before 1914. New
York, 1990.
Geary, Dick, ed. Labour and Socialist Movements in Europe
before 1914. New York, 1989.
———. European Labour Protest: 1848–1945. London,
1981.
Hogan, Heather. Forging Revolution: Metalworkers, Man-
agers, and the State in St. Petersburg, 1900–1914.
Bloomington, Ind., 1993.
Kaplan, Temma. The Anarchists of Andalusia: 1868–1903.
Princeton, N.J., 1977.
Katznelson, Ira, and Aristide Zolberg, eds. Working-Class
Formations: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western
Europe and the United States. Princeton, N.J., 1986.
Lidtke, Vernon. The Alternative Culture: Socialist Labor in
Imperial Germany. New York, 1985.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Maines, Mary Jo. Taking the Hard Road: Life Course in
French and German Workers’ Autobiographies in the
Era of Industrialization. Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995.
Merriman, John. The Margins of City Life: Explorations on
the French Urban Frontier, 1815–1851. New York,
1991.
Miles, Andrew, and Mike Savage. The Re-making of the
British Working Class: 1840–1940. London, 1994.
Perrot, M. Strikes in France: 1870–1890. Leamington Spa,
U.K., 1987.
Prothero, I. J. Radical Artisans in Britain and France:
1830–1870. Cambridge, U.K., 1997.
Steinberg, Marc. Fighting Words: Working-Class Formation,
Collective Action, and Discourse in Early Nineteenth-
Century England. Ithaca, N.Y., 1999.
Thompson, E. P. The Making of the English Working Class.
London, 1963.
ROGER MAGRAW
n
WORLD’S FAIRS. The origins of the world’s
fair (also known as international exposition, exposi-
tion universelle, esposizione internazionale, and
Weltausstellung) lie in the Industrial Revolution,
which vastly expanded manufacturing, trade, and
transportation in the first half of the nineteenth
century. Beginning with London’s Great Exhibi-
tion in 1851, a series of world’s fairs were held in
Europe to showcase advances in manufacturing,
science, and technology and gradually spread to
other parts of the world, including the United
States and Australia. The nineteenth-century
world’s fairs did not exhibit only machines and
the products they manufactured. They attempted
to summarize, categorize, and evaluate the whole
of human experience. Displays of natural products,
handmade goods, the fine arts, models, and ethno-
graphic artifacts were also an important part of the
exhibitions. Although the world’s fairs sought to
educate visitors about scientific and technological
advances, entertainments and amusements gradu-
ally became a central feature of the events and
sometimes even overshadowed their industrial
component. The world’s fairs celebrated interna-
tional cooperation and peaceful competition
among nations, but they were also sites of national
rivalry, where countries celebrated their national
identities and strove for prestige by exhibiting their
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WORLD’S FAIRS
manufactures, cultural achievements, and imperial
possessions.
World’s fairs grew out of the manufacturing
exhibitions of the late eighteenth century. Unlike
the great medieval fairs, the chief aim of the manu-
facturing exhibitions and later world’s fairs was not
buying and selling but exhibiting the latest
machines and products in order to stimulate com-
petition and economic progress. In Britain, the
Royal Society of Arts held an exhibition of machin-
ery and mechanical inventions in 1761, and small
exhibitions of industrial products were held in
Geneva in 1789, Hamburg in 1790, and Prague
in 1791. The first national exhibition of industrial
products, however, took place in France under
the Directorate. In 1797 the Marquis d’Avèze,
commissioner of the former Royal Manufactories,
organized an exhibition of goods with the goal of
promoting French industry and stimulating the
purchase of the unsold porcelain, tapestries, and
carpets that had accumulated since the Revolution
and the British naval blockade. The exhibition was
so successful that the interior minister, François
Neufchâteau, announced plans to hold a series of
national exhibitions in temporary buildings spe-
cially constructed for this purpose on the Champ-
de-Mars. The first was held for three days in 1798
and featured a published catalog of exhibits as well
as an official report, which underlined the French
ability to compete with British industry. Interna-
tional economic competition was at the core of the
industrial exhibition movement from the start.
France continued to hold national manufactur-
ing exhibitions periodically throughout the first
half of the nineteenth century, culminating in the
1849 exhibition, which lasted for six months and
drew over 4,500 exhibitors. A number of European
countries followed the French example, and
between 1818 and 1851 national exhibitions were
held in Bavaria, Belgium, Ireland, the Netherlands,
Prussia, Russia, Spain, and Sweden to promote
industrial development. In 1844 Berlin hosted an
‘‘All-German Exhibition,’’ which foreshadowed the
political unification of the German states. Although
the British state showed no interest in organizing
national exhibitions, mechanics institutes began
organizing educational exhibitions of mechanical
inventions and scientific discoveries throughout
the country starting in 1837. During the debate
2493
WORLD’S FAIRS
on abolishing the protectionist Corn Laws, free-
trade advocates organized a ‘‘Free-Trade Bazaar’’
in London’s Covent Garden, and after 1847 the
Royal Society of Arts sponsored annual national
industrial exhibitions in London. The idea of hold-
ing an international industrial exhibition to educate
domestic producers by exposing them to foreign
manufactures was first raised in France, in 1834
and again in 1849, but protectionist arguments
warning of foreign competition and industrial
espionage proved persuasive and the idea was
dropped, only to be picked up by Henry Cole, a
member of the Royal Society of Arts, during his visit
to the 1849 Paris exhibition. On his return to Brit-
ain, Cole discussed the possibility of hosting
an international exhibition in London with the pre-
sident of the Royal Society, Prince Albert, who threw
his support behind the project. It was decided to
establish a Royal Commission to raise funds and
prepare for the exhibition, which was to be self-
financing. While Prince Albert is sometimes given
credit as the originator of the idea of holding an
international exhibition in 1851, Henry Cole and
the other members of the Royal Commission were
the main organizing force behind the event. The
commission was dominated by industrial and finan-
cial leaders who were liberal advocates of the eco-
nomic doctrine of free trade. They saw the exhibition
as an opportunity both to demonstrate to the world
the virtues of commercial and political liberalism and
to promote the export of British manufactures.
LONDON 1851
The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of
All Nations, as it was called, has often been seen as
a self-congratulatory celebration of Britain’s confi-
dence in its industrial might. One of the primary
motivations for holding an international exhibi-
tion, however, was widespread anxiety about the
quality of British industrial design. By exposing
British manufacturers to the products of their Con-
tinental rivals, the exhibition’s organizers hoped
to stimulate them to improve the quality of their
design in order to better compete in world
markets. Nor was the nation united behind the
Great Exhibition. Although the Corn Laws had
been abolished in 1846, Britain was still deeply
divided over the issue of free trade, and protection-
ists claimed that foreign manufacturers would
steal British ideas. The memories of the Chartist
2494
demonstrations and the European revolutions of
1848 aroused fears that the exhibition would
attract large numbers of workers and foreign revo-
lutionaries to London and lead to public disorder.
The biggest controversy was over the permanent
exhibition building proposed for Hyde Park, which
opponents claimed would spoil the park and neces-
sitate the removal of cherished trees. Hyde Park
was saved from disfigurement by the adoption of
Robert Paxton’s innovative design for a glass-and-
iron structure in the form of a basilica that would
be high enough to contain trees and that could be
disassembled and removed after the exhibition.
Paxton’s Crystal Palace, as it was dubbed, was the
chief wonder of the Great Exhibition. Of immense
proportions, it was inspired by the structure of con-
servatories and constructed using prefabricated com-
ponents that were quickly assembled on the site
in only seventeen weeks. The glass walls and roof
permitted natural light to illuminate the Crystal
Palace’s five naves, the tallest of which soared to
the height of Paris’s Notre-Dame cathedral. It was
sold after the exhibition and moved to south London.
The exhibition was opened by Queen Victoria
and Prince Albert on 1 May 1851 in the presence
of the ambassadors of the participating nations. It
was an immediate success and earned a substantial
profit by the time it closed in October. Contrary to
the dire predictions of riot and disorder, the
crowds attending the exhibition were well behaved,
although as a precaution the Duke of Wellington
discreetly stationed mounted troops around Lon-
don before the opening. After a few weeks ticket
prices were lowered to one shilling from Monday
through Thursday in order to attract all classes of
society. Over six million people visited the Great
Exhibition, most of whom came to London by
railway, some on cheap excursions organized by
Thomas Cook. The Crystal Palace contained over
100,000 different exhibits from some fourteen
thousand exhibitors. The exhibits were classified
in four categories—raw materials, machinery, manu-
factures, and the fine arts—and thirty subcategories.
The classification system reflected the exhibition’s
emphasis on the manufacturing process but did not
exclude the arts or machines not used for industrial
production. Exhibits were displayed according to
their national origin, however, and only the British
section was organized according to the official
classification scheme. Foreign countries were free
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 WORLD’S FAIRS

to organize their space as they saw fit. British exhi-

bits, including those of the colonies, occupied half
of the space in the Crystal Palace, while the other
half held the displays of the thirty-eight other
countries that participated in the exhibition. The
physical arrangement of the exhibits was often ran-
dom and confusing to the visitors who beheld the
vast assortment of machines, models, agricultural
produce, and art. Although the intention of the
exposition was to educate the public about the
processes and products of industry, it was also a
great spectacle. The so-called lions of the exhibi-
tion included the Koh-i-noor diamond, the queen
of Spain’s jewels, the Gothic medieval court, the
collection of stuffed animals from Württemburg,
and a crystal fountain in which flowed eau de
cologne. Among the other exhibits that received
the most attention were the steam-powered work-
ing machines and electric telegraph in the British
section, photography in the French section, the
Colt revolvers and McCormick harvester in the
American section, and the cornucopia of imperial
treasures presented by the East India Company.
Full-scale examples of improved houses for work-
ers, designed by Prince Albert, were displayed out- Interior of the Crystal Palace, Great Exhibition, London,
side the Crystal Palace. 1851. Designed by architect Joseph Paxton for the first of the
major European exhibitions, the Crystal Palace was a vast glass
The Great Exhibition was more than a mere and steel enclosure that provided an impressive showcase for
the industrial and aesthetic treasures displayed within.
display of goods; it was also an international com-
ªHISTORICAL PICTURE ARCHIVE/CORBIS
petition that measured and compared the techno-
logical, economic, and artistic development of
each nation. Adopting the practice of the French published a voluminous official catalog containing
national exhibitions, the organizers appointed detailed descriptions of every nation’s exhibits
juries to evaluate the exhibits and gave prizes to together with discussions of the historical and
those deemed best; 170 Council medals were scientific background. Other nations and some
awarded for innovation and 2,918 Prize medals American states also published official reports
for excellence in workmanship. Britain, with over and catalogs in which they evaluated the exhibi-
half of the exhibitors, received the most awards, tion and its exhibits.
but France came in a close second even though it
was represented by many fewer exhibitors. Most
of Britain’s Council medals were awarded for PARIS 1855
machinery, while France’s were more evenly dis- The Great Exhibition and its Crystal Palace quickly
tributed among the various categories of classifi- spawned imitations, eventually leading to a succes-
cation. The Great Exhibition, while it confirmed sion of international expositions throughout Europe
Britain’s leadership in manufacturing, was also a and the world. Dublin and New York each held
victory for French design. The German states won international exhibitions in 1853, but the next
few Council medals but received numerous Prize truly international world’s fair took place in Paris
medals, while the United States obtained few in 1855. The French were determined to respond
medals of either type, though the exhibition did to the Great Exhibition and outdo their British
raise awareness of its growing industrial power. economic rivals, and planning for the 1855 Exposi-
After the exhibition ended the Royal Commission tion Universelle began in 1851. Like the Great

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2495
WORLD’S FAIRS

Exhibition, the first French world’s fair celebrated

international peace and cooperation, despite the
ongoing conflict with Russia in the Crimea. Napoleon
III intended the exhibition to showcase the
achievements of his new Second Empire, to
demonstrate that Paris was the artistic center of
the world, and to encourage French industry to
become more competitive. The exhibition was also
used to strengthen relations with Britain, France’s
ally in the Crimean War, and Victoria and Albert
visited Paris at Napoleon’s invitation.
A permanent exhibition building, the Palace of
Industry, was erected on the Champs-Elysées,
where it remained in use until 1897. Although
constructed of iron and glass like Paxton’s Crystal
Palace, it was more traditional in appearance, for its
iron frame was hidden by a classical facade. It
turned out that the Palace of Industry could not
hold all the exhibits, and the machinery and fine
arts had to be placed in secondary structures Machinery on display, London International Exhibition,
erected nearby. The 1855 exhibition was in many 1862. ªHULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS

respects similar to that of 1851, but larger in size

and with more exhibitors, about half of them
French. Attendance was lower, at just over five
million visitors, and the exhibition lost money.
French and British industry again dominated the
exhibition and took the majority of the awards.
There were few innovations to be found in 1855,
but among the novelties on display were new mate-
rials such as cement and aluminum and the new
technique for electroplating silver. The British and
French empires were prominently displayed, with
large sections devoted to India and Algeria. The
exhibition also contained a thematic section
devoted to improvements in the lives of the work-
ing classes, which contained examples of inexpen-
sive consumer goods and models of improvements
in housing. The French placed much greater
emphasis on the fine arts, in which France excelled,
than the British had in 1851. About five thousand
works of art from twenty-nine countries were
exhibited in 1855, among them paintings by
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Eugène Dela-
croix, and the Pre-Raphaelites. Two of Gustave
Courbet’s canvases were not accepted for exhibi-
tion, so the young artist held his own exhibition
outside the fine arts pavilion, the first of a number
of alternative art exhibitions held by disgruntled
artists at world’s fairs.
LONDON 1862
Britain attempted to follow up on the success
of the Great Exhibition with the International
Exhibition of 1862. Yet the sequel failed to arouse
the anticipated interest despite its larger size and
the inclusion of many more works of art. The
enormous brick building that was chosen to house
the exhibition, whose size was its only outstanding
feature, never gained the popularity of the Crystal
Palace, which was still standing in its new location
in south London. Prince Albert’s death in late
1861 cast a shadow over the exhibition, while the
United States, in the midst of a civil war, sent only
a few items to display. The shortage of cotton
caused by the war had crippled Britain’s textile
industry and reduced its exhibits. A number of tech-
nical innovations where on show, however, such as a
calculating machine and Henry Bessemer’s newly
developed process for making steel. The exhibition
attracted only slightly more visitors than in 1851,
despite improvements in transport and communica-
tion, and closed with a substantial deficit. The 1862
exhibition’s poor showing suggests that ever-bigger
copies of the Great Exhibition had limited public
appeal and that simply displaying a multitude of
machines and objects was not enough to draw the
crowds.

2496 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

PARIS 1867
Although Dublin hosted a small international exhi-
bition in 1865, the next important world’s fair was
held in Paris in 1867. The Exposition Universelle
of 1867 established Paris as the center of the
world’s fair movement and significantly changed
the look of subsequent world’s fairs. Organized
by the Saint-Simonian Frédéric Le Play, this was
the first world’s fair to expand outside of the main
exhibition building, which was surrounded by
international restaurants, an amusement park, and
separate national pavilions constructed by the parti-
cipating nations. Among the structures dotting the
exhibition grounds and giving them a festive atmo-
sphere were a picturesque Swiss chalet, an Indian
temple, a Tunisian palace, a Gothic cathedral, and
an English lighthouse. It was also the first world’s
fair to remain open in the evening and to include
non-European peoples as part of the exhibits, in
North African tableaux vivants, for example, and
an Egyptian bazaar with native craftsmen and camel
attendants. These innovations became standard in
subsequent world’s fairs. The Parisian excursion
boats, or bateaux mouches, made their first appear-
ance at the exhibition to take fairgoers sightseeing
on the river Seine.
The elliptical main exhibition hall, an enor-
mous iron-and-glass structure a mile in circumfer-
ence, was designed to facilitate the classification
and comparison of the displays by grouping them
together by both product and nation. Breaking
with the tradition established at the Crystal Palace
of organizing the displays along national lines, Le
Play attempted to combine two organizing sys-
tems: products and the nations that produced
them. Concentric halls, each devoted to a particular
category of objects, ringed a central garden in the
interior of the exhibition hall. Each nation’s prod-
ucts were arranged along lines radiating from the
center and intersecting the concentric bands. This
two-part classification system, much more ambi-
tious than the schemes used in previous world’s
fairs, aimed to present a complete picture of human
activity throughout the world from prehistoric
times to 1867. Another concept introduced was
the use of thematic displays of the ‘‘History of
Work’’ and the ‘‘History of the Earth,’’ which
sought to put the entire exhibition in historical
perspective. In seeking to organize, classify, and
exhibit all of human history, the exhibition con-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WORLD’S FAIRS
structed an epic of material progress in which
European civilization played the leading role and
created the illusion that scientific knowledge could
order and control the world. The outer concentric
hall contained the Gallery of Machines, a raised
area affording views across the interior of the exhi-
bition. A hydraulic elevator carried visitors to an
observation platform on the roof. Among the novel
exhibits in 1867 were petroleum, an American
rocking chair, artificial limbs, the telegraph, and a
working model of France’s latest engineering feat,
the Suez Canal. Demonstrations of new diving
equipment were held each day, where the public
could see men remain underwater for several hours
in an iron tank. Among the spectators was Jules
Verne, who incorporated the inventions he saw at
the 1867 exposition in his novel Twenty-Thousand
Leagues under the Sea (Vingt mille lieues sous les
mers, 1870).
Like the 1855 exposition, that of 1867 cele-
brated the progress and prosperity ostensibly
brought to France by the Napoleon III’s Second
Empire. France’s colonies were prominently dis-
played, with separate sections devoted to Algeria,
Tunis, and Morocco. The empire’s proclaimed
social ideals were manifested in an entire section
of the exposition devoted to social welfare. It
included exhibits of model sanitary housing for
the poor and social projects to improve the lives
of workers. Napoleon himself contributed a design
for a workers’ housing project, which unsurprisingly
won a grand prize. The exposition, while a great
success that attracted nearly seven million visitors
and made a respectable profit, turned out to be
the swan song of the Second Empire. The festivities
were marred by the June execution of Napoleon’s
protégé Maximilian in Mexico and the return of his
widow to Paris. King Victor Emmanuel II demon-
strated his anger at Napoleon’s meddling in Italian
affairs by avoiding the exposition, while during his
visit to Paris the tsar of Russia was nearly assassi-
nated by a Polish patriot. Discontent with Napo-
leon’s policies was growing at home, and the
emperor’s critics voiced their opinions more and
more loudly. In addition, Prussia’s rapid defeat of
Austria the preceding year called into question
whether France would long remain the leading
power on the Continent. One of the sensations of
the exposition was a fifty-ton steel cannon made by
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the German firm Krupp. Three years later the same
cannon would be used to bombard Paris during the
Franco-Prussian War.
LONDON 1871–1874
The four London International Exhibitions held
from 1871 to 1874 represented an attempt to limit
the size of world’s fairs by focusing each year on
specific categories of exhibits, together with scien-
tific discoveries and the fine arts. They also took
steps to avoid the international rivalry that had
characterized previous world’s fairs by organizing
the displays according to class rather than nation-
ality and by opting not to award prizes. Ten exhi-
bitions were planned to be held over ten years in an
assortment of temporary buildings erected near
London’s Albert Hall, which hosted a series of
concerts. The first exhibition was relatively success-
ful, but declining interest led to the decision to end
the exhibitions after the 1874 season.
VIENNA 1873
The nineteenth century’s only Germanic world’s
fair was held in Austria in 1873. The Vienna Wel-
tausstellung marked the twenty-fifth anniversary of
the coronation of Emperor Francis Joseph I and
was intended to celebrate the country’s recovery
from its political and economic setbacks in the
1850s and 1860s, which included the separation
of Hungary, as well as to publicize the ambitious
program of urban planning and reconstruction that
had made Vienna one of the grandest cities in
Europe. The exhibition was held in Vienna’s
wooded Prater park on the banks of the Danube
and was the first world’s fair to have separate build-
ings devoted to industry, machinery, agriculture,
and art, an innovation borrowed from Moscow’s
Polytechnic Exhibition of 1872. The main exhibi-
tion building was the Palace of Industry, an ornate
structure in the Italian Renaissance style that was
designed to be used as a permanent home for the
Corn Exchange after the fair ended. Its vast nave
was a half-mile in length, with sixteen galleries
branching off to the sides. At the center was a
rotunda under the world’s largest dome. Within
the Palace of Industry the exhibits were organized
geographically, with the participating countries
arranged from east to west and Austria at the cen-
ter. In the park surrounding the Palace of Industry
stood the buildings devoted to machinery, agricul-
2498
ture, and art as well as numerous international
pavilions and entertainment venues. While housing
exhibitions at earlier world’s fairs had focused on
the needs of urban workers, at Vienna there was an
extensive exhibit of rural homes from around the
world. Visitors were entertained by open-air con-
certs at the Strauss pavilion, military bands, and
gypsy musicians.
The Vienna exhibition devised the most com-
plex system of display categories used at any nine-
teenth-century world’s fair, comprising some
twenty-six different categories, including new ones
such as transportation, forestry management, the
ownership of ideas, the education of women and
children, the healing arts, and the living conditions
of the common people. It focused more extensively
than earlier fairs on social and educational issues
and even had a category devoted to the cultivation
of good taste among the population. Germany
participated in the Vienna exhibition for the first
time as a united nation and, after Austria, contri-
buted the largest number of industrial exhibits,
while France managed to mount a credible display
despite the devastating defeat it had recently
endured in the Franco-Prussian War. It was Japan,
however, that made the biggest splash in its first
large-scale effort at a world’s fair. Japan’s exhibits
introduced Europeans to its art, culture, and indus-
try, while the Japanese delegation to the Vienna
exhibition carefully studied Western technology
and industrial organization and published their
observations in ninety-six volumes after returning
home.
The 1873 exhibition was beset by a series of
unfortunate events. The Vienna stock exchange
was hit by a worldwide financial crisis and collapsed
less than a week after Emperor Francis Joseph
opened the exhibition, resulting in an economic
depression and soaring unemployment. Fears of a
repetition of the cholera outbreak of 1872 kept
many visitors away from the city, while heavy rains
damaged the exhibition buildings in late June. The
exhibition suffered a huge financial loss, even
though by the time it closed it succeeded in attract-
ing more than seven million visitors.
PARIS 1878
In 1878 France’s newborn Third Republic held a
world’s fair in Paris to demonstrate to the world
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

that the nation had recovered from the Franco-
Prussian War of 1870–1871. The Exposition
Universelle of 1878 was a celebration of the repub-
lic and of French civilization, and it contributed to
healing the divisions caused by the seize mai poli-
tical crisis of the preceding year. As Victor Hugo
enthused, ‘‘The world is our witness that France
makes good use of defeat.’’ However, some critics
argued that France could not afford such a lavish
expenditure when it had only recently paid off its
indemnity to Germany, while French churchmen
objected to the secular tone of the fair, for the
republic forbade religious remarks in the opening
ceremonies. French artists who specialized in battle
scenes were enraged that the fair also forbade the
exhibition of paintings whose subject was the
Franco-Prussian War. The memory of France’s
defeat was still fresh, and the German government
was pointedly not invited, although German artists
participated unofficially. Sixteen million people
attended the fair, but it closed with a sizable deficit.
The fair was organized similarly to its prede-
cessor in 1867. The centerpiece of the exhibition
was the Palace of Industry on the Champ-de-Mars,
a rectangular building that housed most of the
displays, which were again ordered by their class
in one direction and by nationality in another.
Visitors could choose to examine a single class of
manufactures from around the world or all the
manufactures of a particular country. A striking
innovation was the Street of Nations in the central
court of the Palace of Industry, where foreign
nations built separate entrances to their exhibits,
resulting in an eclectic assortment of national archi-
tectural styles. Some nations also built pavilions
across the Seine in the Trocadéro Park, which was
dotted with curiosities such as a Japanese farm, an
Algerian café, and the head of Auguste Bartholdi’s
Statue of Liberty, the hand and torch of which
had been exhibited two years earlier at the 1876
Centennial International Exhibition in Philadel-
phia. Exhibits by large manufacturers, such as the
Singer Company’s sewing machines and Schneider-
Creusot’s enormous pile driver, were very prominent
at the fair and a sign of the coming domination
of world’s fairs by corporate displays and pavilions.
A more exotic venue at the 1878 world’s fair was
the Street of Cairo, a collection of shops and a bazaar
where North Africans were employed to serve visi-
tors. The Cairo street proved so popular that it
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WORLD’S FAIRS
became a staple fixture of world’s fairs, increasing in
size with each fair until it constituted an entertain-
ment zone unto itself, with restaurants, cafés, and
belly dancers in addition to dozens of shops.
The 1878 world’s fair was the first to employ
technology to control the temperature, through a
system of pipes that carried water from the Seine
under the raised floor of the Palace of Industry.
Water was also harnessed to power hydraulic eleva-
tors that speeded visitors to the top of Trocadéro
Hill, where a permanent palace was erected for
concerts, art exhibits, and international congresses
that were held as part of the world’s fair. Some of
the congresses had long-lasting consequences, such
as the establishment of the International Postal
Union, the introduction of international copyright
laws, and the adoption of Braille as the recognized
international system of touch reading. One of the
most sensational events during the fair was the
illumination of the Avenue and Place de l’Opera
with Thomas Edison’s new electric lighting.
Edison’s phonograph, first displayed to the public
at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition in 1876,
was introduced to Europeans at the 1878 Paris fair
to great acclaim. Edison himself, self-taught and of
modest origins, was lionized by much of the
French press as an example of what the human
mind could achieve in the absence of social barriers.
AMSTERDAM 1883
The 1880s and 1890s witnessed an explosion in the
number of world’s fairs and smaller international
exhibitions, as the exhibition phenomenon spread
far beyond Europe. The United States had hosted
its first major world’s fair in Philadelphia to celebrate
the centennial of the American Revolution in 1876,
and Australia held world’s fairs in Sydney in 1879–
1880, Melbourne in 1880–1881 and 1888–1889,
and Adelaide in 1887–1888. Other international
exhibitions took place in Atlanta (1881 and 1895),
Boston (1883–1884), Calcutta (1883–1884), New
Orleans (1884–1885), Antwerp (1885 and 1894),
Edinburgh (1886), Glasgow (1888), Barcelona
(1888), Chicago (1893), San Francisco (1894),
Brussels (1897), Guatemala City (1897), Nashville
(1897), and Stockholm (1897).
The first and only Dutch world’s fair, the
International Colonial and Trade Exposition of
1883, was the first to place empire at center stage.
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While every world’s fair since London’s Great
Exhibition had included numerous displays of the
products of Europe’s overseas empires, their main
focus had been industry. The Amsterdam world’s
fair presented empire as spectacle. Unlike French
world’s fairs, the Dutch fair was organized by busi-
nessmen without government financial assistance,
although the government did give its approval to
the project. The facade of the main building,
designed by a French architect, was an exotic pas-
tiche of Indian motifs that curiously had no relation
to the architecture of the Netherlands’ own colonial
possessions in the East and West Indies. Separate
pavilions were devoted to colonial exhibits, the city
of Amsterdam, and the monarchy, while arts and
ethnographic displays were presented in the newly
built Rijksmuseum. Only the Netherlands and
Belgium mounted full-scale exhibits, but most
European nations were represented as well as the
United States, Haiti, Brazil, Uruguay, Venezuela,
Japan, China, Turkey, Persia, and Siam. About one
million people visited the fair, but its significance
was much greater than attendance figures indicate.
For the first time, a world’s fair displayed villages
inhabited by colonial peoples, who entertained visi-
tors in displays of their native customs. Exhibits of
exotic non-Western peoples by itinerant showmen
dated back at least to the sixteenth century and
were commonplace throughout Europe by the sec-
ond half of the nineteenth century. Starting with
the Amsterdam fair, however, the ‘‘native village’’
was a regular feature of European and American
world’s fairs. A mixture of commercial sensational-
ism, pseudoscientific anthropology, and imperial
power, it served as a vivid contrast to the ultramod-
ern technologies on display and seemed to confirm
assumptions about the superiority of European civi-
lization. In the era of the ‘‘new imperialism,’’ colo-
nial exhibits became an increasingly ostentatious
component of the world’s fairs, which celebrated
colonialism as a force for human progress.
PARIS 1889
Held to commemorate the centennial of the
French Revolution, the Paris Exposition Univer-
selle of 1889 produced one of the modern world’s
great iconic images: the Eiffel Tower, a cast-iron
tower that at 300 meters high was the tallest struc-
ture ever erected. Cherished today as the symbol of
Paris, the naked iron skeleton of Gustave Eiffel’s
2500
tower was initially seen by many Parisians as a
hideous defilement of the city’s skyline, by others
as an expression of the primitive, barbaric power of
industrial society. The tower was a hit with the
public, however, and almost two million people
ascended it by elevator during the exposition,
including the Prince of Wales, W. F. ‘‘Buffalo Bill’’
Cody, Sarah Bernhardt, and Thomas Edison. The
central axis of the fair on the Champ-de-Mars ran
under the Eiffel Tower to the entrance of the main
exhibition building, at the rear of which stood
the Gallery of Machines, another feat of modern
construction technology whose glass roof enclosed
fifteen acres of exhibition space without support
from internal columns. Among the mechanical
wonders on display were a steam-powered tricycle,
a German gasoline-powered motorcar, and a huge
exhibit of Thomas Edison’s multitude of inven-
tions, including an electric phonograph that
charmed the crowds by alternately playing the
French and American national anthems. From
electrically powered moving platforms suspended
over the gallery visitors could look out onto the
humming machinery in motion below. Like the
Eiffel Tower, the Gallery of Machines offered the
public spectacular views and constituted an attrac-
tion in itself, apart from the technology it exhib-
ited, which had become part of the entertainment.
Some eighty other buildings filled the Champ-de-
Mars and the banks of the Seine, containing dis-
plays of foreign industrial manufactures, the fine
arts, horticulture, and agricultural products and
machinery, as well as thematic displays such as
one devoted to ‘‘Social Economy,’’ an attempt by
the French government to respond to growing
labor unrest by displaying the gains made by the
working class under the Third Republic. More
successful was Charles Garnier’s history of human
habitation, comprising forty-nine structures depict-
ing the evolution of housing through the ages.
Another historical display used stationary tableaux
to illustrate the development of human labor from
prehistory to the present. The Trocadéro Palace
contained ethnographic exhibits that included
works of African, Oceanic, and pre-Columbian
art. Many countries erected national pavilions,
among which Mexico’s contribution was an Aztec
palace. A large section of the exposition was
devoted to the French colonial empire, with palaces
and pagodas designed by French architects to
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

The Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1889. This view of the fairgrounds shows the position and prominence of the Eiffel Tower.
ªCORBIS
house exhibits from colonies in Indochina, India,
and Africa, where visitors could ride in rickshaws
powered by Indochinese. As in 1878, colonial peo-
ples were brought to Paris to populate villages
representing Senegal, Tonkin, Tahiti, and other
French imperial possessions. Paul Gauguin was
inspired to go to Tahiti by the impression made
on him by the living examples of ‘‘noble savages’’
he saw at the fair’s Tahitian village.
Pleasure and entertainment eclipsed the indus-
trial exhibits at the 1889 world’s fair, which
marked an important shift from the original focus
of world’s fairs on educating the public about
advances in science and technology. In addition
to the exotic spectacles offered by native villages,
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WORLD’S FAIRS
concerts, balls, and theater performances were
regularly held in the exposition’s park, which con-
tained a variety of international restaurants and cafés
providing refreshments to fairgoers. At the Pavilion
of Military Aeronautics, visitors could make an
ascent in a tethered balloon, while in the Palace of
Liberal Arts they could closely inspect a giant globe
of the earth by riding to the top in an elevator and
descending along an inclined walkway. Electricity
was widely used to enhance the festive atmosphere,
illuminating the fairgrounds by night to prolong
visitors’ enjoyment of the attractions in the park,
which included a fountain display with colored
lights. Each evening a tricolor searchlight atop the
Eiffel Tower cast its beam across the darkened skies
2501
WORLD’S FAIRS
over Paris. A more serious attitude prevailed at the
dozens of official international congresses that took
place during the exposition and were devoted to
topics ranging from alcohol abuse to women’s role
in the labor force. There were also some unofficial
congresses, one of which, held by Marxist socialists,
founded the Second International and adopted May
First as the international holiday of labor.
Although some European monarchies refused
the invitation to a world’s fair celebrating the French
Revolution, most countries were represented, if
unofficially, by their firms, who refused to sacrifice
publicity and profit for political considerations. Even
members of the royal families of Britain and Russia,
both of whom had vocally refused to take part in a
celebration that paid tribute to the French Revolu-
tion, visited the exposition nevertheless. One of the
most successful world’s fairs of the nineteenth cen-
tury, the 1889 Paris exposition attracted over thirty
million visitors and even made a modest profit. It
almost certainly boosted France’s self-esteem, drew
attention to France’s colonial empire, and helped to
draw a line over the divisive Boulanger affair of the
preceding winter.
PARIS 1900
Less than three years after the close of the 1889
exposition the French government announced
plans for another one in 1900, partly in order to
seize the initiative from Germany, which had been
considering holding its first world’s fair. In France
the 1890s were marked by political scandals, eco-
nomic and demographic stagnation, and a growing
sense of the nation’s declining influence in the
world. The disunity of the Third Republic had
been only temporarily obscured by the triumphant
success of the 1889 fair, and the exposition of 1900
aroused enormous controversy while still in the
planning stages. Critics claimed that it would ben-
efit only Paris to the detriment of the provincial
economy, that it would morally corrupt the
French, and that it would do nothing to further
the interests of French businesses. Not since the
preparations for London’s Great Exhibition of
1851 had a world’s fair aroused such concerted
opposition. Supporters countered with arguments
that emphasized the stimulus it would give to
exports and the jobs it would create and contended
that the honor and international prestige of France
2502
were at stake. Although domestic opposition was
overcome, diplomatic crises also threatened the
exposition. The Fashoda crisis of 1898, when
France backed down before British forces in East
Africa, strained relations between the two coun-
tries, and French support for the Boers in their
war with Britain did nothing to improve matters.
The United States was insulted by the location its
pavilion was allotted and had to be mollified with
a more prominent position. More importantly,
the drawn-out Dreyfus affair tarnished France’s
reputation and led some nations to consider a boy-
cott of the exposition, a prospect averted only
when Dreyfus finally received a presidential pardon
in September 1899.
The world’s fair of 1900 was the largest ever
held in Paris. It attracted more than fifty million
visitors, short of the official projection of sixty million
but still a record that was only surpassed in 1967
at Montreal’s Expo 67. Spread out on the Champ-
de-Mars, Trocadéro Hill, along the banks of the
Seine, and in the Bois de Vincennes (connected to
the rest of the exposition by the city’s new Métro
line), it comprised over 80,000 exhibits divided
into 18 classes and 121 subclasses. It was the last
European world’s fair to attempt to summarize the
achievements of Western civilization, although its
vast size and the chaotic arrangement of the multi-
tude of exhibits made it almost impossible for visi-
tors to take it all in. As at previous world’s fairs,
many worthy international congresses on various
subjects took place, included two organized by
French feminists. An event that heralded a new
form of national competition for prestige was the
second meeting of the modern Olympic Games,
held in the Bois de Vincennes.
There was little in the way of architectural
innovation at the 1900 exposition. The official
buildings, such as the Grand Palais, the Petit Palais,
and the Palace of Electricity, had their iron internal
structures hidden by facades decorated in the
ornate neoclassical style favored by the academics
of the École des Beaux-Arts. On the left bank of
the Seine the Street of Nations, inspired by the one
in the 1878 exposition, was lined by foreign pavi-
lions in historical national styles, such as Germany’s
sixteenth-century Rathaus. France’s ally Russia
occupied an enormous amount of space on Troca-
déro Hill, where in addition to a Kremlinesque
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

national pavilion it also contributed a pavilion of
Asiatic Russia, in which visitors could make a simu-
lated journey along the Trans-Siberian Railway.
Finland, although part of the Russian Empire,
asserted its separate identity with one of the most
original buildings of the exposition, a superb
national pavilion designed by Eliel Saarinen using
native woods and decorative motifs inspired by
Scandinavian nature. Another noteworthy struc-
ture was the theater of the American expatriate
dancer Loie Fuller, designed in the art nouveau
style by Henri Sauvage. Although the exposition
was not the triumph of art nouveau that it is
sometimes made out to be but rather an eclectic
hodgepodge of extravagant and colorful buildings,
elements of art nouveau were present in a
number of structures, including the main staircase
of the Grand Palais, René Binet’s Monumental
Gateway to the exposition grounds on the Place
de la Concorde, and the fashionable Pavillon Bleu
restaurant. The best examples, however, were to be
found in the rooms of the German, Austrian, and
Hungarian pavilions and in the entrances to Hector
Guimard’s Métro stations.
Among the new technologies on display were
X-rays, wireless telegraphy, bicycles, automobiles,
turbines, and cinema, but the exposition’s massive
use of electric lighting was the biggest marvel. Paul
Morand, a contemporary chronicler of the exposi-
tion, dubbed electricity ‘‘the religion of 1900.’’
In the Palace of Electricity visitors could watch
the dynamos at work supplying electricity to power
machinery and illuminate the exposition grounds at
night to create a fairy-tale landscape. The Monu-
mental Gateway, the bridges over the Seine, and
the Eiffel Tower sparkled with thousands of incan-
descent lights, giving Paris a glimpse of the lumi-
nous future. Loie Fuller’s dance performances, in
which she employed colored lights and electric arc
lamps together with her trademark flowing scarves,
were a sensation. Another hit, the Cinéorama, used
phonograph music, colored filmstrips, and ten
synchronized projectors on a 360-degree screen
to simulate a balloon ride in a vivid demonstration
of the possibilities afforded by new technologies of
entertainment.
The 1900 world’s fair had an unprecedented
number of commercial venues operated by private
firms and businessmen. All the major French
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WORLD’S FAIRS
department stores had their own separate pavilions,
as did the American McCormick Harvesting
Machine Company and France’s Schneider metal-
lurgical firm. There were 207 restaurants and 58
different attractions with separate entrance fees,
giving the exposition the character of a vast amuse-
ment park. Visitors could travel back in time in
Vieux Paris or Andalusia in the Time of the Moors,
take in the sights of faraway places in the Tour du
Monde, make a sea voyage to Constantinople at
the Maréorama, and view the moon through the
world’s largest telescope. An electric-powered
moving sidewalk, modeled on the one that had
made its debut at Chicago’s World’s Columbian
Exposition in 1893, offered a novel terrestrial
experience to those not daring enough to ride the
giant Ferris wheel, another Chicago import. In
addition to the extensive official colonial displays
of France, Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, and
Portugal, there were commercial exhibits of native
villages inhabited by African and Asian people as
well as the ever-popular Street of Cairo and its belly
dancers. The 1900 exposition was noteworthy,
however, for one attempt to challenge the prevail-
ing imperial and racist images of ‘‘primitive,’’ non-
European peoples in W. E. B. Du Bois’s Exhibit of
American Negroes, located in the Social Economy
section of the exposition alongside other American
exhibits of tenement houses and libraries. It contained
materials on African American history, contempor-
ary social and economic conditions, educational
institutions, and literature.
Contemporary assessments of the 1900
world’s fair were mixed. To be sure, the exposi-
tion had attracted an unprecedented number of
visitors and probably infused money into the
French economy, although a number of contem-
porary critics claimed that it was a financial cata-
strophe. Paris got new buildings and a new bridge
over the Seine, the Pont d’Alexandre III. Most of
the businessmen who had paid dearly for conces-
sions lost money, however, and eventually got a
partial refund of their fees. To some observers the
exposition had revealed France’s industrial weak-
ness. The German technical and artistic exhibits
outshone those of France, adding to French anxi-
eties about their nation’s decline. Others were
struck by the contrast between the vast material
riches on display and the inability of the exposi-
tion to adequately classify them in the interests of
2503
WORLD’S FAIRS

The Grand Palais, Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1900. The opulent Beaux-Arts-style Grand Palais, designed under the
supervision of lead architect Charles-Louis Girault, displayed fine art from around the world during the exposition. ªMICHAEL MASLAN
HISTORIC PHOTOGRAPHS/CORBIS

scientific progress. Although some scholars have
linked such pessimistic assessments of the 1900
world’s fair to a fin-de-siècle loss of faith in science,
reason, and progress among intellectuals, it is
doubtful that their disillusionment was shared by
the millions of ordinary visitors.
The 1900 Exposition Universelle was the
climax of the series of world’s fairs held between
1851 and World War I. Although world’s fairs
were held between 1900 and 1914 in Glasgow
(1901), St. Louis (1904), Liège (1905), Christ-
church, New Zealand (1906–1907), Dublin (1907),
Brussels (1910), and Ghent (1913), none of them
approached the size or scope of the one in Paris in
1900. By 1900 world’s fairs were increasingly seen in
Europe as a financial burden on their host coun-
tries and the participants, a phenomenon known as
‘‘exposition fatigue.’’ Established firms were some-
times reluctant to interrupt their production by
shifting resources and labor into preparations for
a world’s fair, although new firms welcomed the
opportunity to attract publicity and perhaps win
prize medals for their products. In 1907 an inter-
national federation of exhibitors was set up in Paris
to deal with issues relating to world’s fairs, and in
1912 seventeen nations signed a convention to
regulate international expositions. Although the
convention was never ratified due to the outbreak
of World War I, efforts to bring world’s fairs under
international supervision resumed after the war,
eventually resulting in the formation of the Bureau
of International Expositions, formed in Paris in
1931, which today is the regulatory body that
supervises the conduct of world’s fairs.
CONCLUSION
The great nineteenth-century world’s fairs or uni-
versal expositions were regarded by contemporaries

2504 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

as historic events that had an enormous interna-
tional impact. They spread ideas, created a universal
exhibition language, and marked the stages of the
rapid developments in applied science and technol-
ogy in Europe and the world during the second
half of the nineteenth century. One of the most
important contributions of the world’s fairs was to
facilitate technology transfer, acquainting people
from different countries with the latest improve-
ments in technology and industrial design. Some
manufacturers, such as Colt, McCormick, Edison,
Bessemer, and Krupp, were very successful in using
the world’s fairs to find new markets for their
products. The international exhibitions promoted
the idea of social progress, too, through exhibits
devoted to model housing, education, and public
health issues. Exhibition techniques and novelties
were also transferred from one world’s fair to the
next and between Europe and the rest of the world.
Chicago’s Ferris wheel of 1893 was a response to
Paris’s Eiffel Tower of 1889, and its success led the
1900 Paris world’s fair to acquire its own Ferris
wheel. The world’s fairs influenced and were influ-
enced by commercial entertainments and museum
displays, from which they borrowed native villages
and other ethnographic exhibits.
For Karl Marx, the nineteenth-century world’s
fairs were evidence of how capitalism had overcome
national boundaries, but they were also important
expressions of national rivalry and of national
identities. France in particular consistently used
international expositions to assert its superiority in
the arts and its universal civilizing mission, which is
why art exhibitions and displays of colonies and
their inhabitants were such a key component of
French exhibits. The world’s fairs also offered
opportunities to smaller or peripheral countries to
assert or construct national identities in an interna-
tional setting. Japan was remarkably successful in
promoting its culture and industry at world’s fairs,
while Mexico forged a distinctive image of itself as
a non-European but modern and progressive
nation. Finland used world’s fairs in the late nine-
teenth century to project a unique national identity
in the face of St. Petersburg’s campaign of Russifi-
cation. Imperialism was a constant presence at the
world’s fairs from the Great Exhibition until well
into the twentieth century. The ever more lavish
colonial displays of the European empires raised
their national prestige, reinforced existing cultural
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WORLD’S FAIRS
and racial stereotypes, and proclaimed the progres-
sive influence of European colonialism.
World’s fairs have been interpreted as expres-
sions of nationalism, imperialism, racism, consumer-
ism, and capitalism, which they were. Yet they were
also social rituals, and as such it is not surprising that
they reflected the dominant ideologies of their his-
torical settings. The world’s fairs reveal much about
the outlooks and intentions of their organizers, but
their impact on the public is difficult to assess. Their
size meant that it was impossible for most ordinary
visitors to study the multitude of displays more than
superficially. People went to the world’s fairs not
only to be educated but also to be entertained and
have a good time, and throughout the nineteenth
century the entertainments on offer grew more and
more spectacular until the world’s fairs resembled
giant amusement parks.
The world’s fairs’ emphasis on the latest devel-
opments in human endeavor meant that they were
a fleeting presence in the cities that hosted them,
but they left behind a considerable material legacy.
London’s network of cultural institutions in south
Kensington was founded with the profits from the
Great Exhibition, while the Crystal Palace served
as an exhibition hall and cultural center in south
London until it was destroyed by fire in 1936. The
profits from the Glasgow International Exhibition
of 1888 funded the construction of the City
Museum and Art Gallery on the exhibition grounds
in Kelvingrove Park. In Paris, structures erected
for its expositions universelles were often reused for
years before being demolished to make way for new
buildings for other expositions. The Trocadéro
Palace stood until 1936 when it was replaced by
the Chaillot Palace for the 1937 Exposition Univer-
selle, while the Eiffel Tower, the Grand Palais, and
the Petit Palais are today visible reminders of the
impact of world’s fairs on the appearance of Paris.
Their impact on art and architecture was mixed.
By opening the 1855 and 1867 expositions to non-
academic painters, Napoleon III undermined the
power of the Académie des Beaux-Arts to determine
taste, yet conservatives dominated the committees
that selected works for display at the world’s fairs
until World War I. Only the Centennale exhibition
in 1900 included representatives of modern trends
in painting such as impressionism and postimpres-
sionism. The Crystal Palace was an architectural
2505
WUNDT, WILHELM
sensation and spawned replicas in New York,
Dublin, Munich, and other cities, but neoclassical,
baroque, and Renaissance influences predominated
in most of the main exhibition buildings con-
structed for world’s fairs before World War I.
Although art nouveau was very much in evidence
at the 1900 world’s fair, the Glasgow international
exhibition of 1901 was dominated by Spanish
Renaissance architecture and bore no trace of Glas-
gow’s own modernist style, developed by Charles
Rennie Mackintosh and his followers. National
architectural styles incorporating folk elements and
themes were developed for their world’s fair pavi-
lions by some countries, while European architects
designed pavilions for colonies in ‘‘indigenous’’
styles that sometimes served after independence as
the basis of new national styles. These national and
indigenous styles are perhaps the most lasting archi-
tectural legacy of the world’s fairs, for they influ-
enced the development of the entertainment envir-
onment of the twentieth-century theme park.
See also Civilization, Concept of; Consumerism; Crystal
Palace; Imperialism; Industrial Revolution, Second;
Popular and Elite Culture; Second International;
Tourism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allwood, John. The Great Exhibitions. London, 1977.
Auerbach, Jeffrey A. The Great Exhibition of 1851:
A Nation on Display. New Haven, Conn., 1999.
Celik, Zeynep, and Leila Kinney. ‘‘Ethnography and Exhi-
bitionism at the Expositions Universelles.’’ Assemblages
13 (1990): 34–59.
Chandler, Arthur. ‘‘Revolution: The Paris Exposition Uni-
verselle of 1889.’’ World’s Fair 7, no. 1 (1987): 1–9.
Curti, Merle. ‘‘America at the World’s Fairs, 1851–1893.’’
American Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1950): 833–856.
Davis, John R. The Great Exhibition. Stroud, U.K., 1999.
Fauser, Annegret. Musical Encounters at the 1889 Paris
World’s Fair. Rochester, N.Y., 2005.
Findling, John, and Kimberley D. Pelle, eds. Historical
Dictionary of World’s Fairs and Expositions, 1851–
1988. Westport, Conn., 1990.
Greenhalgh, Paul. Ephemeral Vistas: The Expositions Univer-
selles, Great Exhibitions, and World’s Fairs, 1851–1939.
Manchester, U.K., 1988.
Harris, Neil. ‘‘Expository Expositions: Preparing for the
Theme Parks.’’ In Designing Disney’s Theme Parks,
edited by Karal Ann Marling, 19–28. Paris, 1997.
2506
Jeremy, David J. ‘‘The Great Exhibition, Exhibitions and
Technical Transfer.’’ In The Great Exhibition and Its
Legacy, edited by Franz Bosboch and John R. Davis,
129–139. Munich, 2002.
Kaiser, Wolfram. ‘‘Vive la France! Vive République? The
Cultural Construction of French Identity at the World
Exhibitions in Paris 1855–1900.’’ National Identities
1, no. 3 (1999): 227–244.
Kusamitsu, Toshio. ‘‘Great Exhibitions before 1851.’’ History
Workshop no. 9 (1980): 70–89.
Mainardi, Patricia. Art and Politics of the Second Empire:
The Universal Expositions of 1855 and 1867. New
Haven, Conn., 1987.
Mandell, Robert D. Paris 1900: The Great World’s Fair.
Toronto, 1967.
Mattie, Eric. World’s Fairs. Princeton, N.J., 1998.
Mitchell, Timothy. ‘‘The World as Exhibition.’’ Comparative
Studies in Society and History 31, no. 2 (1989): 217–
236.
Rancière, Jacques, and Patrick Vauday, ‘‘Going to the
Expo: The Worker, His Wife and Machines.’’ In Voices
of the People: The Social Life of ‘‘La Sociale’’ at the
End of the Empire, edited by Adrian Rifkin and Roger
Thomas, 23–44. London, 1988.
Rydell, Robert W., and Nancy E. Gwinn. Fair Representa-
tions: World’s Fairs and the Modern World. Amsterdam,
1994.
Silverman, Deborah L. ‘‘The 1889 Exhibition: The Crisis of
Bourgeois Individualism.’’ Oppositions 8, no. 1 (1977):
71–89.
Stoklund, Bjarne. ‘‘The Role of International Exhibitions
in the Construction of National Cultures in the 19th
Century.’’ Ethnologia Europaea 24, no. 1 (1994): 35–44.
Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio. Mexico at the World’s Fairs:
Crafting a Modern Nation. Berkeley, Calif., 1996.
Williams, Rosalind H. Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in
Late Nineteenth-Century France. Berkeley, Calif., 1981.
ANTHONY SWIFT
n
WUNDT, WILHELM (1832–1920), Ger-
man psychologist.
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was the leading
institution builder for the modern discipline of
experimental psychology. He wrote the first effec-
tive textbook for the new field—Grundzüge der
physiologischen Psychologie (1874; Principles of phy-
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

siological psychology)—and in 1879 he established
a laboratory and institute at the University of Leip-
zig to which students could come for the explicit
purpose of conducting Ph.D. research in experi-
mental psychology. In 1881 he founded Philoso-
phische Studien, a journal that despite its title pub-
lished the results of the research conducted in
Wundt’s institute, thus becoming the first in the
world to be explicitly devoted to experimental
psychology. Wundt and his institute attracted stu-
dents from around the world, many of whom
returned to their home countries to establish simi-
lar psychology laboratories and programs there; by
1900 there were more than one hundred of them
worldwide, and psychology was widely recognized
as an important new academic discipline.
Wundt was born near Mannheim, Germany, on
16 August 1832, into an academic family, his pater-
nal grandfather having been a professor of history at
Heidelberg, and his uncle Philipp Friedrich Arnold
(1803–1890) a physician and professor of physiol-
ogy. Young Wundt followed his uncle first to
Tübingen and then to Heidelberg, where he com-
pleted his medical degree in 1856. As a student he
published two physiological papers in the start of a
prodigiously prolific career. Attracted more to
research than to medical practice, he briefly worked
at Johannes Müller’s (1801–1858) celebrated
Physiology Laboratory in Berlin before returning
to Heidelberg as a Privatdozent in physiology. At
that time the famous Hermann Helmholtz (1821–
1894) arrived to establish a Physiology Institute,
and Wundt was named his assistant. Although
Helmholtz identified himself as a physiologist, he was
also among the vanguard of those mid-nineteenth-
century scientists who challenged Immanuel Kant’s
(1724–1804) influential characterization of psy-
chology as an intrinsically nonexperimental, pri-
marily philosophical discipline, on the grounds that
psychological phenomena could not be experimen-
tally manipulated or subjected to mathematical
analysis. Helmholtz had shown that many aspects
of conscious sensation and perception could be
accounted for via mechanistic analysis of the
physiological systems involved in vision and audi-
tion. His demonstration of the finite and measur-
able speed of the nervous impulse had led to
experimental research on ‘‘reaction times’’ and
‘‘mental chronometry.’’ Also in 1860, Gustav
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
WUNDT, WILHELM
Fechner (1801–1887) pioneered the field of
‘‘psychophysics,’’ showing how the ‘‘just notice-
able difference’’ in perceived stimulus intensity—
clearly a psychological variable—could be measured
and subjected to mathematical analysis.
The young Wundt contributed in a small way to
the field of mental chronometry in 1861, with a
study showing that the psychological act of switching
attention from an auditory to a simultaneously occur-
ing visual stimulus required a measurable one-tenth
of a second. More consequentially, he concluded that
the growing body of research at the boundary
between psychological experience and its physiologi-
cal underpinnings provided material for a discrete
discipline of experimental psychology, an idea he
introduced in his 1862 book, Beiträge zur Theorie
der Sinneswahrnehmung (Contributions to the Theory
of Sensory Perception), and then developed and illu-
strated more fully twelve years later in his Principles of
Physiological Psychology (1874). The latter book
greatly enhanced Wundt’s visibility and led to his
appointment as full professor in philosophy, first at
Zurich in 1874 and then at Leipzig the following
year.
Most of the experimental research conducted
by Wundt’s students at the Leipzig institute fell into
the general categories of psychophysics and mental
chronometry, augmented by introspective analyses
of immediately conscious experience into categories
of sensations and feelings. Significantly, however,
even as he promoted these studies Wundt also
argued that experimental methods were only applic-
able to those psychological phenomena lying close to
the border of physiology, and not to the ‘‘higher’’
mental processes including memory and thinking.
The latter, he argued, involved supraindividual, com-
munal processes such as language and custom, which
had to be studied by comparative and historical
methods rather than laboratory manipulations in a
separate discipline he called Völkerpsychologie. Wundt
also described his overall approach to psychology as
‘‘voluntaristic,’’ because it stressed that the higher
mental processes occurring at the center of con-
sciousness entailed an inherently unpredictable and
sometimes creative process he called ‘‘apperception’’
(as opposed to simple perception), unbound by the
mechanistic laws of association.
An ardent German nationalist, Wundt fell out
of vogue in English-speaking countries during
2507
WUNDT, WILHELM
World War I, and only fragments of his voluminous
works have been translated. Further, a later genera-
tion of psychologists spearheaded by Hermann
Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), who invented ‘‘non-
sense syllables’’ as a vehicle for the experimental
investigation of memory, vigorously challenged
Wundt’s assumptions regarding the limitations of
experimental methods. Modern cognitive science
routinely investigates many phenomena that
Wundt would have considered out of bounds.
But still, legitimate debate continues about the
ultimate limitations of mechanistic and experimen-
tal analysis, as in the discussions about strong ver-
sus weak Artificial Intelligence. Since the 1970s a
small but growing number of anglophone histor-
ians have called attention to the contemporary rele-
vance of many of Wundt’s works.
See also Helmholtz, Hermann; Psychology.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Wundt, Wilhelm. Elements of Folk Psychology: Outlines of a
Psychological History of the Development of Mankind.
2508
Translated by Edward Leroy Schaub. London, 1916.
Translation of parts of Wundt’s ten-volume Völkerpsy-
chologie.
———. Principles of Physiological Psychology. Translated by
Edward Bradford Titchener. Reprint, New York, 1969.
Translation of portions of the fifth German edition
(1902) of Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie,
criticized by some historians as providing a misleading
picture of Wundt’s overall psychology.
Secondary Sources
Bringmann, Wolfgang G., and Ryan D. Tweney, eds.
Wundt Studies: A Centennial Collection. Toronto,
1980. Several important articles on Wundt prepared
to mark the centennial of his first laboratory in
Leipzig.
Fancher, Raymond E. ‘‘Wilhelm Wundt and the Establish-
ment of Experimental Psychology.’’ In his Pioneers of
Psychology, 3rd ed., 145–185. New York, 1996.
Rieber, Robert W., and David K. Robinson, eds. Wilhelm
Wundt in History: The Making of a Scientific Psychology.
New York, 2001. Presents important aspects of the
modern reevaluation of Wundt’s work.
RAYMOND E. FANCHER
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 Y
n
YEATS, WILLIAM BUTLER (1865–
1939), Irish poet.
‘‘I had three interests,’’ William Butler Yeats
wrote in 1919, ‘‘interest in a form of literature, in
a form of philosophy, and a belief in nationality.’’
Throughout a long life of exceptional creativity,
Yeats was to try and hammer these thoughts into
a unity. Drawing on his ancient Irish culture, he
strove after a uniquely modern image of artistic,
political, and spiritual wholeness. His heroic com-
mitment to his task obliged Yeats to engage with
his times as both a public and a private man. In so
doing, the Irishman created some of the most
important European poetry of the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries.
Yeats’s interest in nationality places him against
Ireland’s struggle to find its political independence
from imperial England as well as its own unique
cultural identity. In his youth, Yeats was greatly
influenced in these matters by the commanding
figure of John O’Leary (1830–1907), who, at
Dublin’s Contemporary Club, offered Yeats the
influential notion of an elite Irish intelligentsia
steeped in traditional values and strongly anti-
bourgeois in its sentiments.
O’Leary also opened his library to Yeats, where
the poet began to find in his Celtic inheritance the
ideals and images that could foster a sense of
nationhood. This initiative, called for its dreamy
qualities the Celtic Twilight, led to Yeats’s explor-
ing versions of Irish folklore, to the recovery of
mythical Irish heroes in The Wanderings of Oisin
(1889) and, most fruitfully perhaps, to the lyrics
gathered in that early masterpiece of the Irish
Literary Renaissance: The Wind among the Reeds
(1899). These poems, inspired by a sense of
magical Ireland and hopes for the mystical trans-
formation of loathed Victorian materialism—ideas
nurtured by such mentors in London as William
Morris (1834–1896) and Oscar Wilde (1854–
1900)—lead to a consideration of Yeats’s occult
interests.
Yeats lost his Christian faith as a boy, but his
naturally spiritual temperament was homesick. He
would soon turn to occultism, the belief that the
supernatural can be approached through ritual and
incantation. A profound study of the English
Romantic poet William Blake (1757–1827)
showed Yeats the importance of a spiritual life
rooted in the imagination, and he joined Madame
Blavatsky’s Theosophists in London before becom-
ing a member of the Hermetic Order of the
Golden Dawn. Drawing on the widest traditions
of the occult and defiantly opposed to materialism,
the Order’s rituals appeared to offer its members a
shared, instinctual, and numinous experience of life
that could be felt as spiritual release. Such impulses
inform the lyrics of The Rose (1893), which also
contains Yeats’s most famous and popular evoca-
tion of romantic Ireland, ‘‘The Lake Isle of Innis-
free.’’ In this poem, the exquisitely subtle vowel
sounds create a mood of dreaming and escape into
a redemptive world of vividly realized natural
beauty as the poet imagines living alone in the
2509
YOUNG CZECHS AND OLD CZECHS
‘‘bee-loud glade.’’ Here is Yeats’s early style of
Celtic Twilight at its finest.
Among the members of the Golden Dawn was
the woman who was to dominate much of Yeats’s
life: the wildly beautiful and politically radical
Maude Gonne (1866–1953), whose passionate
commitment to Irish independence further
inflamed Yeats’s own. Their long, often painful
relationship is deeply woven into Irish nationalist
history, nowhere more vividly than when, in 1902,
Gonne played the eponymous heroine of Yeats’s
play Cathleen ni Houlihan, a drama which exam-
ines the ruthless demands made by nationalism.
Yeats was greatly aided in the writing of this play
by another woman friend: Lady Isabella Augusta
Gregory (1852–1932), a patrician Anglo-Irish
widow who, in middle age, was discovering her
own formidable literary talent. Together they
founded the Abbey Theatre, which had an incalcul-
able influence on the flowering of Irish drama, not
least through promoting Yeats’s own dramatic works
and above all the plays of J. M. Synge (1871–1909).
Meanwhile, the life at Lady Gregory’s house at Coole
moved Yeats’s own thought in an ever more aristo-
cratic direction, impulses deepened by his reading of
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900). These influences
led to a greater firmness and directness in Yeats’s
poetic style and subject matter, qualities to be seen
in ‘‘To a Wealthy Man who Promised a Second
Subscription to the Dublin Municipal Gallery if It
Were Proved the People Wanted Pictures.’’
Celtic Twilight was fading before a horror of
mass society, and Yeats now excoriated the majority
of Dubliners as philistines unworthy of his ideal Ire-
land. He was caught unawares, however, by the
Easter Uprising against the British and so by the
deep, unflinching, reckless nationalism of men such
as Patrick Henry Pearse (1879–1916). In his great
poem on the subject, ‘‘Easter 1916,’’ Yeats, deeply
stirred, attempted a mixture of impartiality and won-
derment as he realized how from this event, futile
although it appeared, ‘‘a terrible beauty is born.’’
Yeats’s poetry—inspired by the occult, honed in its
vigor, and politically informed—was beginning to
stare at the ineluctable violence that lies at the heart
of the twentieth century.
See also Blake, William; Ireland; Morris, William; Wilde,
Oscar.
2510
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Yeats, William Butler. Autobiographies. London, 1955.
———. The Variorum Edition of the Poems of W. B. Yeats.
Edited by Peter Allt and Russell K. Alspach. New York,
1957.
———. The Variorum Edition of the Plays of W. B. Yeats.
Edited by Russell K. Alspach. London, 1966.
Secondary Sources
Coote, Stephen. W. B. Yeats: A Life. London, 1997.
Ellmann, Richard. Yeats: The Man and the Masks. Rev. ed.
London, 1979.
Finneran, Richard, ed. Yeats: An Annual of Critical and
Textual Studies. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1983–.
Foster, Roy. W. B. Yeats: A Life. 2 vols. Oxford, U.K.,
1997–2003.
Harper, George Mills. The Making of Yeats’s ‘‘A Vision.’’ 2
vols. London, 1987.
Henn, T. R. The Lonely Tower: Studies in the Poetry of W. B.
Yeats. London, 1950.
STEPHEN COOTE
n
YOUNG CZECHS AND OLD
CZECHS. Following the suppression of the
1848 revolutions in the Habsburg lands, political
activity was outlawed, but the failures of this
‘‘neoabsolutist’’ system, especially the losses in the
Italian War of 1859, caused Emperor Francis Joseph
to change course. As a result, the so-called constitu-
tional era in the Austrian Empire was launched in
1860, and provincial diets reappeared, an imperial
parliament (the Reichsrat) was established in
Vienna, and political parties were founded. In
Prague, Czech leaders, led by František Palacký
and his son-in-law František L. Rieger, created the
Czech National Party, whose goals were the political
autonomy of the Bohemian crown lands of the
empire on the basis of the traditional state rights of
the old Kingdom of Bohemia, and greater rights for
Czech language and culture. Because elections were
carried out according to a restrictive curial system,
which weighted votes in favor of wealthy land-
owners and urban elites, the party made a tactical
alliance with the conservative great landowners, who
shared their desire for provincial autonomy.
Although the 1867 Ausgleich (compromise), which
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

created the new country of Austria-Hungary out of
the old empire, expanded political and individual
rights in the Bohemian crown lands, it represented
a setback for the Czech program because it
established German dominance in the western, or
‘‘Austrian,’’ half of the monarchy. In response, the
National Party launched a program of passive
resistance, refusing to participate in the local diets
and the imperial parliament.
From its origins, the National Party had incor-
porated two factions, the conservative Old Czechs
and the progressive Young Czechs—the name of
the latter reflecting not the age of its members, but
rather its initial identification with liberal national-
ist movements such as ‘‘Young Germany’’ and
‘‘Young Poland’’ that had been inspired by the
Italian ideologue, Giuseppe Mazzini. The split in
the Czech national camp became apparent in a
debate over the Polish revolt against Russia in
1863. The more conservative wing around Palacký
and Rieger, although critical of tsarist policies,
continued to support Russian leadership of the
Slavic world, whereas liberals condemned the
Russians as oppressors, and a small group of radical
polonophiles sought to aid the Poles directly. In
addition, the Young Czechs questioned the need
for an alliance with the landed aristocrats, and
developed an interpretation of Bohemian state
rights that de-emphasized its feudal aspects. They
combined their demands for greater democracy
with a program of strident nationalism and
occasional anticlericalism designed to appeal to
the broad masses.
Chafing under the restrictions of passive resis-
tance, the Young Czechs broke with the National
Party, establishing a new party, the National
Liberal Party, in 1874, and resuming participation
in the government. In 1878 the Old Czechs also
abandoned passive resistance and made an agree-
ment with the Young Czechs to promote the
national agenda. This coalition, led by the Old
Czechs, supported the government of Austrian
Minister-President (prime minister) Eduard Taaffe,
which came to power in 1879, in return for
concessions on national issues. The diminishing
returns of this agreement caused the Young Czechs
to end their cooperation with the Old Czechs
in 1888. Following a controversial agreement
negotiated by the Old Czechs in 1890 that gave
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
YOUNG HEGELIANS
significant concessions to the Bohemian Germans,
the Young Czechs unseated their rivals in the 1891
elections to the imperial parliament. The Young
Czech victory was in many ways a protest against
the Old Czechs, and it transformed the party from
a small radical nucleus into a broad coalition
encompassing disparate segments of Czech society.
Once in power, party leaders lost touch with
the more radical elements that had brought them
to victory. As a result, several new, mostly small,
parties, advocating a variety of progressive reforms,
emerged to challenge the Young Czechs. At the
same time, the expansion of the franchise opened
the way for a transfer of political power away from
parties of notables such as the Old and Young
Czechs to mass-based parties of interest, such as
the Social Democrats and the Agrarian Party. The
Young Czechs lost their leading role in Czech
politics in 1907, following the first elections to
the imperial parliament on the basis of universal
male suffrage. They continued to exert significant
influence in provincial and municipal politics,
where the curial system remained in effect. Increas-
ingly identified as the party of business and banking
interests, the Young Czechs emerged after the
fall of the empire as the Czechoslovak National
Democratic Party, one of the five influential
parties that set the political course in the interwar
Czechoslovak Republic.
See also Austria-Hungary; Bohemia, Moravia, and
Silesia; Masaryk, Tomáš Garrigue; Palacký, František.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Garver, Bruce M. The Young Czech Party, 1874–1901, and
the Emergence of a Multi-party System. New Haven,
Conn., 1978.
Šolle, Zdeněk. Stoletı́ české politiky: Pocátky modernı́ české
politiky od Palackého a Havlı́cka az po realisty Kaizla,
Kramáre a Masaryka. Prague, 1998.
Vojtěch, Tomáš. Mladočeši a boj o politickou moc v Čechách.
Prague, 1980.
CLAIRE E. NOLTE
n
YOUNG HEGELIANS. The Young or Left
Hegelians were the radical disciples of Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel who formed a rather
amorphous school in Germany between the late
2511
YOUNG HEGELIANS
1830s and the mid-1840s. They flourished in the
middle of the period between the (successful) Revo-
lution of 1830 in France, when the reactionary
Charles X (r. 1824–1830) was deposed, and the
(unsuccessful) wave of revolutions that swept
Europe in 1848. The Young Hegelians were thus
both the product and the producers of the potent
mixture of religion, philosophy, and politics that
fermented in Germany during that seminal period.
Their leading members were David Friedrich
Strauss, Arnold Ruge, Bruno and Edgar Bauer,
August Cieszkowski, Ludwig Feuerbach, Max
Stirner (Johann Kaspar Schmidt), Moses Hess, Karl
Marx, and Friedrich Engels.
It is impossible to speak of a ‘‘movement’’
before about 1840, when the increasingly radical
position of the Hallische Jahrbücher, their principal
organ, provided a rallying point. They were at the
beginning exclusively preoccupied with religious
questions, and, as Ruge later remarked, the extent
to which the origins of the Hegelian School were
theological can be measured by the fact that it was
the purely theological Das Leben Jesu (1835; Life
of Jesus) by Strauss that had the most influence
on its development. Apart from art and literature,
religion was the only field where different align-
ments and relatively free debate were possible.
Because of the censorship almost all newspapers
were merely pale reflections of the government’s
views. Genuinely political arguments among the
Young Hegelians did not appear before about
1840, when the accession of Frederick William IV
(r. 1840–1861) and the attendant relaxation of
press censorship opened the newspapers for a short
time to their propaganda.
The focal point of the Young Hegelians was
the University of Berlin. Almost all of them—
Bruno and Edgar Bauer, Cieszkowski, Feuerbach,
Stirner, Marx, and Engels—had studied philosophy
in Berlin. Hess and Ruge were the only important
exceptions. Several of them—Bruno and Edgar
Bauer, Feuerbach, Ruge—had followed the exam-
ple of Hegel in beginning their studies with theol-
ogy, only later switching to philosophy. All came
from well-to-do, middle-class families, such as
could afford to send their sons to a university. For
the Young Hegelians were an extremely intellectual
group for which a university education was essen-
tial, Hess being the only self-educated member.
2512
Apart from Hess and Engels—both to some extent
autodidacts in philosophy since their fathers wished
them to go into the family business—all the Young
Hegelians wished to go on to teach in some form
or another, most of them in universities, though
Stirner taught in a high school. Their misfortune
was that, owing to their unorthodox ideas, the
universities were gradually closed to them and they
found themselves without jobs and cut off from
society.
With this background it is not surprising that
the Young Hegelians should put such emphasis on
the role of ideas and theory. They were essentially a
philosophical school and their approach to reli-
gion and politics was always intellectual. Their
philosophy is best called a speculative rationalism;
for to their romantic and idealist elements they
added the sharp critical tendencies of the Aufklär-
ung (Enlightenment) and an admiration for the
principles of the French Revolution. The second
half of Feuerbach’s Das Wesen des Christenthums
(1841; Essence of Christianity) was full of the old
Aufklärung arguments against religion; Bruno
and Edgar Bauer made long historical studies
of the French Revolution, as did Marx also; and
the Young Hegelians in general were very fond
of comparing themselves either to the ‘‘moun-
tain’’ or to individual revolutionaries of that time.
They believed in reason as a continually unfold-
ing process and conceived it their task to be its
heralds. They radicalized still further Hegel’s
conception of religion as a prelude to philosophy
by denying the possibility of any supernatural
revelation.
Like Hegel, they believed that this process
would achieve an ultimate unity, but they
tended—especially Bruno Bauer—to believe that
it would be immediately preceded by an ultimate
division. This meant that some of their writings
had an apocalyptic ring, for they thought it their
duty by their criticism to force divisions to a final
rupture and thus to their complete resolution.
The sometimes fantastic views of the Young
Hegelians, views that Marx was later led to call
mockingly ‘‘pregnant with world revolution,’’
were helped, firstly, by their impression that they
lived in an age of transition and at the dawn of a
completely new era. Their apocalyptic tendencies
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

were increased by their position as jobless intel-
lectuals on the margin of society. Having no roots
in the society that they were criticizing, they
could allow their ideas to range at will. Second,
the Young Hegelians placed great faith in the
power of ideas; here again Bauer was the most
outstanding example. The German poet and critic
Heinrich Heine (1797–1856) had already said
that thought preceded action as lightning did
thunder. It was precisely in this ‘‘trailblazing’’
that the Young Hegelians were engaged. Marx
echoed this thought in his first piece of serious
writing, the doctoral dissertation of 1841, when
he wrote, following Bruno Bauer, that even the
practice of philosophy was itself theoretical. Even
when some of the Young Hegelians began to
express their ideas in purely political terms, this
idea of the independence and primacy of theory
still held sway. Their watchword was ‘‘critique’’—
of religion, philosophy, and politics. They echoed
the famous declaration of the young Mikhail
Bakunin, at the time himself in contact with
several of the Young Hegelians, that ‘‘the joy of
destruction in itself is a creative joy.’’ This implac-
ably critical impulse led through a rejection of any
form of Christianity and an idealized aspiration
toward democracy to the solipsistic anarchy of
Max Stirner.
Although the Young Hegelians had ceased to
exist as a coherent force by 1844, they acted as a
matrix in which several of the most important
elements of European thought gestated. Strauss
and Bruno Bauer began a radical critique of the
New Testament that continues to this day in
biblical studies, as does Feuerbach’s humanist
reading of religion in contemporary ‘‘death of
God’’ theologies. Stirner’s ne plus ultra of egoism
in his book Der Einzige und sein Eigentum (1844;
The ego and its own) has been seen as one of the
founding documents of anarchism and a precursor
of, and possible influence on, Friedrich Wilhelm
Nietzsche (1844–1900). And, of course, in the
evolution of Marx’s ideas, a radical interpretation
of Hegel was an essential addition to French
socialism and English economics. Thus the influ-
ence of the Young Hegelian secularization of
Christian eschatology has proved more influential
and lasting than many at the time would have
expected.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
YOUNG ITALY
See also Bakunin, Mikhail; Berlin; Engels, Friedrich;
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich; Revolutions of
1848.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brazill, William J. The Young Hegelians. New Haven,
Conn., 1970.
McLellan, David. The Young Hegelians and Karl Marx.
London, 1969.
Stepelevich, Lawrence S., ed. The Young Hegelians: An
Anthology. Cambridge, U.K., 1983.
DAVID MCLELLAN
n
YOUNG ITALY. Young Italy, a secret political
association, was founded by Giuseppe Mazzini
(1805–1872) in Marseilles in July 1831 to pro-
mote the fight for Italian independence and unity.
Mazzini had taken up residence in the French port
city to avoid serving a sentence of confinement for
his political activities. At the time of his departure
from Italy, the success of revolution of July 1830 in
France encouraged Italians to expect a similar out-
come on their country. Mazzini founded Young
Italy after attempts at revolution in Italy were put
down with the help of Austrian intervention.
Young Italy recruited in Italy and among political
exiles abroad in competition with other patriotic
societies. The name indicated Mazzini’s faith that
the young would succeed where radicals of the
older generation had failed, and his disappointment
with the revolutionary tactics of the Carboneria,
the secret society behind the unsuccessful revolu-
tions of 1820–1821 and 1830–1831. But although
Young Italy targeted those between the ages of
twenty and thirty-five, it excluded no one on the
basis of age or sex.
Mazzini hoped that Young Italy would serve as
an umbrella organization for patriots who accepted
its basic principles of republicanism, social justice,
faith in the people, and in Italy’s revolutionary
mission. Its membership was secret out of neces-
sity, but unlike other secret societies that kept their
aims and programs shrouded in mystery, Young
Italy proclaimed its intentions openly, recruited
broadly, and disseminated its message in print and
by word of mouth.
2513
YOUNG TURKS
Young Italy’s religious ethos reflected Maz-
zini’s conviction that commitment requires a
firm religious basis. Its members were called
apostles, held to high standards of personal con-
duct, enjoined to appeal to ideals and principles
rather than material interests, and to bring the
word to the masses, without whose support no
revolution could succeed. A firm believer in the
importance of political education, Mazzini pub-
lished the journal Giovine Italia and saw to it
that copies were smuggled into Italy. But Young
Italy did not confine itself to long-term political
education. It also conspired to promote revolution
and guerrilla warfare based on the theories devel-
oped by Mazzini’s close collaborator, Carlo
Bianco di Saint-Jorioz (1795–1843), in the book
Della Guerra nazionale d’insurrezione per bande
(1828; On the national war of insurrection by
bands). Members of Young Italy pledged to
destroy tyrants and keep ready a dagger, a gun,
and fifty rounds of ammunition for action on
short notice.
Young Italy was a remarkable achievement
considering the difficulties that it faced. Funds
were not a serious problem, for its activities were
bankrolled by well-off Lombard exiles. But that
created another problem for Mazzini, for the same
exiles demanded a voice in decisions that he did not
want to share.
Other secret societies regarded Young Italy as a
rival and sabotaged its work. The reformed Carbo-
neria, headed by the old Jacobin Filippo Michele
Buonarroti (1761–1837) and the society Veri Italiani
(True Italians), both advocating a materialistic
philosophy abhorrent to Mazzini, were Young
Italy’s most formidable rivals in the political under-
ground. Spies infiltrated its ranks and police
crackdowns disrupted its operations. Rapid com-
munication and coordination of efforts in the
Italian states, France, and Switzerland, where
Young Italy was active, presented insurmount-
able problems. Wildly inflated estimates put Young
Italy’s membership at around 140,000 in
1833, but even a membership of no more than a
few thousand would have been a remarkable
achievement under the circumstances. Whatever
the numbers, Young Italy attracted the most
idealistic and best educated Italians and constituted
the first broadly based revolutionary movement
in Italy.
2514
In 1833 and 1834 Young Italy suffered a series
of reverses that destroyed its effectiveness, the last
and most severe setback occurring in February
1834 when armed incursions into Savoy from
France and Switzerland failed to spark the popular
uprising on which Mazzini counted for success.
Mazzini revived Young Italy in London in the
1840s. This new version, which is sometimes
referred to as the second Young Italy, differed from
the first in paying less attention to political conspi-
racy and more to political education. It was
particularly popular among Italian students, who
did not remember the failures of the first Young
Italy and revered the name of Mazzini. It was
flanked by a workers’ union and had branches in
North America and South America. It contributed
to the political climate that led to the revolutions of
1848, but played no direct role in the revolutions;
it was replaced by other Mazzinian organizations
after 1848. The name was replicated by other mili-
tant democratic movements, including Young Ire-
land in the 1840s and Young America in the
1850s.
See also Carbonari; Mazzini, Giuseppe; Nationalism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hales, Edward E. Y. Mazzini and the Secret Societies: The
Making of a Myth. New York, 1956.
Sarti, Roland. Mazzini: A Life for the Religion of Politics.
Westport, Conn., 1997.
ROLAND SARTI
n
YOUNG TURKS. Between 1828 and 1867,
the phrase Young Turk was used to denote
those Ottoman intellectuals and statesmen advo-
cating liberal reforms and a constitutional regime
for the Ottoman Empire. Specifically, when a
number of leading Ottoman intellectuals fled the
Ottoman capital to organize an opposition move-
ment in Paris financed by the Egyptian prince
Mustafa Fâzıl (1829–1875) the European press
called them Young Turks. Turkish historiography
labels this group the Young Ottomans. Later on,
British and French diplomatic correspondence used
the terms Young Turk and The Young Turkey Party
to refer to those statesmen who supported the
movement for a constitution.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Following the end of the short-lived consti-
tutional regime in 1878, both Ottomans and
Europeans referred in general to the opponents
of the regime of Sultan Abdülhamid II (r. 1876–
1909) as the Young Turks. It was the Ottoman
Freemasons who, in 1893, first formally named
their political branch The Committee of Young
Turkey at Constantinople. Then, in 1895, the
main opposition group, the Ottoman Committee
of Union and Progress, advertized its French
journal as ‘‘Organe de la Jeune Turquie.’’
From this point on, the phrase Young Turk was
used among Ottoman subjects (of all religions) to
denote opposition organizations dominated by
Muslim dissidents.
YOUNG TURK MOVEMENT: IDEAS
AND POLICIES
The Young Turk movement took place in Europe
and British-ruled Egypt between 1878 and 1908.
Members of this movement founded a host of
political parties, committees, and leagues to topple
the absolutist regime of Abdülhamid II and replace
it with a constitutional monarchy. Although their
European contemporaries and many scholars
commonly labeled the Young Turks liberals and
constitutionalists, these traits were promoted by a
small minority in the movement. Members of the
major Young Turk organizations did not adopt
liberal ideas and viewed constitutionalism merely
as a device to stave off great-power intervention
in the Ottoman Empire.
The initial activities of the Young Turks did
not go further than the publication of a few
journals. In 1889, the major Young Turk organi-
zation was established in the Royal Medical Acad-
emy, which originally called itself the Ottoman
Union Committee. After protracted negotiations
between the original founders and Ahmed Rıza
(1859–1930), who led the Young Turk move-
ment intermittently between 1895 and 1908,
the name was changed to the Ottoman Commit-
tee of Union and Progress. This new title
reflected the staunch positivism of Ahmed Rıza,
who had unsuccessfully proposed naming the
group ‘‘Order and Progress,’’ after the famous
aphorism of philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–
1857). This committee, which remained the most
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
YOUNG TURKS
important Young Turk organization until the end
of the movement, was a loose umbrella organiza-
tion until 1902. While some branches supported
the gradual reform program of the positivists,
others advocated revolution; still others were
dominated by the ulema, the Muslim learned
establishment.
In 1902, a schism developed in Paris at the
First Congress of Ottoman Opposition Parties.
The majority party, led by the sultan’s brother-
in-law Mahmud Celâleddin Pasha and his two
sons Sabahaddin and Lûtfullah Beys, allied itself
with Armenian and Albanian committees. They
promoted the idea of a coup with British assis-
tance. This willingness to work with foreign
powers sparked the opposition of the minority
party, under the leadership of Ahmed Rıza. It
adopted a Turkist policy, demanding a leadership
role for Turks, and categorically rejecting any for-
eign intervention in Ottoman politics. The majority
party reorganized itself in 1905 under Sabahaddin
Bey’s leadership; in that year Sabahaddin Bey
also founded the League of Private Initiative and
Decentralization, and he worked toward creating
a mutual understanding with the non-Muslim
organizations. Also in 1905, the minority party,
under the leadership of Bahaeddin S˛akir, reorga-
nized itself under the new name, the Ottoman
Committee of Progress and Union. In 1907
this new organization merged with the Ottoman
Freedom Society, which had been established by
army officers and bureaucrats in Salonica in 1906.
From this point on, the Young Turk movement
spread deeply among the Ottoman officer corps
in European Turkey. In July 1908, the Ottoman
Committee of Progress and Union carried out
the Constitutional Revolution, which marked
both the end of Abdul-Hamid II’s regime and
the Young Turk movement. Some European
historians call the new administration ‘‘the
Young Turk government.’’ This usage is mis-
leading, because actually both regime and
opposition after 1908 came from former Young
Turks.
Because all members of organizations domi-
nated by the Muslim opponents of the sultan and
their sympathizers in the empire were called
2515
YOUNG TURKS
Young Turks, this phrase does not necessarily
refer to individuals who shared similar ideas. For
instance, ulema and ardent positivists worked
together in various Young Turk organizations as
members. In the early stages of the movement,
many Young Turks, including the original foun-
ders of the Ottoman Committee of Union and
Progress, were adherents of mid-nineteenth-
century German materialism and admirers of Ludwig
Büchner (1824–1899). Social Darwinism also
deeply influenced many Young Turks. Positivism,
too, was advanced by various Young Turk leaders,
and the French organ of the Ottoman Committee
of Union and Progress used the positivist calendar
for a while. Interestingly, French social scientist
Gustave Le Bon (1841–1931) and his theories
on crowd psychology made a strong impact on
almost all members of the movement. Le Bon’s
ideas shaped the elitism promoted by the Young
Turks. For their part, Sabahaddin Bey and his
followers were deeply influenced by the Science
sociale movement, particularly by Edmond
Demolins (1852–1907). (The Science sociale
2516
movement aimed at turning social research into a
branch of science through scientific research and
creating a truly scientific method of study and
analysis of social phenomena.) Following the
reorganization of the Ottoman Committee of
Progress and Union, these ideas receded to the
background. Practical political ideas took their
place. For instance, a proto-nationalism emerged.
It stressed a dominant role for ethnic Turks in
the empire, while resisting European economic
penetration and political intervention in the
Ottoman Empire.
See also Nationalism; Ottoman Empire.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
glu, M. S˛ükrü. The Young Turks in Opposition. New
Hanio
York, 1995.
———. Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks,
1902–1908. New York, 2001.
Petrosian, Iu. A. Mladoturetskoe dvizhenie: vtoraia polovina
XIX-nachalo XX v. Moscow, 1971.
M. S˛ÜKRÜ HANIOĞLU
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 Z
n she lived whenever circumstances permitted until
ZASULICH, VERA (1849–1919), Russian
revolutionary.
Born 8 August (27 July, old style) 1849 into
a family of impoverished lesser nobility and raised
by well-to-do relatives in Smolensk province of
imperial Russia, Vera Zasulich first encountered
radical ideas when she began attending boarding
school in Moscow in 1866. The radicals of the
1860s, critical of the social, political, and cultural
order associated with serfdom, regarded gender
differences as irrelevant to the struggle against
it, and welcomed the participation of women.
Yekaterina, the eldest Zasulich sister, introduced
Vera to members of the radical Ishutin circle who
remained at liberty after Dmitri Karakozov’s
attempted assassination of the tsar, Alexander II.
In the summer of 1868, Vera Zasulich settled in
St. Petersburg, where she participated in work col-
lectives and then taught in an evening literacy
school for workers. There she met the notorious
revolutionary Sergei Nechayev, whom she served
briefly as a go-between, her only oppositional act
thus far. It led to her arrest in April 1869. Released
two years later, she was imprisoned again in the
summer of 1872, then sent into exile.
These years, a time of deprivation and suffer-
ing, cemented Zasulich’s commitment to the
destruction of the state. Following her release in
September 1875, Zasulich went to Kiev, where she
joined the revolutionary Southern Insurgents, and
assumed an illegal existence. In the group she met
and became involved with Lev Deich, with whom
Deich’s arrest in 1884. In December 1876 Zasulich
returned to St. Petersburg; joined the recently
established group Land and Liberty, devoted to
peasant revolution; and worked in its underground
press and at planning comrades’ prison escapes. In
July 1877 she learned of the flogging of a political
prisoner, Arkhip Bogolyubov, ordered by Fyodor
Trepov, the governor-general of St. Petersburg,
and, outraged, vowed retribution for an act she
deemed immoral.
Zasulich’s attempted assassination of Trepov
the following January won her fame in Russia and
abroad. Although she shot at close range, Zasulich
only wounded Trepov; then, prepared to accept the
consequences of her action, she made no effort to
defend herself or flee. Promptly arrested, she was
tried and acquitted by a jury at the end of March,
then released. Zasulich’s acquittal brought the end
of jury trials for political crimes. To avoid being
arrested again on government orders, she escaped
to Geneva, where she remained until 1905 except
for two brief, clandestine trips to Russia and three
years spent in London.
Liberals and radicals in Russia and Europe
applauded Zasulich’s acquittal. Russian radicals
understood it to indicate widespread popular
sympathy for their aims, and it encouraged expo-
nents of terrorism among the fracturing populist
movement. Zasulich was not among them. Instead,
she rejected terrorism as a political tactic. In August
1879, during a brief visit to Russia, she joined the
short-lived Black Repartition, which favored the
2517
ZIONISM
revival of agitation among the peasantry. Abroad,
she gradually moved from a peasant-oriented to a
Marxist view of social transformation. In Septem-
ber 1883 Zasulich became one of the founders of
Russia’s first Marxist organization, the Emanci-
pation of Labor Group. It took seven more years,
however, before she fully abandoned her faith in
the peasant commune and Russia’s ability to bypass
capitalism, and became convinced that only the
proletariat, a group just emerging in Russia, could
make a socialist revolution. Her views were con-
gruent with those known as Menshevism after
1903: the proletariat would assume its historical
role only after an extended period of maturation
and preparation by radical intellectuals.
Reserved and self-effacing, Zasulich never
sought visibility or political authority, despite the
level of respect she garnered from the Left. During
her years abroad, she established links with
European socialists; wrote political analyses and
historical/biographical studies; edited émigré pub-
lications, most notably the Marxist periodical Iskra
(The spark); worked to assist revolutionaries in
Russia; and devoted considerable energy to preser-
ving unity in the fractious émigré movement.
When the Russian Social Democrats split in 1903,
Zasulich sided with the Mensheviks. Eager to be on
the scene, she returned to Russia in the fall of
1905; the failure of the Revolution of 1905 marked
the end of her active participation in revolutionary
politics. When World War I broke out in 1914,
Zasulich supported Russia’s participation against
Germany, because she considered German imperi-
alism a threat to international socialism. Following
the revolution of February 1917, Zasulich backed
the Menshevik policy of collaboration with liberals
in the Provisional Government; in her view, the
October Revolution perverted Marxism. Her
health was seriously failing by then, weakened by
the tuberculosis she had contracted in 1889, and
from which she had suffered since. Zasulich died of
pneumonia on 8 May 1919.
See also Mensheviks; Nechayev, Sergei; Populists;
Socialism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Koni, A. F. Vospominaniia o dele Very Zasulich. Moscow,
1933.
2518
Zasulich, Vera. ‘‘Vera Zasulich.’’ In Five Sisters: Women
against the Tsar, edited and translated by Barbara
Alpern Engel and Clifford N. Rosenthal, 59–94. New
York, 1975. Translation of Vospominaniia (1931).
Secondary Sources
Bergman, Jay. Vera Zasulich: A Biography. Stanford, Calif.,
1983.
BARBARA ALPERN ENGEL
n
ZIONISM. First used in public on 23 January
1892 by Nathan Birnbaum, Zionism is the term
used for the main Jewish nationalist movement that
originated in central and eastern Europe in the last
quarter of the nineteenth century. Zionism’s main
ideological claim was that the Jews were not simply
an ethnic or religious minority group but were
rather a distinct, if dispersed, people—a nation. As
such, Jews could never be fully integrated into their
host societies, and indeed should not; instead they
needed, and had a right to, their own state, in their
national homeland, Palestine, or, as most Zionists
came to call it, Eretz Israel (Hebrew for ‘‘Land of
Israel’’). Zionism therefore rejected the main inte-
grative, assimilationist strategy of the movement for
Jewish emancipation that started in the late eigh-
teenth century. Zionism’s relation to this movement
was, however, highly ambivalent, for while many
Zionists insisted on a distinct cultural and national
identity for Jews, many others, including its found-
ing figure and initial leader, Theodor Herzl, also saw
the movement as a means of integrating the Jews
into the rest of civilized society, but on a national
rather than individual level. Jews were to be, there-
fore, a ‘‘normal’’ nation, but they were also to be a
model ‘‘normal’’ nation: pioneers in technology,
culture, progressive social causes, and pluralist toler-
ance, and at the center of world civilization. Zion-
ism, therefore, rather than ‘‘solving’’ the Jewish
Question, as was claimed for it, came to reflect the
complex, dialectical relationship between particular-
ism and universalism that marked Jewish emancipa-
tion and indeed modern Jewish history generally.
JEWS AND NATIONALISM
Zionism differed markedly from almost all other
European nationalisms in the period, even diasporic
nationalisms such as that of the Greeks, by having
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

only a marginal overlap between people and territory.
There were some Jews in the Jewish ‘‘homeland’’ in
Palestine, but Jews were far from being a majority in
the area, and had no political control or recognized
claim to the territory. The vast bulk of Jews lived
outside of Palestine: the Sephardic Jews were scat-
tered mainly across the lands, current and former,
of the Ottoman Empire as well as parts of western
Europe and the Americas; the Ashkenazi Jews were
concentrated in central and eastern Europe, espe-
cially the area of the Russian Empire known as the
Pale. This discrepancy between people and territory
was an accepted part of premodern, traditional
Jewish life and thought. Jews thought of them-
selves as a people, living as they did in autonomous
communities, apart from, and usually discrimi-
nated against by, the surrounding societies. Yet
they did not see themselves in modern nationalist
terms, and their dispersion was explained, and
justified, in religious terms, with an ingathering
of the Jewish people to the homeland in Palestine
seen almost exclusively in connection with the
coming of the Messiah.
This situation became untenable with the onset
of the modern state and its concomitant, secular
nationalism, in the late eighteenth century. Jewish
autonomy was abolished as part of the centraliza-
tion of state power, and the spread of secular
nationalism, associated most strongly with the
French Revolution, was a direct challenge to the
Jews’ traditional group identity.
The modernizers within western and central
European Jewry, including the neo-Orthodox,
initially responded by defining Jewish identity
exclusively in individual religious terms, thus deny-
ing any secular Jewish group (i.e., national) identity.
Many even removed any vestigial mention in the
liturgy of the wish to return to Zion as an outdated
confusion that might hamper the full identification
of Jews with their respective nations, whether
French, German, or any other. This ‘‘assimilation-
ist’’ strategy was effective as long as the national
identity in question was inclusive, civic, and not
seriously challenged by competing national identi-
ties. Where the nation gained an ethnic or racial,
hence exclusive, definition, or where nationalities
competed for regional supremacy, as in the empires
of central and eastern Europe, the strategy’s success
was not so clear: Jews were not accepted as members
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
ZIONISM
of the nation because of their different ethnicity
and traditional prejudices against them. It was also
unclear to which national group Jews should try to
belong: in Bohemia, for instance, German, Czech, or
‘‘Austrian’’? In this way, Jews often became caught
in the crossfire between competing nationalisms.
JEWISH NATIONALISM
There was also a more positive possibility arising
from the Jewish confrontation with nationalism. In
areas such as the Russian Pale, where Jews were in
sufficient numbers to retain a strong group iden-
tity, the option presented itself of Jews imitating
the other groups around them by themselves form-
ing their own ‘‘nation.’’ Hence Russian Jewish
intellectuals, led by Perez Smolenskin, developed
in the 1860s their own brand of secular Jewish
nationalism, alongside all the others.
Initially, however, most of the proponents of
this secular Jewish national identity thought it
could be realized in Europe in deterritorialized form.
Most saw no need for the apparently impossible
project of mass immigration of Jews to Palestine.
There were, admittedly, calls from the early nine-
teenth century from various sources, including
several British Christian evangelicals and Benjamin
Disraeli, for the Jews’ return to their biblical home-
land, and the connection between the rediscovery of
Jewish identity and the reclaiming of Zion was the
centerpiece of George Eliot’s novel Daniel Deronda,
published in 1876. A prominent German Jewish
intellectual, Moses Hess, once an avowed supporter
of total Jewish integration in a socialist society, in his
book Rome and Jerusalem (1862), also lent his voice
to the call for recognition of Jewish nationhood and
the restoration of a Jewish state in Palestine. Until
the very end of the 1870s, however, very few held
this view. In western and central Europe the strategy
of assimilation, or at least integration, remained
dominant among Jews, and even those, largely in
eastern Europe and Russia, who supported a secular
Jewish nationalism denied that this necessitated a
Jewish state in Palestine.
THE LOVERS OF ZION
The radicalization of European nationalism around
1880 brought a sea change in Jewish attitudes. In
central Europe the emergence of ‘‘anti-Semitism’’
as a formal political movement began to sow
2519
ZIONISM
doubts in the minds of some supporters of assim-
ilation; and in eastern Europe the success of Slav
liberation movements against the Turks led to the
rapid growth in Russian elites of Pan-Slavism. The
effect of this on Jews was twofold. Some, such as
Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, were inspired by Slav nation-
alist success to demand that the Jews also realize
their national identity. In Ben-Yehuda’s view this
meant that Jews should speak Hebrew, which in
turn necessitated their living in their own land,
which meant immigrating to Palestine, as he
recommended in 1879. Others were dismayed at
the ethnonationalist nature of Pan-Slavism, which
threatened the status of Jews within the Russian
Empire. Their fears were confirmed in 1881 when
the assassination of the relatively liberal Tsar Alexan-
der II was followed by a spate of pogroms and a
reactionary crackdown under Alexander III.
After the pogroms of 1881 most Jewish
nationalists, including Smolenskin, became suppor-
ters of mass Jewish immigration to Palestine. In
many of Russia’s Jewish population centers they
formed groups, under the general rubric of Hovevei
Ziyyon (Lovers of Zion), to promote this goal. The
new rationale of the movement was articulated by
Leo Pinsker’s Auto-Emanzipation (1882), which
identified anti-Semitism as a psychic disease that
was incurable and would bar the acceptance of Jews
by European societies. Hence Jews needed to eman-
cipate themselves, and form their own state. Ironi-
cally, Pinsker was not at all convinced that this state
should be in Palestine, thinking North America a
preferable site, but the vast majority of secular
Jewish nationalists, with their more ethnocultural
understanding of Jewish identity, could recognize
only Palestine as the goal of emigration.
The new movement gained some unity of pur-
pose at the Kattowitz Conference of 1884, received
some financial backing from such figures as Edmond
de Rothschild, and did see some land purchases and
immigration to Palestine, the ‘‘First Aliyah’’ (lit-
erally ‘‘Going Up’’). Overall, however, the Lovers
of Zion suffered from a lack of organization, perse-
cution by the Russian authorities, and conflict
between the secular and religious factions. Although
the pressure to emigrate remained, this could be
relieved more easily by settling in America than in
Palestine. By the early 1890s, with its initial impetus
long gone, the movement was almost defunct.
2520
THEODOR HERZL AND
‘‘POLITICAL ZIONISM’’
The intervention of a Viennese journalist with no
previous connection to Zionism, Theodor Herzl
(1860–1904), revived the movement’s fortunes. A
fairly typical product of Vienna’s assimilated Jewish
liberal bourgeoisie, Herzl had been a liberal German
nationalist in his youth, and he held quite a nega-
tive opinion of the parvenu Jewish society around
him. Increasing concern about anti-Semitism in
France (where he was the correspondent of the
Neue Freie Presse in Paris from 1891 to 1895) and
Austria, and the negative effects of the new, social
‘‘ghetto’’ in which assimilated Jews found them-
selves as a result, eventually led him to question the
wisdom of assimilation. In June 1895, in the wake
of the Dreyfus trial in France and, more crucially,
the electoral triumph of the anti-Semitic Christian
Socials in April that year in Vienna, Herzl came to
the radical conclusion that the only way to solve
the Jewish Question was for the Jews to recognize
that they were a separate people, and should leave
Europe to settle in a state of their own, as agreed to
by the international community.
After failing to win over the western and cen-
tral European Jewish elite, Herzl started appealing
to the Jewish masses, and his plan was published
as a pamphlet, Der Judenstaat: Versuch einer mo-
dernen Lösung der Judenfrage (The Jewish state:
An attempt at a modern solution of the Jewish
Question), in February 1896. His call met with an
enthusiastic response not among western and cen-
tral European Jews (at which it was aimed), but
rather among eastern European Jews, in the pre-
existing Zionist movement of which Herzl had been
unaware. While in many respects simply repeating
the core ideas of Pinsker, Herzl’s plan was more
detailed, Herzl himself had a higher prestige, as a
‘‘Western’’ intellectual, and he brought to the ‘‘Jew-
ish cause’’ a remarkable political and organizational
flair and energy. Very soon he became the leader of
the movement, with Max Nordau, another highly
prestigious ‘‘Western’’ intellectual, as his deputy.
The initial results of Herzl’s leadership were
dramatic: in 1897 he convened the First Zionist
Congress in Basel, Switzerland, and he managed in
a very short space of time to create the institutional
structures and the appearance of a legitimate, sub-
stantial Jewish nationalist movement that firmly
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

anchored Zionism in the international political
world. His brand of ‘‘political Zionism’’ laid great
stress on securing international recognition of and
hence legitimacy for the goal of a Jewish state, and
the resulting diplomatic campaign saw Herzl meet
many of Europe’s heads-of-state, including William
II of Germany. This made Zionism respectable and
gave it a high profile that was indispensable for its
later success.
STRUGGLE FOR THE JEWISH FUTURE
Zionism, however, remained weak, and was soon in
deep crisis. The movement convinced only a small
minority of western and central European Jewry of
the need to give up the strategy of integration into
European society. Even in eastern Europe, Zionism
had to compete with other models of Jewish
modernization, such as the socialist Bundists, and
within Zionism there were several competing
visions of how to proceed. Herzl’s political Zion-
ism, for all its diplomatic glamour, had achieved
hardly any success in pursuit of the movement’s
main goal: securing the right to a Jewish homeland
in Palestine. Its neglect of a distinct, ethnocultu-
rally Jewish content for the new state of the Jews
also antagonized the ‘‘cultural Zionists,’’ such as
Asher Ginzberg (also known under the pseudonym
Ahad Ha’am) and Martin Buber. Herzl’s main goal
for his Jews’ state was to act as a refuge from anti-
Semitism and to transform Jews into ‘‘real humans’’
by making them fully responsible citizens—of their
own country. He had (like Pinsker) initially not
seen Palestine as the necessary and sole site for his
state, and even when he accepted this need, his
Zionist vision, as articulated in the novel Altneu-
land (1902; Old new land), remained one with a
progressive, liberal, universalist, pluralist, and
humanist character (as befitted his central Euro-
pean Jewish background), rather than one with an
identifiably, ethnically Jewish one. Cultural Zionists,
in contrast, were intent on promoting a particular,
culturally Jewish national identity (especially invol-
ving Hebrew as the national language), and saw a
Jewish homeland more as a means to that end,
rather than as a site for the ‘‘normalization’’ of
Jews. ‘‘Practical Zionists’’ also differed from the
political Zionists in insisting on the need to pursue
colonization of Palestine even before international
agreement on this (especially from the Turkish gov-
ernment that ruled Palestine) had been achieved.
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
ZIONISM
The conflict over the movement’s future culmi-
nated in the Uganda Crisis of 1903, when the
(largely Russian) opposition protested vehemently
at Herzl’s agreement to pursue the prospect of a
Jewish colony in British East Africa (‘‘Uganda’’),
seeing this as a fatal detour from the goal of
Palestine. Herzl achieved a compromise with the
rebels, but very soon thereafter, on 3 July 1904, he
died of heart disease. In the aftermath of the leader’s
death, the movement regrouped, but with power
shifting to the ‘‘Russians.’’ The supporters of the
idea behind the Uganda project, of a territory that
could be a ‘‘night shelter’’ for Jews fleeing
anti-Semitism, broke away in 1905 and formed the
Jewish Territorial Organization. David Wolffsohn
became the new leader and continued the political
Zionist strategy of Herzl, negotiating with Turkey
for more Jewish rights in Palestine. Meanwhile, how-
ever, the goals of the cultural and practical Zionists,
to further Jewish educational and economic develop-
ment, and Jewish settlement, in Palestine, were also
pursued. The combination of diplomatic activity and
practical activity on the ground, named ‘‘synthetic
Zionism’’ by its leading practitioner, Chaim Weiz-
mann, became the dominant trend in the movement,
especially after Wolffsohn’s resignation in 1911,
and Nordau’s subsequent self-imposed absence.
By 1914, Zionism presented a complex and
ambivalent picture. On the one hand, it remained
riven by factional disputes, with political, cultural,
and synthetic Zionists being accompanied by other
factions, such as the religious-Orthodox Mizrahi,
and the socialist Poale Zion. On the other, however,
many of these disputes were taking place in Palestine
as well as in Europe because the Second Aliyah, after
1905, had brought a substantial number of Jews
to Palestine, and various educational, cultural, and
economic institutions had been founded and
financed, much of it under the skillful direction of
Arthur Ruppin at the Palestine Office of the Jewish
National Fund. Moreover, the evident weakness of
Turkish rule in the area had led to renewed hopes of
a diplomatic breakthrough, which was indeed to
occur with the Balfour Declaration of 1917.
What remained quite unclear in 1914, and
almost entirely unaddressed, was the question of
how—assuming its future success—the nascent
Zionist colony in the Jewish homeland of Palestine
would deal with the fact of the Arab population
that already lived there.
2521
Z O L A , É M I L E
See also Anti-Semitism; Herzl, Theodor; Jews and Juda-
ism; Minorities; Nationalism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Hertzberg, Arthur, ed. The Zionist Idea: A Historical Ana-
lysis and Reader. Garden City, N.Y., 1959.
Herzl, Theodor. Old New Land. Translated by Lotta
Levensohn. New York, 1960.
———. The Jewish State. Translated by Harry Zohn. New
York, 1970.
Secondary Sources
Avineri, Shlomo. The Making of Modern Zionism: Intellec-
tual Origins of the Jewish State. New York, 1981.
Beller, Steven. Herzl. 2nd ed. London, 2004.
Frankel, Jonathan. Prophecy and Politics: Socialism, Nation-
alism, and the Russian Jews, 1862–1917. Cambridge,
U.K., 1981.
Laqueur, Walter. A History of Zionism. New York,
1972. Reprint, with a new preface by the author,
New York, 1989.
Vital, David. The Origins of Zionism. Oxford, U.K., 1975.
———. Zionism: The Formative Years. Oxford, U.K., 1982.
STEVEN BELLER
n exhibition, the Salon. In 1865, Zola, guided by
ZOLA, ÉMILE (1840–1902), French nove-
list who founded the naturalism movement in
literature.
The second half of the nineteenth century in
France was less prolific of great creative artists who
made their presence felt in the realm of politics. A
notable exception was Émile Zola.
Born in Paris on 2 April 1840, Zola grew up in
Aix-en-Provence where his father, an expatriate
Italian engineer, had been engaged to build the
dam and canal that now bear his name. Zola’s
father died in 1847, shortly before construction
began, leaving his family in straitened circum-
stances. Swindled of shares in the canal company,
his widow, Emilie, initiated a lawsuit that lasted for
years and haunted her son’s childhood and adole-
scence. Zola attended the Collège Bourbon on a
scholarship. His classmates there included Paul
Cézanne (1839–1906), with whom he formed a
close friendship.
2522
After Emilie Zola’s case was done inching
through provincial courts, she followed it to a higher
tribunal in Paris. The year was 1857. Zola completed
secondary school up north, at the lycée Saint-Louis,
in a troubled state of mind. Wanting a literary career
but burdened with expectations that he would imi-
tate his father, he failed the baccalaureate examina-
tion. This calamity, which coincided with the final,
disappointing adjudication of Emilie’s suit, proved to
be a blessing in disguise, for in 1862 Zola found
employment at the publishing house of Hachette
and by 1866 had become its publicity director.
Zola’s four years at Hachette shaped his future.
He came under the influence of a house author, the
philosopher Hippolyte-Adolphe Taine (1828–
1893), whose seminal work, Histoire de la litté-
rature française (1862–1863), propagated the idea
that cultural traits, works of art, and even metaphy-
sical pieties, far from being independent of nature,
belong to the material world and warrant material
analysis. Epitomized in a celebrated formula—race,
milieu, moment (race, environment, historical
moment)—this view of human affairs would imbue
Zola’s fiction when, during the 1860s, he began to
write novels. His animus against literary conven-
tions extended to the realm of fine art, where
the École des Beaux-Arts held sway, exercising its
academic custodianship through the annual state
Cézanne, took up the cudgels for avant-garde
painting in a long article on Edouard Manet
(1832–1883), later published under separate cover.
Distinctly unconventional was Zola’s first impor-
tant work of fiction, Thérèse Raquin (1867), which
reflected his preoccupation with the theories of her-
edity that abounded in midcentury France. Ten years
after the imperial regime had prosecuted Gustave
Flaubert (1821–1880) for his ‘‘assault on public mor-
als’’ in Madame Bovary (and lost), it thought better
of bringing similar charges against Zola, but Thérèse
Raquin nonetheless enjoyed a succès de scandale, with
one critic citing it as a prime example of crude rea-
lism, or what he dubbed la littérature putride.
One year later, Zola drafted the outline of a
saga that was eventually to fill twenty volumes and
bear the comprehensive title Les Rougon-Macquart:
Histoire naturelle et sociale d’une famille sous le
second Empire. Work on it began in great earnest
after the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871).
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Émile Zola. Portrait by Edouard Manet, 1868. MUSÉ D’ORSAY,
PARIS, FRANCE, LAUROS/GIRAUDON/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY
Zola’s purposes in Les Rougon-Macquart were
to trace the ramification of a single family through
the whole of French society between 1851 and
1870, to describe the various milieux its members
inhabit, and to show heredity manifesting itself in
the ghosts that pursue them. While earning his live-
lihood in journalism, he found time to compile for
each novel a file or dossier préparatoire often bulkier
than the novel itself. His motto, nulla dies sine linea,
served him well. ‘‘No day without a line’’ resulted in
few years without a novel. Journalism supported
him until 1876, when the seventh installment of
his saga, L’Assommoir—a story that unfolds in a
Paris slum—achieved commercial success. Zola’s
powerful portrayal of the dissoluteness to which
poverty lends itself went hand in hand with his
exploitation of working-class argot. Thenceforth,
every work he produced was a bestseller.
Fame attracted followers. Since 1872 Zola had
been a reverent confrere of Flaubert, at whose flat
he joined Ivan Turgenev (1818–1883), Alphonse
Daudet (1840–1897), and Edmond de Goncourt
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Z O L A , É M I L E
(1822–1896) every Sunday afternoon during the
winter season. Now he became a maı̂tre à penser in
his own right, marshalling his entourage, which
included Guy de Maupassant (1850–1893) and
Joris-Karl Huysmans (1848–1907), under the
banner of naturalism. Well-schooled in publicity,
he favored slogans that linked his aesthetics to
scientific thought of the day. Claude Bernard’s
An Introduction to the Study of Experimental
Medicine (1865) is evoked throughout his critical
work, where ‘‘naturalism,’’ ‘‘physiology,’’ and
‘‘experimental’’ recur with the obsessiveness of a
mantra. This jargon did not please all his
protégés—least of all Maupassant, who chafed at
wearing labels. More importantly, it slighted the
imaginative brilliance of his own work. During
the last few decades of the twentieth century
literary scholars, hostage no longer to Zola’s
polemical gloss, elucidated the art of his fiction
and the mythic structures that demonstrate his
affinity to the Romantic generation of French
writers.
Zola’s politics were no less complex than his
artistic personality. He gave an excellent account of
himself as a parliamentary reporter after the
Franco-Prussian War, but came to hate political
debate for distracting the public from literary
conversation. He wrote stories that exposed the
misery of the working class but excoriated the
Communards of 1871. Zola the literary baron
who fancied himself a captain of industry in his
own domain (and a worthy heir of François Zola,
who would have acquired great wealth had he lived
long enough) idealized Fourierist utopianism in a
late novel, Le Travail. Attacked by the Right as a
saboteur of venerable institutions and by the Left
for describing rather too vividly the moral degrada-
tion of slum dwellers, he contributed to liberal
papers and conservative alike.
Of his devotion to the Republic there was never
any doubt, however. When, in 1896, two years after
the trial of Alfred Dreyfus (1859–1935) and his trans-
portation to Devil’s Island, a journalist named Bernard
Lazare (1865–1903) asked Zola to join the small party
of Dreyfusards in their campaign to exculpate the
captain, he agreed with the alacrity of a man eager as
much to avenge the unjust verdict of his mother’s
trial as to unmask the military establishment. The
Dreyfus affair truly became an Affair when L’Aurore
2523
ZOLLVEREIN
Cover illustration for the leftist periodical Le Cri du
Peuple advertising its forthcoming publication of
Germinal. MUSÉE DE LA VILLE DE PARIS, MUSÉE CARNAVALET, PARIS,
FRANCE/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY/ARCHIVES CHARMET
published Zola’s celebrated indictment, ‘‘J’accuse,’’
on the front page of its 13 January 1898 issue. Only
then did the cause gain adherents all over France,
indeed, throughout Europe. Vilified by the anti-
Republican, anti-Semitic opposition, Zola fled to
England rather than risk imprisonment for slander
and lived in hiding outside London until June 1899,
when evidence supporting his allegations came to light.
The Dreyfus affair inspired La Vérité, the fourth novel
of his unfinished tetralogy, Les Quatres Évangiles.
Zola died in 1902 of asphyxiation from a
defective flue. Suspicions linger to the present day
that he was the victim of an anti-Dreyfusard
conspiracy. Six years after his death, his remains
were reinterred in the Pantheon, alongside those
of Victor Hugo (1802–1885).
See also Anti-Semitism; Cézanne, Paul; Dreyfus Affair;
Flaubert, Gustave; Goncourt, Edmond and Jules de;
Huysmans, Joris-Karl; Paris; Paris Commune; Rea-
lism and Naturalism; Republicanism.
2524
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Zola, Émile. Oeuvres complètes. 15 vol. Paris, 1966–1969.
The two principal editions of the Rougon-Macquart are
in the Bibliothèque Pléiade (5 vols., edited by Henri
Mitterand; Paris, 1960) and in the Bouquins series
(3 vols., edited by Colette Becker; Paris, 1991).
———. Correspondance de Émile Zola. 12 vols. Edited by
B. H. Bakker. Montreal, 1978–1995. Compiled by a
team of French and Canadian scholars.
Secondary Sources
Becker, Colette. Les Apprentissages de Zola. Paris, 1993.
Becker, Colette, Gina Gourdin-Servenière, and Véronique
Lavielle. Dictionnaire d’Émile Zola. Paris, 1993. A
useful reference work.
Borie, Jean. Zola et les mythes; ou, De la nausée au salut.
Paris, 1971.
Bredin, Jean-Denis. The Affair: The Case of Alfred Dreyfus.
New York, 1986. Offers a wide perspective on the
Dreyfus affair.
Brown, Frederick. Zola: A Life. New York, 1995.
Hemmings, F. W. J. Emile Zola. Oxford, U.K., 1953.
Levin, Harry. The Gates of Horn: A Study of Five French
Realists. Oxford, U.K., 1966.
Mitterand, Henri. Zola. L’Histoire et la fiction. Paris, 1990.
———. Zola. Paris, 1999–2002.
Pagès, Alain. Emile Zola, un intellectuel dans l’Affaire
Dreyfus. Paris, 1991. The most thorough account of
Zola’s role in the Dreyfus affair.
Serres, Michel. Feux et signaux de brume, Zola. Paris, 1975.
FREDERICK BROWN
n
ZOLLVEREIN. The image of the German
Zollverein (customs union, formed in 1834
between the members of the German Confedera-
tion) has been heavily influenced by two nineteenth
century authors. The famous economist Friedrich
List (1789–1846) as early as the 1830s spoke of
the Zollverein and the railways as the Siamese
twins of German economic modernization, thus
stressing the importance of market integration for
the Industrial Revolution. The famous historian
Heinrich von Treitschke (1834–1896) a half a
century later linked the foundation of the German
Zollverein in 1834 to the battle of Königgrätz
(1866), drawing a direct line from the beginnings
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

of the customs union to national unification under
Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898). While more recent
authors are quite skeptical about either claim, the
economic consequences of market integration and
nation building still dominate the literature on the
German Zollverein.
FOUNDATION OF THE ZOLLVEREIN AND ITS
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
While the post-Napoleonic German Confederation
proved unable to agree upon a common trade pol-
icy, the still more than forty German states after
1815 at least began to abandon the internal tariff
borders running through their territories. In the
following years—and after difficult negotiations—
agreements between some German states were
reached so that by the late 1820s three customs
unions transcending the borders of single German
states had been founded. In the south Bavaria and
Württemberg had formed an alliance, while in the
north Hesse-Darmstadt had joined Prussia. Partly as
a reaction to the latter, and with support from the
Austrian government, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Sax-
ony, and a number of smaller states formed a Middle
German Commercial Union later that year (1828).
The tension between its character as an anti-Prussian
bulwark and its conception as a tariff union clearly
diminished its economic attractiveness. The initia-
tive thus fell to the customs union dominated by
Prussia, which as early as 1829 reached a first agree-
ment with the southern customs union of Bavaria
and Württemberg. A further decisive step on the
way to the German Zollverein was taken when
Hesse-Cassel joined the customs union dominated
by Prussia in 1833, thus bridging the territorial gap
between the eastern and western provinces of Prus-
sia. The same year saw Bavaria and Württemberg as
well as Saxony and a number of smaller states join-
ing, so that the name of a German Zollverein, which
quickly gained currency, was justified for the system
of tariff contracts coming into force on 1 January
1834. While most German states in the south that
had remained outside the Zollverein in 1834 joined
during the following years, the refusal of Hanover,
Hamburg, and Bremen to do so deprived the Zoll-
verein of direct access to the North Sea for several
decades to come.
Why was the Prussian-dominated customs
union so successful, and what were the motives
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
ZOLLVEREIN
of those who joined it? For one, already Prussia’s
tariff law of 1818 had served as a model for a
compromise between divergent economic interests.
Immediate neighbors often had no choice but to
join because they depended on Prussia for their
exports. Others profited from the enormous rise in
the efficiency of the new system. The costs of secur-
ing the tariff borders and of tariff administration—
which had eaten up about 100 percent of tariff
incomes in Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse-Cassel
before 1830—were drastically reduced. The impor-
tance of tariff income for the budgets, especially of
many smaller states, grew accordingly. This was
more than merely a fiscal question because income
raised through tariffs was not subject to the parlia-
mentary control that had been established in the
mostly constitutional German states after 1815.
The motives for joining thus were manifold, and
by no means exclusively economic. But although
economic interests differed from one state to the
next, economic interest groups often lobbied for
joining the Zollverein. Saxony for example, certainly
the most developed industrial region in the 1830s,
could hardly do without the Prussian market. But
many other states such as Württemberg realized as
well that their commercial activity was oriented
toward the north and the west rather than the
south. This had, among other things, to do with
the construction of the railway system since the mid-
1830s that strengthened the ties between Baden,
Württemberg, and Bavaria and the northern parts
of Germany.
The Zollverein thus fostered the economic
integration of its territory without being the sole
driving force behind this process. But while market
integration was certainly advantageous for the
industrial development that gained considerable
pace from the mid-1840s onward, the Zollverein
can hardly be credited with causing the German
Industrial Revolution. Economic historians tend
to agree that it was not even a necessary prerequi-
site of industrial development. With the Industrial
Revolution under way, however, the renewable
contracts constituting the Zollverein increasingly
reflected the more and more industrial character
of its member states. Thereby the gap between
the Zollverein and Austria widened. It was not only
that the Habsburg Monarchy as a whole retained a
far more agrarian character, but even its more
2525
ZOLLVEREIN
industrial regions fell behind during the 1850s and
1860s. Thus while the economic integration fos-
tered by the Zollverein did not cause the German
Industrial Revolution, it intensified enormously the
economic integration of its territory, turning the
Zollverein into an ever sharper weapon within the
Austro-Prussian struggle over supremacy within
the German Confederation.
TRADE POLICY AND NATION BUILDING
Thus, while the Zollverein originally was not
designed to be a means of isolating Austria within
the German Confederation, it increasingly became
one. The political public of the 1840s discussed
intensely the Zollverein’s unifying potential, which
became more and more obvious from the 1850s
onward. While the economic and administrative
integration of the Zollverein progressed, a com-
mercial treaty between Austria and Prussia in Feb-
ruary 1853 seemed to open up the possibility of
Austrian membership in the future. The treaty stip-
ulated that negotiations were to begin no later
than 1860. Thus by 1865, when the renewed
Zollverein contracts were due to run out, a central
European customs union including Austria would
have been possible. That this possibility remained a
mere chimera had to do with Prussian policy as well
as with different economic structures and interests.
It proved all too easy for Rudolph Delbrück
(1817–1903), who directed Prussian trade policies,
to advocate a free trade course that was unaccept-
able to the protectionist Austrian economy. Politi-
cally the Prussian quest for hegemony thus was
hardly concealed. And while this provoked consid-
erable opposition in many member states of the
Zollverein, it soon turned out that these states
could hardly afford economically to leave the Zoll-
verein behind. Petitions by chambers of commerce
and political campaigns made that abundantly clear.
Thus in 1861, rather than working toward the
integration of Austria into the Zollverein, Prussia
was negotiating a commercial treaty with France
that aimed at the equal treatment of Prussian
imports to France with those from Britain or Bel-
gium, and which meant a considerable lowering of
tariffs. Against considerable opposition from the
non-Prussian members of the Zollverein, Prussia
not only signed the treaty on 2 August 1862, but
2526
in December 1863 terminated the Zollverein con-
tracts that were running out in 1865. Prussian offi-
cials knew only too well that this put its Zollverein
partners in an extremely difficult spot. While most
of them objected to the hegemonic role claimed by
Prussia, they needed the Prussian market and were
attracted by the enlarged trade zone opened up
by the French-Prussian treaty. Ultimately they had
to pay the price of accepting Prussia’s arbitrary
behavior for a renewal of the Zollverein.
Economic interests thus weighed heavily. This
is not to say, however, that they determined the
political outcome (i.e., German unification). After
all, Austria in 1866 successfully called for the mobi-
lization of the non-Prussian troops of the German
Confederation after Prussia had invaded Holstein.
The following war thus saw Prussia fighting not
only against Austria but against non-Prussian
members of the Zollverein as well. Since its out-
come was by no means a foregone conclusion, it
would be farfetched to regard the economic inte-
gration of the Zollverein as the anticipation of the
German nation state. But if it was not determina-
tive, it was nevertheless crucially important, which
can be gauged from its continued operation during
the war. Neither the Austro-Prussian War of 1866
nor the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 meant
the end of the economic integration of Germany
fostered by the Zollverein, however. Hamburg and
Bremen did not become part of the German tariff
area until 1888.
See also Germany; Hamburg; List, Georg Friedrich;
Nationalism; Prussia; Trade and Economic
Growth.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Böhme, Helmut. Deutschlands Weg zur Großmacht. Studien
zum Verhältnis von Wirtschaft und Staat während der
Reichsgründungszeit 1848–1881. Cologne, 1966.
Hahn, Hans-Werner. Geschichte des Deutschen Zollvereins.
Göttingen, 1984.
Henderson, W. O. The Rise of German Industrial Power,
1834–1914. Berkeley, Calif., 1975.
Lenger, Friedrich. Industrielle Revolution und National-
staatsgründung. Stuttgart, 2003.
FRIEDRICH LENGER
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 SYSTEMATIC OUTLINE OF
CONTENTS

This outline provides a general overview of the conceptual scheme of the encyclopedia,
listing the titles of each entry. Because the section headings are not mutually exclusive, certain
entries in the encyclopedia may listed in more than one section. Under each heading, relevant
articles are listed first, then biographies.

n Austen, Jane
1. ART AND CULTURE Balzac, Honoré de
Art Nouveau Barrès, Maurice
Avant-Garde Barry, Charles
Barbizon Painters Baudelaire, Charles
Cinema Beardsley, Aubrey
Crystal Palace Beethoven, Ludwig van
Cubism Berlioz, Hector
Decadence Bernhardt, Sarah
Eiffel Tower Blake, William
Fauvism Blok, Alexander
Futurism Brahms, Johannes
Generation of 1898 Brontë, Charlotte and Emily
Impressionism Byron, George Gordon
Modernism Canova, Antonio
Music Carducci, Giosuè
Opera Cézanne, Paul
Painting Chateaubriand, François-René
Photography Chekhov, Anton
Popular and Elite Culture Chopin, Frédéric
Pre-Raphaelite Movement Coleridge, Samuel Taylor
Realism and Naturalism Conrad, Joseph
Romanticism Constable, John
Symbolism Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille
Courbet, Gustave
1.1. BIOGRAPHIES Cruikshank, George
Arnold, Matthew Daguerre, Louis
Atget, Eugène D’Annunzio, Gabriele

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Daumier, Honoré Manet, Édouard

David, Jacques-Louis Mann, Thomas
Debussy, Claude Manzoni, Alessandro
Degas, Edgar Martineau, Harriet
Delacroix, Eugène Matisse, Henri
Diaghilev, Sergei Méliès, Georges
Dickens, Charles Menzel, Adolph von
Doré, Gustave Meyerhold, Vsevolod
Dostoyevsky, Fyodor Mickiewicz, Adam
Doyle, Arthur Conan Millet, Jean-François
Dvorák, Antonı́n Monet, Claude
Eliot, George Morisot, Berthe
Flaubert, Gustave Morris, William
Fontane, Theodor Munch, Edvard
Forster, E. M. Musil, Robert
Friedrich, Caspar David Mussorgsky, Modest
Gaskell, Elizabeth Nadar, Félix
Gaudı́, Antonio Nash, John
Gauguin, Paul Nijinsky, Vaslav
Géricault, Théodore Novalis (Hardenberg, Friedrich von)
Gissing, George Offenbach, Jacques
Glinka, Mikhail Paganini, Niccolò
Godwin, William Pavlova, Anna
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von Péguy, Charles
Gogol, Nikolai Picasso, Pablo
Goncharov, Ivan Pissarro, Camille
Goncourt, Edmond and Jules de Puccini, Giacomo
Gorky, Maxim Pugin, Augustus Welby
Goya, Francisco Pushkin, Alexander
Grimm Brothers Ravel, Maurice
Guimard, Hector Renoir, Pierre-Auguste
Hardy, Thomas Repin, Ilya
Heine, Heinrich Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai
Hofmannsthal, Hugo von Rodin, Auguste
Hugo, Victor Rolland, Romain
Huysmans, Joris-Karl Rossini, Gioachino
Ibsen, Henrik Rude, François
Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Sand, George
Jarry, Alfred Satie, Erik
Kafka, Franz Schiele, Egon
Kandinsky, Vasily Schinkel, Karl Friedrich
Kipling, Rudyard Schnitzler, Arthur
Klimt, Gustav Schoenberg, Arnold
Lasker-Schüler, Else Schubert, Franz
Leopardi, Giacomo Scott, Walter
Liebermann, Max Seurat, Georges
Liszt, Franz Shaw, George Bernard
Loos, Adolf Shelley, Mary
Lumière, Auguste and Louis Shelley, Percy Bysshe
Mahler, Gustav Smiles, Samuel

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Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle) Utopian Socialism

Stevenson, Robert Louis Westernizers
Strachey, Lytton
Strauss, Johann 2.1. BIOGRAPHIES
Stravinsky, Igor Bakunin, Mikhail
Strindberg, August Bely, Andrei
Symonds, John Addington Blanc, Louis
Tchaikovsky, Peter Cabet, Étienne
Tennyson, Alfred Dohm, Hedwig
Tolstoy, Leo Fourier, Charles
Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de Galton, Francis
Turgenev, Ivan Herzen, Alexander
Turner, J. M. W. Herzl, Theodor
Van Gogh, Vincent Kropotkin, Peter
Verdi, Giuseppe Maurras, Charles
Verga, Giovanni
Verne, Jules
Wagner, Richard
Wells, H. G. n
Wilde, Oscar 3. ECONOMIC HISTORY
Wordsworth, William Agricultural Revolution
Yeats, William Butler Artisans and Guilds
Zola, Émile Banks and Banking
Business Firms and Economic Growth
Capitalism
n
Coal Mining
2. CONCEPTS AND IDEAS Colonies
Anarchism Combination Acts
Anarchosyndicalism Commercial Policy
Carlism Consumerism
Civilization, Concept of Continental System
Conservatism Corn Laws, Repeal of
Degeneration East India Company
Eugenics Economic Growth and
Eurasianism Industrialism
Feminism Factories
Imperialism Industrial Revolution, First
Jingoism Industrial Revolution, Second
Liberalism Krupp
Nationalism Labor Movements
Pacifism Luddism
Pan-Slavism Machine Breaking
Phrenology Monetary Unions
Primitivism Protectionism
Race and Racism Rothschilds
Radicalism Sewing Machine
Republicanism Strikes
Secularization Syndicalism
Socialism Trade and Economic Growth
Spiritualism Zollverein

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3.1. BIOGRAPHIES Markets

Bagehot, Walter Marriage and Family
Bentham, Jeremy Old Age
Caillaux, Joseph Parks
Cockerill, John Phylloxera
Hobson, John A. Restaurants
List, Georg Friedrich Seaside Resorts
Malthus, Thomas Robert Sports
Nobel, Alfred Tobacco
Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph Tourism
Rhodes, Cecil Wine
Siemens, Werner von
Webb, Beatrice Potter

n
6. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS,
n
DIPLOMACY, WARS
4. EDUCATION AND LITERACY
Alliance System
Education Armies
Libraries Berlin Conference
Literacy Brussels Declaration
Museums Concert of Europe
Philhellenic Movement Congress of Berlin
Press and Newspapers Congress of Troppau
Universities Congress of Vienna
Diplomacy
4.1. BIOGRAPHIES Dreadnought
Deraismes, Maria Eastern Question
Humboldt, Alexander and Wilhelm von Fashoda Affair
Montessori, Maria Hague Conferences
Holy Alliance
Military Tactics
n Moroccan Crises
5. EVERYDAY LIFE Napoleonic Empire
Naval Rivalry (Anglo-German)
Absinthe
Schlieffen Plan
Beards
Cabarets
Childhood and Children 6.1. BATTLES
Clothing, Dress, and Fashion Austerlitz
Coffee, Tea, Chocolate Borodino
Cycling Jena, Battle of
Death and Burial Leipzig, Battle of
Diet and Nutrition Majuba Hill
Drugs Mukden, Battle of
Football (Soccer) Navarino
Furniture Omdurman
Housing Trafalgar, Battle of
Leisure Ulm, Battle of
Manners and Formality Waterloo

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6.2. TREATIES Mafia

Addis Ababa, Treaty of Napoleonic Code
Cobden-Chevalier Treaty Police and Policing
Münchengrätz, Treaty of Poor Law
Nanking, Treaty of
Portsmouth, Treaty of 7.1. BIOGRAPHIES
San Stefano, Treaty of Augspurg, Anita
Shimonoseki, Treaty of Lombroso, Cesare
Unkiar-Skelessi, Treaty of

6.3. WARS n
Austro-Prussian War
8. PHILOSOPHY AND
Balkan Wars
INTELLECTUAL LIFE
Boer War
Boxer Rebellion Communism
Crimean War Economists, Classical
Danish-German War History
Franco-Austrian War Intellectuals
Franco-Prussian War Intelligentsia
French Revolutionary Wars and Positivism
Napoleonic Wars Psychology
Opium Wars Sociology
Peninsular War Utilitarianism
Russo-Japanese War Young Hegelians
Russo-Turkish War
Sepoy Mutiny 8.1. BIOGRAPHIES
War of 1812 Acton, John
Andreas-Salomé, Lou
6.4. BIOGRAPHIES Berdyayev, Nikolai
Clausewitz, Carl von Bergson, Henri
Curzon, George Brentano, Franz
Delcassé, Théophile Burckhardt, Jacob
Jomini, Antoine-Henri de Burke, Edmund
Kitchener, Horatio Herbert Carlyle, Thomas
Kutuzov, Mikhail Chaadayev, Peter
Lesseps, Ferdinand-Marie de Champollion, Jean-François
Moltke, Helmuth von Comte, Auguste
Nelson, Horatio Croce, Benedetto
Tirpitz, Alfred von Dilthey, Wilhelm
Wellington, Duke of (Arthur Wellesley) Durkheim, Émile
Law, Justice, and Crime Ellis, Havelock
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb
Frazer, James
Frege, Gottlob
n
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
7. CRIME Herder, Johann Gottfried
Exile, Penal Hölderlin, Johann Christian Friedrich
Geneva Convention Husserl, Edmund
International Law Kierkegaard, Søren
Law, Theories of Lamartine, Alphonse

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LeBon, Gustave Belgrade

Macaulay, Thomas Babington Berlin
Michelet, Jules Brussels
Mill, Harriet Taylor Budapest
Mill, James Dublin
Mill, John Stuart Hamburg
Mommsen, Theodor Istanbul
Nietzsche, Friedrich London
Pater, Walter Lyon
Ranke, Leopold von Madrid
Renan, Ernest Manchester
Ruskin, John Milan
Saint-Simon, Henri de Moscow
Schelling, Friedrich von Naples
Schlegel, August Wilhelm von Paris
Schopenhauer, Arthur Prague
Simmel, Georg Rome
Sismondi, Jean-Charles Leonard de St. Petersburg
Sorel, Georges Trieste
Spencer, Herbert Venice
Staël, Germaine de Vienna
Stephen, Leslie Vladivostok
Struve, Peter Warsaw
Tocqueville, Alexis de
Treitschke, Heinrich von 9.3. COUNTRIES AND REGIONS
Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène Albania
Weber, Max Alsace-Lorraine
Weininger, Otto Armenia
Wollstonecraft, Mary Austria-Hungary
Wundt, Wilhelm Belgium
Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Bulgaria
n Denmark
9. PLACES Finland and the Baltic Provinces
France
9.1. BODIES OF WATER
Germany
Black Sea
Great Britain
Bosphorus
Greece
Caribbean
Ireland
Mediterranean
Italy
Oceanic Exploration
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Suez Canal
Lithuania
Montenegro
9.2. CITIES Netherlands
Adrianople New Zealand
Alexandra Ottoman Empire
Amsterdam Papal State
Athens Piedmont-Savoy
Barcelona Poland

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Portugal Endecja
Prussia Fabians
Romania First International
Russia Frankfurt Parliament
Scotland Great Reforms (Russia)
Serbia Hundred Days
Siberia Jadids
Sicily Kadets
Spain Kulturkampf
Sweden and Norway Labour Party
Switzerland Mensheviks
Ukraine Nihilists
Wales Octobrists
People’s Will
9.4. PLACES OUTSIDE EUROPE
Polish National Movement
Africa Populists
Algeria Prague Slav Congress
Australia Restoration
Canada Risorgimento (Italian Unification)
Central Asia Second International
China Slavophiles
Egypt Tories
Haiti Whigs
India Young Czechs and Old Czechs
Indochina Young Italy
Japan Young Turks
Morocco
10.1. BIOGRAPHIES
South Africa
Abdul-Hamid II
Tunisia
Adler, Victor
Alexander I
Alexander II
Alexander III
n
Anneke, Mathilde-Franziska
10.POLITICAL HISTORY Asquith, Herbert Henry
Action Française Auclert, Hubertine
Black Hand Bebel, August
Bolsheviks Belinsky, Vissarion
Bonapartism Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste
Boulanger Affair Bernstein, Eduard
Boulangism Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von
Bureaucracy Bismarck, Otto von
Carbonari Blanqui, Auguste
Carlsbad Decrees Bonald, Louis de
Center Party Brougham, Henry
Chartism Castlereagh, Viscount (Robert Stewart)
Citizenship Catherine II
Civil Society Cavour, Count (Camillo Benso)
Colonialism Chamberlain, Joseph
Dreyfus Affair Charles X

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Charles Albert Masaryk, Tomáš Garrigue

Clemenceau, Georges Mazzini, Giuseppe
Cobden, Richard Metternich, Clemens von
Constant, Benjamin Milyukov, Pavel
Crispi, Francesco Mozzoni, Anna Maria
Czartoryski, Adam Napoleon
Deák, Ferenc Napoleon III
Deroin, Jeanne Nicholas I
Disraeli, Benjamin Nicholas II
Durand, Marguerite O’Connell, Daniel
Edward VII O’Connor, Feargus
Fawcett, Millicent Garrett Palacký, František
Ferdinand I Palmerston, Lord (Henry John Temple)
Ferdinand VII Pankhurst, Emmeline, Christabel, and Sylvia
Ferry, Jules Parnell, Charles Stewart
Fox, Charles James Paul I
Francis I Peel, Robert
Francis Ferdinand Plekhanov, Georgy
Francis Joseph Poincaré, Raymond
Frederick III Ravachol (François Claudius Koenigstein-
Frederick William III Ravachol)
Frederick William IV Shamil
Gagern, Heinrich von Speransky, Mikhail
Gaj, Ljudevit Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom
Gambetta, Léon-Michel und zum
Garibaldi, Giuseppe Stolypin, Peter
George IV Talleyrand, Charles Maurice de
Giolitti, Giovanni Thiers, Louis-Adolphe
Gladstone, William Toussaint Louverture
Guesde, Jules Turati, Filippo
Guizot, François Umberto I
Hardenberg, Karl August von Victor Emmanuel II
Hardie, James Keir Waldeck-Rousseau, René
Jaurès, Jean William I
John, Archduke of Austria William II
Karadjordje William IV
Kautsky, Karl Windthorst, Ludwig
Kosciuszko, Tadeusz Witte, Sergei
Kossuth, Lajos
Leopold I
Leopold II
n
Lloyd George, David
Louis II 11.RELIGION
Louis XVI Anticlericalism
Louis XVIII Bund, Jewish
Louis-Philippe Catholicism
Lovett, William Catholicism, Political
Lueger, Karl Concordat of 1801
Mahmud II Jewish Emancipation
Martov, L. Jews and Judaism

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Millet System 12.2. BIOGRAPHIES

Missions Danton, Georges-Jacques
Papacy Engels, Friedrich
Papal Infallibility Fouché, Joseph
Pilgrimages Gouges, Olympe de
Protestantism Jelačić, Josip
Roman Question Kuliscioff, Anna
Russian Orthodox Church Lafayette, Marquis de
Salvation Army Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre-Auguste
Separation of Church and State Lenin, Vladimir
(France, 1905) Luxemburg, Rosa
Socialism, Christian Marat, Jean-Paul
Zionism Marie-Antoinette
Marx, Karl
11.1. BIOGRAPHIES Michel, Louise
Agassiz, Louis Nechayev, Sergei
Drumont, Édouard Paine, Thomas
Leo XIII Robespierre, Maximilien
Maistre, Joseph de Sieyès, Emmanuel-Joseph
Manning, Henry Zasulich, Vera
Newman, John Henry
Pius IX
Schleiermacher, Friedrich
Soloviev, Vladimir n
Wilberforce, William 13.SCIENCE
Chemistry
n Electricity
Engineers
12.REVOLUTIONS
Evolution
Counterrevolution Physics
French Revolution Science and Technology
Paris Commune Statistics
Revolution of 1905 (Russia)
Revolutions of 1820
13.1. MEDICINE
Revolutions of 1830
Revolutions of 1848 Cholera
Secret Societies Disease
Socialist Revolutionaries Nurses
Psychoanalysis
Public Health
12.1. FRENCH REVOLUTION
Red Cross
Committee of Public Safety
Smallpox
Directory
Syphilis
Estates-General
Tuberculosis
Federalist Revolt
French Revolution
Girondins 13.2. BIOGRAPHIES
Jacobins Adler, Alfred
Levée en Masse Bernard, Claude
Reign of Terror Braille, Louis
Sister Republics Cajal, Santiago Ramón y

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Chadwick, Edwin Class and Social Relations

Charcot, Jean-Martin Landed Elites
Curie, Marie Peasants
Cuvier, Georges Serfs, Emancipation of
Darwin, Charles Working Class
De Vries, Hugo
Ehrlich, Paul
Einstein, Albert
Freud, Sigmund n

Gall, Franz Joseph 15.SOCIAL HISTORY

Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich Alcohol and Temperance
Helmholtz, Hermann von Anti-Semitism
Hertz, Heinrich Associations, Voluntary
Huxley, Thomas Henry Body
Jenner, Edward Captain Swing
Jung, Carl Gustav Childhood and Children
Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson) Cities and Towns
Koch, Robert Cooperative Movements
Krafft-Ebing, Richard von Cossacks
Laennec, René Demography
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste Dueling
Larrey, Dominique-Jean Emigration
Lavoisier, Antoine Environment
Lister, Joseph Explorers
Lyell, Charles Flâneur
Mach, Ernst Freemasons
Marconi, Guglielmo Gender
Maxwell, James Clerk Homosexuality and Lesbianism
Mendel, Gregor Immigration and Internal Migration
Mesmer, Franz Anton Masculinity
Nightingale, Florence Minorities
Pasteur, Louis Olympic Games
Pavlov, Ivan Pogroms
Pinel, Philippe Population, Control of
Planck, Max Pornography
Poincaré, Henri Posters
Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques Poverty
Rank, Otto Professions
Roentgen, Wilhelm Prostitution
Rutherford, Ernest Romanies (Gypsies)
Semmelweis, Ignac Sexuality
Virchow, Rudolf Sicilian Fasci
Wallace, Alfred Russel Slavery
Suffragism
Welfare
World’s Fairs
n
14.SOCIAL CLASSES AND ORDERS 15.1. BIOGRAPHIES
Aristocracy Bäumer, Gertrud
Bourgeoisie Butler, Josephine

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Carpenter, Edward Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria

Chamberlain, Houston Stewart Sade, Donatien-Alphonse-François de
Davies, Emily Suttner, Bertha von
Haussmann, Georges-Eugène Tristan, Flora
Hirschfeld, Magnus Ulrichs, Karl Heinrich
Lassalle, Ferdinand
Liebknecht, Karl
n
Malatesta, Errico
Norton, Caroline 16.TRANSPORTATION AND
Otto, Louise COMMUNICATION
Owen, Robert Airplanes
Pelletier, Madeleine Automobile
Richer, Léon Railroads
Roland, Pauline Subways
Roussel, Nelly Telephones

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 DIRECTORY OF
CONTRIBUTORS

JOHN J. ABBATIELLO JOHN H. ALCORN MARGARET LAVINIA

United States Air Force Academy Trinity College, Hartford, ANDERSON
Dreadnought Connecticut University of California—Berkeley
Sicilian Fasci Windthorst, Ludwig

HENRY ABRAMSON
ANN TAYLOR ALLEN ANTONY ANGHIE
Touro College South, Miami
University of Louisville University of Utah
Beach, Florida
Bäumer, Gertrud Berlin Conference
Pogroms
Otto, Louise
MARK ANTLIFF
ELINOR ACCAMPO JAMES SMITH ALLEN
Duke University
University of Southern California Southern Illinois University,
Bergson, Henri
Feminism Carbondale
Cubism
Roussel, Nelly Freemasons

ADEL ALLOUCHE CELIA APPLEGATE

HAZARD ADAMS
Yale University University of Rochester
University of Washington
Mahmud II Music
Blake, William
Millet System
Tunisia
HOLGER AFFLERBACH JULIAN ARCHER
Emory University KATHRYN AMDUR Drake University
Congress of Berlin Emory University First International
Anarchosyndicalism
JOHAN ÅHR JOHN H. ARNOLD
OLOV AMELIN
Hofstra University Birkbeck College, University of
Independent Scholar London, U.K.
Denmark
Nobel, Alfred History
Sweden and Norway
FRANS C. AMELINCKX
ANDREW AISENBERG University of Louisiana at WALTER ARNSTEIN
Scripps College Lafayette University of Illinois at Urbana-
Body Chateaubriand, François- Champaign (emeritus)
Syphilis René Victoria, Queen

2539
DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

SUSAN A. ASHLEY RICHARD BARNETT STEVEN BELLER

Colorado College Wellcome Trust Centre for the Independent Scholar, Washington,
Umberto I History of Medicine at University D.C.
Victor Emmanuel II College London, U.K. Adler, Victor
Lister, Joseph Ferdinand I
NICHOLAS ATKIN
Francis I
University of Reading VINCENT BARNETT Francis Ferdinand
Catholicism, Political Birmingham University, U.K. Francis Joseph
Humboldt, Alexander and John, Archduke of Austria
Wilhelm von Rudolf, Crown Prince of
JEFFREY A. AUERBACH
Pavlov, Ivan Austria
California State University
Vienna
Crystal Palace
SAMUEL H. BARON Zionism
University of North Carolina
JOSEPH AUNER (emeritus) ALAIN BELTRAN
State University of New York Plekhanov, Georgy
at Stony Brook Institut d’Histoire du Temps
Schoenberg, Arnold Présent (CNRS, France)
TIMOTHY JOHN BARRINGER
Electricity
Yale University
LEORA AUSLANDER Pre-Raphaelite Movement
EDWARD BERENSON
University of Chicago
Furniture H. ARNOLD BARTON New York University
Southern Illinois University at Caillaux, Joseph
MICHAEL R. AUSLIN
Carbondale (emeritus)
Yale University Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste MAXINE BERG
Japan University of Warwick, U.K.
JOHN BATCHELOR Industrial Revolution, First
Russo-Japanese War
University of Newcastle upon
Tyne, U.K.
TIMOTHY BAHTI GUNTHER BERGHAUS
Conrad, Joseph
Claviers, France University of Bristol
Ruskin, John
Hölderlin, Johann Christian Futurism
Friedrich JOERG BATEN
Eberhard Karls University of SUSAN BERNSTEIN
DUDLEY BAINES Tuebingen, Germany Brown University
London School of Economics Trade and Economic Growth Liszt, Franz
Emigration
SIGRID BAUSCHINGER DAVID CARSON BERRY
DAVID E. BARCLAY
University of Massachusetts Univ. of Cincinnati
Kalamazoo College Lasker-Schüler, Else Stravinsky, Igor
Frederick William IV
JONATHAN BEECHER
PATRICK BESNIER
University of California, Santa Cruz
ELAZAR BARKAN
Fourier, Charles University of Maine, Le Mans-
Claremont Graduate University Utopian Socialism Laval, France
Primitivism Jarry, Alfred
JOHN BELCHEM
MARGARET BARNETT University of Liverpool, U.K. EUGENIO F. BIAGINI
University of Southern Cobbett, William University of Cambridge
Mississippi Cobden, Richard Gladstone, William
Roentgen, Wilhelm Lovett, William Great Britain

2540 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

JOHN W. BICKNELL PATRICE BOURDELAIS MICHAEL BROWN

Drew University Ecole des Hautes Etudes en University of Kent, U.K.
Stephen, Leslie Sciences Sociales, Paris Jenner, Edward
Cholera
PATRICK KAY BIDELMAN ROBERT W. BROWN
The Ringling School of Art and PETER BOWLER University of North Carolina,
Design and the University of South Queen’s University of Belfast, U.K. Pembroke
Florida Evolution Degas, Edgar
Deraismes, Maria Monet, Claude
Richer, Léon JOSEPH BRADLEY Pissarro, Camille
University of Tulsa
EMILY D. BILSKI Civil Society
LOGAN DELANO BROWNING
Liebermann, Max
Rice University
J. DANIEL BREAZEALE
Cruikshank, George
RUDOLPH BINION University of Kentucky
Brandeis University Fichte, Johann Gottlieb
Andreas-Salomé, Lou ALMUTH BRUDER-BEZZEL
GREGORY BREDBECK Alfred Adler Institute, Berlin
University of California, Adler, Alfred
JOHN T. BLACKMORE
Independent Scholar (emeritus Riverside
University of Vienna, Tsukuba Carpenter, Edward JULIA BRUGGEMANN
University, Japan) Wilde, Oscar DePauw University
Mach, Ernst Augspurg, Anita
CHRISTOPHER BREWARD Dohm, Hedwig
Victoria & Albert Museum,
MARK E. BLUM
London
University of Louisville ANTHONY BRUNDAGE
Clothing, Dress, and Fashion
Kafka, Franz California State Polytechnic
University, Pomona
MICHAEL BROERS
JUDIT BODNAR Chadwick, Edwin
Oxford University
Central European University, Napoleonic Empire
Budapest Piedmont-Savoy JOHN BUCKLEY
Budapest Sister Republics University of Wolverhampton, U.K.
Airplanes
LLOYD BONFIELD TED R. BROMUND
Tulane University Yale University PHILLIP BUCKNER
Napoleonic Code Olympic Games University of New Brunswick
(emeritus)
ERIC DORN BROSE Canada
MATTIE BOOM
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam Drexel University
Photography Frederick William III
JANE BURBANK
DANIEL R. BROWER New York University
JAMES A. BOON University of California, Davis Intelligentsia
Princeton University Central Asia
Frazer, James RICHARD W. BURKHARDT JR.
FREDERICK BROWN University of Illinois at Urbana-
LAIRD BOSWELL State University of New York at Champaign
University of Wisconsin—Madison Stonybrook Cuvier, Georges
Alsace-Lorraine Zola, Émile Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2541
DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

SIMON BURROWS JEAN-FRANÇOIS CHANET GARY B. COHEN

Leeds University, U.K. University of Lille-3, France University of Minnesota, Twin
Press and Newspapers Jaurès, Jean Cities
Prague Slav Congress
JUNE K. BURTON CHRISTOPHE CHARLE
University of Akron Universite de Paris I—Pantheon ANDREA COLLI
Champollion, Jean-François Sorbonne Bocconi University, Milan, Italy
Universities Business Firms and
JOSEPH CADY Economic Growth
New York University School of RACHEL CHRASTIL
Medicine Xavier University MARY SCHAEFFER CONROY
Symonds, John Addington Cobden-Chevalier Treaty University of Colorado at
Lesseps, Ferdinand-Marie de Denver
PETER CAIN
Red Cross Stolypin, Peter
Sheffield Hallam University, U.K.
Hobson, John A. Witte, Sergei
PETRA TEN-DOESSCHATE
CHU
WILLIAM M. CALDER III FREDERICK COOPER
Seton Hall University
University of Illinois, Urbana- Courbet, Gustave New York University
Champaign Colonialism
Mommsen, Theodor CLIVE H. CHURCH
University of Kent, U.K. SANDI E. COOPER
CRAIG CALHOUN
Revolutions of 1830 College of Staten Island and The
New York University Graduate Center, City University
Sociology of New York
GREGORY CLAEYS
Royal Holloway, University of Pacifism
JANE CAMERINI
London, U.K. Suttner, Bertha von
Independent Scholar
Owen, Robert
Wallace, Alfred Russel
Socialism STEPHEN HUGH COOTE
NICHOLAS CAPALDI Naresuan University, Thailand
Loyola University New Orleans CHRISTOPHER CLARK Yeats, William Butler
Mill, John Stuart St. Catherine’s College, London
Prussia ROGER COOTER
MARIE CARANI Wellcome Trust Centre for the
Laval University, Canada RICHARD CLOGG
History of Medicine, University
Cézanne, Paul St. Antony’s College, University of College London
Rodin, Auguste Oxford Gall, Franz Joseph
Greece
TERRELL CARVER
FRANK J. COPPA
University of Bristol, U.K. JOHN CLUTE
Independent Scholar St. John’s University
Communism
Verne, Jules Concordat of 1801
Engels, Friedrich
Leo XIII
Marx, Karl
JEAN CHRISTOPHE COFFIN
Papacy
JORDI CAT University of Paris 5 René Descartes Pius IX
Indiana University Bernard, Claude
Maxwell, James Clerk PHILIP COTTRELL
JUDITH G. COFFIN University of Leicester, U.K.
LAMAR CECIL University of Texas, Austin Banks and Banking
Washington and Lee University Consumerism Brunel, Isambard Kingdom
William II Sewing Machine Cockerill, John

2542 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

MAURA COUGHLIN ALEXANDER DE GRAND BERNARD DUCHATELET

Brown University North Carolina State University University of Brest
Barbizon Painters Carducci, Giosuè Rolland, Romain

KRISTA COWMAN ALEXANDER DE GRAND JACALYN DUFFIN

Leeds Metropolitan University, U.K. North Carolina State University Queen’s University, Kingston,
Butler, Josephine D’Annunzio, Gabriele Canada
Giolitti, Giovanni Laennec, René
JAMES CRACRAFT Kuliscioff, Anna
University of Illinois at Chicago Turati, Filippo CHRISTOPHER DUGGAN
St. Petersburg University of Reading, U.K.
ISTVÁN DEÁK Crispi, Francesco
RICHARD CRAMPTON Columbia University
University of Oxford Deák, Ferenc JEAN-NOËL DUMONT
Albania Kossuth, Lajos Collège Supérieur, Lyon, France
Péguy, Charles
TRAVIS L. CROSBY PATRICE DEBRE
Wheaton College Université Pierre et Marie Curie, PASCAL DUPUY
Chamberlain, Joseph Paris, France University of Rouen, France
Lloyd George, David Pasteur, Louis Sade, Donatien-Alphonse-
François de
MARGARET L. CRUIKSHANK ROBERT K. DEKOSKY
University of Maine University of Kansas STEVEN F. EISENMAN
Macaulay, Rutherford, Ernest Northwestern University
Thomas Babington Gauguin, Paul
BERNARD DELPAL
HUGH CUNNINGHAM Secularization GEOFFREY ELLIS
University of Kent, U.K. Hertford College, Oxford
Jingoism SELIM DERINGIL University
Bogazici University, Turkey Continental System
JAMES CURRIE Black Sea
State University of New York at Bosphorus CLIVE EMSLEY
Buffalo Jadids Open University, U.K.
Brahms, Johannes Crime
Mahler, Gustav DIMITRIJE DJORDJEVIC Fouché, Joseph
University of California, Santa Police and Policing
ROBERT CUSHMAN Barbara
The National Post, Canada Belgrade BARBARA ALPERN ENGEL
Shaw, George Bernard University of Colorado
DEIRDRE DONOHUE Zasulich, Vera
MARY E. DALY International Center of
University College, Dublin, Photography, New York JENS IVO ENGELS
Ireland Nadar, Félix University of Freiburg, Germany
Dublin Environment
SEYMOUR DRESCHER
JOHN A. DAVIS University of Pittsburgh LAURA ENGELSTEIN
University of Connecticut Tocqueville, Alexis de Yale University
Carbonari Revolution of 1905 (Russia)
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies LAURENT DUBOIS
Risorgimento (Italian Michigan State University STEVEN ENGLUND
Unification) Caribbean Independent Scholar
Rome Haiti Barrès, Maurice

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2543
DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

Drumont, Édouard GIOVANNI FEDERICO EVA FORGACS

Napoleon European University Institute, Art Center College of Design,
Florence, Italy Pasadena, CA
MICHAEL EPKENHANS Commercial Policy Avant-Garde
Otto-von-Bismarck-Stiftung, Protectionism
Germany ALAN FORREST
Tirpitz, Alfred von University of York, U.K.
WILFRIED FELDENKIRCHEN
Directory
University of Erlangen-
ROBERT M. EPSTEIN
Levée en Masse
Nuremberg, Germany
U.S. Army Command and Siemens, Werner von GILLIAN FORRESTER
General Staff College
Yale Center for British Art
Leipzig, Battle of
NIALL FERGUSON Turner, J. M. W.
Harvard University
EDWARD J. ERICKSON
Rothschilds JOHN FORRESTER
International Research Associates, University of Cambridge, U.K.
LLC. Psychoanalysis
Adrianople GEOFFREY G. FIELD
Eastern Question Purchase College, State University
WILLIAM FORTESCUE
of New York
University of Kent, Canterbury,
AHMET ERSOY
Chamberlain, Houston
U.K.
Bogazici University Stewart
Lamartine, Alphonse
Istanbul Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre-
K. FLEMING Auguste
THOMAS ERTMAN New York University Paris Commune
New York University Abdul-Hamid II Talleyrand, Charles Maurice de
Opera Mediterranean Thiers, Louis-Adolphe

CHARLES J. ESDAILE RICHARD FLOYD RICHARD FREEBORN

University of Liverpool, U.K. Washington University, University of London
Carlism St. Louis, MO Belinsky, Vissarion
Ferdinand VII Poor Law
Peninsular War GREGORY L. FREEZE
Brandeis University
MARK FOLEY Russian Orthodox Church
ANDREAS ETGES
Independent Scholar
Free University of Berlin, Germany
Barry, Charles UTE FREVERT
Anneke, Mathilde-Franziska
Nash, John Yale University
Pugin, Augustus Welby Dueling
WILLIAM EVERDELL
Saint Ann’s School JULIA FREY
Cajal, Santiago Ramón y SUSAN K. FOLEY
Victoria University of Wellington, Independent Scholar
De Vries, Hugo Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de
New Zealand
CATHERINE EVTUHOV Gambetta, Léon-Michel
CATHY A. FRIERSON
Georgetown University Michel, Louise
Univesity of New Hampshire
Soloviev, Vladimir Roland, Pauline
Great Reforms (Russia)
Tristan, Flora
RAYMOND E. FANCHER PETER FRITZSCHE
York University JOHN FOOT University of Illinois, Urbana
Galton, Francis University College London Champaign
Wundt, Wilhelm Milan Nietzsche, Friedrich

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JACK FRUCHTMAN JR. RICHARD L. GILLIN ARTHUR L. GREIL

Towson University Washington College Alfred University
Paine, Thomas Shelley, Percy Bysshe Sorel, Georges

RACHEL G. FUCHS CHARLES C. GILLISPIE PATRICIA GUENTHER-

Arizona State University Princeton University GLEASON
Population, Control of Marat, Jean-Paul Independent Scholar
Welfare Schleiermacher, Friedrich
HALINA GOLDBERG

THOMAS W. GALLANT
Indiana University— SUZANNE GUERLAC
York University, Canada Bloomington University of California, Berkeley
Athens Chopin, Frédéric Hugo, Victor

RICHARD E. GOODKIN PETER J. GURNEY

NIKOLAS GARDNER
University of Wisconsin, Madison University of Essex, U.K.
European Studies Research
Bernhardt, Sarah Cooperative Movements
Institute, University of Salford,
Flaubert, Gustave
U.K.
Fashoda Affair SARA HACKENBERG
DANA GOOLEY
San Francisco State University
Case Western Reserve University Dickens, Charles
ALICE GARNER Paganini, Niccolò
University of Melbourne,
HEATHER HADLOCK
Australia JOEL GORDON
Seaside Resorts Stanford University
University of Arkansas,
Offenbach, Jacques
Fayetteville
IAIN GATELY Suez Canal
HAEJEONG HAZEL HAHN
Independent Journalist
Seattle University
Tobacco RAE BETH GORDON
University of Connecticut, Storrs Posters
PETER GAY Méliès, Georges
W. SCOTT HAINE
Freud, Sigmund
BORIS B. GORSHKOV University of Maryland University
Kennesaw State University College
RICHARD S. GEEHR
Serfs, Emancipation of Alcohol and Temperance
Bentley College
Lueger, Karl
LIONEL GOSSMAN LESLEY A. HALL
Princeton University Wellcome Library for the History
ROBERT P. GERACI and Understanding of Medicine/
Burckhardt, Jacob
University of Virginia University College London
Civilization, Concept of GIOVANNI GOZZINI Ellis, Havelock
University of Siena
CHRISTOPHER H. GIBBS Poverty RICHARD C. HALL
Bard College Georgia Southwestern State
Schubert, Franz CHRISTOPH GRADMANN University
Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Balkan Wars
MARY GIBSON Heidelberg, Germany Bulgaria
John Jay College, City University Koch, Robert
of New York G. M. HAMBURG
Lombroso, Cesare KENNETH W. GRAHAM Claremont McKenna College
Mozzoni, Anna Maria University of Guelph, Canada Herzen, Alexander
Prostitution Godwin, William Westernizers

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2545
DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

MAURA E. HAMETZ JANET HARTLEY JOHN HEILBRON

Old Dominion University London School of Economics and Yale University
Trieste Political Science Planck, Max
Alexander I
CYRUS HAMLIN JAMES HEINZEN
Yale University HEINZ-GERHARD HAUPT Rowan University
Schinkel, Karl Friedrich European Unversity Institute Lenin, Vladimir
Schlegel, August Wilhelm von Artisans and Guilds Nechayev, Sergei

STEVEN C. HAUSE
MICHAEL HANAGAN REINHOLD HELLER
Washington University, St. Louis, University of Chicago
Vassar College
Missouri Munch, Edvard
Capitalism
Auclert, Hubertine
Class and Social Relations
Delcassé, Théophile
Economic Growth and DAVID V. HERLIHY
Ferry, Jules
Industrialism Cycling
Norton, Caroline
Popular and Elite Culture
IAN HANCOCK Protestantism HOLGER H. HERWIG
University of Texas Separation of Church University of Calgary
Romanies (Gypsies) and State Bethmann Hollweg,
(France, 1905) Theobald von
M. S
˛ ÜKRÜ HANIOĞLU Suffragism Germany
Princeton University Waldeck-Rousseau, René List, Georg Friedrich
Young Turks
JAMES L. HAYNSWORTH CARLA HESSE
ALASTAIR HANNAY Independent Scholar University of California, Berkeley
University of Oslo Toussaint Louverture Gouges, Olympe de
Kierkegaard, Søren
LEO HECHT COLIN HEYWOOD
George Mason University University of Nottingham
PAUL R. HANSON
Mussorgsky, Modest Childhood and Children
Butler University
Tchaikovsky, Peter
Counterrevolution
Estates-General DAVID HIGGS
JAMES A. W. HEFFERNAN
Federalist Revolt University of Toronto
Girondins Dartmouth College
Landed Elites
Reign of Terror Coleridge, Samuel Taylor
Constable, John
ANNE HIGONNET
ROBERT HARMS
MICHAEL HEIDELBERGER
Barnard College, Columbia
Yale University University
University of Tübingen, Germany
Africa Morisot, Berthe
Helmholtz, Hermann von

STEVEN L. HARP DAVID S. HEIDLER KEITH HITCHINS

University of Akron University of Southern Colorado— University of Illinois at Urbana-
Automobile Pueblo Champaign
Tourism War of 1812 Romania

MARK HARRISON JEANNE T. HEIDLER ADAM HOCHSCHILD

University of Oxford, U.K. U. S. Air Force Academy Independent Scholar
Smallpox War of 1812 Leopold II

2546 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
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DIRK HOERDER MADELEINE HURD PETER JELAVICH

Université de Paris 8, Södertörn University College, Johns Hopkins University
Saint Denis Sweden Cabarets
Immigration and Internal Hamburg
Migration RUTH Y. JENKINS
JOHN HUTCHESON University of California State at
STEFAN-LUDWIG HOFFMANN York University Fresno
University of Bochum Economists, Classical Nightingale, Florence
Associations, Voluntary
PATRICK H. HUTTON RICHARD JENKYNS
MICHAEL HOLQUIST University of Vermont Lady Margaret Hall, University
Yale University Blanqui, Auguste of Oxford
Chekhov, Anton Secret Societies Philhellenic Movement

NILES R. HOLT PAULA E. HYMAN JEREMY JENNINGS

Illinois State University Yale University Queen Mary, University of
Darwin, Charles Jews and Judaism London
Intellectuals
ELIZABETH L. HOLTZE WILLIAM D. IRVINE
Metropolitan State College of York University, Toronto AUSTIN JERSILD
Denver Boulanger Affair Old Dominion University
Grimm Brothers Shamil
GERALD N. IZENBERG
SUNGOOK HONG Washington University in CHRISTOPHER H. JOHNSON
Seoul National University, South St. Louis Wayne State University
Korea Kandinsky, Vasily Cabet, Étienne
Physics
JO ELLEN JACOBS ROBERT E. JOHNSON
GAIL TURLEY HOUSTON Milliken University University of Toronto
University of New Mexico Mill, Harriet Taylor People’s Will
Bentham, Jeremy
Mill, James DALE JACQUETTE BRIAN JOHNSTON
The Pennsylvania State University Carnegie Mellon University
R. A. HOUSTON Brentano, Franz Ibsen, Henrik
University of St. Andrews, Husserl, Edmund
Scotland PHILIP T. A. JOHNSTON
Scotland CHRISTOPHER JANAWAY University of Illinois at Urbana-
University of Southampton, U.K. Champaign
ALAN HOUTCHENS Schopenhauer, Arthur Nijinsky, Vaslav
Texas A&M University
Dvorák, Antonı́n KONRAD H. JARAUSCH CHRISTOPHER JONES
University of North Carolina at Spain
RICHARD G. HOVANNISIAN Chapel Hill
University of California, Los Professions COLIN JONES
Angeles University of Warwick, U.K.
Armenia MAYA JASANOFF Marie-Antoinette
University of Virginia
LINDSEY HUGHES Curzon, George GRETA JONES
University College London Egypt University of Ulster
Paul I India Tuberculosis

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2547
DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

H. S. JONES JOSEPH A. KESTNER Geneva Convention

University of Manchester, U.K. University of Tulsa International Law
Constant, Benjamin Doyle, Arthur Conan
Saint-Simon, Henri de DALE KRAMER
ALAN J. KIDD University of Illinois, Urbana-
MAX JONES Manchester Metropolitan Champaign
University of Manchester University, U.K. Hardy, Thomas
Baden-Powell, Robert Manchester
LLOYD KRAMER
BEN KIERNAN University of North Carolina,
DAVID JORAVSKY
Yale University Chapel Hill
Northwestern University
Indochina Lafayette, Marquis de
Schnitzler, Arthur
ESTHER KINGSTON-MANN SARAH A. KRIVE
DAVID P. JORDAN University of Massachusetts, Independent Scholar
University of Illinois at Chicago Boston Tolstoy, Leo
Haussmann, Georges- Populists Turgenev, Ivan
Eugène
Louis XVI KONSTANTINE
SHERYL KROEN
Paris KLIOUTCHKINE
University of Florida
Robespierre, Maximilien Pomona College, Claremont, CA
Louis XVIII
Goncharov, Ivan
Restoration
PIETER M. JUDSON
JANE KNELLER
Swarthmore College THOMAS KSELMAN
Colorado State University
Austria-Hungary University of Notre Dame
Novalis (Hardenberg,
Anticlericalism
Friedrich von)
FREDERICK W. KAGAN Catholicism
U. S. Military Academy JOVANA L. KNEŽEVIĆ
Pilgrimages
Austerlitz Yale University
Borodino Black Hand MARY HAYNES KUHLMAN
Nicholas I Bosnia-Herzegovina Creighton University
Ulm, Battle of Montenegro Gaskell, Elizabeth
Serbia
J. F. V. KEIGER BRIAN LADD

Salford University, U.K. ALEXANDRA KOENIGUER University of Albany, State

Poincaré, Raymond University Paris X—Nanterre University of New York
Atget, Eugène Berlin
Cities and Towns
MALCOM KELSALL
DIANE P. KOENKER
Cardiff University
University of Illinois at ANDREW LAMBERT
Byron, George Gordon
Urbana-Champaign King’s College, London
Bolsheviks Crimean War
PETER KEMP Navarino
The Johann Strauss Society of PATRICIA KOLLANDER
Great Britain Florida Atlantic University HUGO LANE
Strauss, Johann Frederick III Polytechnic University of Brooklyn
William I Pan-Slavism
SUSAN KINGSLEY KENT
University of Colorado at Boulder MARTTI KOSKENNIEMI COLIN LANG
Davies, Emily The Academy of Finland Yale University
Fawcett, Millicent Garrett Brussels Declaration Modernism

2548 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
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CHARLES LANSING YVES LEQUIN JAMES LIVESEY

University of Connecticut Université-Lumière-Lyon 2, University of Sussex, U.K.
Treitschke, Heinrich von France Republicanism
Lyon
DAVID CLAY LARGE NANCY LOCKE
Montana State University, KATHARINE ANNE LERMAN Pennsylvania State University
Bozeman London Metropolitan University Manet, Édouard
Louis II Bismarck, Otto von Renoir, Pierre-Auguste
Wagner, Richard
SOPHIE LETERRIER OLIVER LOGAN
BARBARA LARSON Université d’Artois, France University of East Anglia,
University of West Florida Ravel, Maurice Norwich, U.K.
Symbolism Papal Infallibility
FRED LEVENTHAL
Papal State
DAVID LAVEN Boston University Roman Question
University of Reading, U.K. Fabians
Venice PETER MELVILLE LOGAN
MATTHEW LEVINGER
Temple University
KEITH LAYBOURN Lewis and Clark College
Eliot, George
University of Huddersfield, U.K. Hardenberg, Karl August
Hardie, James Keir von DAVID LOMAS
Labour Party Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl University of Manchester, U.K.
vom und zum Picasso, Pablo
DAVID LEARY
University of Richmond E. JAMES LIEBERMAN
NANCY LOPATIN-LUMMIS
Psychology George Washington University
University of Wisconsin—Stevens
Rank, Otto
Point
RENE LEBOUTTE
George IV
University of Luxembourg HARRY LIEBERSOHN
Coal Mining University of Illinois at Urbana-
JENNIFER LORCH
Champaign
RICHARD A. LEBRUN Ranke, Leopold von University of Warwick, U.K.
University of Manitoba Wollstonecraft, Mary
Maistre, Joseph de ANDRE LIEBICH
Graduate Institute of PATRICIA M. E. LORCIN
SIMON LEE International Studies, Geneva University of Minnesota, Twin
University of Reading, U.K. Martov, L. Cities
David, Jacques-Louis Mensheviks Algeria

LYNN HOLLEN LEES DOMINIC LIEVEN ANNE LOUNSBERY

University of Pennsylvania London School of Economics and New York University
London Political Science Gogol, Nikolai
Aristocracy
MICHAEL V. LEGGIERE BRIGID LOWE
Louisiana State University ALBERT LINDEMANN Trinity College, Cambridge
Hundred Days University of California, Santa Brontë, Charlotte and Emily
Larrey, Dominique-Jean Barbara
Waterloo Anti-Semitism DAVID S. LUFT
University of California, San
FRIEDRICH LENGER TESSIE P. LIU Diego
University of Giessen, Germany Northwestern University Hofmannsthal, Hugo von
Zollverein Citizenship Musil, Robert

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2549
DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

JESPER LÜTZEN BRENT MANER IAN C. MCGIBBON

University of Copenhagen Kansas State University New Zealand Ministry for
Hertz, Heinrich Virchow, Rudolf Culture and Heritage
New Zealand
DOUGLAS P. MACKAMAN JO BURR MARGADANT
The University of Southern Santa Clara University JOHN P. MCKAY
Mississippi Louis-Philippe University of Illinois, Urbana-
Leisure Champaign
Michelet, Jules
MARTIN F. MARIX EVANS
EMMA MACLEOD
Independent Scholar
University of Stirling, U.K. STEVEN MCLEAN
Majuba Hill
Fox, Charles James Nottingham Trent University
Wells, H. G.
PAOLO MACRY STEVEN G. MARKS
University of Naples ‘‘Federico II’’ Clemson University DAVID MCLELLAN
Garibaldi, Giuseppe Siberia Goldsmiths College, University of
Naples Vladivostok London
Young Hegelians
STEVEN E. MAFFEO ERIC MASSIE
U.S. Air Force Academy and U.S. University of Stirling, U.K. DARRIN M. MCMAHON
Joint Military Intelligence College Stevenson, Robert Louis Florida State University
Nelson, Horatio Conservatism
GIOVANNI MATTEUCCI
DRISS MAGHRAOUI
University of Bologna JAMES F. MCMILLAN
Al Akhawayn University, Ifrane,
Dilthey, Wilhelm University of Edinburgh, U.K.
Morocco
Durand, Marguerite
Morocco
PATRICK MAUME
Queen’s University, Belfast, U.K. PETER MCPHEE
LOIS N. MAGNER
Parnell, Charles Stewart University of Melbourne,
Purdue University
Australia
Curie, Marie
Committee of Public Safety
MARY JO MAYNES
French Revolution
ROGER MAGRAW University of Minnesota
University of Warwick, U.K. Jacobins
Marriage and Family
Working Class
NEIL MCWILLIAM
PAUL MAZGAJ
OLGA MAIOROVA Duke University
University of North Carolina, Rude, François
University of Michigan Greensboro
Eurasianism Maurras, Charles R. DARRELL MEADOWS
DAN MALAN Independent Scholar
PAULINE M. H. MAZUMDAR Housing
Independent Scholar
Doré, Gustave University of Toronto
Eugenics CHRISTINE MEHRING
FRANCES MALINO Yale University
Wellesley College DAVID MCDONALD Klimt, Gustav
Jewish Emancipation University of Wisconsin, Madison
Holy Alliance EVAN M. MELHADO
PHILLIP MALLETT Münchengrätz, Treaty of University of Illinois at Urbana-
University of St. Andrews, U.K. Nicholas II Champaign
Kipling, Rudyard Unkiar-Skelessi, Treaty of Chemistry

2550 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
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WILLIAM E. MELIN MARTIN A. MILLER MICHAEL MORTON

Lafayette College Duke University Duke University
Berlioz, Hector Kropotkin, Peter Herder, Johann Gottfried

ANNE K. MELLOR MONSERRAT MILLER PETER MORTON

University of California, Los Marshall University Flinders University, Adelaide,
Angeles Markets Australia
Shelley, Mary Gissing, George
NICHOLAS MILLER
BRUCE W. MENNING Boise State University NORMAN H. MURDOCH
U.S. Army Command and Gaj, Ljudevit University of Cincinnati
General Staff College Jelačić, Josip (emeritus)
Mukden, Battle of Karadjordje Salvation Army
Russo-Turkish War
San Stefano, Treaty of PAVLA MILLER WILLIAM MURRAY
Royal Melbourne Institute of Latrobe University, Australia
LESLIE ANNE MERCED
Technology, Australia Football (Soccer)
Benedictine College Education
Generation of 1898 Montessori, Maria SCOTT HUGHES MYERLY
Independent Scholar
CAROL P. MERRIMAN Beards
BARRY MILLIGAN
Independent Scholar
Wright State University
Art Nouveau GLENN MYRENT
Drugs
Schiele, Egon Independent Scholar
Lumière, Auguste and Louis
MARGARET MINER
JOHN MERRIMAN
Yale University University of Illinois at
ISABELLE H. NAGINSKI
Captain Swing Chicago
Tufts University
Charles X Baudelaire, Charles
Sand, George
France
Ravachol (François Claudius JOEL MOKYR
WILLIAM NASSON
Koenigstein-Ravachol) Northwestern University and
University of Cape Town
University of Tel Aviv
Boer War
MARK S. MICALE Industrial Revolution,
Kitchener, Horatio Herbert
University of Illinois Second
Omdurman
Absinthe Science and Technology
Rhodes, Cecil
Charcot, Jean-Martin South Africa
Eiffel Tower ANNIKA MOMBAUER
Romanticism The Open University, U.K. MICHAEL S. NEIBERG
Alliance System University of Southern Mississippi
ELISA R. MILKES Moroccan Crises Armies
Horace Mann School Schlieffen Plan
Brougham, Henry CATHARINE THEIMER
Castlereagh, Viscount JOHN WARNE MONROE NEPOMNYASHCHY
(Robert Stewart) Iowa State University Barnard College
Combination Acts Spiritualism Pushkin, Alexander
Corn Laws, Repeal of
Palmerston, Lord (Henry DANIEL MORAN SUSAN VANDIVER NICASSIO
John Temple) Naval Postgraduate School University of Louisiana at
Wellington, Duke of (Arthur Clausewitz, Carl von Lafayette
Wellesley) Jomini, Antoine-Henri de Puccini, Giacomo

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2551
DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

RICHARD NOLL PAUL O’LEARY ROD PHILLIPS

DeSales University University of Wales, Aberystwyth, Carleton University, Ottawa
Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich U.K. Wine
Wales
CLAIRE E. NOLTE DANIEL PICK
Manhattan College HARRY OOSTERHUIS Birbeck College, University of
Masaryk, Tomáš Garrigue University of Maastricht London
Palacký, František Krafft-Ebing, Richard von Degeneration
Young Czechs and Old
Czechs SHANE O’ROURKE MARY PICKERING
York University, U.K. San Jose State University
DEBORAH EPSTEIN NORD Cossacks Comte, Auguste
Princeton University
Webb, Beatrice Potter MICHAEL R. ORWICZ
PAUL A. PICKERING

University of Connecticut The Australian National

SHERWIN B. NULAND University
Millet, Jean-François
Yale University O’Connor, Feargus
Semmelweis, Ignac Peel, Robert
ROBERT J. PARADOWSKI

ROBERT A. NYE
Rochester Institute of Technology
PAMELA PILBEAM
Oregon State University Einstein, Albert
Royal Holloway, University of
LeBon, Gustave Lavoisier, Antoine
London
Masculinity Blanc, Louis
JONATHAN PARRY
Sexuality Bonapartism
Pembroke College, University of
Bourgeoisie
LYNN K. NYHART Cambridge
Bureaucracy
University of Wisconsin, Madison Disraeli, Benjamin
Deroin, Jeanne
Museums Guizot, François
ALLAN H. PASCO
DAVID O’BRIEN University of Kansas TERRY PINKARD
University of Illinois at Urbana- Balzac, Honoré de Georgetown University
Champaign Hegel, Georg Wilhelm
Canova, Antonio KEVIN PASSMORE
Friedrich
Delacroix, Eugène Cardiff University
Géricault, Théodore Action Française
STEPHEN C. PINSON
New York Public Library
CAROL OCKMAN ALICE K. PATE
Daguerre, Louis
Williams College Columbus State University
Ingres, Jean-Auguste- Socialist Revolutionaries
LEON PLANTINGA
Dominique
SILVANA PATRIARCA-HARRIS Yale University
RALPH O’CONNOR Fordham University Beethoven, Ludwig van
University of Aberdeen, U.K. Leopardi, Giacomo
Manzoni, Alessandro JANET POLASKY
Lyell, Charles
Verga, Giovanni University of New Hampshire
ROBERT OLBY Brussels
University of Pittsburgh MARTA PETRUSEWICZ Leopold I
Mendel, Gregor City University of New York and
Universitá della Cabria, Italy HILARY PORISS
ROBERT WILLIAM OLDANI Peasants University of Cincinnati
Arizona State University Sismondi, Jean-Charles Rossini, Gioachino
Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai Leonard de Verdi, Giuseppe

2552 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
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BERNARD PORTER ROGER PRICE BERNHARD RIEGER

University of Newcastle upon University of Wales, Aberstwyth, University College, London
Tyne, U.K. U.K. Krupp
Colonies Napoleon III
Imperialism Phylloxera DANIEL RINGROSE
Railroads Minot State University
Transportation and Engineers
BRIAN PORTER
Communications
University of Michigan
Czartoryski, Adam DAVID D. ROBERTS
Endecja CHRISTOPHER J. PROM University of Georgia
Nationalism University of Illinois, Urbana Croce, Benedetto
Polish National Movement Champaign
Warsaw Smiles, Samuel
SUSANNE ROBERTS
Yale University Library
DOROTHY PORTER JUNE PURVIS Libraries
University of California San University of Portsmouth, U.K.
Francisco Pankhurst, Emmeline,
HARLOW ROBINSON
Disease Christabel, and Sylvia
Northeastern University
Public Health Meyerhold, Vsevolod
JOHN W. RANDOLPH JR.

THEODORE M. PORTER
University of Illinois at Urbana- JUDITH ROHRER
University of California, Los Champaign Emory University
Angeles Bakunin, Mikhail Gaudı́, Antonio
Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe
Jacques CHARLES REARICK
BERNICE GLATZER
University of Massachusetts at ROSENTHAL
Amherst Fordham University
LARRY L. PORTIS
Fin de Siècle Berdyayev, Nikolai
Université Paul Valéry
(Montpellier 3)
Durkheim, Émile ALAN J. REINERMAN RONALD J. ROSS
Boston College University of Wisconsin—
Diplomacy Milwaukee
CAROLYN J. POUNCY
Metternich, Clemens von Center Party
University of Maryland Revolutions of 1820 Kulturkampf
Pavlova, Anna

LUCY RIALL NICOLAS ROUSSELLIER

PETER C. POZEFSKY Birkbeck College, University of Institut d’études politiques,
The College of Wooster London Paris
Chaadayev, Peter Sicily Liberalism
Nihilists
NATHALIE RICHARD EDWARD ROYLE
JENIFER PRESTO Universite Paris I—Pantheon, University of York, U.K.
University of Oregon Sorbonne Chartism
Silver Age Renan, Ernest
HELEN M. ROZWADOWSKI
RADO PRIBIC ANGELIQUE RICHARDSON University of Connecticut, Avery
Lafayette College University of Exeter, U.K. Point Campus
Dostoyevsky, Fyodor Spencer, Herbert Oceanic Exploration

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2553
DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

JAMES H. RUBIN Mazzini, Giuseppe CHANDAK SENGOOPTA

State University of New York, Young Italy Birkbeck College, University of
Stony Brook London
Impressionism BENJAMIN C. SAX Weininger, Otto
Painting University of Kansas
Fontane, Theodor ALFRED E. SENN
PENNY RUSSELL Goethe, Johann Wolfgang University of Wisconsin
University of Sydney von Lithuania
Manners and Formality
JEAN-FRÉDÉRIC SCHAUB SONU SHAMDASANI
MICHAEL A. RUTZ
Ecole des hautes etudes en sciences Wellcome Trust Centre for the
University of Wisconsin—Oshkosh
sociales (Paris) History of Medicine, University
Explorers
Madrid College London
Missions
Jung, Carl Gustav
WIELAND SCHMIED
JAMES SACK
University of Illinois, Chicago Akademie der Bildenden Kuenste, BARRY M. SHAPIRO

Tories Munich Allegheny College

Friedrich, Caspar David Danton, Georges-Jacques
ROBERT E. SACKETT
University of Colorado, Colorado BARBARA SCHMUCKI DENNIS SHOWALTER
Springs University of York, U.K. Colorado College
Frankfurt Parliament Subways Addis Ababa, Treaty of
Austro-Prussian War
MICHAEL SALER FREDERICK C. SCHNEID Concert of Europe
University of California, Davis High Point University Danish-German War
Decadence Congress of Troppau Franco-Austrian War
Congress of Vienna Franco-Prussian War
BRITT SALVESEN French Revolutionary Wars Hague Conferences
University of Arizona, Tucson and Napoleonic Wars Moltke, Helmuth von
Seurat, Georges Sieyès, Emmanuel-Joseph Shimonoseki, Treaty of
Trafalgar, Battle of
JEFFREY L. SAMMONS
JANE SCHNEIDER
Independent Scholar City University of New York NICHOLAS SHRIMPTON
Heine, Heinrich Mafia Lady Margaret Hall, University
of Oxford
MAURICE SAMUELS
PETER SCHNEIDER Arnold, Matthew
University of Pennsylvania
Fordham University
Stendhal (Marie-Henri
Mafia MICHAEL SIBALIS
Beyle)
Wilfrid Laurier University
JOSHUA SANBORN KATRIN SCHULTHEISS Homosexuality and
Lafayette College University of Illinois at Chicago Lesbianism
Portsmouth, Treaty of Nurses
LISA Z. SIGEL
ROLAND SARTI JERROLD SEIGEL De Paul University
University of Massachusetts, New York University Pornography
Amherst Flâneur
Cavour, Count (Camillo DAVID SILBEY
Benso) SUDIPTA SEN Alvernia College
Charles Albert University of California, Davis Asquith, Herbert Henry
Italy East India Company Edward VII

2554 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

LISA SILVERMAN Pelletier, Madeleine SUSIE L. STEINBACH

University of Sussex, U.K. Syndicalism Hamline University
Herzl, Theodor Austen, Jane
REBECCA L. SPANG
MARC SMEETS University College, London JONATHAN STEINBERG
Raboud University Nijmegen, The Restaurants University of Pennsylvania
Netherlands Switzerland
Huysmans, Joris-Karl JONATHAN SPERBER
MARK D. STEINBERG
University of Missouri
BONNIE G. SMITH Revolutions of 1848 University of Illinois at Urbana-
Rutgers University Champaign.
Gender MATTHIAS STADELMANN Gorky, Maxim
University of Erlangen-
CROSBIE SMITH CHRISTOPHER H. STERLING
Nuremberg, Germany
University of Kent George Washington University
Glinka, Mikhail
Kelvin, Lord (William Telephones
Thomson) ADAM C. STANLEY
JANET STEWART
Univerity of Wisconsin, Platteville University of Aberdeen
DOUGLAS SMITH
Staël, Germaine de Loos, Adolf
University of Washington
Catherine II PETER STANSKY RICHARD STITES
Stanford University Georgetown University
SUSAN SMITH-PETER
Morris, William Diaghilev, Sergei
College of Staten Island/City
University of New York Struve, Peter
ALESSANDRO STANZIANI
Speransky, Mikhail
Centre national de recherches MELISSA K. STOCKDALE
scientifiques, Paris University of Oklahoma
FRANK SNOWDEN
Statistics Kadets
Yale University
Malatesta, Errico Milyukov, Pavel
JAMES D. STEAKLEY
TIMOTHY SNYDER University of Wisconsin, Madison CHRIS STOLWIJK
Yale University Hirschfeld, Magnus Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
Mickiewicz, Adam Ulrichs, Karl Heinrich Van Gogh, Vincent
Poland
Ukraine BIRGITTA STEENE DANIEL STONE
Sweden University of Winnipeg, Canada
REBA N. SOFFER Strindberg, August Kosciuszko, Tadeusz
California State University,
Northridge GARY P. STEENSON JUDITH F. STONE
Acton, John California Polytechnic State Western Michigan University
University, San Lois Obispo Clemenceau, Georges
LAWRENCE SONDHAUS Bebel, August Radicalism
University of Indianapolis Kautsky, Karl
Naval Rivalry (Anglo- Lassalle, Ferdinand TYLER STOVALL
German) Liebknecht, Karl University of California, Berkeley
Second International Minorities
CHARLES SOWERWINE
University of Melbourne, MANFRED B. STEGER CARL J. STRIKWERDA
Australia Royal Melbourne Institute of The College of William and Mary
Boulangism Technology, Australia Belgium
Dreyfus Affair Bernstein, Eduard Socialism, Christian

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2555
DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

ROB STUART CYRIL THOMAS BARBARA VALOTTI

University of Western Australia Université de Paris Nanterre Marconi, Guglielmo
Guesde, Jules Fauvism
Matisse, Henri ETIENNE VAN DE WALLE
CLAUDE J. SUMMERS University of Pennsylvania
University of Michigan—Dearborn JAMES THOMPSON Demography
Forster, E. M. University of Bristol
Bagehot, Walter JOHN VAN WYHE
JOHN SUTHERLAND Cambridge University
University College London ROBERT W. THURSTON Phrenology
(emeritus) Miami University
Scott, Walter Moscow LIANA VARDI
State University of New York,
RICHARD SWEDBERG JOHN GEOFFREY TIMMINS Buffalo
Cornell University University of Central Lancashire Agricultural Revolution
Simmel, Georg Factories
Weber, Max STEPHEN VELLA
MARIA TODOROVA Yale University
DENNIS SWEENEY Carlyle, Thomas
University of Illinois at Urbana-
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Champaign Manning, Henry
Alberta, Canada Ottoman Empire Newman, John Henry
Labor Movements Pater, Walter
Strikes Sepoy Mutiny
JANIS A. TOMLINSON
University Museums, University of Tennyson, Alfred
ANTHONY SWIFT Whigs
Delaware
University of Essex, U.K.
Goya, Francisco
World’s Fairs BRIAN VICK
University of Sheffield
DAVID G. TROYANSKY
JULIE ANNE TADDEO Gagern, Heinrich von
University of California, Berkeley Brooklyn College of the City
Strachey, Lytton University of New York
ELOINA VILLEGAS
Death and Burial
University of Colorado, Boulder
Old Age
EMILE J. TALBOT Barcelona
University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign ALEX TYRRELL DAVID VINCENT
Goncourt, Edmond and La Trobe University The Open University
Jules de William IV Literacy

HENK TE VELDE HANS RUDOLF VAGET K. STEVEN VINCENT

Leiden University, Netherlands Smith College (emeritus) North Carolina State University
Netherlands Mann, Thomas Anarchism
Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph
PETRA TEN-DOESSCHATE CYRUS VAKIL
CHU Mahindra United World College ARON VINEGAR
Seton Hall University of India Ohio State University
Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Malthus, Thomas Robert Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène
Realism and Naturalism
ELIZABETH KRIDL IGOR VISHNEVETSKY
THIERRY TERRET VALKENIER St. Sava Serbian Orthodox School
University of Lyon, France Columbia University of Theology, Libertyville, Illinois
Sports Repin, Ilya Bely, Andrei

2556 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

THIERRY L. VISSOL R. K. WEBB STEPHEN WHEATCROFT

European Union University of Maryland, University of Melbourne,
Monetary Unions Baltimore County (emeritus) Australia
Martineau, Harriet Exile, Penal
GREGORY VITARBO
JUDITH WECHSLER DOUGLAS L. WHEELER
Meredith College
Tufts University University of New Hampshire,
Kutuzov, Mikhail
Daumier, Honoré Durham
Portugal
MICHIEL F. WAGENAAR
THEODORE R. WEEKS
University of Amsterdam, The Southern Illinois University at KEVIN WHELAN
Netherlands Carbondale Keough Notre Dame Centre,
Amsterdam Alexander III Dublin, Ireland
Ireland
PETER WALDRON ROBERT WEINBERG O’Connell, Daniel
University of Sunderland, U.K. Swarthmore College
Alexander II Bund, Jewish CHARLES WHITE
Russia U.S. Army Forces Command, Fort
DORA B. WEINER McPherson, Georgia
ANDRZEJ WALICKI University of California, Los Jena, Battle of
University of Notre Dame Angeles
PAUL WHITE
Slavophiles Pinel, Philippe
Cambridge University
JOAN WEINER Huxley, Thomas Henry
BARBARA WALKER
University of Nevada, Reno Indiana University
Frege, Gottlob SARAH WHITING
Alexandra Princeton University
GABRIEL P. WEISBERG Parks
SCOTT WALTER
University of Minnesota
Henri-Poincaré Archives (CNRS) Guimard, Hector STEVEN M. WHITING
and University of Nancy, France University of Michigan
Poincaré, Henri ERIC D. WEITZ Satie, Erik
University of Minnesota
JAMES WHITMAN
KATHRYN A. WALTERSCHEID Luxemburg, Rosa
Yale University
University of Missouri—St. Louis
Law, Theories of
Coffee, Tea, Chocolate ANGELIKA WESENBERG
Diet and Nutrition Nationalgalerie, Berlin CRAIG WILCOX
Menzel, Adolph von Independent Scholar
JAMES WALVIN Australia
JAMES L. WEST
University of York, U.K.
Race and Racism Middlebury College ALAN WILLIAMS
Slavery Octobrists Rutgers University
Cinema
TIMOTHY C. WESTPHALEN
GEOFFREY WAWRO State University of New York, JOHN WILLIAMS
University of North Texas Stony Brook Colorado College
Military Tactics Blok, Alexander Nanking, Treaty of

STEWART WEAVER ZINA WEYGAND GEORGE S. WILLIAMSON

University of Rochester Conservatoire National des University of Alabama
Luddism Arts et Metiers, Paris Carlsbad Decrees
Machine Breaking Braille, Louis Schelling, Friedrich von

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2557
DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

ROLF WINAU ROBERT WOKLER BRADLEY D. WOODWORTH

Charite-Universitatsmedizin Yale University University of New Haven
BerlinDavis Bonald, Louis de Finland and the Baltic
Ehrlich, Paul Burke, Edmund Provinces
Utilitarianism
T. R. WRIGHT
NANCY M. WINGFIELD
Northern Illinois University GAIL HILSON WOLDU
University of Newcastle, U.K.
Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia Trinity College Positivism
Prague Debussy, Claude
GUOQI XU
Kalamazoo College
MARY PICKARD WINSOR J.R. WOLFFE
Boxer Rebellion
University of Toronto Open University, U.K. China
Agassiz, Louis Wilberforce, William Opium Wars

ALISON WINTER SUSAN J. WOLFSON LINDA GERTNER ZATLIN

University of Chicago Princeton University Morehouse College
Mesmer, Franz Anton Wordsworth, William Beardsley, Aubrey

2558 E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 INDEX

Page references include both a volume number and a page number. For example,
5:2409–2411 refers to pages 2409–2411 in volume 5. Page numbers in boldface type
indicate references to complete articles. Page numbers in italic type indicate
illustrations, tables, and figures.

n Abomey. See Dahomey Gauguin as influence on, 3:1271

A Aborigines, Australian, 1:133–134
Aachen, 3:1411
Aachen Protocol of 1818, 3:1174
Aarcot, 2:706
Abbas I, sultan of Egypt, 2:732
Abbey, Rith, 3:1514
Abbey in an Oakwood (Friedrich), 2:911
Abbey Theatre (Dublin), 2:693;
3:1109, 1182; 4:1756; 5:2510
Abd Allah, 3:1668
Abd ar-Rahman ibn Hisham, 3:1547
Abdelkader, 1:44; 3:1547–1548
Abduction, The (Cézanne), 1:397
Abdul-Hamid II, Ottoman sultan,
1:1–2, 2; 3:1689, 1689, 1690
abdication of, 3:1691
Armenian Question and, 1:2, 91, 92
San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2085
Young Turks and, 5:2515
Abdülmecid I (Abdul Mejid), Ottoman
sultan, 3:1187–1188, 1686;
5:2392
Abensberg-Eckmühl, Battle of (1809),
2:902
Aberdeen, 4:2117
Aberdeen, Lord (George Hamilton
Gordon), 2:976–977, 1007
Abhandlung über den Ursprung der
Sprache (Herder), 2:1060
Abildgaard, Nikolai Abraham, 2:910
abolitionism. See antislavery movement
Aborigines Protection Society, 2:504
abortion, 4:1762, 1827, 1829, 1836,
2042
Aboukir Bay, 3:1585, 1615
Abovian, Khachatur, 1:88
Abraham, Karl, 4:1905
Abrantès, Mme d’, 1:167
absinthe, 1:2–4; 5:2477
Absinthe, L’ (Degas), 1:3
Absinthe Drinker, The (Manet),
3:1431–1432
absolute temperature, 3:1249
absolutism
aristocracy and, 1:87
Austria-Hungary and, 1:139,
142–143, 262; 2:863–864;
3:1191
Congress of Vienna and, 1:457
Francis I and, 2:861
French Revolution as reaction
against, 2:843, 886, 887
popular sovereignty vs., 1:456
Russia and, 1:81; 2:1017
Serbia and, 4:2144–2146
Spain and, 1:366, 367, 368; 2:808,
809
abstract art
avant-garde and, 1:155
Cézanne and, 1:398, 399;
3:1132, 1261
Kandinsky and, 3:1243–1246
postimpressionism and, 4:1709,
1710
abstract expressionism, 3:1133
Abstraction and Empathy (Abstraktion
and Einfüulung; Worringer),
1:155
absurdism, 3:1213, 1242
Abundance (Le Fauconnier), 2:590,
591
Abyssinia. See Ethiopia
Académie des Beaux-Arts, 4:2086;
5:2505
Académie des Inscriptions et
Belles-Lettres, 4:1953
Académie des Sciences. See Academy of
Sciences
Académie Française, 1:213, 228;
2:560, 1093; 4:1702, 1806, 1953
Académie Goncourt, 2:991
Académie Suisse, 1:397
Academy of Architecture (Berlin),
4:2093
Academy of Arts (Prussia), 3:1353;
4:2092
Academy of Fine Arts (Brussels), 1:307
Academy of Fine Arts (France), 2:606,
641
Academy of Fine Arts (Vienna),
4:2089
Academy of Grenoble, 1:406

2559
INDEX
Academy of Inscriptions (France),
1:407
Academy of Medicine (France), 1:228
Academy of Sciences (Austria), 5:2418
Academy of Sciences (Bavaria), 2:814
Academy of Sciences (Brussels),
4:1921
Academy of Sciences (France)
Bernard and, 1:228
Curie and, 2:595, 596
Lavoisier and, 3:1312
Marat and, 3:1443
photography and, 2:606;
4:1770–1771
Pinel and, 4:1791
Poincaré (Henri) and, 4:1804
Academy of Sciences (Prussia), 4:1799,
1800
Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg,
Russia), 4:2075, 2076–2077
Acadia (Nova Scotia), 1:343
accident insurance, 1:356, 357; 2:540,
966
Accra, 2:779
Accumulation of Capital, The
(Luxemburg), 3:1400
Aceh (people), 3:1617
Acemoglu, Daron, 5:2334
Achebe, Chinua, 4:1875
Achilles Receiving the Ambassadors of
Agamemnon (Ingres), 3:1167
Ackerman, Robert, 2:872
Acland, Henry, 4:2046
acmeism, 4:2182
Acocella, Joan, 3:1643
acquired characteristics, inheritance of,
2:615, 637, 776–777, 778–779,
928; 3:1302–1303
Acre, 2:731, 900
Acre, Battle of (1799), 3:1683
Acropolis (Athens), 1:125
Across the Plains (Stevenson), 4:2255
acting. See theater
Action Française, 1:4–6, 389
attack on Bergson by, 1:214
Dreyfus affair and, 2:485–486, 684
Maurras and, 3:1476–1477
papal condemnation of, 3:1477
Sorel and, 4:2218
Action Française, L’ (newspaper), 1:5;
3:1476
Action Libérale Populaire (France),
1:389
Act of Brussels of 1890, 3:1173
Act of Mediation of 1803, 4:2188
Act of 1967 (Britain), 2:746
Act of Uniformity of 1862
(Britain), 2:1002
2560
Act of Union of 1707 (Britain and
Scotland), 2:999, 1006; 3:1177;
4:2118
Act of Union of 1800 (Britain and
Ireland), 1:373; 2:999–1000;
3:1177
background of, 2:1000
Chartist demand for repeal of, 1:415
Dublin and, 2:690
hypocrisy of, 3:1177
United Kingdom established by,
3:1177, 1179
Acton, John, 1:6–7; 4:1722
Acts of Toleration of 1689, 1778, and
1791 (Britain), 4:1895
actual energy, 3:1250
Adam, Paul, 4:1943
Adam, Victor, 2:528
Adam Bede (G. Eliot), 2:744
adamism. See acmeism
Adams, Henry, 2:618
Adams, John, 4:1701
Adana, 5:2391
Adas, Michael, 1:461
ADAV. See Allgemeiner deutscher
Arbeiterverein
Addams, Jane, 1:67
addiction. See drugs
Addis Ababa, 1:8
Addis Ababa, Treaty of (1896), 1:7–8
Address to the German Nation (Fichte),
2:813, 814
Adelaide, queen of Great Britain,
5:2471
Adele Bloch-Bauer (Klimt), 3:1261
Adelfi (secret society), 1:360
Adelswärd-Fersen, Jacques d’, 2:1084
Adl, Mohammed el, 2:836
Adler, Alfred, 1:8–10; 2:907, 908,
909; 4:1905
Adler, Friedrich, 1:11
Adler, Jankel, 3:1310
Adler, Max, 1:11
Adler, Salomon, 1:10
Adler, Victor, 1:10–11; 3:1395;
4:2127
Admiralty (St. Petersburg), 4:2075,
2078
adolescence, ‘‘discovery’’ of, 1:428
Adolphe (Constant), 2:545
‘‘Adonias’’ (Shelley), 4:2170
Adoration of the Name of God, The
(Goya), 2:996–997
Adorno, Theodor, 1:295;
3:1419, 1435, 1437; 4:1756,
2101, 2262
Adowa, Battle of (1896), 2:794;
3:1118
E U R O P E
Adrianople, 1:12–13, 163, 164, 165;
2:705; 4:2068
Adrianople, Treaty of (1829), 1:12,
243; 3:1420, 1625; 4:2016;
5:2391
Adriatic Sea, 1:146, 163, 166; 3:1482,
1691
Montenegro and, 3:1540, 1541
adult education, 1:9, 384
adultery
British divorce law and, 3:1646
French Civil Code and, 1:287
Napoleonic Code and, 2:943
Adutera, L’ (Fontane), 2:829
Adventures of Sherlock Holmes,
The (Doyle), 2:680
advertising
for automobiles, 1:150
Beardsley drawings and, 1:192
consumerism and, 2:550, 551
for furniture, 2:912, 913, 915
London Underground and, 4:2273
Michelin guide and, 5:2326
newspapers and, 4:1867–1868
popular culture and, 4:1823
posters and, 4:1845–1846, 1846,
1847
for sewing machines, 4:2160
Adwa, Battle of (1896), 1:7, 8, 362;
2:582, 583; 3:1200
Aegean Sea, 1:243; 2:704, 705;
3:1482, 1612
Aennec, Guillaume, 3:1297
Aeschylus, 2:1097; 4:1770
Aesthetic as Science of Expression and
General Linguistic (Croce), 2:584
aesthetic movement, 4:1746, 1770
Decadence and, 2:632, 633
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1863, 1865
symbolism and, 4:2294
Wilde and, 5:2464
Affaire Dreyfus, L’ (film), 3:1483
Affiches à Troubille, Les (Marquet),
2:796–797
Afghani, Jamal ad-Din, 3:1207
Afghanistan, 1:49, 395
Afghanistan War of 1839–1842,
2:674, 977, 1009; 3:1118
jingoism and, 3:1234
Africa, 1:13–22; 5:2411
activist opposition organizations,
1:500–501
Berlin Conference on, 1:20, 37,
220–224, 499; 3:1118, 1178
British civilizing mission in, 1:462
British colonies in, 2:508; 3:1115,
1258–1259
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

cholera pandemic and, 1:436
colonial racial divisions and,
1:499–500
Concert of Europe and, 2:527
Entente Cordiale and, 2:795
exploration of, 2:782–783, 784, 927
French colonial officers in, 2:504
French ‘‘new imperialism’’ in,
2:812–813; 3:1600
German colonies in, 2:967; 3:1116,
1125
human origins in, 2:619
imperialism in, 1:17–22, 94, 99, 205,
220–224, 240; 2:506, 509, 527,
663; 3:1115–1116, 1117, 1119,
1336–1337, 1545–1546,
1668–1669
indigenous elites and, 1:500
Italian colonies in, 1:7–8; 2:527,
582, 583
map of colonial holdings (1880),
3:1117
map of colonial holdings (1914),
3:1119
missionary activity in, 3:1527, 1528
Portuguese in, 4:1838–1839, 1840,
1841, 1843
primitivism and, 1:156; 4:1782,
1874, 1875
Rhodes and, 4:1996–1997
‘‘scramble’’ for, 1:20–22, 220, 339,
499; 2:663, 795; 3:1115–1116
slavery and, 4:1925, 2190–2194
slave trade and, 1:13–14, 15, 16, 37,
308–309; 2:1036
trade commodities of, 1:14–16, 22
See also Boer War; colonialism; North
Africa; specific countries and
regions by name
Africaine, L’ (Meyerbeer), 3:1671
African art, 1:156
African masks, 4:1782, 1875
African National Congress, 1:500
African Students Association, 3:1524
Afrikaners. See Boers
afterlife, 1:378
Afternoon of a Faun, The (ballet),
3:1642, 1643
afternoon tea, 1:495
Aftonbladet (Swedish newspaper),
4:2283
Agadir Crisis (1911), 1:49, 339;
3:1370, 1545–1546, 1549;
4:1806
Against Nature (Huysmans), 2:632,
1104, 1105
Agao glu, Ahmet, 3:1207
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Agassiz, Alexander, 1:23
Agassiz, Elizabeth Cabot Cary, 1:23
Agassiz, Louis, 1:22–24; 2:618
Agence France Presse, 4:1871
Age of Bronze, The (Rodin),
4:2008–2009
Age of Constantine the Great, The
(Burckhardt), 1:317
Age of Mass Migration (Hatton and
Williamson), 2:710
Age of Reason, The (Paine), 4:1701
agnosticism, 2:1103; 4:1893
Agnostic’s Apology (Stephen), 4:2254
Agony (Schiele), 4:2090
Agoult, Marie-Catherine-Sophie d’,
1:168; 3:1360
Agrarian Justice (Paine), 4:1701
Agricultural Reading Society, 3:1667
Agricultural Revolution, 1:24–29;
3:1164
Bohemian Lands and, 1:260
capitalism and, 1:358–359
Cavour and, 1:390
Central Asia and, 1:396
chemicals and, 3:1159–1160
Corn Law repeal and, 1:490–491;
2:557–560
Denmark and, 2:647
economic growth and, 1:350; 2:762
engineers and, 2:757
environment and, 2:762
Germany and, 2:762, 960
Italy and, 3:1195
landed elite and, 3:1304, 1305
machine breaking and, 1:357,
358–359; 3:1411
peasants and, 4:1753–1754,
1755–1756
plant and animal breeding and, 2:770
railroads and, 4:1936
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1988
science and technology and, 4:2108,
2109
Siberia and, 4:2257
Sismondi and, 4:2186
Sweden and, 4:2284–2285
trade and, 5:2337, 2340–2341,
2348–2349
water pollution and, 2:764
Agricultural Workers Federation
(Italy), 5:2485
agriculture. See Agricultural
Revolution; farm labor; peasants
Ahl a-Kitah, 3:1517
Ahmad Bey, 5:2362
Aı̈da (Verdi), 2:733; 3:1572, 1676;
5:2406
INDEX
Aide-toi, le ciel t’aidera, 2:1029
Aids to Reflection (Coleridge), 1:497
Aids to Scouting (Baden-Powell), 1:159
airplanes, 1:29–32; 3:1161, 1163;
4:2114–2115
air pollution. See pollution
airships, 1:30
Aix-les-Bains, 5:2328
Akçura, Yusuf, 3:1207
Akhmatova, Anna, 1:250, 337;
4:2182, 2183
Akkumulation des Kapitals, Die
(Luxemburg), 3:1400
Aksakov, Ivan, 4:2195, 2196, 2270
Aksakov, Konstantin, 4:2194
Aktion, Die (Berlin magazine), 4:2091
Alabama case, 2:1008; 3:1174
Alain-Fournier (Henry-Alban
Fournier), 4:1760
Alam II, Mughul emperor, 2:706
Á la nation artésienne (Robespierre),
4:2005
Aland Islands, 2:577
Á la recherché du temps perdu (Proust),
1:166
Alastor, or The Spirit of Solitude
(Shelley), 4:2170
Albania, 1:32–34; 3:1690
Balkan Wars and, 1:32–33, 33, 146,
163, 166; 2:704–705
Eastern Question and, 2:704–705
independence of, 1:163–164;
2:1018; 3:1691; 4:2149
San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2085
Albanian Prizren League, 3:1690
Albert, Charles, 3:1480
Albert, prince consort of Great Britain,
2:587, 729; 5:2496
background of, 3:1335
Freemasons and, 2:881
gender roles and, 2:946
Great Exhibition of 1851 and,
5:2412, 2494, 2495
photography and, 4:1771
wife, Victoria, and, 5:2412–2414,
2413
Albert Edward, prince of Wales.
See Edward VII
Alberto, Carlo, 1:390, 391
Albine Fiori (Sand), 4:2084
alchemy, 1:424
Alcock, Charles William, 2:832
alcohol and temperance, 1:34–37;
4:2082
absinthe and, 1:2–4; 5:2477
British bourgeoisie and, 1:288
coffee or tea and, 1:494
crime and, 2:572, 573
2561
INDEX
Dublin distillery and, 2:691
industrialization and, 2:549
prohibition laws and, 1:35–36
temperance and, 1:35–37, 119;
2:586–587; 4:1896
tobacco opponents and, 5:2314
women travelers and, 5:2329
See also beer; drugs; wine
alcoholism, 1:37, 261; 2:816; 3:1472
Alekseev, Fedor, 3:1553
Alexander, prince regent of Serbia,
1:243
Alexander Column (St. Petersburg),
4:2078
Alexander Nevsky Monastery
(St. Petersburg), 2:679; 4:2075
Alexander of Battenberg, prince of
Bulgaria, 1:312
Alexander von Humboldt (Weitsch),
2:1096
Alexander I, emperor of Russia,
1:37–38, 132, 133, 226; 2:1019;
4:2048, 2049–2050
Borodino and, 1:272; 2:902
Bourbon restoration and, 5:2306
bureaucracy and, 1:323
Congress of Troppau and,
2:531–532
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–533,
534, 534, 565, 1080
Continental System and, 1:272
counterrevolution and, 2:566, 959;
4:1970
Czartoryski and, 2:603, 604
father, Paul I, and, 1:37; 4:1748
Finnish boundaries and, 2:817
Holy Alliance and, 1:38; 2:565, 959,
1079, 1080–1081; 4:1718, 1970
Kościuszko and, 3:1265
Kutuzov and, 3:1281
Lithuania and, 3:1365
Metternich and, 3:1494
mysticism and, 2:1080
Napoleon and, 2:901, 902, 903,
1080; 3:1281, 1334, 1586, 1588
Nicholas I as successor to, 3:1625
Poland and, 4:1807, 1808, 1817
Pushkin’s exile and, 4:1919
Revolutions of 1820 and,
4:1979–1982
St. Petersburg and, 4:2078
secret societies and, 1:361
Speransky and, 4:2049, 2236
Talleyrand and, 5:2306
War of 1805 and, 5:2374
Warsaw and, 3:1493; 4:1808
2562
Alexander II, emperor of Russia,
1:38–40, 88; 2:1066; 3:1272;
4:2051
assassination of, 1:39, 40, 72, 89;
2:1017; 3:1614; 4:1767, 1768,
1802, 1832, 1975, 2052, 2053,
2053, 2079, 2196, 2210, 2216;
5:2389, 2517, 2520
Crimean War and, 1:244; 2:579,
1015; 3:1626
Great Reforms of, 1:39, 40, 88–89;
2:1014–1017; 3:1233; 4:1767,
1880, 1975, 2048–2049, 2051,
2196
Polish uprising and, 4:1818
Russo-Turkish War and, 4:2067
San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2085
serf emancipation and, 4:2149, 2153;
5:2365
Speransky and, 4:2237
Alexander III, emperor of Russia,
1:40–41; 4:1975, 2051,
2053–2054
anti-minority programs of, 1:89
assassination plot against, 3:1326;
4:1768
Baltic provinces and, 2:821
Bulgaria and, 1:312
Cossacks and, 2:563
pogroms and, 1:72; 4:1802; 5:2520
Russification program and, 4:1956,
2054
Siberia and, 4:2172
son Nicholas II and, 3:1626, 1627
Alexanderplatz (Berlin), 1:217
Alexandra, empress of Russia,
1:41–42; 3:1627, 1627; 5:2415
Alexandra, princess of Wales (later
queen of Great Britain), 2:729;
5:2415
Alexandria, 1:18; 2:731, 732, 733;
3:1482
Alexis, prince of Russia, 1:41, 42;
3:1627
Alexis, Paul, 2:1104
Alfieri, Vittorio, 3:1193
Alfonso und Estrella (Schubert),
4:2106
Alfonso XII, king of Spain, 1:366;
2:949; 4:2231
Alfonso XIII, king of Spain, 2:949;
4:2231
Alfred Dedreux as a Child with
His Sister Elise (Gericault), 1:285
algebra, 4:1804
Algeciras Conference (1906), 3:1545,
1546, 1549
E U R O P E
Algemeene Nederlandsche
Maatschappij ter begunstigung
van de Volksvlijt, 1:173–174
Algeria, 1:42–47
as French colony, 1:18, 43–47, 99,
498–499; 2:506, 640; 3:1116,
1389, 1420, 1482, 1547, 1548,
1600, 1613; 5:2362
French immigrants in, 2:504
French penal exile in, 2:780
indigenous population and, 2:604
Morocco and, 3:1547–1548
racial lines in, 1:500
tourism and, 5:2330
world’s fair displays of, 5:2496, 2497
Algiers, 5:2361, 2362
Ali, Mehmet, 4:2085, 2274; 5:2391,
2392
Ali bin Ghadahum, 5:2362
Alice, princess of Great Britain, 1:41
alimony, 3:1595
Alinari, Fratelli, 3:1194
Aline et Valcour (Sade), 4:2074
Ali Pasha, 2:1019; 3:1541, 1686
alizarin (red dye), 3:1157, 1159
Alkali Acts of 1863 (Britain), 2:764
Allard, Roger, 2:590
Allegemeine Zeitung (Prussian
newspaper), 4:1869
Allegro (Russia), 4:2183
Allemane, Jean, 3:1217; 4:2298
Allgemeine Brouillon, Das (Novalis),
3:1647
Allgemeine Deutsche Frauenverein,
3:1681
Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein,
3:1310, 1311
Allgemeine Verband, 2:556
Alliance of Russian Muslims, 3:1207
alliance system, 1:47–50
Armenians and, 1:92
armies and, 1:96
Austria-Hungary and, 1:146, 147;
2:864
Balkans and, 1:166
Belgian neutrality and, 1:199
Bismarck and, 1:47, 48–50, 146,
147, 239–240; 2:663, 964–965
Britain and, 1:47, 48, 49; 2:1013
Castlereagh and, 1:374
Concert of Europe and,
2:526–527, 705
Congress of Vienna and, 1:374
Eastern Question and, 2:703–704
imperialism in China and, 1:434
Italy and, 3:1200, 1202–1203, 1546
Moroccan Crises and, 3:1545–1546
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Napoleonic Wars and, 1:374
Russia and, 3:1627–1628
World War I and, 1:47–50, 146, 232,
313; 2:527, 705, 968–969;
4:1806
Allied Control Council (1947),
4:1899
All-Merciful Manifesto of 1861
(Russia), 4:2149, 2150, 2153
Allom, Thomas, 5:2423
All-Russian Congress of Soviets,
4:2079
All-Russian Islamic Congress, 3:1207,
1208
All the Year Round (British periodical),
2:657
Almaden penal colony, 2:779
Almanach des gourmands
(Grimod de la Reynière), 4:1967
Alma River, 2:578
Almayer’s Folly (Conrad), 2:535
Almudena Cathedral (Madrid), 3:141
Alphand, Jean-Charles, 2:1049;
4:1738, 1739–1740
Alphonsus of Liguori, 1:378
Alsace-Lorraine, 1:50–52; 4:2243;
5:2311, 2330, 2472
Bethmann Hollweg and, 1:232;
3:1611
French movements to recover, 1:184,
281
German annexation of, 1:47, 48;
2:870, 928, 929, 964; 4:1734
Protestantism in, 4:1893
Alsen Island, assault on (1864), 2:607,
608
Alsworth, W., 2:751
Altenberg, Peter, 1:336
Altenstein, Karl von, 1:369
alternating current, 3:1116
Altes Museum (Berlin), 4:2092, 2093
Althing (Christian August Fischer),
4:1834
Althorp’s Act of 1833 (Britain), 1:429
Altneuland (Herzl), 2:1068; 5:2521
Altomare, Libero, 2:918
Altona Museum (Germany), 3:1564
altruism, 2:619
Amadeo Ferdinando Maria di Savoia,
4:2230
Amalgamated Society of Cotton
Spinners (Britain), 3:1288
Amalgamated Society of Engineers
(Britain), 3:1288
Amalgamated Society of Railway
Servants (Britain), 3:1295–1296
Amateur Emigrant, The (Stevenson),
4:2255
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Amateur Football Association
(Britain), 2:833
Amateur Rowing Association (Britain),
4:2242
Amateur Swimming Association
(Britain), 4:2242
Amateur Swimming Union (Britain),
4:2242
Amazon (Manet), 4:1708
Ambigu, L’ (theatrical troupe), 1:229
Ambris, Alceste de, 4:2299
Ambrosio Company, 1:443
ambulance corps, 3:1308
America (Blake), 1:244
American Breeders Association, 2:769,
770
American Crisis (Paine), 4:1700
Americanism, 4:1720
American Journal of International Law,
3:1175
American Marconi Company, 3:1370
American Notes (Dickens), 2:656
American Psychoanalytic Association,
4:1938
American Revolution, 1:342, 498;
2:669, 780; 4:2212
Fox support for, 2:839
French financial crisis from,
2:840–841, 884; 3:1385
Hellenism and, 4:1769
Kościuszko and, 3:1264
Lafayette and, 3:1298, 1299, 1300,
1301
Paine and, 4:1700
Parliament and, 1:1001; 5:2461
American Scientist (magazine),
4:2110
American Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals, 2:778
Americas. See Latin America; North
America; specific countries
America’s Cup, 3:1444
Amerika (Kafka), 3:1243
Amicizia Cattolica, 2:539
Ami du peuple, L’ (French journal),
3:1442, 1443
Amiens, 2:1089
Amiens, Treaty of (1802), 2:901;
3:1586, 1597, 1615; 5:2306,
2438
Amiens Charter, 4:2298–2299, 2300
Amis des Noirs, 4:2192
Amistad (film), 2:678
ammonia-producing process, 3:1160
ammunition. See armaments
amnesia, 1:410
Amoros gymnastics method, 4:2241
Amour absolu, L’ (Jarry), 3:1213
INDEX
Ampère, André-Marie, 3:1162;
4:1780
amputation, 3:1308
Amsterdam, 1:52–55; 3:1616
banking in, 1:170
bohemian circle in, 3:1619
canal, 3:1618
as Liebermann painting subject,
3:1353, 1354
population of, 1:52, 53, 446
Amsterdam University, 1:54
Amsterdam World’s Fair of 1883,
5:2499–2500
Amundson, Roald, 2:783, 784
Amur Cossacks, 2:562
amusement parks, 4:1825
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, 1:408
Anabaptists, 1:55
‘‘Analysis of Juridical Life in Ancient
Russia, An’’ (Kavelin), 5:2460
Analysis of the Phenomena of the
Human Mind (J. Mill), 3:1511
analytical psychology, 3:1240
Analytical Review (British journal),
5:2480
anarchism, 1:55–59, 62; 4:1698
anarchosyndicalism vs., 1:60
Bakunin and, 1:56, 57, 58, 60, 61,
62, 161–162; 2:824, 825, 961;
3:1272, 1293; 4:1755
Barcelona and, 1:181, 183
Belgium and, 1:203
communism vs., 2:521
First International and, 2:824, 825;
3:1289
France and, 1:56, 57, 59, 60, 62;
2:857; 3:1497
Herzen and, 5:2460
intelligentsia and, 3:1170, 1641
Italy and, 1:57, 58; 3:1201, 1202,
1423–1425; 5:2377, 2378
Kropotkin and, 1:56, 57;
3:1272–1273
labor movements and, 3:1291
Malatesta and, 3:1423–1425
Marx’s conflicts with, 1:58,
161–162; 3:1468
Michel and, 3:1497–1498
as Nechayev influence, 3:1613
peasants and, 4:1755
Pissarro and, 4:1792, 1794
Portugal and, 4:1841
Proudhon and, 1:56, 57, 60, 62;
4:1897–1899
Ravachol and, 4:1941–1943, 1942,
1943
2563
INDEX
Saint-Simon and, 4:2080
Second International’s rejection of,
3:1294
secularization and, 4:2133
Spain and, 1:58–59; 3:1293; 4:2231;
5:2488
syndicalism and, 1:56, 59;
4:2297–2300
Tolstoy and, 5:2320
Westernizers and, 5:2459
William I assassination attempts and,
2:966
women’s rights and, 3:1293
worker education and, 2:724
Young Hegelians and, 5:2513
anarchosyndicalism, 1:56, 59–63;
4:1841, 2298; 5:2485
futurism and, 2:920
Anastasia, princess of Russia, 3:1627
Anatolia, 2:732; 3:1412, 1682,
1691
anatomy, 1:251; 2:599, 1102
pathological, 3:1297, 1298
See also body
ancient Greece. See Hellenism;
philhellenism
Ancient Monuments Bill of 1904
(Britain), 2:597
‘‘Ancient Sage, The’’ (Tennyson),
5:2310
Andalusia, 1:379; 3:1293; 4:1755
An der schönen, blauen Donau
(J. Strauss), 4:2260; 5:2420
Andersen, Hans Christian, 2:648;
3:1250, 1251
Anderson, Benedict, 3:1607
Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, 2:626
Anderson, James, 2:881
Anderson, Margaret, 1:383
Anderson, Thomas, 4:1744
Andes, 2:1096
Andrássy, Gyula, 2:530, 864
Andrássy Avenue (Budapest), 1:311
Andreas, Friedrich, 1:64–65
Andreas-Salomé, Lou, 1:63–66, 64
Andreyev, Leonid, 2:633
androgyne (symbolist trope), 4:2293
androgyny, 3:1270
Andromaque (Racine), 1:229
Andromeda (Doré), 2:677
anesthesia, 3:491
‘‘Angel in the House’’ (Patmore),
2:943
Angell, Norman, 4:1698
Angers, David d’, 4:2043
Angkor Wat, 3:1142
Anglican Church, 2:560
2564
Act of Uniformity (1862) and,
2:1002
anticlericalism and, 1:67, 68
Christian Socialism and, 4:2208
Darwin’s evolution theory and,
2:614
as England’s established church,
4:1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1895
Gladstone and, 2:976
Irish disestablishment of, 2:1008
Irish radicals and, 3:1176
Malthus and, 3:1425
Methodist origins in, 4:1895
missions and, 3:1527; 4:1895
Newman and, 3:1620–1621
nursing orders and, 3:1649
papacy and, 3:1332; 4:1720
prostitution reform and, 4:1886
temperance and, 1:36
Tories and, 5:2320
Tractarians and, 2:1006; 3:1440,
1620–1621; 4:1917, 1918
universities and, 2:1008; 3:1377,
1512; 5:2384
Victoria and, 5:2412
Welsh disestablishment of,
2:1012–1013; 5:2435
Anglican Church Missionary Society,
3:1527; 4:1895
Anglo-Boer War. See Boer War
Anglo-Catholic Party (Britain),
2:1006
Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902),
3:1624, 1628; 4:2064
Angola, 1:13, 14, 15, 19, 20; 2:509
Angoulême, duc d’ (Louis-Antoine
Bourbon), 4:2228–2229
Angoulême, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte,
duchess d’ (Madame Royale),
3:1384
Ångström, Anders Jonas, 4:2285
aniline purple (mauveine), 3:1159
animal magnetism. See mesmerism
animal protection, 2:650, 766
animals, farm. See livestock
Ankara, 3:1129
Anna Karenina (Tolstoy),
5:2318–2319
Annales school (historical scholarship),
1:251
Annals of the Spreading of the Faith,
3:1405
Annam. See Indochina
Annan, Thomas, 4:1772, 2119
‘‘Anna O’’ (Bertha Pappenheim),
2:904, 905; 4:1904
Annas, Julia, 3:1514
E U R O P E
Année psychologique, L’ (journal),
4:1908
Année sociologique (journal), 4:2215
Anneke, Fritz, 1:66
Anneke, Mathilde-Franziska, 1:66–67
Annenkov, Pavel, 5:2459, 2460
Annensky, Innokenty, 4:2182
Annexation Crisis (Serbia), 4:2148
Annuaire general and international de
la photographie, L’ (journal),
3:1483
Annual Register (Britain), 1:327
Annunzio, Gabriele D’, 1:443
Ann Veronica (Wells), 5:2458
Another Dance of Death (Rethel),
2:629
Another Philosophy of History for the
Cultivation of the Human Race
(Herder), 2:1061
Anschauung (Goethean concept),
2:982
Anschluss, Austrian, 1:11
Ansdell, Richard, 1:72; 2:572
Anseele, Edward, 1:203
Anspach, Jules, 1:306
Antarctic expeditions, 2:783, 784
Anthès, Georges d, 4:1920
Anthony, Susan B., 1:67
anthrax, 4:1744–1745
Anthropological Society of London,
4:1836
anthropology, 4:1961
civilization concept and, 1:461
criminal, 2:573, 574, 638;
3:1371–1372
Frazer and, 2:872–873
on human origins, 2:619
on Industrial Revolution effects,
1:351
pornography and, 4:1835–1836
primitivism and, 4:1875
race and racism and, 4:1926
Virchow and, 5:2425–2426
Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of
View (Kant), 4:2097
anthropometric studies, 1:351; 4:1816
Anthroposophical Society, 1:209
Anti-Bread Tax Circular, 2:558
Anticipations (Wells), 5:2458
anticlericalism, 1:67–71
Barcelona and, 1:69, 180–181, 182
Belgium and, 1:203–204, 307, 389
Carducci and, 1:362
Catherine II and, 1:375
Comte and, 2:523–524
conservative backlash to, 2:540
Czartoryski and, 2:603
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Deraismes and, 2:649, 650
Dohm’s feminism and, 2:675
France and, 1:67–69, 70, 380, 381,
387, 389, 410–411, 479; 2:540,
689, 812, 858; 4:1737,
1929–1930, 1969, 2136;
5:2432–2433
Freemasonry and, 2:877–882
French Directory and, 2:666
French Radicals and, 4:1929
French Revolution and, 2:843, 844,
888, 894, 1000; 4:1717–1718
Gambetta and, 2:928
Germany and, 1:69–70, 382, 388;
2:966; 3:1277–1279
Giolitti’s abandonment of, 2:972
Italian university reform and, 5:2389
Italy and, 1:69, 70, 388; 3:1200
Kulturkampf and, 3:1277–1279
labor movements and, 5:2488–2489,
2491
Napoleon and, 2:957
nursing and, 3:1649–1650
Papal State and, 4:1726
Paris Commune and, 1:68, 381;
4:1736; 5:2488
Pius IX’s responses to, 4:1722, 1795
political Catholicism and, 1:68–70,
388–389
Portugal and, 4:1840, 1842
Revolutions of 1830 and,
4:1718–1719
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1719,
1991
Roman Question and, 4:2024
Rome and, 4:2037
Spain and, 1:68, 69, 366, 388;
5:2488–2489
Waldeck-Rousseau and,
5:2432–2433
See also secularization; separation of
church and state
Anti-Corn Law League, 1:417, 490,
491; 2:517, 558–560, 715, 1005;
4:1889
liberalism and, 3:1345
Manchester as base of, 3:1429, 1566
tactics of, 2:558–559
See also Corn laws, repeal of
Anti-Dühring (Engels), 2:756;
3:1462; 4:2205
Antigone (Sophocles), Hölderlin
translation of, 2:1078
Antigua, 1:364, 365
Anti-Jacobin Review (English journal),
2:537
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Antiochus and Stratonice (Ingres),
3:1166
Antiquary, The (Scott), 4:2123
Antiquities of Athens, The (Stuart and
Revett), 4:1762
Antiquity of Man, The (Lyell), 3:1402
Anti-Revolutionary Party
(Netherlands), 3:1619; 4:2209
Anti-Semite’s Petition (1880), 1:71
Anti-Semitism, 1:71–78;
3:1233–1234
Action Française and, 1:4; 3:1476
Austria-Hungary and, 1:73, 75, 475;
2:689, 904; 3:1233, 1393–1395,
1526; 4:2045; 5:2520
blood libel and, 1:77, 462; 3:1394;
4:1802
Britain and, 5:2489
Budapest and, 2:1066
Catholics and, 1:73, 383
Chamberlain (Houston) and, 1:403,
404
crime scapegoating and, 2:572,
575–576
Czech nationalists and, 1:262, 263;
4:1860, 1861
Czech worker protests and, 4:1860
degeneracy label and, 2:636, 639,
683
Drumont and, 2:688–690
Endecja and, 2:753
fin de siècle anxieties and, 2:816,
1067
France and, 1:4, 5, 74–77, 97, 184,
185, 383; 2:540, 542, 683–686,
688–690, 816, 1068; 3:1233,
1338; 5:2489, 2520
Francis Ferdinand and, 2:862
German nationalist movement and,
1:10–11, 403, 404; 2:968
German populist politics and, 1:82;
2:542; 3:1233
Hamburg and, 2:1040, 1041
Heine’s experience with, 2:1056
Herzl’s experience with, 2:1066,
1067, 1068; 3:1395
Hitler and, 4:1799–1800
intellectuals and, 3:1168
‘‘Jesuit myth’’ literature’s similarity
with, 1:70
Jewish emancipation and, 1:74;
3:1225, 1233, 1393–1394
Jewish workers and, 5:2489
Kossuth’s campaign against, 3:1269
Liebermann’s artwork and, 3:1353,
1354
INDEX
Lueger and, 1:73, 75, 77; 2:689,
816; 3:1233, 1393–1395
machine breaking and, 3:1411
Maurras and, 3:1476
misogyny and, 2:947
Poland and, 2:753
Prague and, 4:1860, 1861
racial basis of, 1:71
retailing and, 2:552
Russia and, 1:40, 72, 75, 76, 77;
2:689; 3:1233, 1234, 1627, 1628
scapegoat theory of, 1:77
Schnitzler’s resistance to, 4:2101
Simmel and, 4:2215
Treitschke and, 5:2353
universities and, 5:2380, 2382, 2389
Vichy France and, 4:2303
Vienna and, 1:73, 75, 77; 2:816,
1067; 3:1233, 1393–1395, 1418;
4:2045; 5:2420, 2421–2422
voluntary associations and, 1:119,
121
Wagner and, 2:1067; 5:2429, 2430
Wales and, 5:2436
Weininger and, 5:2449
Zionism as response to, 2:1068;
5:2519–2520
See also pogroms
antisepsis, 3:1358–1359;
4:1743–1744, 1745
antislavery movement, 1:365; 2:708;
4:2192–2193, 2194
Britain and, 1:18, 19, 211, 303, 365;
2:1003; 5:2462–2463
Brussels Declaration and, 1:308–309
citizenship of freed slaves and, 1:458
feminist movement and, 2:804
German Forty-Eighters and, 2:962
Gouges and, 2:994
Lafayette and, 3:1299
Leo XIII and, 3:1332
Protestants and, 4:1896
race and, 4:1926–1927
Wilberforce (William) and,
5:2462–2463
Anti-Socialist Law of 1878 (Germany),
5:2473
Anti-Socialist Law of 1886 (Austria),
1:11
antivivisectionism, 2:650
Antoine, André, 3:1109
Antonelli, Giacomo, 4:1796, 1797
Antonelli, Giuseppe, 4:1719
Antonovych, Volodymyr, 5:2371
Antwerp, 1:200, 202
market square, 1:451
2565
INDEX
Anuvong, king of Laos, 3:1139
Anzer, Johann Baptist von, 1:292
Aoki-Kimberley Treaty (1894), 3:1212
Apache (people), 2:575
Apaches (avant-garde group), 4:1944
apaches (French street thieves), 2:575
apartment buildings, 1:453; 2:1027,
1088; 4:1857
Paris and, 4:1731, 1732
aperitifs, 1:3–4
aphasia, 1:408
aphid. See phylloxera
Apollinaire, Guillaume, 1:156, 335;
2:590; 3:1214; 4:1782
Apollodorus (Frazer translation), 2:873
Apologia pro vita sua (Newman),
3:1621
‘‘Apology of a Madman’’ (Chaadayev),
1:400
Apostles (Cambridge club), 2:835;
4:2258
Apostolicae Curae (papal bull, 1896),
3:1332
Apotheosis of Homer, The (Ingres),
3:1165
Appeal on Behalf of One Half the
Human Race (Thompson and
Wheeler), 4:2201
Appeal on Behalf of Women (Thompson
and Wheeler), 2:803
Appeal to Reason, An (Mann), 3:1435
Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée laws
(France), 5:2477
Appert, Nicolas-François, 2:659;
4:1743, 2113
Apple Picking at Eragny-sur-Epte
(Pissarro), 4:1794
applied psychology, 4:1909
Apponyi, A. G., 2:606
Appreciations: With an Essay on Style
(Pater), 4:1746
apprentices, 5:2486
Apré l’Emancipation (cartoon), 2:948
Aprés-midi d’un faune, L’ (ballet),
3:1642, 1643
April Uprising of 1876 (Bulgaria),
1:312; 3:1688
Apulia, 3:1504
aquavit, 1:34
aqueducts, 3:1412; 4:1731
Arabesques (Gogol), 2:988
Arabia, 3:1420
Arabian Sea, 3:1482
Arabs
African trade and, 1:16
Algeria and, 1:43, 44–45, 46
Morocco and, 3:1547
nationalism and, 3:1682
2566
Palestine and, 2:598
Arago, François, 2:606, 607;
4:1770–1771, 1780, 1963
Aragon, 1:379
Arana, Sabino, 4:2232
Aranjuez, 3:1413
Arbeiter Zeitung (socialist newspaper),
1:11
‘‘Arcades Project’’ (Benjamin),
2:826–827
Arc de Triomphe (Paris), 1:270;
2:737; 4:1729, 2043, 2044
archaeology, 1:219; 4:1769; 5:2425
Archer, Frederick Scott, 4:1770
Archer, William, 3:1107
Archipenko, Alexander, 1:156; 2:591,
920
architecture
art nouveau and, 1:107–114, 152,
153; 2:815
Atget photographs of, 1:123–124
Barcelona and, 1:183–184; 4:2232
Barry and, 1:185–186
Beardsley’s influence on, 1:192
Belgrade and, 1:206–207
Berlin and, 1:216, 217; 4:2091,
2092–2094
Brussels and, 1:307
classical Greek influence on, 4:1769
Crystal Palace and, 2:587–588,
589–590; 5:2494–2495, 2495,
2496, 2505–2506
Curzon’s preservationism and,
2:597, 598
Eiffel Tower and, 2:736–738;
5:2500, 2501, 2503, 2505
Frederick William IV and, 2:876
futurism and, 1:157
Gaudı́ and, 1:183–184; 2:935–938;
4:2232
German expressionism and, 1:154
Gothic and, 1:112, 185, 186;
3:1600; 4:2046; 5:2422
Gothic Revival and, 4:1917–1918,
2030
Guimard and, 2:1026–1028
Indo-Saracenic, 3:1135
Istanbul and, 3:1188, 1189
Loos and, 3:1381–1382
Madrid and, 3:1413, 1413
Morris and, 3:1550
Nash and, 3:1600–1602
Paris and, 2:1049; 4:1731, 1732
photography and, 4:1772
Pugin and, 4:1917–1918
Romanticism and, 4:2026, 2030
E U R O P E
Ruskin on, 4:2046
St. Petersburg and, 4:2075–2079
Schinkel and, 4:2091–2094
Trieste and, 5:2354
Vienna and, 5:2416
Viollet-le-Duc and, 4:2030;
5:2422–2423
world’s fairs and, 5:2494–2496,
2495, 2500, 2501, 2502–2503,
2505–2506
Architecture of the Italian Renaissance,
The (Burckhardt), 1:318
Architektonisches Lehrbuch (Schinkel),
4:2094
Archivio di antropologia criminale,
psichiatria e medicina legale
(journal), 3:1371
Arco, Marie, 1:6
Arcot, 3:1133
Arco-Valley, Countess von, 1:6
Arctic exploration, 2:783, 784
Ardahan, 2:530; 4:2085
ÁRebours (Huysmans), 2:632, 1104,
1105
Arena (Milan), 3:1501
Arevelk (Armenian journal), 1:90
Argenteuil, Les Canotiers (Manet),
3:1433
Argenteuil-sur-Seine, 3:1535
Argentina, 2:931; 3:1175
football (soccer) and, 2:834
immigrants to, 2:646, 747, 747
meat shipments from, 2:659
trade and, 5:2335, 2342
Argument on Behalf of the Catholics
in Ireland (Tone), 3:1176
Aribau, Buenaventura Carles, 4:2232
Ariège region (France), 1:359
Ariès, Philippe, 2:628
Ariosto, 2:676
aristocracy, 1:78–87, 469–470
Action Française and, 1:4–5
armies and, 1:94–95
Austria-Hungary and, 1:81, 87, 138,
139, 140–141
automobile and, 1:150
Baltic provinces and, 2:818–819
Berlin and, 1:219
Bonald and, 1:268, 269
bourgeoisie entry into, 1:472, 476
bourgeoisie vs., 1:107, 284, 291,
323, 470–472
British liberalism and, 3:1345
British ruling class and, 1:86, 284
bureaucratic careers and, 1:321, 322,
323, 324
cities and, 1:445, 446
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

conservatism and, 1:81, 82, 83;
2:537, 540, 958
Corn Laws repeal and, 2:559–560
country houses and, 3:1305
Curzon paternalism and, 2:597
decline of, 1:284
as degenerate, 2:636
dueling and, 2:694–696; 3:1472
education of, 2:728
Finland and, 2:819
French counterrevolutionary
movement and, 2:563; 3:1388
French Restoration and, 3:1387
French Revolution and, 1:78, 80–81,
471; 2:840–841, 842, 843, 845,
886, 897
Hungary and, 3:1266
intellectuals and, 3:1168
Italian city-state republics and,
3:1191
Japan and, 3:1208
landholding by, 1:78, 80–81, 83,
84–85, 469; 3:1304–13077
leisure and, 3:1323, 1324
Lithuania and, 3:1366
London and, 3:1373
manners and, 3:1438
Marx’s class theory on, 3:1306, 1307
nineteenth-century definition of,
1:78, 80
nobility vs., 1:78, 80
Paris and, 4:1727
Paul I’s curbs on, 4:1747, 1748
peasants and, 4:1754
piano proficiency and, 1:439
Poland and, 1:78; 4:1806, 1807,
1808, 1809, 1810, 1811, 1812
post-French Revolution adjustments
by, 1:457
Prussian reforms and, 2:1042
as Russian Decembrists, 3:1625
Russian Great Reforms impact on,
2:1017
Russian Table of Ranks and, 1:286,
323
serf emancipation and, 1:84, 1017
sociable traditions of, 1:116–117
utilitarians’ distrust of, 3:1510
varying meanings of, 1:78
Aristotle, 1:299, 465; 2:520
arithematic. See mathematics
Arkwright, Richard, 3:1153; 4:2115
Arlesienne, L’ (Madame Ginoux)
(Van Gogh), 4:1709
Armagh expulsion (1795), 3:1176
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
armaments
ammunition and, 1:99
arms race and, 2:527, 1034; 4:1697
battleship, 2:681, 682
as capitalist market, 1:355–356, 357
Crimean War developments in, 2:580
Crystal Palace exhibition of, 2:588
disarmament conferences and,
2:1034
French advances in, 2:271, 866, 869
Geneva Convention and, 2:953
imperialism and, 1:20; 3:1118
innovations in, 1:355–356; 3:1507
Krupp steelworks and, 3:1274, 1275,
1276
manufacture of, 2:790
military tactics and, 1:95, 99;
3:1506, 1507
Napoleonic tactics and, 3:1506
naval buildup and, 2:681–683
progress and, 2:815
Sepoy Mutiny and, 3:1135
technology and, 2:1034
See also rifles; warfare
Armance (Stendhal), 4:2252
Armée nouvelle project (Jaurès),
3:1218
armées révolutionnaires, 4:1951
Armenakan Party (Turkish Armenian),
1:92
Armenia, 1:87–93; 3:1217; 4:2022
genocide and, 1:2, 90, 92
Kadets and, 3:1241
millet system and, 3:1687
San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2085
Stolypin and, 4:2257
Armenian Apostolic Church, 1:88,
89, 90
Armenian Catholic Church, 5:2372
Armenian National Constitution, 1:90
Armenian Question, 1:90–92
Armenian Revolutionary Federation,
1:89
Armeno-Tatar War, 1:89
armies, 1:93–102
Armenians in, 1:88
Austrian deficits and, 2:866, 867
British modernization of,
2:1007–1008
British system of, 1:94, 95, 96, 97,
98, 98, 99, 100
cholera spread by, 2:669
conservatism and, 2:540
Cossacks and, 2:563, 564
Dreyfus affair and, 2:683–685, 858;
3:1216
INDEX
dueling code and, 2:695, 696
French decline of, 1:271
French expectations of, 2:866
French system of, 1:93–94, 95, 96,
97, 98, 99, 100–101, 271;
3:1222
Geneva Convention and, 2:952–953
gymnastics and, 4:2243
imperial setbacks and, 3:1473
India and, 3:1135
Lafayette and, 3:1299, 1300
laissez-faire cuts in, 2:707
levée en masse and, 3:1338–1340
masculinity and, 3:1473
medical services and, 3:1307–1308
militarism and, 1:94
Montenegro and, 3:1540
operations and, 3:1505
Ottoman reform of, 3:1420, 1612,
1683, 1685
peasants and, 4:1755
Poland and, 4:1808
police and, 4:1814, 1817
Prussian system of, 1:94, 96, 98, 99;
2:958, 962, 963, 964; 3:1222,
1274, 1531–1532, 1685; 4:1900,
1903
recruitment practices for, 3:1339
Russian system of, 1:94, 97; 2:1014,
1016–1017; 3:1280–1282
Russian universal military service and,
2:1014
shell shock and, 3:1507
structure and organization of,
1:94–96
technology and, 1:96, 99, 101, 217
tobacco rations for, 5:2315
typhus and, 2:668, 669
vaccination and, 3:1224
See also casualties; conscription;
military tactics; warfare; specific
wars by name
Armory Show (New York, 1913),
3:1474
Army of the Holy Faith, 4:2187
Army of the North, 5:2442
Arnason, H. H., 1:153
Arnaud, Émile, 4:1695, 1696, 1697
Arndt, Ernst, 4:1826
Arnim, Achim von, 2:1023
Arnim, Bettina von, 1:316
Arnold, Matthew, 1:102–103, 301;
3:1183, 1323, 1408, 1513
Pater and, 4:1746
Stephen and, 4:2253
Strachey on, 4:2259
2567
INDEX
Arnold, Philipp Friedrich, 5:2507
Arnold, Thomas, 1:102, 103; 4:2240
Arnolfini Marriage Portrait
(van Eyck), 4:1863
Aron, Raymond, 3:1169
Arosa, Gustave, 2:939
Arouet, François-Marie. See Voltaire
Around the World in Eighty Days
(Verne), 5:2408
Arpiarian, Arpiar, 1:90
Arrhenius, Svante August, 4:2113,
2285
Arrow incident (1856), 3:1679
Arsenius III Črnojevič, Patriarch,
4:2143
arsphenamine (salvarsan), 2:736
art. See graphic arts; illustration;
painting; sculpture;
Art and Artist (Rank), 4:1939
art collection, 2:634, 636
art criticism. See criticism, art
Art du cuisinier, L’ (Beauvilliers),
4:1965
art for art’s sake, 1:109; 2:632;
3:1619
art galleries. See museums
art history
Burckhardt and, 1:315, 316, 319
fauvism and, 2:795–797
museum collections and, 3:1562
positivism and, 3:1132
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1865
Winckelmann and, 4:1769
women and, 3:1544–1545
Arthurian legend, 1:160
artificial selection. See eugenics
artillery, 1:94, 95, 99; 2:869
French army and, 2:866
military tactics and, 3:1507
Artisan, The (French journal), 3:1285
artisans and guilds, 1:103–107;
4:2265; 5:2484
artisans and, 1:104–107
art nouveau and, 1:107–108, 153
Belgium and, 1:203, 307
cities and, 1:444, 446
class and, 1:473, 474
Denmark and, 2:647
First International and, 2:824
French Revolution and, 2:843;
3:1314, 1315
garment making and, 4:2158
Germany and, 1:111, 107, 459;
2:960
guilds and, 1:111, 106, 203
Hamburg and, 2:1040
Japan and, 3:1208
2568
labor movements and, 3:1283–1284,
1286; 5:2486–2487
liberalism and, 1:458
London and, 1:104; 3:1373–1374,
1378, 1390
Luddism and, 3:1391–1392, 1411
Milan and, 3:1504
Owen ‘‘exchange bazaars’’ and,
3:1693
Prussian reforms and, 2:958
radicalism and, 1:111, 459; 3:1390;
5:2486–2487
Revolutions of 1830 and, 1:457
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1988,
1991
strikes and, 4:2264
Artist, The (Rank), 4:1938
art nouveau, 1:107–114, 152–153,
336
Beardsley and, 1:109, 192
Brussels and, 1:109, 109, 110,
112, 307
fin de siècle and, 2:815
Guimard and, 1:109, 109;
2:1026–1028
Paris and, 4:1732
Paris Exposition Universelle (1900)
and, 5:2503, 2506
Paris subways and, 4:2273; 5:2503
poster art and, 4:1846
Prague and, 1:113; 2:815; 4:1858
Schiele and, 4:2089
Vienna and, 1:112, 152–153; 2:815;
3:1530
Art Nouveau, L’ (Parisian gallery),
1:108
Art of Travel, The (Galton), 2:927
Artois, comte de. See Charles X
Artois, Henri-Charles-Ferdinand-
Marie Dieudonné d’. See
Chambord, comte de
Artot, Desire, 5:2307
Arts and Crafts movement, 1:109,
152, 153; 2:914
Loos critique of, 3:1381
Morris founding of, 3:1550; 4:1865
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1863, 1865
Artsruni, Grigor, 1:89
Aryanism, 1:403; 2:769, 816
Aryan Theater (Vienna), 3:1394–1395
Arzamas (Russian literary group),
4:1919
Asante Empire, 1:13, 19
Aschenbrandt, Theodor, 2:688
Aschenbrödel (J. Strauss), 4:2261
Ashbee, Charles Robert, 1:152
Ashbee, Henry Spenser, 4:1836
E U R O P E
Ashbourne, 3:1181
Ashcraft, R., 3:1514
Ashkenazi Jews, 3:1226; 5:2519
Ashley, Lord. See Shaftesbury, Lord
Ashton, Frederick, 4:1751
Ashton, T. S., 3:1153
Ashton family, 1:287
Asia
British civilizing mission in, 1:462
British imperialism in, 3:1116
cholera pandemic and, 1:436
East India Company and, 2:705
economic growth and, 3:1149–1152
Eurasianism and, 2:771–776
imperialism in, 1:94, 99; 2:812
indigenous elites and, 1:500
trade with, 3:1151
See also Central Asia; specific countries
and regions by name
Asia (British warship), 3:1612
Asiatic Society of Bengal,
3:1133–1134
Asiatic Society of Japan, 3:1210
Aspasia, 2:1018
Aspern-Essling, Battle of (1809),
2:860
Aspinall, Arthur, 4:1872
aspirin, 3:1164
Asquith, Herbert Henry, 1:114–115;
2:598, 730, 1012–1013; 3:1348,
1369; 5:2322
ASRS. See Amalgamated Society of
Railway Servants
Assassination of the Duc de Guise, The
(film), 1:442
assassinations. See terrorism
Assassins, 2:687
assemblies. See parliaments
assembly line, 5:2352
Assembly of Jewish Notables (France,
1806), 3:1227
Assembly of Notables (France), 2:767,
841–842; 3:1385, 1386
Assembly of the Clergy (France),
1:386–387
Assheton, Edward. See Cross, Viscount
Assicurazioni Generali, 5:2354
assimilation
as anti-Semitic target, 3:1233
as civilizing mission, 1:462–463
as French colonial policy, 2:508
immigrants and, 3:1114
Jewish emancipation and, 3:1225,
1228–1229, 1232, 1353,
1525
Jewish homeland vs., 2:685; 5:2518,
2519, 2520
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

of missionaries, 3:1527–1528
U.S. immigration quotas and, 2:750
Association for Analytical Psychology,
3:1240
Association for Free Psychoanalysis,
1:8
Association for Individual Psychology,
1:8
Association for the Reform and
Codification of International Law,
3:1175
Association for the Rights of Women,
3:1497
Association of Progresssive Womens
Groups (Berlin), 1:129
Association of Traveling Art Exhibits,
4:1956–1957
associations, voluntary, 1:56,
115–123, 466, 467–468
anti-Corn Law, 2:558
in Baltic provinces, 2:820–821
Catholic, 1:203, 383–384, 388, 389
in Finland, 2:820, 821
Irish immigrant, 3:1525
Irish Revival, 3:1182–1183
liberalism and, 3:1341
libraries and, 3:1352
in London, 3:1375–1376
male private clubs as, 1:116; 3:1471
mutual aid societies and, 3:1284,
1331–1332; 5:2454
in Prague, 4:1856
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1989
touring clubs as, 1:149
for workers benefits, 3:1284
See also cooperative movements
Assommoir, L’ (Zola), 5:2523
assumptionism, 1:69; 3:1511–1512;
4:1908
Aston, Louise, 1:66; 3:1680
Astrakhan, 1:436
astronomy, 4:2113
Maxwell and, 3:1478
Poincaré (Henri) and, 4:1804, 1805
Quetelet and, 4:1921
Astruc, Zacharie, 3:1432
‘‘Asya’’ (Turgenev), 5:2365
asymmetry, 4:1743
Atala (Chateaubriand), 1:420
Doré illustrations, 2:676
Atatürk, Kemal, 3:1207, 1682, 1691
Atelier, L’ (socialist journal), 5:2397
Atelier of the Artist or Real Allegory
of Seven Years of My Artistic Life,
The (Courbet), 2:568–569
Atget, Eugène, 1:123–125
atheism, 3:1459, 1514; 4:2030
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Nietzsche and, 3:1629–1631
Athenaeum (British journal), 4:2258
Athenaeum (Manchester), 1:186
Athenäum (German journal), 2:985;
3:1647; 4:2094, 2097
Athens, 1:125–127
ancient democracy of, 4:1769–1770
market street, 1:126
Olympic Games and, 1:126; 3:1665,
1666, 1667, 1667; 4:2246
Atkinson, George Franklin, 3:1459;
4:2139
Atlantic Ocean
Panama Canal and, 3:1338
See also transatlantic crossing;
transatlantic telegraph
Atlantic slave trade, 1:13
Berlin Conference abolishing, 1:499
British abolitionists and, 1:303;
2:708
Brussels Declaration abolishing,
1:308–309
to Caribbean, 1:363, 365; 2:1036
France and, 2:897
Protestant campaign against, 4:1896
Atlas Mountains, 3:1547
Atlas of Plant Geography (Schouw),
2:649
Atlas Works, 2:792
atomic bomb, 2:740; 4:1781
atomic fission, 4:1781
atomic number, 1:427
atomic theory, 1:427; 4:1780
chemistry and, 1:424, 425–426
Einstein and, 2:739
Mach’s rejection of, 3:1409
radioactivity and, 2070–2071;
2:594–595
Rutherford and, 4:2070–2071
atomic weight, 2:595
tables of, 1:424, 425, 426, 427
atonality, 3:1245, 1437, 1572;
4:2101, 2102–2103, 2103
atoxyl, 2:736; 3:1264
Attack on a Potato Store in Ireland
(engraving), 3:1179
Atta Troll (Heine), 2:1056
Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation
(Fichte), 2:813
At the Stock Exchange (Degas), 1:354
Attila (Verdi), 5:2406
Attwood, Thomas, 1:415
Auber, Daniel-François-Esprit,
3:1671, 1672, 1673, 1674
Auberge Ganne inn (Barbizon), 1:177
Au Bonheur des Dames (Zola), 1:289;
2:548
INDEX
Aubry, Louis-Yves, 2:996
Auch Eine Philosophie der Geschichte
zur Bildung der Menschheit
(Herder), 2:1061
Auckland, 3:1624
Auclert, Hubertine, 1:127, 127–128;
2:650, 651
Durand viewed by, 2:697
Richer and, 4:1998
women’s suffrage and, 4:2279, 2281
Auden, W. H., 3:1256
Au-dessus de la Mêlée (Rolland),
4:2015
Auenbrugger, Leopold, 3:1297
Auerstedt, Battle of (1806), 1:477;
2:901, 957; 3:1221, 1222, 1586;
4:1900
Augagneur, Victor, 3:1405
Augsburg Confession, 4:1891
Augspurg, Anita, 1:128–130; 4:2280
Augusta, princess of Prussia, 1:234;
2:873
Augusta Victoria, empress of Germany,
5:2467, 2468
Auguste Comte and Positivism (J. S.
Mill), 4:1844
Augustus II, king of Poland, 4:2083
Aultman-Miller Bukeye Binders and
Reapers, 1:27
Aupick, Jacques, 1:186
Auric, Georges, 4:1944, 2087
Aurier, Albert, 2:939; 4:2294
Auriol, Vincent, 3:1218
Aurore, L’ (French newspaper), 1:480;
2:685; 5:2523–2524
Aušra (Lithuanian newspaper), 3:1366
Austen, Jane, 1:130–132, 301;
2:1046; 3:1323
Austerlitz (1805), 1:132–133;
3:1592; 5:2374, 2438
Alexander I and, 1:37–38, 132, 133
Bohemian Lands and, 1:259–264
Kutuzov and, 3:1281
Napoleon’s gun-to-infantry ratio and,
3:1506
Napoleon’s victory at, 1:93,
132–133; 2:846, 875, 901, 957;
3:1586
Austin, Charles, 3:1512
Australia, 1:133–137; 3:11114;
5:2411
Aborigines of, 1:133–134
Australia (British battle cruiser),
3:1611
Australia
British settlement colonies in, 1:351;
2:504, 509; 3:1115
exploration of, 2:782
2569
INDEX
football (soccer) in, 2:830
immigrants to, 2:646, 747, 747
immigration policies of, 1:353
New Zealand and, 3:1623
penal colonies in, 1:134; 2:505, 780
trade and, 2:505; 5:2335, 2336,
2342
world’s fairs and, 5:2493, 2499
Austria. See Austria-Hungary;
Hapsburg Monarchy; Vienna
Austria-Hungary, 1:137–147
Adler, Alfred and, 1:8–10
Adler, Victor and, 1:10–11
Albania and, 1:33; 3:1691
alliance system and, 1:47–50; 2:526,
527, 663–664, 864
anti-Catholic, anti-Habsburg
movement in, 1:263
anti-Semitism in, 1:73, 75, 475;
2:689, 904; 3:1233, 1393–1395,
1526; 4:2045; 5:2520
aristocracy in, 1:81, 87, 138, 139,
140–141, 471
army system of, 1:94, 97; 2:866,
867; 3:1505
artisans and, 1:105
art nouveau and, 1:108, 112
Austerlitz defeat of, 1:93, 132–133;
2:957; 3:1586
Balkans and, 1:32, 33, 49, 146, 163,
164, 165, 166, 206, 207; 2:530,
663–664, 705; 4:2149
banking and, 1:170, 171, 173
bankruptcy threat to, 4:1990
Bohemian Lands and, 1:259–264;
4:1712
Bosnia-Herzegovina occupation/
annexation by, 1:32, 49, 137,
146, 207, 242, 276–277;
2:703–704, 864, 865; 3:1628,
1690, 1691; 4:2045, 2067, 2069
bourgeoisie in, 1:471
Brentano circle in, 1:298
cabarets in, 1:336
Catholic majority in, 1:377
Catholic political parties in,
3:1393–1395
cholera epidemic in, 1:438; 2:669
Christian Democratic Party in,
4:2209
Christian Social Party and, 3:1393
commercial policy of, 2:512
Concert of Europe and, 2:524–527,
565
Congress of Berlin and, 1:146, 240;
2:529, 530, 705
2570
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–534,
565, 861, 958
Congress System and, 1:374
constitutionalism and, 1:142, 144,
145; 2:864; 5:2510
Danish-German War and,
2:607–609, 648, 963
drinking culture of, 1:34
Dual Alliance and, 2:864, 965
dual capitals of, 1:309–312
as Dual Monarchy (1866),
1:144–147, 262, 309; 2:627,
864; 3:1269
dueling code in, 2:696
Eastern Question and, 2:703
education in, 2:723, 724
emigrants from, 3:1114
Ferdinand I and, 2:807–808
fin de siècle mood of, 2:815
football (soccer) in, 2:833, 834
foreign policy and, 1:146
Francis I and, 2:860–861
Francis Ferdinand and, 2:861–862
Francis Joseph I and, 2:961,
863–865
Freud and, 2:903–909
gentry bureaucracy in, 1:83
German alliance with, 1:239;
2:703–704
German Confederation leadership
and, 2:958, 962
German unification and, 1:47, 237,
263; 2:871, 923–924, 962,
963–964; 4:1902, 1993
Greek War of Independence and,
2:1020
Hofmannsthal and, 2:1076–1077
Holy Alliance and, 2:531, 565, 1002,
1079–1081; 4:1970, 1971, 1973,
1985, 2228; 5:2392
Italy and. See under Habsburg
Monarchy
Jelačić and, 3:1219–1220
Jewish emancipation in,
3:1225–1226, 1227, 1229
Jewish population of, 3:1229, 1524,
1525–1526; 4:1808
John, archduke of, 3:1235–1236
Joseph II reforms and, 1:137,
138–139
Kafka and, 3:1242–1243
labor movements in, 3:1287, 1288,
1289, 1290; 5:2489
Lafayette’s imprisonment by, 3:1300
landed elite in, 1:469
E U R O P E
Leipzig battle and, 3:1319
Loos and, 3:1381–1382
Lueger and, 3:1392–1395
Mach and, 3:1408–1410
machine breaking in, 3:1411
Metternich and, 2:861; 3:1236,
1491–1495
Milan and, 3:1501–1502
monetary system of, 3:1538
monetary unions and, 1:171;
5:2525–2526
Montenegro and, 3:1539, 1541,
1546
Münchengrätz treaty and,
3:1560–1561
as multinational empire, 2:724–725;
3:1525, 1526
music and, 3:1571
Musil and, 3:1573–1574
Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1587
Napoleonic Wars and. See under
French Revolutionary and
Napoleonic Wars
nationalist movements and, 1:10–11,
145; 4:1993
Ottoman reforms and, 1:33; 3:1683
Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716–1717
papacy and, 4:1719, 1725
papal infallibility doctrine and,
4:1723
Papal State and, 4:1724
police system in, 4:1814
Polish partitions and, 1:376; 2:957;
4:1807, 1808, 1809, 1812, 1813,
1817, 1818, 1900, 1989; 5:2370,
2371, 2380
post-1867 Austria and, 1:145–146
post-1867 Hungary and, 1:144–145
Prague Slav Congress and, 1:141,
142; 4:1861–1863
press in, 4:1870
Protestant minority in, 4:1891, 1891
Prussia and, 1:234, 237–238;
4:1899–1900, 1901, 2045;
5:2353, 2420, 2467, 2526
Quadruple Alliance and, 1:374;
2:662
railroads and, 4:1933
Rank and, 4:1938–1939
Restoration and, 4:1967, 1970,
1971, 1973
Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1980,
1981, 1982
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1985,
1986
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Revolutions of 1848. See under
Habsburg Monarchy
Rothschilds and, 4:2040, 2041
Rudolf (crown prince) and,
4:2044–2045
Russia and, 1:146; 2:526, 704–705,
1081; 4:1995, 2054, 2067, 2070;
5:2392
San Stefano Treaty and, 2:703;
4:2069, 2086
Schiele and, 4:2089–2091; 5:2421
Schnitzler, 4:2100–2101; 5:2421
Schoenberg and, 4:2101–2103;
5:2421
Schubert and, 4:2106–2107
Second International and, 4:2127,
2128
Semmelweiss and, 4:2134–2135
Serbia and, 1:146, 166, 206, 207,
242, 243, 277; 2:663, 704–705,
862, 863, 865; 3:1247, 1546;
4:1994, 2146–2149
serfdom abolished in, 4:1754
slave trade and, 1:13, 308
sports in, 4:2242, 2243
Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2259–2261;
5:2420
strikes in, 4:2268
subway in, 4:2272
suffrage in, 1:145; 4:2279, 2281;
5:2421
Suttner and, 4:2281–2282
Talleyrand and, 5:2304, 2305
telephone service in, 5:2308
temperance movement and, 1:36
Three Emperors’ League and, 2:703;
3:1690
tobacco and, 5:2313
trade and, 5:2336, 2337
Trieste and, 4:2004; 5:2354–2356,
2403
Triple Alliance and, 1:48, 166, 239;
2:526, 965; 3:1200; 4:2017
Ukraine and, 5:2371–2373
universities in, 2:728; 5:2380,
2383–2384, 2387–2388
urban development and, 1:452
utilitarianism and, 5:2393
Venice and, 3:1597; 4:1994–1995,
2004; 5:2355, 2356, 2402–2404
voluntary associations in, 1:117, 118,
119
Weininger and, 5:2448–2449
welfare initiatives in, 1:357; 5:2452
William II and, 5:2469
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
wine and, 5:2477
women legislators in, 4:2281
women teachers in, 2:724
world’s fairs and, 5:2498, 2503
World War I and, 1:146; 2:862, 863,
865, 968–969; 3:1203
Young Czechs and Old Czechs and,
5:2510–2511
See also Austro-Prussian War;
Budapest; Crimean War; Franco-
Austrian War; French
Revolutionary Wars and
Napoleonic Wars; Habsburg
Monarchy; Hungary; Vienna
Austrian Christian Social Party. See
Christian Social Party
Austrian German Nationalism, 1:10,
11
Austrian National Bank, 1:170
Austrian Netherlands, 4:2187
See also Belgium
Austrian Peace Society, 4:2282
Austro-German Dual Alliance of 1879,
4:2086
Austro-Hungarian Compromise of
1867, 4:2018; 5:2356, 2388,
2510–2511
Austromarxism, 5:2421
Austro-Prussian War (1866), 1:96,
144, 147–148; 2:963–964;
5:2526
Austrian defeat in, 2:864; 3:1269
Bismarck and, 1:235, 236, 237–238;
2:662, 963–964; 4:1902
Bohemian Lands and, 1:147–148,
262; 2:963–964
cholera epidemic and, 2:669
Frederick III and, 2:874
Geneva Convention and, 4:1949
German unification and, 2:963–964
Louis II and, 3:1383
Moltke and, 3:1532
outcomes of, 1:262, 393; 2:567,
662, 853, 867; 3:1199, 1538
Prague’s support for Austrian in,
4:1860
Prussian military technology and,
1:217; 3:1505–1507
Schleswig-Holstein and, 2:648;
4:1902
William I and, 5:2467
Austro-Slavism, 4:1860
Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791),
3:1247; 4:2142
authoritarianism
Bolsheviks and, 3:1488
Bonapartism and, 1:269, 271
INDEX
Boulangism and, 1:283–284
Carlism and, 1:366–368
Carlsbad Decrees and, 1:368–370
Catherine II and, 1:376–377
Chamberlain (Houston) and, 1:403
Charles X and, 1:412–413
civil society vs., 1:466–467
Committee of Public Safety and,
2:665, 892
Comte and, 2:523–524
Francis Ferdinand and, 2:862
Jacobins and, 2:665, 892
Napoleon III and, 2:567
Nicholas II and, 2:862; 3:1627,
1628
papal infallibility and, 1:382
peasant life and, 4:1756
political Catholicism and, 1:389
politically motivated migration from,
3:1113
as secret society response, 1:361
William II and, 2:862
Autobiography (Darwin), 3:1426
Autobiography (J. S. Mill), 3:1508,
1509, 1512, 1514
autochrome color process,
3:1397–1398; 4:1774
autocracy. See authoritarianism
Auto-Emanzipation (Pinsker), 5:2520
automobile, 1:148–151; 2:576,
602, 793
Lyon production of, 3:1405
mass production and, 3:1162
microinventions for, 3:1161
progress and, 2:815
racing and, 3:1325
rubber tires and, 3:1336
tourism and, 5:2326, 2330–2331
as transportation, 5:2351–2352
automobile clubs, 5:2330
autos-da-fé, 4:1968
autotype, 4:1773
Autumn Leaves (Millais), 4:1864
Aux Trois Frères Provençaux (Paris
restaurant), 4:1966
avant-garde, 1:151–158
absinthe and, 1:2–4
Apaches and, 4:1944
art nouveau and, 1:107, 109,
152–153
Beardsley and, 1:109, 191–192, 193
Bergson’s influence on, 1:214
Berlin and, 1:220
Brussels and, 1:307
cabarets and, 1:335, 336
Cézanne and, 1:398–399
2571
INDEX
cubism and, 1:156, 157; 2:590–593
defining characteristics of,
1:151–152
Diaghilev and, 2:655
fin de siècle and, 2:815
futurism and, 1:156–158;
2:915–921
Gauguin and, 1:152, 154; 2:941
German expressionism and,
1:154–156, 157
impressionism and, 1:152; 4:1701
Jarry and, 3:1214
Kandinsky and, 3:1243–1246
Lasker-Schüler and, 3:1309–1310
Loos and, 3:1381–1382
Meyerhold and, 3:1496
painting and, 4:1701, 1706–1711
Picasso and, 4:1781–1784
poster art and, 4:1846
primitivism and, 1:156; 4:1874
Ravel and, 4:1944
Repin and, 4:1958
Satie and, 4:2086–2087
Stravinsky and, 3:1573;
4:2262–2263
symbolism and, 4:2295
Toulouse-Lautrec and, 5:2324
Van Gogh and, 5:2400
Wagner and, 3:1675
Zola and, 5:2522
Á Vau-leau (Huysmans), 2:1104
Avé-Lallement, Friedrich, 2:572
Avene de l’Opéra (Paris), 2:1049
Avenir, L’ (French Catholic
newspaper), 1:381, 387; 4:1718
Avenir de la science, L’ (Renan),
4:1953, 2133
Avenir des femmes, L’ (French feminist
journal), 1:127; 4:1998
Avenir movement, 4:1718–1719
Aventures d’Arthur Gordon Pym, Les
(Baudelaire), 1:188
Avenue (Budapest). See Andrássy
Avenue
Avenue de l’Opera (Paris), 2:1048,
1050
Avenue de l’Opéra: Sunshine, Winter
Morning (Pissarro), 4:1793, 1794
Avenue Theatre, 1:192
Avèze, marquis d’, 5:2493
Avignon, 3:1513, 1514
Awadh, 3:1133, 1134
Awakening Conscience, The (Hunt),
4:1864
Axelrod, Pavel, 1:264, 265; 3:1488
axons, 1:342
2572
Ayacucho, Battle of (1824), 4:2229
Azef, Evno, 4:2211
Azeglio, Massimo Taparelli, marchese
d’, 1:391; 2:930; 3:1194;
4:1786–1787
Azerbaijan, 3:1207
Azores, 4:1839
Azorin (José Martı́nez Ruı́z), 2:950,
951
‘‘Azosoyuz’’ (Khlebnikov), 2:774
Azov, Sea of, 1:243; 2:579
Azuaga, 1:379
n Bain, Le (Manet), 3:1432–1433
B Bairoch, Paul, 2:514; 5:2338–2339
‘‘Baa Baa, Black Sheep’’ (Kipling),
3:1256
Baader, Franz von, 2:1080; 4:2088
Babcock, William, 1:177
Babeuf, François-Noël (‘‘Gracchus’’),
2:520, 521, 665, 845;
4:2129–2130, 2200
Babinski, Joseph, 1:410
Babouviste theory, 4:2131
Bach, Alexander von, 3:1220; 4:1856
Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel, 3:1489
Bach, Johann Sebastian, 1:294;
3:1419, 1570; 5:2430
Baciocchi, Felice and Elisa, 4:1698
Back to Methuselah (Shaw),
4:2166–2167
Bacon, Francis, 2:1064; 3:1422;
4:1779, 2110
Bacon, Reginald, 2:682
bacteriology, 1:438; 3:1164
Koch and, 3:1262–1263; 4:1914
Pasteur and, 4:1742–1745
public health and, 4:1914
See also germ theory of disease
badaud vs. flâneur, 2:826
Baden, 1:236, 369; 4:1995
liberalism and, 3:1346
List as U.S. consul in, 3:1357
marriage bond and, 3:1453
Napoleon and, 2:957
Prussia and, 2:867, 964; 4:1901
written constitution of, 1:457; 2:959
Baden-Baden, 5:2327
Badeni, Kasimir Felix, 1:262; 4:1860,
1861
Badeni affair, 5:2421
Badeni language ordinances (1897),
2:865
Baden-Powell, Robert, 1:159–160
Baedeker, Karl, 5:2329, 2330
Baedeker’s guidebooks, 4:1824
E U R O P E
Baekeland, Leo Hendrik, 3:1160
Baer, Karl Ernst von, 4:2234
Bagehot, Eliza Wilson, 1:160
Bagehot, Thomas Watson, 1:160
Bagehot, Walter, 1:160–161
Baghdad Railway, 1:49
Bagot, Richard, 3:1621
Bagration, Peter, 1:132, 272, 273
Bahadur Shah II, 3:1135; 4:2138,
2140
Bahr, Hermann, 2:1067
Bailey, Liberty Hyde, 2:653
Bailly, Jean-Sylvain, 3:1443
Bain, Alexander, 3:1514; 4:1907
Bainville, Jacques, 1:5
Bajer, Frederik, 4:1697
Baju, Anatole, 2:632
Bakelite, 3:1160
Baker, Josephine, 1382
Bakst, Léon, 1:192, 336; 4:2181
Diaghilev and, 2:654, 655
Baku, 2:742
Bakunin, Mikhail, 1:161–163; 2:990;
3:1170; 4:1941
anarchism and, 1:56, 57, 58, 60, 61,
62; 3:1272, 1293; 4:1755
as Belinsky influence, 1:207
First International and, 1:162;
2:824, 825, 1025; 3:1289
Herzen’s views and, 2:1064, 1065,
1066
International Workingmen’s
Association and, 4:2205
Kropotkin as successor to, 3:1272
Malatesta and, 3:1424
Nechayev and, 1:162; 3:1613
as People’s Will influence, 4:1767
as populist influence, 4:1831
Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1862
Revolutions of 1848 and, 1:161;
2:961
rivalry with Marx of, 1:161, 162;
3:1289, 1424
Schelling and, 4:2088
secularization and, 4:2133
Spanish labor movement and, 4:2299
as Westernizer, 5:2459, 2460
Young Hegelians and, 5:2513
Balaganchik (Blok), Meyerhold staging
of, 3:1496
Balakirev, Mily, 2:980; 3:1571, 1575;
4:1999, 2000
Balaklava, 1:244
Balaklava, Battle of (1854), 1:95;
2:578
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

balance of power
Bismarck’s destruction of, 2:853,
964
Chinese-British trade and, 3:1678
Concert of Europe paradigm vs.,
2:524, 526
Concert of Europe’s decline and,
2:663
Congress of Vienna’s maintenance of,
1:374, 457; 2:532; 3:1482
Crimean War and, 2:580
Franco-Prussian War and, 2:867
Mediterranean and, 3:1613
Mehmet Ali’s conquests and, 2:732
Metternich and, 3:1492, 1493, 1494
San Stefano Treaty and, 1:12;
4:2085–2086
Balard, Jérôme, 4:1743
Balbo, Cesare, 1:390; 4:1786
Balcome, Florence, 5:2464
Balcony Room (Menzel), 3:1489
‘‘Balder Dead’’ (Arnold), 1:102
Baldus, Édouard, 4:1771–1772
Baldwin, Stanley, 3:1256
Balentics, Imre, 2:575
Balfour, Arthur, 1:80, 405; 2:798;
5:2322, 2445
Irish policy and, 2:1011; 3:1181
Balfour Declaration (1917), 5:2521
Balicki, Zygmunt, 2:752
Balkan Alliance (1912), 1:207
Balkan League, 1:32, 33, 163, 313;
2:704–705; 3:1546; 4:2149
Balkans, 4:2165
alliance system and, 1:48, 146; 2:964
Armenians in, 1:87
Austria-Hungary and, 1:146;
2:703–704
Austro-Russian rivalry in, 3:1690
Belgrade and, 1:205–207
Bismarck and, 1:239, 240; 2:965
Black Hand and, 1:242–243
conference diplomacy and, 2:662
Congress of Berlin and, 2:530–531
Eastern Crisis (1875–1878) and,
2:674, 703; 3:1687–1690
Germany and, 2:968
Greek shipping and, 2:1018
Greek War of Independence and,
3:1685
Illyrian movement and, 2:924, 925
migration and, 2:748; 3:1109–1110,
1113
nationalism and, 1:2, 163, 166;
2:663, 705, 704–705, 1018;
3:1420, 1685, 1690
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Orthodox merchant class and,
3:1684
Ottoman Empire and, 1:2;
3:1188–1189, 1420, 1682,
1683–1691
population of, 3:1682
railroads and, 4:1933
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1985
Romania and, 4:2017
Russia and, 1:163, 165, 166, 276;
2:663–664; 3:1690
Russo-Turkish War and,
4:2067–2068
San Stefano Treaty and, 2:703;
4:2085–2086
Serbia and, 3:1683–1684; 4:2145,
2146, 2149
trialism and, 2:862
universities and, 5:2387–2388
See also Balkan Wars; Eastern
Question
Balkan Wars, 1:163–166; 2:527,
704–705; 3:1628, 1690, 1691
Adrianpole and, 1:12–13, 163
Albania and, 1:33, 33; 3:1691
Armenians and, 1:89, 92
Belgrade and, 1:207
Bulgaria and, 1:313
combatants of, 1:2, 32–33
consequences of, 1:2, 32–33, 146,
165–166, 313; 2:663, 705
first Balkan War, 1:12, 163–164,
166, 207; 3:1541
Francis Ferdinand and, 2:862
Francis Joseph and, 2:865
Germany and, 5:2312
Greece and, 1:2, 13, 163–166;
2:704, 1022, 1022; 3:1541,
1685, 1691; 4:2149
Jaurés’s view of, 3:1217
Montenegro and, 3:1541
Ottoman losses in, 3:1190, 1546
Red Cross and, 4:1949
second, 1:13, 164–165, 166, 313;
3:1541; 4:2149
Serbia and, 1:2, 13, 146, 163–166,
313; 2:704; 3:154, 1691; 4:2146,
2149
young refugees from, 1:165
Young Turks and, 1:92
Balla, Giacomo, 1:157; 2:917, 920
Ballad of Reading Gaol, The (Wilde),
5:2466
ballads, 4:2123
Ballantyne, John and James, 4:2123
ballasite, 3:1644
INDEX
Ball at the Moulin de la Galette
(Renoir), 4:1955
Ballesteros, Francisco, 4:2228
ballet
avant-garde, 1:154
Dega’s images of, 2:633, 634, 635;
4:1708
Diaghilev and, 2:654, 655; 4:1876,
2077
as French grand opera component,
3:1671
Nijinsky and, 3:1642–1643
Pavlova and, 4:1749–1751, 1750
primitivism and, 4:1876
Ravel and, 4:1945
St. Petersburg and, 4:2077
Satie and, 4:2087
set design for, 1:192
Stravinsky and, 4:2261–2262
Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307
Ballets Russes, 1:192; 2:655; 4:1876
Nijinsky and, 3:1642, 1642, 1643
Ravel and, 4:1944
Satie and, 4:2087
Stravinsky and, 4:2261–2262
Ballets Suédois, 4:2087
Ballin, Albert, 5:2470
Balliol College (Oxford), 1:102
Ballo in maschera, Un (Verdi), 3:1678;
5:2406
balloons, 1:30; 3:1153
Franco-Prussian War and, 2:868;
3:1578
Nadar and, 3:1578
Ball Souper, The (Menzel), 3:1490
Balluriau, Paul, 2:1085
Balmont, Konstantin, 4:2181–2182
Balsar, Battle of (1764), 2:706
Baltard, Victor, 2:1049
Balthazar Castiglione (Raphael),
Matisse copy of, 3:1474
Baltic provinces. See Finland and the
Baltic provinces
Baltic Sea
British fleet and, 3:1615
Crimean War and, 2:577
Lithuania and, 3:1365
Schleswig-Holstein and, 2:648
Baltic states. See Finland and the Baltic
provinces
Balzac, Honoré de, 1:166–169, 167,
270, 472; 2:827; 3:1577; 4:2253;
5:2314, 2395
Doré illustrations for, 2:676
Dostoyevsky and, 2:678
peasant novels of, 4:1756
2573
INDEX
realism and, 2:830
Rodin’s statue of, 4:2009
Sand and, 4:2084
Banca Roma. See Bank of Rome
Bandiera, Attilio and Emilio, 3:1255;
4:2002; 5:2403
banditry, 2:571, 573, 576; 3:1598;
4:2004
culture of, 4:1821
Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1786
southern Italy and, 3:1195, 1199,
1414–1416, 1424
banishment, 2:779
Bank für Handel und Industrie zu
Darmstadt, 1:175
Bank Holiday Act of 1870 (Britain),
1:288
Banking School theory, 3:1510
Bank of Belgium, 1:174, 493
Bank of England, 1:161, 170, 172,
173
gold standard and, 1:353
Peel and, 4:1758, 1759
Bank of France, 1:170, 171, 174;
2:846; 3:1398, 1586; 4:1737
Bank of Ireland, 1:172; 2:692
Bank of Italy, 1:171
Bank of Prussia, 1:171
Bank of Rome, 2:971
Bank of Sicily, 3:1417
Bank of the Netherlands, 1:53
Bank of the People, 4:1899
Banks, Joseph, 3:1223
Banks, Robert. See Liverpool, Lord
banks and banking, 1:170–176;
3:1537
Amsterdam and, 1:53
anti-Semitism and, 1:77
aristocracy and, 1:83–84
Bagehot study of, 1:161
Barcelona and, 1:182
Belgium and, 1:174; 3:1335
Berlin and, 1:176, 216–217
bourgeoisie and, 1:284, 470, 471
branch networks and, 1:171
cities and, 1:445
crime and, 2:571
foreign investments and, 1:353–354
German industrialist financing by,
1:355; 2:960
Germany and, 1:175, 176; 2:965
gold standard and, 1:353, 357;
3:1537
investment banking and, 1:174–175
Italy and, 2:583, 609, 971;
4:2036–2037
2574
Jews and, 3:1228, 1231
joint-stock banking and, 1:171–173,
174, 175–176, 216–217; 2:960;
4:2040
London and, 3:1374
Lyon and, 1:174, 175; 3:1405
Milan and, 3:1195, 1503
Naples and, 3:1582
Napoleon and, 1:170; 2:846; 3:1586
railroad construction and, 4:1933
Rothschilds and, 4:2039–2041
Russia and, 2:1014, 1016; 4:2257
Serbia and, 4:2147
See also monetary unions; Zollverein
Banks of Marne at Chennevières, The
(Pissarro), 4:1792–1793
banlieues, 4:1732; 5:2484–2485
Bannerman, Henry Campbell, 1:469
Banque de Belgique. See Bank of
Belgium
Banque de France. See Bank of France
banquet campaigns, 4:1990
Bantu (people), 4:2219
Banville, Theodore de, 2:1103–1104
baptism, 1:380
Baptist Missionary Society, 3:1527;
4:1895
Baptists, 2:1002; 4:1891, 1894, 1897
Christian Socialism and, 4:2208
Baptist War (1831), 1:365
Bara, Joseph, 4:1960
Baratieri, Oreste, 1:8
Bar at the Folies-Bergère, A (Manet),
3:1433, 1434; 4:1845
Barbados, 1:364, 365
Barbaroux, Charles-Jean-Marie, 2:973,
974
Barbère, Bertrand, 4:1763
Barber of Seville, The (Rossini), 3:1572,
1670; 4:2038, 2039
Barbès, Armand, 4:2131
Barbey d’Aurevilly, Jules-Amedee,
1:187; 2:633
Barbier, Paul Jules, 1:229
Barbier de La Serre, Charles, 1:296, 297
Barbiere di Siviglia, Il (Rossini),
3:1572, 1670; 4:2038, 2039
Barbizon painters, 1:176–180; 2:562,
939; 3:1126, 1353
landscapes and, 4:1954
Millet and, 3:1515, 1516
as Pissarro influence, 4:1792
Romanticism and, 1:176, 178;
4:1702, 1705
Van Gogh and, 5:2399, 2400
Barbus (French artist group), 1:191
Barcelona, 1:180–184
E U R O P E
anticlerical riots in, 1:69, 180–181
architecture in, 1:112, 183–184;
2:935–938; 4:1826, 2232
art nouveau and, 1:112
cabarets and, 1:335
class warfare in, 1:181–182, 183
Gaudı́ and, 2:935–938; 4:1826
international exhibitions and, 5:2499
Peninsular War and, 4:1764, 1765
Picasso and, 4:1781
population of, 1:181, 182
Semana Trágica and, 4:2231; 5:2488
textile industry in, 1:180, 357
urban development and, 1:181, 182,
452; 2:935
Barcelona Football Club, 4:2244
Barcelona Process, 3:1481
Barcelona School of Architecture,
2:935
Barclay, Robert, 5:2440
Barclay de Tolly, Mikhail, 1:272;
2:819; 3:1321, 1322
Bardell v. Pickwick (Dickens), 3:1646
Bardley, Mary Anne, 3:1602
Bardo, Treaty of (1881), 5:2363
Barère, Bertrand, 2:894
Bargaining in Europe (Marsh), 2:516
Barge Haulers on the Volga (Repin),
4:1956, 1957
barges, 5:2347, 2348, 2350
Bargue, Charles, 5:2400
Bari, 3:1581
Baring, Alexander, 3:1374
Baring, Evelyn. See Cromer, Lord
Baring crisis (1890), 1:135
Barings, 4:2040
Barlach, Ernst, 1:154
Barnaby Rudge (Dickens), 2:656
Barnave, Antoine-Pierre-Joseph-Marie,
1:471; 2:611
Barnetche, Eugénie, 4:2086
Barnett, Samuel Augustus and
Henrietta, 3:1376
Barney, Natalie, 2:1084
Barnum, P. T., 3:1566
Baroja, Pı́o de, 2:950; 4:2232
Baroness Germaine de Staël (Isabey),
4:2247
Baronian, Hagop, 1:90
Baron Munchausen (Doré
illustrations), 2:676
Barons, Krišjanis, 2:820
baroque style, 4:2076; 5:2416
Barr, Alfred H., Jr., 1:156
Barrack-Room Ballads (Kipling),
3:1256
Barras, Paul de, 2:664, 894
Barrès, Maurice, 1:184–185; 2:858
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

barricades, 2:1047, 1048; 4:1731,
1735, 1736, 1960, 1963, 1990
Barrow-in-Furness (England), 1:84
Barruel, Augustin de, 2:881
Barry, Charles, 1:185–186; 4:1917,
1918, 2030
Barry, Edward Middleton, 1:186
Bartered Bride, The (Smetana), 3:1673
Barth, Heinrich, 2:782
Barth, Karl, 3:1252, 1253; 4:2097
Bartholdi, Auguste, 5:2499
Barthou, Jean-Louis, 2:857
Basanavičius, Jonas, 3:1366–1367
Basayev, Shamil, 4:2165
Basel
Burckhardt and, 1:316–317
First International Congress of 1869
in, 2:824–825
Basel, Treaty of (1795), 2:900; 4:1900
BASF (Baden Aniline and Soda
Manufacturing), 3:1160
Basic Laws of Arithmetic (Frege), 2:883
Basile, Mathieu. See Guesde, Jules
Basler Zeitung (German newspaper),
1:317
Basque Nationalist Party, 4:2232
Basque province
Carlism and, 1:368
Catholicism in, 1:379
education and, 2:726
Basque region (Spain), 4:2231, 2232
Basques, 2:949
Bastiat, Frédéric, 4:1695
Bastien-Lepage, Jules, 4:1946, 2292
Bastille, fall of (1789), 2:842,
886–887; 3:1300, 1385; 4:1728,
1729
commemoration of, 5:2305
journalists portrayal of, 4:1869
Ba-ta-clan (Offenbach), 3:1661
Batavian Republic (Netherlands),
3:1597, 1616; 4:2186,
2187–2189
vaccination requirements, 4:2197
Bateau Lavoir (Montmartre building),
2:590; 4:1782
Bates, Henry Walter, 5:2437
Bateson, William, 2:653
Bath (England), 1:288; 3:1323;
5:2327
Bather of Valpinçon, The (Ingres),
3:1167
Bathers (Renoir), 4:1955, 1956
Bathers, The (Cézanne), 1:398
Bathers, The (Courbet), 2:568
bathing, 1:251, 253
bathing machines, 4:2124–2125
bathmetric charting, 3:1658
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
baths, therapeutic, 4:2124, 2125,
2126; 5:2327, 2328
Batllo, Josep, 1:183
Battaglia di Legnano, La (Verdi),
3:1672
battalion (military unit), 1:94, 99
Battambang, 3:1142
Batthyány, Lajos, 3:1220, 1267, 1268
Battle of the Nations. See Leipzig,
Battle of
Battle of Trafalgar, The (Callow),
5:2345
Battleship Potemkin, The (film), 4:1976
battleships
dreadnaught, 2:681–683, 968;
3:1610–1611
German buildup of, 3:1609–1610
Batumi, 4:2085
Bauakademie (Berlin), 4:2093
Baudelaire, Charles, 1:169, 186–188,
187; 4:2008
absinthe drinking and, 1:3
bohemian circle of, 3:1577
chiffonnier character and, 3:1432
on Daumier’s drawing, 2:622
Decadence and, 2:632
flâneur and, 2:826, 827
hashish use by, 2:687
Manet friendship with, 3:1432, 1433
Matisse illustrations for, 3:1475
on modern painting, 3:1128, 1132,
1529, 1530, 1543; 4:1708
opium use by, 2:686
poetry by, 1:187
realism and, 4:1946
Russian symbolists and, 4:2181
on Sand, 4:2085
symbolism and, 4:2292, 2293
tobacco and, 5:2314
translations by, 1:187–188
Wagner and, 3:1675
Baudin, Nicolas-Thomas, 2:781
Baudin Trial (1868), 2:928
Bauer, Bruno, 4:2203; 5:2512, 2513
Bauer, Edgar, 5:2512
Bauer, Felice, 3:1243
Bauer, Otto, 1:11, 314
Bauernfeld, Eduard, 5:2418
Bauhaus, 3:1246
Baum, Paul, 1:155
Bäumer, Gertrud, 1:188–190;
3:1681
Baumgartner, Walter, 4:2269
Bautzen, Battle of (1813), 2:903;
3:1334
Bava-Beccaris, Fiorenzo, 3:1504;
5:2377
INDEX
Bavaria, 1:236, 369; 4:1987, 1995
Austro-Prussian War and, 3:1383
as German Confederation state,
2:958–959
Louis II and, 3:1382–1384
Napoleon and, 2:957
Napoleonic Wars and, 2:901, 902
papal infallibility and, 4:1722, 1723
poor relief and, 4:1851
Prussia and, 2:867, 964; 4:1901
Revolutions of 1848 and, 2:961;
4:1834
sodomy decriminalization in, 2:1083
written constitution of, 1:457; 2:959
See also Bayreuth Festival; Munich
Bavarian Statistical Bureau, 2:571
Bayadère, La (ballet), 4:1750
Bayazid, 4:2085
Bayerische Hypotheken- und Wechsel-
Bank, 1:176
Bayerische Veriensbank, 1:176
Bayer’s aspirin, 3:1164
Bayes, Thomas, 4:2248
Bayeu y Subiás, Francisco, 2:997
Bayly, Christopher, 3:1151, 1152
Bayon de Libertat, François Antoine,
5:2332
bayonet tactics, 1:95
Bayonne, 3:1226
Bayrakdar Mustafa Pasha, 3:1420
Bayreuth, Wilhelmine von, 3:1489
Bayreuth Circle, 5:2431
Bayreuth Festival (Bavaria), 1:403,
404; 3:1567, 1571, 1674; 5:2431
Louis II funding of, 3:1383
Nietzsche’s view of, 3:1635
Bazán. See Pardo Barzán, Emilia
Bazard, Amand, 4:2081, 2202
‘‘Bazarov’’ (Pisarev), 3:1639–1640
Bazarovshchina. See nihilists
Bazille, Jean-Frédéric, 1:177; 3:1126,
1534; 4:1954
BCG vaccine, 5:2361
BDF. See Bund Deutscher
Frauenvereine
beaches. See seaside resorts
‘‘Beach of Falesá, The’’ (Stevenson),
4:2256
Beaconsfield, earl of. See Disraeli,
Benjamin
Beagle voyage, 2:613–614, 615,
616–617, 616, 617, 777
beards, 1:190–191
Beardsley, Aubrey, 1:109, 191–194,
193; 4:2293; 5:2466
Decadence and, 2:633
fin de siécle pessimism of, 2:815
2575
INDEX
Bearers of the Burden, The (Van Gogh),
5:2400
Beaton, Cecil, 1:192
Béatrice et Bénedict (Berlioz), 1:225
Béatrix (Balzac), 1:168
Beaucorps, Gustav de, 1:45
Beauharnais, Eugène de, 1:360; 2:902;
3:1192; 4:2001, 2188
Beauharnais, Hortense de, 3:1590
Beaumont de la Bonninière, Gustave-
Auguste de, 5:2316
‘‘Beauty in Nature’’ (Soloviev), 4:2216
Beauvilliers, Antoine, 4:1965
Beauvoir, Simone de, 3:1169; 4:1762,
2042, 2074
Beaux-Arts style, 2:1049; 4:1731,
1732
Bebel, August, 1:111, 194–195;
2:1170; 3:1289, 1311; 4:2127
Kautsky and, 1:194; 3:1248
Becalmed (Huysmans), 2:1104
Beccaria, Cesare, 1:376; 2:637;
3:1371, 1441; 5:2393
Bechtejeff, Vladimir, 1:155
Beck, Lewis White, 2:1060
Beck, Max Vladimir, 2:862
Beckedorff, Ludolf von, 1:431
Becker, Lydia, 1:332; 4:2279
Beckerman, Michael, 2:700–701
Beckett, Samuel, 4:2269
Becquerel, Antoine-Henri, 2:594, 595;
4:2070
Becquey, Louis, 2:757
Becquey Plan, 5:2348
Bedborough, George, 2:745
Bedchamber Crisis (1839), 1:416;
4:1758; 5:2412
Bedford, duke of (Francis Russell),
1:29
Bedford College (London), 3:1377
Bednye lyudi (Dostoyevsky), 2:678
beer, 1:34, 35; 5:2475, 2476, 2477
Bohemian Lands and, 1:260
brewer bourgeoisie and, 1:284
as drinking water alternative, 2:658
Dublin brewery and, 2:691
Beer-Hofmann, Richard, 1:65; 2:1067
Beernaert, Charles, 1:205
Beesly, Edward Spencer, 4:1844
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1:195–199,
196; 2:1078; 3:1360, 1565,
1568, 1571; 4:2027, 2102, 2106;
5:2449
as Dvořák influence, 2:701
Klimt artwork and, 3:1260
as Mahler influence, 3:1419
opera and, 1:196; 3:1670
Promethean myth of, 3:1570
2576
Rossini and, 3:1572
Vienna and, 5:2417, 2418
Wagner and, 5:2429–2430
Beethoven (Solomon), 1:199
Beethoven after Napoleon (Rumph),
1:199
Beethoven and his Nephew (E. and R.
Sterba), 1:198–199
Beethoven and the Construction of
Genius (DeNora), 1:199
Beethoven Frieze (Klimt), 3:1260
Beethoven: The Music and the Life
(Lockwood), 1:199
Beeton’s Christmas Annual
(periodical), 2:680
Beggar on the Path, A (Davis), 4:1848
beggars, 2:570; 4:1847
Beggrov, Aleksandr Karlovich, 4:2078
Begriffsschrift (Frege), 2:883
Behaine, Pigneau de, 3:1137–1138
behaviorism, 4:1748–1749, 1908
Behring, Adolf von, 2:735
Behrisch, Franz Wolfgang, 2:982
Beijerinck, Martinus Willem, 2:653
Beijing, 1:434; 3:1680
Beijing, Convention of (1860), 3:1680
Beilis, Mendel, 1:77; 3:1628
Beiträge zur Analyse der
Empfindungen (Mach), 3:1409
Beiträge zur Optik (Goethe), 2:986
Beiträge zur Theorie der
Sinneswahrnehmung (Wundt),
5:2507
Béjart, Maurice, 3:1643
Bekhterev, Vladimir, 4:1908
Bekker, Paul, 1:295
Belagerung von Mainz, Die (Goethe),
2:987
Belarus, 5:2369
Belasco, David, 4:1916
bel canto, 3:1671
Belfast, 2:690, 691, 1000
Home Rule resistance in, 3:1183,
1184–1185
United Irishmen in, 3:1176
Belgian Congo. See Congo Free State
Belgian Democratic League, 1:204
Belgian Regatta Society, 4:2244
Belgioioso, Christina Trivulzio, 2:803;
3:1300
Belgium, 1:199–205
anticlericalism and, 1:203–204, 307,
389
Antwerp market square, 1:451
art nouveau and, 1:107, 104,
108–109, 112, 152, 307
banking and, 1:174; 3:1335
Catholic cooperatives in, 2:556
E U R O P E
Catholicism in, 1:377, 383, 387;
3:1330, 1332
Catholic nationalism and, 3:1657
Catholic political parties in,
1:388, 389
child labor in, 1:430
Christian Democratics in, 4:2209
Christian Socialism in, 4:2208, 2209
coal production in, 1:201, 203, 361,
485, 486, 487, 488
Cockerill textile machines and,
1:492–493
collective recognition of, 3:1173
Congo takeover by, 1:21, 205;
2:509; 3:1337
Congress of Vienna and, 2:533
cooperative movements and,
2:556–557
emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 748
engineering projects in, 2:757, 760;
3:1149
feminism in, 2:802
First International in, 2:825
football (soccer) in, 2:833, 834
France and, 1:199, 200, 201;
2:566–567; 3:1388
French immigrants in, 1:201; 2:666
French Revolutionary and
Napoleonic Wars and, 1:199, 200;
2:899, 900, 903; 3:1587
German invasion of, 1:99, 199,
205, 232
Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:137, 199
housing and, 2:1089
independence of, 1:200; 2:525, 566,
662; 3:1173, 1335; 4:1713, 1973
industrialization in, 1:199, 201–202,
203, 351; 2:791
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
of, 5:2493
industrial towns in, 1:445
international exhibitions and, 5:2499
Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225,
1227
labor movements in, 3:1290, 1291,
1294
Leopold I and, 3:1334–1336
Leopold II and, 1:20–21, 102,
204–205; 3:1336–1337
liberalism and, 3:1342
literacy in, 2:720
metal industry in, 1:201–202, 203;
3:1149
Napoleonic Empire and, 1:199;
3:1587
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Netherlands and, 1:199, 200, 201,
202; 2:525, 566; 3:1335; 5:2306
population density of, 1:202
potato famine in, 1:201
prostitution and, 4:1883, 1884
Quetelet and, 4:1921–1922
railroads and, 1:201, 305; 2:764;
3:1335; 4:1933, 1934, 1936,
1937
Revolution of 1830 and, 1:200;
2:566, 662; 3:1335, 1561, 1617;
4:1983, 1984, 1985–1986
Revolution of 1848 and, 4:1987,
1990
Rothschilds and, 4:2040
Schlieffen Plan and, 4:2098
seaside resorts and, 3:1324; 4:2125
Second International and, 4:2127,
2128
socialism and, 1:199, 203, 204, 205,
307
sports in, 4:2241, 2242, 2244, 2245
strikes in, 1:203, 204; 3:1288, 1293;
4:2267–2268
suffrage in, 1:203, 204; 4:2278,
2279
symbolists and, 4:2295
telephone service in, 5:2308
tennis match in, 3:1324
trade and, 5:2336, 2338
universities and, 5:2379
urbanization of, 1:443
waterway transport in, 5:2350
welfare initiatives in, 5:2451, 2452,
2454
wine and, 5:2475
world’s fairs and, 5:2499, 2500,
2503, 2504
See also Brussels
Belgrade, 1:205–207; 2:741
population of, 1:206
Belgrand, Marie-François, 2:1049
Belgravia (London), 3:1373
Belinsky, Vissarion, 1:207–208;
2:1064, 1066; 3:1170; 4:2050
as Westernizer, 4:2195; 5:2459,
2460
Belisarius, 3:1663
Bell, Alexander Graham, 3:1163;
5:2308
Bell, Clive, 4:2258
Bell, Joseph, 2:680
Bell, Richard, 3:1295
Bell, The (newspaper), 2:1066
Bell, Vanessa, 2:835
bell curve, 2:652, 770; 4:1922
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
belle epoque, 2:817
absinthe and, 1:2–4
Durand and, 2:697
Paris and, 4:1732–1733
Belle Hélène, La (Offenbach), 3:1660
Bellelli Family, The (Degas), 1:470
Belleville (Parisian suburb), 4:1735
Belleville Manifesto of 1869
(Gambetta), 2:928; 4:1734,
1963; 2136
Belleville Programme. See Belleville
Manifesto of 1869 (Gambetta).
Bellini, Vincenzo, 3:1565, 1572,
1670, 1671–1672; 4:2038
bel canto and, 3:1671
as Glinka influence, 2:979; 3:1673
Verdi compared with, 3:1673
Belloc, Hilaire, 3:1118
Belvedere Circle, 2:862
Bely, Andrei, 1:208–210, 214, 250;
2:774; 4:2079, 2182, 2217
Benavente y Martı́nez, Jacinto, 2:950,
951; 4:2232
Benckendorff, Alexander von, 2:819
Benda, Julien, 3:1169, 1172; 4:1760
Benedek, Ludwig von, 1:148
Benedict XV, pope, 3:1203; 4:1717,
1721
Bengal, 1:436
East India Company and, 2:706;
3:1133
partition of, 2:597; 3:1136
reunification of, 3:1137
Bengal Army, 3:1135
Benguela (Africa), 1:19
Benin, 1:13
Benjamin, Walter
flâneur and, 2:826–827
on Kafka, 3:1242
Benn, Gottfried, 3:1309, 1310
Bennett, Arnold, 4:2235
Bennigsen, Rudolf von, 3:1319, 1320,
1321, 1347
Benois, Alexandre, 2:654, 655; 4:2181
Bensemann, Walter, 2:833–834
Benso, Camillo. See Cavour, Count
Benso, Gustavo, 1:390
Bentham, Jeremy, 1:210–211, 371,
401; 2:637, 717; 4:2296
homosexuality defense by, 2:1085
legal principles and, 3:1314
Mill (James) as colleague of, 3:1510
as Mill (John Stuart) influence,
1:211; 3:1512, 1513, 1514
as O’Connell influence, 3:1654
poverty definition of, 4:1847–1848,
1849
INDEX
utilitarianism and, 1:210–211;
5:2392, 2393–2394
Benthamism. See utilitarianism
Bentick, William Henry Cavendish. See
Portland, duke of
Bentinck, George, 2:672–673, 1005
Bentley’s Miscellany (periodical), 2:656
Benue River, 2:783
Benvenuto Cellini (Berlioz), 1:225
Ben-Yehuda, Eliezer, 5:2520
Benz, Carl Friedrich, 1:148; 3:1161;
5:2351
Béranger, Pierre-Jean de, 1:270
Berberova, Nina, 4:2183
Berbers, 1:43, 44, 46, 498; 3:1547
Berceo, Gonzalo de, 2:950
Berdyayev, Nikolai, 1:211–213;
3:1171; 4:2196
Berg, Alban, 3:1676; 4:2102
Berg, Lev, 2:775
Bergasse, Nicholas, 3:1490
Berger, Fred, 3:1514
Berger, Susanne, 4:2092
Bergh, Henry, 2:778
Bergson, Henri, 1:213–215;
2:777–778; 3:1215
as cubist influence, 2:593
as futurist influence, 1:214; 2:918,
921
as Péguy influence, 4:1760, 1761
on secularization, 4:2133
Bergson, Jeanne, 1:213
Berkeley, George, 1:326; 3:1409
Berlage, Hendrik Petrus, 1:55
Berlin, 1:215–220
advertising and, 2:550
anti-Semitism in, 1:71
architecture in, 1:216, 217; 4:2091,
2092–2094
art nouveau in, 2:815
bourgeois elite in, 1:472
cabarets in, 1:220, 335–336; 4:2102
as center of alliance system, 1:239
church building in, 4:1826
Cockerill wool machinery in, 1:493
as commercial center, 2:551
counterrevolution and, 2:567
as diplomatic capital, 2:965
electric lighting in, 2:742
expressionist painters in, 1:154–155,
220, 220
female teachers in, 2:724
feminism and, 1:129; 2:675–676
as financial center, 1:176, 216–217
Fontane’s novels and, 2:829
French occupation of, 2:875; 4:2092
Friedrichstrasse, 1:218, 219
2577
INDEX
geographical society of, 2:784
German unification and, 4:1901
growth of, 1:443
Hegel in, 1:215; 2:1053, 1054
homosexual subculture of, 2:1083
housing in, 1:218–219; 3:1554
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
in, 5:2493
Jewish cultural role in, 3:1231, 1234
Kierkegaard in, 3:1250–1251
labor movements and, 3:1287, 1291
Lasker-Schüler in, 3:1309–1310
Liebermann in, 3:1353, 1354
opera and, 1:219; 3:1673
population of, 1:217, 446; 2:1087
Prussian tradition and, 1:219
psychoanalysis and, 4:1905, 1906
public health measures in, 4:1914
railroads and, 4:1936
Revolution of 1848 and, 1:215–216;
2:877, 961; 4:1901–1902, 1990,
1993
salons in, 1:215, 316; 2:675
Schauspielhaus, 1:216
smoking in, 5:2313
sociology and, 4:2214–2215
suburbs of, 1:217, 218–219
subway in, 4:2271–2273
telephone service in, 5:2308
theater in, 1, 219; 3:1109
universities and, 5:2378
Volkspark in, 4:1740
voluntary associations and, 1:117
See also University of Berlin
Berlin, Congress of (1878). See
Congress of Berlin
Berlin, Isaiah, 2:539, 1061, 1065,
1066; 5:2460
Berlin, Treaty of (1878), 1:91, 206;
2:674
Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 3:1690
Bulgarian division by, 1:312
provisions of, 3:1690
Serbian independence and, 3:1683;
4:2146
Berlin Academy, 2:911; 3:1354, 1533
Berlin Act of 1885, 1:221–223, 308;
3:1173
Berlin Conference (1884–1885), 1:20,
220–224; 3:1118
alcohol and, 1:37
Bismarck and, 1:12, 221, 239; 2:812
consequences of, 1:223–224, 499;
2:795
dual goals of, 1:221–222, 223;
3:1173
2578
slave trade ban and, 1:308–309, 499
Berlin Court Theater, 3:1673
Berlin Decree (1806), 2:553, 902;
3:1586; 5:2438
Berliner Handelsgesellschaft, 1:175
Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung (magazine),
4:1773
Berlin Movement (1880s), 1:71
Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, 1:219
Berlin Potsdam Railway, Menzel
painting of, 3:1489
Berlin Secession, 1:154; 3:1353, 1354
Berlin Society for Anthropology,
Ethnology, and Prehistory,
5:2425
Berlin Workers’ Congress (1848),
3:1287
Berlioz, Hector, 1:197, 224–226;
2:979, 1046; 3:1360, 1565, 1572
Glinka and, 2:980
opium use by, 2:686
Romanticism and, 4:2030
Bernadette, Saint, 4:1788
Bernadotte, house of, 4:2287
Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste,
1:226–227; 2:903; 3:1319,
1320, 1321, 1322, 1431; 5:2374
Bernard, Claude, 1:227–229, 408;
5:2523
Bernard, Émile, 2:939; 5:2400
Bernardi, Giuseppe, 1:347
Bernays, Martha, 2:904, 905; 4:1904
Bernhardt, Maurice, 1:229
Bernhardt, Sarah, 1:229–230, 230;
4:1846; 5:2500
Bernoulli, Jakob, 4:2248
Bernstein, Carl and Felicie, 3:1353
Bernstein, Eduard, 1:230–231;
3:1248, 1328, 1399–1400;
4:2205, 2270
Plekhanov tracts against, 4:1801
Berny, Laure de, 1:167
Berr, Isaac, 3:1226
Berri, Charles Ferdinand, duc de,
1:361, 412; 2:847; 3:1387;
4:1969
Berry, duchesse de, 4:2124
Berry, Louis-Auguste, duc de. See
Louis XVI
Berry, Marie-Caroline de, 3:1298
Bers, Sophia Andreyevna, 5:2318
Bertani, Agostino, 3:1556
Berthollet, Claude-Louis, 3:1153;
4:2115
Bertillon, Alphonse, 2:576–577;
4:1816, 1816
Bertin, Jean-Victor, 2:560
Bertin, Rose, 1:481
E U R O P E
Bertrand, Henri-Gratien, 3:1321;
4:2044
Berzelius, Jöns Jakob, 1:424–425;
4:2285
Besant, Annie, 4:1829–1830
Beseda, 4:2055
Bessarabia, 2:530; 3:1420; 4:2017,
2020, 2069, 2085
Bessemer, Henry, 3:1158, 1159;
4:2113, 2115; 5:2496, 2505
Bessemer converter, 1:485; 3:1157,
1158, 1159
Bessemer process, 4:2115
bestiality, 3:1270
Besy (Dostoyevsky), 2:679
Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von,
1:49, 232–233; 2:968, 969;
3:1357, 1611; 5:2312
Bethnal Green Republican
Propagandist Society, 4:1964
Betrothed, The (Manzoni),
3:1193–1194
Beuret, Rose, 4:2008, 2009
Beuth, Peter, 1:493
Beuzon, Joseph, 2:504
BEW electric company (Berlin), 2:742
Bewick, Thomas, 4:1867
Beyle, Marie-Henri. See Stendhal
Beylism, 4:2253
Beyond Good and Evil (Nietzsche),
3:1631, 1635
Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Freud),
2:908
beys, 5:2362
‘‘Bezhin Meadow’’ (Turgenev),
5:2365
Bezobrazov, A. M., 3:1628
Bhagavad-Gita, 1:372
Biafra, 1:13
Bianchi, Antonia, 4:1699
Biarritz, 4:2125, 2126; 5:2328
Biassou, Georges, 5:2332
Bible
age of earth and, 2:615, 776;
3:1401–1402
as Blake influence, 1:246
Doré illustrations and, 2:676
higher criticism and, 2:744
New Testament and, 4:1770, 2182
Protestant primacy of, 4:1890, 1891,
1892
Bible Society, 4:1896
Biblical Songs (Dvořák), 2:701
Bibliographie des ouvrages relatifs à
l’amour (Gay), 4:1836
bibliography, 4:1836
Bibliotheca Germanorum Erotica
(Hayn), 4:1836
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Bibliothèque Marguerite Durand
(Paris), 2:697
Bibliothèque Nationale (Paris), 3:1350
Bicêtre (Paris), 3:1665; 4:1791
Bichat, Marie-François-Xavier, 1:340;
4:1790
bicycles. See cycling
Bicycle Union (Britain), 2:600
Biedermeier style, 5:2418
biens nationaux, 4:1968–1969, 1970
Biétrix de Rozières, Jacques, 2:996
Big Business. See business firms and
economic growth; corporations
Bigg, William Redmore, 4:1852
Bight of Benin, 1:13
Bihar, 2:706
Bijoux indescrets, Les (Diderot), 4:1833
Bildung, 2:947, 983, 985
bildungsroman
Goethe and, 2:985
Mann and, 3:1436
Bill of Rights (U.S.), 3:1299
Billroth, Theodor, 4:1877
bimetallism, 3:1538
binders, mechanical, 1:27
Binet, Alfred, 2:927; 4:1908, 2162
Binet, René, 2:1031; 5:2503
Bing, Siegfried, 1:108
Binny, John, 2:573
biochemistry, 1:426
biodiversity, 2:762
biogenetic law (Haeckel), 2:1031
Biographia Literaria (Coleridge),
1:497
Biographical History of Philosophy
(Lewes), 4:1844
Biological Museum (Stockholm),
3:1564
Biological Standard of Living, 5:2334
biology
Cajal and, 1:340–342
Darwin and, 2:613–614, 616, 617,
618
degeneration and, 2:238
Goethe and, 2:986, 1031
Haeckel and, 2:1031–1032
Lamarck and, 3:1301–1303
See also botany; evolution; genetics
Biot, Jean-Baptiste, 4:1779, 1780
birds, 2:766
Birmingham
bourgeoisie in, 1:472
Chamberlain (Joseph) municipal
reform in, 1:404, 405, 450
Chartism and, 1:415, 416; 3:1390
football (soccer) and, 2:831
population of, 1:446; 2:1087
technology and, 3:1153
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Birmingham Lunar Society, 4:2111
Birmingham Oratory, 3:1621
Birmingham Political Union, 1:415,
416
Birnbaum, Nathan, 5:2518
Birrell, Charles, 1:331; 3:1181
birth control. See contraception;
population, control of
Birth of Tragedy, The (Nietzsche),
3:1631; 4:1770; 5:2431
birthrate
drop in, 3:1472, 1662
fertility rate and, 2:645–646, 769,
771
French drop in, 2:897
French pronatal policy and, 2:771
increase in (1750–1850),
4:1827–1828
in London, 3:1372
of working class families, 3:1455
See also population, control of
bisexuality, 2:906, 1070, 1085;
5:2375, 2449
Biskara, Nomad Camp (Beaucorps),
1:45
Bismarck, Johanna Puttkamer von,
1:233–234
Bismarck, Malwine von, 1:233
Bismarck, Otto von, 1:204, 233–242,
411; 4:2207
alliance system and, 1:47, 48–50,
146, 147, 239–240; 2:526, 663,
705, 864, 964–965
anticlericalism and, 1:70
aristocratic elite and, 1:84
army system and, 1:94
assessment of career of, 1:241
Austro-Prussian War and, 1:147,
148; 2:567, 669, 867, 963;
3:1383, 1506; 4:1902
background and early career of,
1:233–234
Berlin and, 1:217
Berlin Conference and, 1:12, 221,
239; 2:812
Boulanger and, 1:281–282
on British navy, 3:1609
caricatures of, 1:236; 2:963
Catholic political activity and, 2:966
Cavour compared with, 2:583;
3:1198
Center Party opposition to, 1:239,
393; 2:966
as chancellor, 1:238–239
church-state relations and, 4:1896
Concert of Europe’s weakening by,
2:662
INDEX
Congress of Berlin and, 1:312;
2:530, 705, 812
conservatism and, 1:234, 237,
238–239, 241; 2:540–540,
966–997
Danish-German War and, 2:607,
608, 963; 4:1902
dismissal of, 1:233, 240–241; 2:526,
663, 967
domestic policies of, 1:237–239,
459; 2:965
foreign policy of, 1:234–235,
239–240; 2:526, 583, 812,
963–965
Franco-Prussian War and, 1:235,
236; 2:526, 662, 868, 870, 953,
964; 4:1734, 1736, 1903
Frederick III and, 2:874
French imperialism and, 2:812
German unification and, 1:233,
235–237, 262; 2:526, 662, 867,
874, 924, 962–967; 3:1198,
1383, 1523, 1605; 4:1902–1903
Guchkov and, 3:1659
Hamburg and, 2:1040
Kulturkampf and, 1:238, 239; 2:966;
3:1277, 1279, 1331; 4:1719,
1720, 1723, 1795, 1812, 1896,
1903
Lassalle and, 3:1311
Leo XIII and, 3:1331; 5:2473
liberals and, 3:1346, 1347
Louis II of Bavaria and, 3:1383
Mommsen and, 3:1533
Napoleon III and, 2:867
nationalism and, 1:84, 237, 241, 291
Pius IX and, 4:1795
Polish territory and, 4:1809, 1812
as Prussian minister-president,
1:235–238
Ranke and, 4:1940
reactionary policies of, 2:966–967
Romanies and, 4:2023
as Social Democrats enemy, 1:194,
230
socialist movement bans by, 1:36,
238–239; 2:966
state-sponsored social insurance and,
1:291, 321, 356, 459; 2:540,
966; 3:1664; 4:1854, 1915;
5:2450, 2453
suffrage and, 4:2279
Three Emperors League and, 1:48,
146; 2:526, 705
Treitschke and, 5:2353, 2524–2525
on university students, 5:2383
2579
INDEX
Virchow and, 5:2425
William I and, 1:238–239, 240;
2:962–963, 963; 5:2467
William II and, 5:2468, 2474
Windthorst and, 5:2472–2474
Bissolati, Leonida, 2:921, 971; 5:2364
Bisson Brothers, 3:1577
Bitoria, Battle of (1813), 4:1765
Bizet, Georges, 3:1675, 1676
Bizkaia por su independencia: Las
cuatro glorias patrias (Arana),
4:2232
Björkö, Treaty of (1905), 1:49
Bjørnson, Bjørnstjerne, 4:2287
Blacas, duc de, 1:407
Black, Viktor, 3:1666
Blackamoor of Peter the Great, The
(Pushkin), 4:1919
blackbody radiation, 4:1780
Blackburn Olympic (football team),
2:831
‘‘Black Cat, The’’ (Poe; Baudelaire
translation), 1:188
Black Forest, 2:763
Black Hand, 1:242–243, 277; 2:705
in Serbia, 4:2132
Black Hundreds, 4:1803
‘‘Black paintings’’ (Goya), 2:996, 999
Blackpool, 3:1324
Black Repartition, 4:1800;
5:2517–2518
Black Sea, 1:164, 243–244; 5:2348
Bosphorus link with, 1:277–278
Crimean War and, 2:577–578, 1007
Mediterranean and, 1:243; 3:1482
Russia and, 1:243–244, 278, 376;
3:1683
Black Square on a White Ground
(Malevich), 1:158
Blackstone, William, 1:210
Blackwood’s Magazine, 1:300; 2:744
Blair, Tony, 2:976
Blake, William, 1:190, 244–246, 245;
3:1511; 4:2008
Romanticism and, 4:2027, 2030
as Yeats influence, 1:246; 5:2509
Blanc, Charles, 5:2400
Blanc, Louis, 1:162, 247–248, 458;
3:1287; 4:1988, 2203
Cabet and, 1:338
cooperatives and, 1:247; 2:555
Blanche, Jacques-Émile, 4:1710
Blanchot, Maurice, 2:1079
Blanqui, Auguste, 1:68, 248–249;
2:521; 4:1735, 1963
First International and, 2:824, 825
Michel and, 3:1497
2580
secret societies and, 4:2130,
2131–2132
Blanqui, Jérôme-Adolphe, 4:1897
Blanqui, Louis-Auguste. See Blanqui,
Auguste
Blanquism, 4:1963
Blanquist Party, 4:2298
Blatchford, Robert, 4:2200
Blaue Reiter, Der, 1:155, 156; 3:1245,
1309, 1530; 4:1711
Blaue Reiter Almanak, 1:155–156;
3:1245
Blavatsky, Helena, 3:1245; 5:2478,
2509
Bleak House (Dickens), 2:657
Bleak House (Ruskin), 1:371
bleeding (medical treatment), 1:436
Blériot, Louis, 1:30
Bleuler, Eugen, 3:1238, 1239; 4:1905
Bleyl, Fritz, 1:154
Blincoe, Robert, 1:350, 351, 352
blindness, Braille system and,
1:296–298; 5:2499
Blithedale Romance (Hawthorne),
2:838
Blitzstein, Marc, 4:2262
Bloch, Jan, 2:1034; 3:1507
Bloch, Jean-Richard, 3:1217; 4:1698
blockades. See Continental System;
Crimean War
Blok, Alexander, 1:249–250; 3:1496
Bely and, 1:209
Eurasians and, 2:774
Silver Age and, 4:2182, 2183
Soloviev (Vladimir) and, 4:2217
Blondel, Maurice-Édouard, 4:2133
Blood, Fanny, 5:2480
blood feuds, 3:1539
blood libel, 1:77, 462; 3:1394; 4:1802
blood sports, 3:1414; 4:1821, 2240
blood transfusion, 4:2110
‘‘Bloody Sunday’’ (Britain, 1887),
1:59
‘‘Bloody Sunday’’ (Russia, 1905),
2:993; 3:1627; 4:1976, 1977,
2055, 2078–2079
Bloody Week (Paris, 1871), 3:1289;
4:1736
Bloomsbury Group, 2:835;
4:2258–2259
Bloy, Léon, 2:1104
Blücher, Gebhard Leberecht von,
2:903; 5:2442–2443, 2457
Leipzig battle and, 3:1319, 1320,
1321–1322
Blue Nude (Memory of Briska)
(Matisse), 3:1474
Blue Nudes (Matisse), 3:1474
E U R O P E
Blue Ribbon movement, 1:37
Blue Rider group. See Blaue Reiter,
Der; Blaue Reiter Almanak
Blue Rose group (Moscow), 157
Blum, Léon, 3:1219
Blum, Robert Frederick, 3:1680;
5:2405
Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich,
4:1924
Blumenstraüfse (Schlegel), 4:2095
Blunt, Thomas, 4:2112
Bluntschli, Johann Kaspar, 3:1175
Blütenstaub (Novalis), 3:1647
B’nai Brith order, 1:119
‘‘B’’ notebook (Darwin), 2:614
Boas, Franz, 2:774
Bobangi (people), 1:16
bobbies (British police), 4:1814
Bob Kick (film), 3:1483
Bobrikov, Nikolai, 2:822
Bobrowska, Ewa, 2:535
Bobrowski, Tadeusz, 2:535
Boccioni, Umberto, 1:157, 214
futurism and, 2:918, 919, 919;
4:1711
Bocconi University, 5:2389
Böckh, August, 1:316
Böcklin, Arnold, 4:2292
Bodichon, Barbara Leigh (née Smith),
2:626, 946
body, 1:251–255
beards and, 1:190–191
Berlin fitness cult and, 1:215
clothing and, 1:484; 2:943–944
criminal detection and, 2:576–577;
3:1371–1372; 4:1816
masculinity and, 3:1473
pornography and, 4:1833
racism and, 1:458
sexuality and, 4:2161–2164
sports and, 4:2239
woman’s control of own, 2:805
x-rays and, 4:2012
See also nudes
Boerenbond (Belgium), 1:204
Boers (Afrikaners), 1:17–18, 20;
3:1118; 4:2219–2221, 2220,
2223–2224, 2225
Dutch ancestry of, 3:1619
military tactics and, 1:99, 100, 257
Boer War, 1:20, 255–259, 258, 271,
501; 2:526, 674, 977; 3:1610;
4:2223; 5:2415, 2502
Australian troops in, 1:135
Baden-Powell command in, 1:159
British brutality in, 1:257; 3:1182,
1259; 4:1949
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

British defeats in, 3:1473
Chamberlain (Joseph) as architect of,
1:405
costs and outcome of, 1:258–259;
2:1011
Doyle’s medical service in, 2:681
Fabian’s view of, 1:787
guerrilla warfare and, 1:257; 3:1259
imperialism and, 1:159, 255–259;
3:1118, 1119
Irish political parties and, 3:1182
jingoism and, 3:1234–1235, 1624
Kipling and, 3:1257
Kitchener and, 3:1258, 1259
Lloyd George’s critique of, 3:1369
Majuba Hill and, 3:1422–1423
military tactics and, 1:99, 100, 257;
3:1259
military technologies and, 3:1507
Netherlands and, 3:1619
New Zealand troops in, 3:1624
origins of, 1:255–257
Red Cross and, 4:1949
Rhodes and, 4:1997
Bofarull i de Brocà, 1:182
Bogdanov, Alexander, 1:267
Bogolyubov, Arkhip, 5:2517
Bogrov, Dmitri, 4:2257
Bohème, La (Puccini), 3:1677; 4:1916;
5:2360
Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia,
1:259–264
anti-Semitism and, 4:1860, 1861
art nouveau and, 1:113–114; 2:815
Austrian Habsburgs and, 1:137, 139,
141–142, 145; 2:259–264, 864,
865; 4:1712
Austro-Prussian War and,
1:147–148, 262; 2:963–964
coronation jewels and, 4:1860
Czech-German violence in,
1:262–263
Czech independence and,
1:263–264; 3:1469
Czech national revival and,
1:261–264, 447; 3:1469;
4:1711–1712, 1716, 1856–1863
Dvořák and, 2:700–701
education in, 1:261, 262; 2:723
electricity in, 2:741
emigrants from, 1:119; 3:1525
German nationalism and, 2:961
German unification and, 4:1993,
1994
industrialization in, 1:259–261, 351
labor movements in, 3:1287, 1288
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
machine breaking in, 3:1411
Mahler and, 3:1418
Masaryk and, 3:1468–1469
Mendel and, 3:1484–1486
Moravian villagers, 1:263
Napoleonic Wars and, 1:132;
3:1319, 1321
nationalism and, 4:1994
nationalist conflicts within, 2:961;
3:1605
opera and, 3:1673
Palacký and, 4:1711–1712
Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716–1717
papal infallibility and, 4:1723
population of, 1:259
Prague Slav Congress and,
4:1861–1863
Prussia and, 1:85; 2:963; 4:1899,
1900, 1901
railroads and, 4:1933
Revolution of 1848 and, 1:141;
2:961; 4:1712, 1859–1860
Rothschilds and, 4:2040
Silesian weaver uprising in, 4:1990
Social Democrats and, 1:11
socialist party strength in, 3:1293
universities in, 5:2380
voluntary associations and, 1:118
Young Czechs and Old Czechs and,
5:2510–2511
See also Prague
Bohemian Compromise (1890),
2:865; 4:1859
Bohemian Diet (Prague), 1:262
bohemian lifestyle, 2:815;
3:1577–1578, 1619; 4:1905
Böhme, Jakob, 2:1080
Böhmer, Caroline, 4:2095
Bohr, Niels, 4:2070
Boieldieu, François-Adrien, 3:1673
Boieldieu Bridge, Rouen, Damp
Weather, The (Pissarro), 4:1794
Bois de Boulogne (Paris), 2:1049;
4:1731, 1732, 1739
Bois de Vincennes (Paris), 4:1731,
1739
Boissonade, Gustave, 3:1210
Bojsen, Frede, 2:648
Boldini, Giovanni, 2:1082; 4:1710
Bolero (Ravel), 4:1945
Bolingbroke, Viscount, 1:326
Bolı́var, Simon, 2:1037, 1096
Bolivia, 2:687
Bologna, 3:1581; 4:1723, 1724, 1985
Bolsheviks, 1:264–268; 4:1768,
2270; 5:2364
INDEX
Bernstein’s critique of, 1:231
Bund and, 1:315
characteristics of, 3:1488
execution of Russian royal family by,
1:42
Gorky and, 2:993
Guesde’s view of, 2:1026
intelligentsia and, 3:1168, 1172
Kadet condemnation of, 3:1242
Kuliscioff’s view of, 3:1277
Lenin and, 1:249; 2:522; 3:1326,
1327–1329, 1488
Luxemburg’s critique of, 3:1401
Menshevik split with, 1:265, 266,
267, 317; 3:1328, 1329, 1460,
1487–1488; 4:1801
Milyukov’s opposition to, 3:1518,
1520
nihilist writings and, 3:1641
Plekhanov’s opposition to, 4:1801
Revolution of 1905 and, 4:1974,
1976
Russian Orthodox Church and,
4:2060, 2063
St. Petersburg and, 4:2077, 2079
socialist revolutionaries and, 4:2049,
2211
Struve and, 4:2271
syndicalists and, 1:62
working class and, 5:2485
See also Revolution of 1917
Bolshoi (Moscow), 2:655
Boltzmann, Ludwig, 2:652; 4:1799,
1922
Bombay Lancers, 1:98
bombing. See terrorism
Bonald, Louis de, 1:268–269, 387;
3:1405
conservatism and, 2:537
counterrevolutionism and, 2:566;
4:1718
as French Revolution critic, 4:2133
Restoration and, 4:1968
Saint-Simon and, 4:2081
ultramontism and, 1:381
Bonaparte, Carlo, 3:1583
Bonaparte, Caroline, 4:2188
Bonaparte, Eugene, 2:856
Bonaparte, Jérôme, 2:957; 3:1599
Bonaparte, Joseph, 2:902, 997;
3:1192, 1254, 1599; 4:2001,
2188
Spanish throne and, 4:1764, 2226,
2227–2228
Bonaparte, Louis, 3:1254, 1590;
4:2188, 2189
2581
INDEX
Bonaparte, Louis-Napoleon. See
Napoleon III
Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon I
Bonaparte, Napoleon-Louis, 3:1590
Bonaparte, Pauline, 1:390
Bonaparte family, 3:1587
Bonapartism, 1:5, 269–272
Boulangists and, 1:269, 279, 282
bureaucracy and, 1:269, 321–322
conservatism and, 2:537
Eiffel Tower and, 2:737
Franco-Prussian War and, 2:853–854
Haussmann and, 2:1047
Napoleon III and, 3:1590–1593
peasant antiliberalism and, 4:1756
Third Republic and, 2:856, 858
Bonar Law, Andrew, 2:598; 3:1184
Bonfils, Henry Joseph François,
3:1175
Bonham Carter, Hilary, 3:1637
Bonheur, Rosa, 2:1084; 4:2117
Bonington, Richard Parkes, 5:2403
Bon Marché, Le (Paris), 1:288–289,
484; 2:548
Bonnard, Pierre, 4:1773, 1845;
5:2323
Bonnat, Léon-Joseph-Florentin,
5:2323
Bonnemère, Eugène, 4:1753
Bonneville, Nicolas de, 2:973; 4:1701
Bonpland, Aimé, 2:1095
Bon Sens (French weekly), 1:247
Bonstetten, Karl-Viktor von, 4:2288
Bonvin, François, 4:1947
book illustration. See illustration
bookmakers, 4:2240
Book of the Hanging Gardens, The
(Schoenberg), 4:2102
Book of the New Moral World, The
(Owen), 3:1693; 4:2201
books. See literacy; literature; printing
Books of the Polish Nation and of Polish
Pilgrimage (Mickiewicz), 3:1500
Boon (Wells), 5:2458
Booth, Bramwell, 4:2082, 2083
Booth, Catherine Mumford, 4:2082,
2083
Booth, Charles, 2:1075; 3:1375;
4:1853–1854, 2213; 5:2444
Booth, William, 4:2082–2083
Bordeaux
federalist revolt in, 2:799, 800, 844
Girondists and, 2:973
Haussmann and, 2:1047
Jewish emancipation and, 3:1226
worker housing in, 2:1089
Bordeaux, duc de, 1:413
Bordeaux mixture fungicide, 3:1164
2582
bordello, 4:1885
Borges, Jorge Louis, 3:1256
Borghese, Camillo, 1:390
Borghese family, 4:2035
Boris, prince of Bulgaria, 1:313
Boris Godunov (Mussorgsky), 2:654;
3:1575–1576, 1674; 4:1919,
1999
Boris Godunov (Pushkin), 4:1919
Born, Stephen, 3:1287
Börne, Ludwig, 1:370
Bornholm, 2:647
Born in Exile (Gissing), 2:975
Borodin, Alexander, 2:774; 3:1571,
1575; 4:1999
Borodino (1812), 1:272–273; 2:902;
3:1588
Kutuzov and, 3:1281
Napoleon’s gun/infantry ratio and,
3:1506
Borromäus Verein, 3:1352
Borrow, George Henry, 4:2023
Borsig, August, 1:217; 2:960; 4:1936
Bosch, Carl, 3:1160; 4:2109
Bosco, Don, 1:383
‘‘Boscombe Valley Mystery, The’’
(Doyle), 2:680
Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1:273–277
Austrian occupation/annexation of,
1:32, 49, 137, 146, 207, 242,
276–277; 2:703–704, 864, 865;
3:1628, 1690, 1691; 4:2045,
2067, 2069
family group, 1:275
Francis Ferdinand and, 2:862
Marian shrine in, 4:1788
Montenegro and, 3:1541
Muslim women, 1:274
Ottoman Empire and, 1:2;
2:703–704; 3:1687–1688
peasant uprisings in, 4:2067
San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2069,
2085
Serbia and, 1:166, 242–243, 273,
275–276, 277; 2:703, 705, 862;
4:2146, 2148
special status of, 1:146
trade and, 5:2337
See also Sarajevo
Bosnian Crisis (1908–1909), 1:163;
2:704
Bosphorus, 1:243, 277–279; 2:577,
703; 3:1421
Istanbul and, 1:278; 3:1186, 1188,
1190
Bossi, Erma, 1:155
Boswell, James, 5:2320
E U R O P E
Botanical Gardens (Brussels), 1:395
botany
Darwin and, 2:613
Denmark and, 2:649
de Vries and, 2:652–653
genetics and, 2:652–653
Goethe and, 2:986
Humbold (Alexander) and,
2:1095–1096, 1097
Lamarck and, 3:1301
Mendel and, 2:652, 653; 3:1484,
1485–1486
Botany Bay (Australia), 2:780
Botev, Khristo, 3:1687
Botha, Louis, 1:258; 4:2224
Bottle, The (Cruikshank), 2:586–587
Bottle of Vieux Marc, Glass, Guitar,
and Newspaper (Picasso), 2:591
Bouchot, Frederic, 3:1454
Boucicault, Aristide, 1:289, 484
Boudin, Eugène, 3:1534
Bouffes-Parisiens theater, 3:1661,
1672
Bouguereau, Adolphe-William, 2:940;
4:1710
Boulanger, Georges-Ernest-Jean-
Marie, 1:184, 271, 279,
280–283, 479; 2:540, 649, 696,
858; 4:1964
Boulanger affair, 1:279–281, 282;
2:540–542, 583, 858; 5:2502
Barrès and, 1:184, 185
Deraismes and, 2:649
indirect consequences of, 1:282
Michel’s view of, 3:1497
political posters and, 4:1846
Boulangism, 1:52, 185, 279, 281–283
Action Française and, 1:5
Bonapartism and, 1:269, 279, 282
Clemenceau and, 1:479–480
Durand and, 2:696
failure of, 1:281
‘‘Boule de suif’’ (Maupassant), 2:991
Boulevard des Capucines (Paris),
3:1577, 1578; 4:1732
Boulevard du Temple, Le (Daguerre),
2:606
Boulevard Haussmann (Paris), 4:1731
Boulevard Montmartre (Paris), 4:1732
Boulton, Ernest, 2:1084
Boulton, Matthew, 2:547, 548, 758,
760; 3:1153; 4:2111
Bounty (British ship), 3:1653
Bourbon, Louis-Antoine,
4:2228–2229
Bourbon-Condé, Louis-Antoine-Henri
de. See Enghien, duc de
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Bourbon dynasty
Charles X and, 1:411–412; 3:1386
dressmaker to, 1:481
Ferdinand VII and, 2:808–809
French restoration of. See Restoration
French Revolution and,
3:1385–1386
Italy and, 1:392; 2:932; 3:1191,
1195, 1196, 1254, 1255, 1414;
4:2000, 2003, 2004, 2130, 2175,
2176, 2188
last in line of, 2:847
Louis XVI and, 3:1384–1386
Louis XVIII and, 3:1386–1387
Louis-Philippe and, 3:1387, 1388,
1389
Naples and, 3:1580–1581, 1597,
1599
Napoleon I and, 4:1764, 1767;
5:2306
Revolution of 1830 ending, 2:566
Spain and, 1:181; 2:949; 4:1971,
2225, 2226, 2228–2229,
2231–2232
Tocqueville and, 5:2316
Bourbon Restoration, French
(1814–1830). See Restoration
Bourbon Restoration, Spanish (1875).
See Restoration, Spanish
Bourcet, Pierre de, 3:1505
Bourdelle, Antoine, 1:154
Bourgeois, Léon-Victor-Auguste,
2:858; 4:1914
bourgeoisie, 1:283–292, 469,
470–472
in Amsterdam, 1:54
aristocracy and, 1:83, 470–472, 476
banking and, 1:172
as Barbizon painting buyers, 1:178
in Berlin, 1:219
body and, 1:251
Bolshevik/Menshevik split over,
3:1488
in Britain, 1:172, 284, 285,
287–288, 290, 452, 471
broadening of designation of, 1:283
as bureaucrats, 1:321, 322
as cabaret audience, 1:335
child rearing and, 1:431
Christian Socialism and, 4:2208
cities and, 1:283, 289, 445–450, 452,
471–472; 3:1452
civil society and, 1:465, 467, 468
constitutionalism and, 1:457, 459
consumerism and, 1:288–290, 352;
2:547, 549, 551, 552; 3:1453
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Corn Law repeal campaign and,
2:558–560
counterrevolution and, 2:567
culture and, 1:287–288
Daumier caricatures of, 2:621
diversity among, 1:291
dueling and, 2:696; 3:1472
education and, 1:472; 2:727–728
Engels’s critique of, 2:755, 756
family ideal of, 1:284, 287, 472, 482;
3:1452–1455, 1456
feminism and, 1:128, 129; 2:675,
805
fin de siècle threats to, 2:816
football (soccer) and, 2:834–835
in France, 1:106, 283–291
French Radicals and, 4:1928–1929
French Revolution and, 1:283–284;
2:897
gender dimorphism and, 1:287;
2:943, 944, 946; 3:1471
German Center Party and, 1:394
German industrialists and, 2:960
Guimard’s architectural designs for,
2:1027
Haussmann’s Paris plan and, 2:1049,
1088
housing and, 2:1088, 1089–1090
Jewish identification with, 3:1229,
1231–1232
as landowners, 3:1305
leisure activities of, 1:288; 2:551;
3:1324, 1325
Lenin’s view of, 3:1329
London suburbs and, 3:1373, 1375
manners and, 3:1438, 1439
Marx’s use of term, 1:283, 290–291;
2:707; 3:1306–1307
masculinity and, 1:287, 458
museum visits by, 3:1563
musical interests of, 3:1565–1566
in Paris, 1:283, 287, 445, 472;
4:1728, 1739
parks and, 4:1738, 1739, 1739, 1740
pets and, 2:766
photography and, 4:1772
piano playing by, 1:439
in Poland, 4:1811
politics and, 1:106–107, 204,
290–291
poor relief and, 1:450
as professionals, 1:107, 283,
284–285, 472, 473; 4:1879,
1881
in Prussia, 1:184, 290; 4:2251
INDEX
railroads and, 4:1936
Revolutions of 1830 and, 1:284,
457–458, 471
Revolutions of 1848 and, 1:471;
4:1989
in Romania, 4:2018
in Russia, 1:283, 284, 471; 4:2211
in Scotland, 4:2117, 2118
seaside resorts and, 1:288; 4:2125;
5:2328
sexuality and, 1:287; 4:2161
socialist revolution and, 3:1460
suburbanization and, 2:1087–1088,
1090; 3:1452–1453
timepieces and, 3:1323
tobacco use by, 5:2314
tourism and, 5:2328, 2329, 2331
voluntary associations and,
1:116–119
wine and, 5:2475
women consumers and, 2:549
women’s traditional role and, 2:675
women teachers and, 2:727–728
working class and, 5:2483
Bourget, Paul, 1:5
Bourneville, D. M., 1:411
Bourse (Brussels), 1:356
Bourse de Commerce (Paris), 4:1729
Bourse des coopératives socialistes,
2:556
Bourses du Travail (labor exchanges),
1:59; 4:2298; 5:2491
Bouton, Charles-Marie, 2:605
Boutroux, Étienne-Émile-Marie,
4:1804
Bouvard and Pécuchet (Flaubert),
2:827–828
bovine tuberculosis, 5:2361
Boxer Rebellion, 1:292–294, 293;
3:1610, 1628; 4:2064
Japanese troops and, 3:1212
boxing, 1:288; 3:1378; 4:2240,
2245; 5:2435
Boyce, George Price, 4:1865
Boyen, Hermann von, 2:958
Boyer, Jean-Pierre, 2:1037
Boyhood (Tolstoy), 5:2318
Boys, Thomas Shotter, 3:1601
Boys’ and Girls’ Brigades, 1:159;
4:2082
Boy Scouts, 1:159–160; 3:1473;
4:2082
Boy’s Magic Horn, The (Brentano and
Arnim), 2:1023
Bozzolla, Angelo, 1:156
BPU. See Birmingham Political Union
Braddon, Mary Elizabeth, 1:130
2583
INDEX
Bradford, 3:1430
Bradlaugh, Charles, 4:1829–1830
Bradley, F. H., 3:1514
Bragaglia, Anton Giulio and Arturo,
2:920
Bragança dynasty, 4:1764, 1766
Brahms, Johannes, 1:197, 294–296;
3:1565, 1566, 1568
Dvořák and, 2:701
German music and, 3:1570–1571
Liszt and, 3:1571
Paganini as influence on, 4:1699
Romanticism and, 4:2027
as Schoenberg influence, 4:2102
Schubert as influence on, 4:2107
on Strauss (Johann), 4:2260
Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307
Vienna and, 5:2420
Braille, Louis, 1:296–298
Braille globe, 1:297
Braille system, 1:296–298; 5:2499
brain
cell structure, 1:340
Freud’s studies of, 4:1904
Gall theories of, 2:926; 4:1774
phrenology and, 4:1774–1776, 1775
See also neurology
Brand (Ibsen), 3:1108
Brand, Adolf, 2:1086
Brandell, Gunnar, 4:2269
Brandenburg, 4:1900, 1902
Brander, James, 2:515; 4:1887
Brannon, P., 2:588
Branting, Hjalmar, 4:2284
Braque, Georges, 1:153; 4:2158
cubism and, 1:156; 2:590, 591, 592,
592, 593, 797; 3:1530; 4:1710,
1784
fauvism and, 1:153; 2:795, 797
Picasso and, 4:1784
Braschi, Giovanni Angelo. See Pius VI
Brasenose College (Oxford), 4:1746
Bratya Karamazovy (Dostoyevsky),
2:679
Braude, Benjamin, 3:1516
Braun, Emma, 1:10
Braun, Heinrich, 1:11
Braun, Karl Ferdinand, 3:1445
Brawne, Fanny, 4:2029
Bray, Charles and Caroline, 2:743
Bray, John Francis, 4:2201
Brazil
as coffee source, 1:494
colonies in, 3:1154
Comte’s motto and, 2:524
Garibaldi in, 2:930–931
immigrants to, 2:646, 747, 747
2584
independence of, 4:1839
Portugal and, 1:499; 4:1838, 1839
positivism and, 4:1844
Rothschilds and, 4:2040
slavery and, 1:14; 4:1924–1925,
2190–2194
tobacco and, 5:2313
trade and, 5:2336
world’s fairs and, 5:2500
breach of contract, 2:511
bread, 2:549, 555
adulteration of, 2:658, 659
British Corn Laws and, 2:557, 558,
559, 1004
British subsidies for, 1:358, 359;
2:709; 3:1425
French Revolution riots and, 3:1385;
4:1728
Milan 1898 riots and, 3:1504
Revolution of 1848 riots and, 4:1990
significance of price of, 2:658;
3:1385, 1403; 4:1728, 1821
breastfeeding, 1:431; 2:628, 645, 659;
4:1828
Brecht, Bertolt, 3:1435, 1437
Bréda, comte de, 5:2332
breechloading rifle, 1:355; 3:1507
breeding. See eugenics; genetics
Breitner, George Hendrik, 4:1773;
5:2400
Brentano, Antonie, 1:198
Brentano, Clemens, 2:1023
Brentano, Franz, 1:198, 298–300;
2:1099, 1100
Freud and, 4:1904
as Kafka influence, 1:299; 3:1242
Brera Art Gallery (Milan), 3:1501
Bresci, Gaetano, 3:1201; 5:2378
Breshko-Breshkovskaya, Yekaterina K.,
4:2210
Breslau (German battle cruiser), 1:278
Brest River, 2:553
Brethren, German, 2:960
Brethren, Moravian, 4:2096
Brethren of the Free Spirit, 1:55
Breton, André, 3:1214
Breton, Jules, 4:1947
Brett, John, 4:1864
Brettl-Lieder (Schoenberg), 4:2102
Breuer, Josef, 2:904–905; 4:1904
Breuget, Louis, 1:304
Brewster, David, 4:1772
Briand, Aristide, 2:643; 3:1217; 4:2137
Bride of Abydos, The (Byron), 1:332
Bridge, The. See Brücke, Die
Bridge at Argenteuil, The (Monet),
3:1535, 1536
E U R O P E
Bridgewater House (London), 1:186
‘‘Briefe und Bilder’’ (Lasker-Schüler),
3:1309
Briefe zu Beförderung der Humanität
(Herder), 2:1061
Brief nache Norwegen (Lasker-Schüler),
3:1309
Brief Outline of the Study of Theology
(Schleiermacher), 4:2097
‘‘Brief Tale of the Antichrist’’
(Soloviev), 4:2217
Brienne, Loménie de. See Loménie de
Brienne, Étienne-Charles
brigands. See banditry
Bright, John, 1:350, 490, 492; 2:1007
anti-Corn Law movement and, 2:558
suffrage expansion and, 2:1008
Brighton, 1:288; 3:1324; 4:1824,
2124, 2125–2126; 5:2328
Brighton Pavilion, 3:1602
Brill, Abraham Arden, 4:1905
Brillat-Savarin, Jean Anthelme, 4:1965
Brion, Friedereike, 2:982, 983
Briot, Pierre-Joseph, 1:360
Brisbane, Albert, 4:2202
Brisson, Henri, 2:642
Brissot de Warville, Jacques-Pierre,
2:994; 4:1960, 2187
Committee of Public Safety and,
2:611
French Revolution and, 2:288, 890
Girondins and, 2:973; 4:1700
journalism and, 4:1869, 1871
Brissotins. See Girondins
Bristol, 1:304, 305
Britain. See Great Britain
British and Foreign Anti-Slavery
Society, 2:506, 507
British Association for Promoting
Co-operative Knowledge, 3:1390
British Association for the
Advancement of Science, 2:614;
3:1160
British Association for the Promotion
of Temperance, 1:36
British Communist Party, 4:1715
British Cyclist Touring Club, 5:2330
British East Africa, 5:2521
British East India Company. See East
India Company
British International Football
Association Board, 2:834
British Isles. See Great Britain; Ireland;
Scotland; Wales
British Museum, 1:287, 407;
3:1375–1376, 1562, 1564
British Museum Library, 3:1562
Reading Room, 3:1351
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

British Parliament. See Houses of
Parliament; Parliament, British
British Phrenological Association,
4:1776
British Public Libraries Act of 1850,
3:1352
British Royal Academy. See Royal
Academy (Britain)
British Socialist Party, 3:1297
British Society for the Study of Sex
Psychology, 2:1086
British South Africa Company, 4:1997
British Straits Settlement, 5:2336
British Volunteers, 4:2082
British Women’s Temperance
Association, 1:36
Brittany, 2:800; 4:1757
Britton, Thomas, 3:1566
Brno, 1:263; 3:1411
Broch, Hermann, 3:1574; 5:2420
Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 2:1053
Brod, Max, 3:1242; 4:1859
Brodyachaya Sobaka (St. Petersburg
cabaret), 1:337
Broers, Michael, 2:540
Broglie, Jacques-Victor-Albert, duc de,
2:855; 4:173
Brontë, Anne, 1:301, 302; 5:2360
Brontë, Branwell, 1:302
Brontë, Charlotte, 1:300–301; 3:1509
feminism and, 2:802
Gaskell biography of, 2:933, 934
on Luddite riot, 3:1392, 1410
Brontë, Charlotte and Emily,
1:300–301, 301; 5:2360
Brontë, Patrick, 1:300
Bronze Horseman (St. Petersburg),
4:2075
Bronze Horseman, The (Pushkin),
1:210; 4:1919, 2075
Brooke, Rupert, 4:1826, 2259
Brookes, William Penny, 3:1667
Brook Farm (utopian community),
2:838
‘‘Broom, or the Flower of the Desert’’
(Leopardi), 3:1333
brothels. See prostitution
Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and
Methodius, 4:1717
‘‘Brothers, The’’ (Wordsworth),
5:2482
Brothers Karamazov, The
(Dostoyevsky), 2:679
Brothers of Christian Schools, 2:721
Brouardel, Paul, 4:1914
brougham (carriage), 1:303
Brougham, Henry, 1:302–303, 401;
5:2461
Brouillet, André, 1:409, 410
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Broussais, François-Joseph-Victor,
1:436
Brousse, Paul, 1:56, 57; 3:1217, 1272
Brown, Ford Madox, 4:1707, 1863,
1864
Brown, Horatio, 2:745; 5:2405
Brown, Jacob, 5:2440
Brown, John, 2:792; 5:2414
Brown, Lancelot (‘‘Capability’’),
4:1738
Brown, Norman O., 2:838
Brown, Rawdon, 5:2405
Brown, Robert, 2:739–740
Brownian motion, 2:740; 3:1409
Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 4:2237
Browning, Robert, 2:1046; 4:2237;
5:2310
Brownlow Hill workhouse
(Liverpool), 1:331
Bruant, Aristide, 1:335
Brücke, Die, 1:154–155, 220; 2:797;
3:1489, 1530; 4:1711
Brücke, Ernst, 2:904
Bruckner, Anton, 2:701; 3:1418,
1565, 1571
Brugnol, Louise de, 1:169
Brundage, Anthony, 1:402
Brunel, Isambard Kingdom,
1:303–305, 304; 2:590, 760
Royal Albert Bridge and, 4:1935
Brunner, Emil, 4:2097
Brunnow, Ernst, 5:2392
Brünn Program (1899), 1:11
Bruno, Giordano, 2:1032; 4:2037
Brunschwicg, Cécile, 4:2279
Brunswick, 2:959; 4:1901
Brunswick, duke of, 2:899; 3:1221,
1222
Brunswick Manifesto (1792), 1:412;
2:844
Brunton, Richard, 3:1210
Brunty, Patrick. See Brontë, Patrick
Brussels, 1:200, 305–308
artisanal guilds in, 1:203
art nouveau buildings in, 1:109, 109,
110, 112, 307
bilingualism in, 1:202, 307
First International Congress (1868)
in, 2:825
foundling homes/hospitals in,
5:2451
Grande Place in, 1:306
guildhalls in, 1:105
Hotel Solvay, 1:307
international exhibitions in, 5:2499
Marx in, 3:1465
politics and, 1:203, 307
population of, 1:306
INDEX
Second International headquarters in,
1:205; 3:1294
stock exchange in, 1:356
telephone service in, 5:2308
urban redevelopment and, 1:306;
2:1088
worker migrants to, 1:201
world’s fairs and, 1:104; 5:2504
Brussels Academy of Sciences, 4:1921
Brussels Conference (1874), 2:1034;
4:1950
Brussels Conference (1890–1891),
1:499
Brussels conventions (1890–1912),
1:37
Brussels Declaration, 1:308–309
Brussels Observatory, 4:1921
Bruyas, Alfred, 2:568
Bryce, James, 2:957
Bryusov, Valery, 1:249; 4:2181–2182
Buber, Martin, 5:2521
bubonic plague. See plague
Buchan, John, 4:2256
Bucharest, 2:742; 4:2017
Bucharest, Treaty of (1812), 3:1247,
1420
Bucharest, Treaty of (1913), 1:165,
313; 4:2149
Buch der Lieder (Heine), 2:1055
Buch der Narrheit, Das (Herzl),
2:1068
Buchez, Philippe, 1:247; 3:1287;
4:2202, 2208; 5:2397
Büchner, Ludwig, 5:2516
Buchwald, Jed, 2:1063
Buckingham Palace (London), 3:1375,
1602
Buckland, William, 3:1401, 1402
Buckle, Henry Thomas, 4:2282
Bückler, Johannes (Schinderhannes),
2:571
Buda. See Budapest
Budapest, 1:309–312
art nouveau in, 1:112
cabarets in, 1:336
electric lighting in, 2:741
football (soccer) in, 2:834
growth of, 1:310
Herzl and, 2:1066–1067
Hungarian nationalism and, 1:447
Jewish community in, 3:1525
migration and, 3:1111, 1113
municipal government and, 1:450
Parliament Building, 1:310, 311
population of, 1:310
Revolution of 1848 and, 1:143, 310;
2:808; 4:1990, 1994
2585
INDEX
subway in, 4:2272
telephone service in, 5:2308
universities in, 5:2388
urban development and, 1:310–311;
2:1088
voluntary associations and, 1:117
Budapest Convention (1877), 2:703;
4:2067
Budd, William, 4:2109
Buddenbrooks (Mann), 3:1436; 4:2125
Buddhism, 3:1137, 1138, 1140
Buen Retiro Palace (Madrid), 3:1412
Buff, Charlotte, 2:983
Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc, comte
de, 2:637, 776; 3:1301; 4:1924
Bugayev, Nikolai Vasilyevich, 1:209
Bugeaud, Thomas, 1:44
Buguet, Edouard, 4:2238
Building of the Twelve Colleges (St.
Petersburg), 4:2075
Buisson, Ferdinand-Edouard, 2:812
Buisson de la Vigne, Céleste, 1:420,
421
Bui Thi Xuan, 3:1138
Bukhara, 1:395
Bukovina, 1:145; 4:2017, 2019–2020
Bulgakov, Sergei, 3:1171; 4:2196,
2217
Bulgaria, 1:312–313
Adrianople and, 1:12, 13, 164
April Uprising of 1876 in, 1:312;
3:1688
Austrian–Russian clash over, 1:240
Balkan League and, 1:32
Balkan Wars and, 1:2, 12–13, 163,
164, 165, 166, 207, 313;
2:704–705; 3:1541, 1691
Central Powers and, 1:146
Congress of Berlin and, 1:12;
2:530–531, 705; 3:1689
Eastern Question and, 2:703,
704–705, 1009
education in, 1:313; 3:1687
foreign policy objective of, 1:313
Greater Bulgaria movement and, 1:2
Greek War of Independence and,
3:1685
independence of, 2:1018; 3:1173,
1691
Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225
labor movements in, 3:1290
monetary system of, 3:1538
nationalism and, 1:2, 163, 166, 312,
313; 3:1686–1687, 1688
Orthodox Church and, 1:313;
3:1685, 1687
peasant uprisings, 4:2067
2586
Russian domination of, 1:312, 313;
2:703–704; 4:1717
Russo-Turkish War and, 4:2067,
2068
San Stefano Treaty and, 1:312;
2:530–531; 3:1689; 4:2069,
2085, 2086
Serbia and, 1:313; 4:2149
suffrage in, 4:2279
Three Emperors League and, 1:146
universities in, 5:2380
Bulgarian Atrocities (1876), 2:977,
1009
Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of
the East, The (Gladstone), 2:703
Bulgarian Orthodox Church, 1:313;
3:1685, 1687
Bull, Ole Bornemann, 3:1107; 4:1700
Bulletin (Red Cross publication),
4:1949
bullfighting, 3:1414; 4:1821
Bullock, William, 2:956
Bulls of Bordeaux, The (Goya), 2:996,
999
Bülow, Bernhard von, 1:394; 2:967;
5:2312, 2353, 2469
Bülow, Cosima von, 5:2431
Bülow, Hans von, 5:2431
Buls, Charles, 1:306
Bulwer-Lytton, Edward Robert. See
Lytton, Edward Robert Bulwer-
Lytton
Bund, Jewish, 1:313–315; 3:1233
Mensheviks and, 1:264, 265, 315;
3:1487
platform of, 1:314–315
Zionism and, 5:2521
Bund der Landwirte, 1:82
Bund Deutscher Frauenvereine
(Germany), 1:189
Bundesrat, 2:964
Bund für Landwirtschaft (Germany),
2:517
bundling, 4:2163
Bungert, August, 3:1675
Buni Hisar/Lule Burgas, Battle of
(1912), 1:163
Bunin, Ivan, 4:2183
Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, 3:1160
Buntes Theater (Berlin cabaret),
1:335; 4:2102
Buonarroti, Filippo Michele (Philippe),
1:337, 360; 2:521; 4:2129–2130;
5:2514
Burckhardt, Jacob, 1:315–320;
4:1769
bureaucracy, 1:320–325
E U R O P E
Bohemian language ordinances and,
1:262–263
Bonald’s interpretation of, 1:269
Bonapartism and, 1:269, 321–322
bourgeoisie and, 1:283, 284, 285,
286, 472
Britain and, 1:321, 324–325
competitive examinations and, 1:324
conservatism and, 2:537, 540
definition of, 1:320–321, 325
education for, 1:322, 323–324;
2:726
first use of term, 1:320
France and, 1:320–322; 2:846;
3:1387
functions of, 1:324–325, 460
gentry and, 1:83
Germany and, 1:323–324; 4:1880
as guarantor of rights and
entitlements, 1:460
India and, 2:706; 3:1135
Italy and, 1:322; 3:1191
Ottoman reforms and, 3:1686
Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1785
Prussia and, 1:217, 323–324; 2:726;
3:1278; 4:1900
Russia and, 1:322–323, 324
service workers and, 1:473
social insurance and, 1:291, 321,
356; 3:1664
Bureau of Public Health and Hygiene
(France), 4:1914
Bureaux Arabes (Algeria), 1:44
Buret, Eugène, 1:247, 285–286
Bürger, Gottfried August, 4:2094,
2095
Bürgergeneral, Der (Goethe), 2:985
Burghauser, Jarmil, 2:700
burghers (Hamburg), 2:1039, 1040,
1041
Burghers of Calais, The (Rodin),
4:2009, 2010
Burghölzli Hospital (Zurich), 3:1238,
1239; 4:1905
Burgos Seguı́, Carmen de, 2:952
Burgtheater (Vienna), 3:1260;
5:2418, 2420
Buriáan von Rajecz, Stephan, 1:276
burial. See death and burial
Burial at Ornans, A (Courbet), 2:568;
4:1706, 1946–1947, 2133
Burial of Christ, The (Goya), 2:996
Burke, Edmund, 1:326–328, 497;
2:706, 1077; 3:1343; 4:1962,
2140; 5:2321
British political system and, 1:161,
327, 498
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

conservatism and, 1:326, 327–328;
2:538–539, 603
counterrevolution and, 2:566, 887;
3:1422; 4:1700, 1718
as French Revolution critic, 4:2133,
2212; 5:2321
Godwin critique of, 2:980; 5:2480
Paine and, 4:1700
political Romanticism and, 4:2031
Restoration and, 4:1968
on the sublime, 4:1702
as Whig, 5:2461
Burke, Peter, 4:1940
Burke, Robert, 2:782
Burkina Faso, 1:13
Burliuk, David, 1:157; 4:2182
Burma, 1:434, 498; 3:1137
Burne-Jones, Edward, 1:191; 3:1256,
1550; 4:2047
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1864–1865
Burning of the Houses of Lords and
Commons, October 16, 1834, The
(Turner), 5:2367
Burns, J. H., 3:1514
Burns, Lydia, 2:756
Burns, Mary, 2:756
Burschenschaften (student fraternities),
1:369, 457; 2:923, 959; 5:2382
Burton, Richard, 2:783, 784; 4:1875,
1876
Bury, J. P. T., 2:929
business firms and economic growth,
1:328–331
bourgeoisie and, 1:472; 2:960
capitalism and, 1:350–357
corporations and, 1:329–330, 355;
2:711
factories and, 1:328–329
Germany and, 2:967
Jews and, 3:1231
labor unions and, 3:1291
Rhodes and, 4:1996–1997
Siemens and, 4:2179–2180
See also economic growth and
industrialization
Busoni, Ferruccio Benvenuto, 4:2102
Butler, Eleanor, 2:1083–1084
Butler, George, 1:331, 332
Butler, Josephine, 1:129, 331–332;
2:650, 798, 804; 3:1556; 4:1884,
1896, 2162, 2302
Butovsky, Alesei, 3:1666
Butt, Isaac, 4:1741; 5:2464
Buttafuoco, Annarita, 3:1556
button trade, 2:547
Buveur d’absinthe, Le (Manet), 1:3
Buweis, 1:261
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Buzzi, Paolo, 2:918
Byron, George Gordon (Lord Byron),
1:332–334, 333; 2:930; 4:2123;
5:2327
death of, 4:1982, 2031
as Delacroix influence, 2:640
Greek War of Independence and,
1:333; 3:1604–1605; 4:1770
Luddite defense by, 3:1391, 1410
Malthus ridiculed by, 3:1426
opium use by, 2:686
as Pushkin influence, 4:1919
Shelley (Mary) and, 4:2168
Shelley (Percy Bysshe) and, 4:2170
Venice and, 5:2403
By the Beautiful, Blue Danube (J.
Strauss), 4:2260; 5:2420
Byzantine Empire, 3:1685
Byzantium and Slavom (Leontiev),
2:773
n Callebotte, Gustave, 1:471
C
Cabanel, Alexandre, 2:940
Cabanis, Pierre-Jean-Georges, 4:1790
cabarets, 1:220, 335–337
Cabet, Étienne, 1:144, 247, 337–338;
2:521; 3:1286; 4:2131, 2203;
5:2357, 2397
Cabiria (film), 1:442, 443
cables, 1:351, 353; 4:1937
See also telegraph
cabs, 5:2352
cacao, 1:364
caciques, 4:2231
Cadbury family, 1:471
Cádiz Cortes. See Cortes of Cádiz
Cae-Book of Sherlock Holmes (Doyle),
2:680
Caen, federalist revolt in, 2:799, 800,
844, 974
Caesar, Julius, 3:1584
Caesar and Cleopatra (Shaw), 4:2166
Caetano, Marcello, 4:1839
Café des Westens, 3:1309
Café Guerbois (Paris), 2:634
Café Museum (Vienna), 3:1381
Café-Restaurant (Barcelona), 1:183
cafés, 1:2–4, 36; 2:547
caffeine, 1:494
Cafiero, Carlo, 1:57
Cahiers de la quinzaine (periodical),
4:1760, 2015
Caillaux, Henriette, 1:339
Caillaux, Joseph, 1:338–340; 2:858
Caillé, René-Auguste, 2:782
INDEX
Caillebotte, Gustave, 3:1126, 1128,
1530; 4:1732
Cailleux, Alphonse de, 2:606
Cain (Byron), 1:333
Cairo, 1:18; 2:731, 732, 733
British occupation of, 2:734
Cairoli, Benedetto, 5:2377
Cairo Opera House, 2:732
Caisse de la Dette Publique, 2:733
Cajal, Santiago Ramón y, 1:340–342;
4:1909
Calabria, 4:2002
Calcografia (Madrid), 2:997
Calcutta, 2:705, 706; 3:1133, 1136,
1139
Calder, Robert, 5:2344
Calderai Sublime Masters (secret
society), 1:360
Calderon de la Barca, Pedro, 4:2095
Caleb Williams (Godwin), 2:981
calendars, 3:1324
calico, 3:1151–1152
California Act of 1909, 2:771
Callendar, L. A., 3:1486
callotypes, pornographic, 4:1834
Callouette (sculptor), 4:1954
Callow, John, 5:2345
Calmette, Albert-Léon-Charles,
5:2361
Calmette, Gaston, 1:339
Calonne, Charles Alexandre de, 2:767,
841; 3:1385
Calvat, Mélanie, 4:1788
Calvert, Edward, 1:246
Calvin, John, 4:1890; 5:2447
Calvinism, 2:1006; 3:1111;
4:1890–1891, 1892, 1895
Netherlands and, 3:1618, 1619
See also Presbyterianism
Calvo, Carlos, 3:1175
Cambiale di matrimonio, La (Rossini),
4:2038
Cambodia, 3:1137–1143, 1145
Cambridge Local Examination, 2:626
Cambridge Modern History series,
1:6–7
Cambridge Population Group, 3:1147
Cambridge University, 4:1713, 2240,
2241; 5:2379, 2385, 2387
Acton and, 1:6–7
Albert and, 5:2412
Anglican Church and, 3:1377;
4:1895; 5:2384
Apostles (secret society) and, 2:835;
4:2258
Cavendish Laboratory and, 3:1478;
5:2387
2587
INDEX
class and, 2:728; 3:1512
Darwin and, 2:613
Forster and, 2:835
history teaching at, 2:1073, 1074
law education and, 2:726
liberalized admissions to, 2:1008
Maxwell and, 3:1378, 1477
women students and, 2:625, 626,
945; 5:2385
Camelots du Roi, 1:5; 3:1476
camera del lavoro, 5:2491
cameralism, 5:2393
camera obscura, 2:606
cameras. See cinema; photography
Camera World (magazine), 4:1773
Camerini, Paolo, 4:1851
Cameroons, 1:20, 222
Camilla (Paer), 3:1670; 4:2038
Camoin, Charles, 1:153; 2:795–796
Camorra. See mafia
Campagne in Frankreich (Goethe),
2:987
Campbell-Bannerman, Henry, 1:114;
2:979, 1011, 1012; 3:1348, 1369
Campo Formio, Treaty of (1797),
2:895, 900; 3:1192, 1584;
4:2001; 5:2402
Camps Elisis (Barcelona), 1:181
Camps-Volants, Les: Census of
Bohemians in France (Mayer
engraving), 4:2023
Camus, Albert, 3:1167
Canada, 1:135, 342–347; 5:2411
British penal exile in, 2:780
British ties of, 2:1005–1006
colonial trade and, 2:505
colonizing settlers in, 1:353;
2:504–505, 509
confederation of, 1:345–346
immigrants to, 1:351; 2:646, 647,
747, 747, 1005
immigration policies of, 1:353
as New France, 1:343
Parliament Building, 1:345
population of, 1:346
trade and, 5:2335, 2336, 2342
War of 1812 and, 5:2439, 2440
world’s fairs and, 5:2502
See also Quebec
Canadian National Council for
Combating Veneral Diseases,
4:1714–1715
Canal du Midi, 5:2347–2348
Canalejas y Méndez, José, 4:2231
canals, 2:763
Amsterdam and, 1:53; 3:1618
engineers and, 2:757–758
2588
factories and, 2:792
French irrigation with, 2:762
Manchester and, 3:1428, 1431
Netherlands and, 3:1617
St. Petersburg, 4:2076
as transport system, 5:2347–2348,
2350
Trieste and, 5:2354, 2355
See also Panama Canal; Suez Canal
Canary Islands, 3:1615
Candide (Voltaire), 1:103
candy, chocolate, 1:496
Canetti, Elias, 5:2449
Caney the Clown (Thomson and
Smith), 5:2490
canned food, 2:659
Cannes, 1:303; 4:2125
Cannibal Club (London), 4:1836
cannibalism, 3:1624; 4:1874
Canning, Charles John (son), 4:2140;
5:2321
Canning, George (father), 1:374;
2:525, 954, 1020; 4:1758
Cannizzaro, Stanislao, 1:426
Cannon, George, 4:1834
canonization, 1:385
Canova, Antonio, 1:347–349, 348;
4:1702; 5:2402, 2403
Cánovas del Castillo, Antonio, 4:2231
Canrobert, Certan, 2:579
Canti (Leopardi), 3:1333
Canton (China), 3:1578
Canzoni (Leopardi), 3:1333
Canzoni della gesta d’oltremare
(D’Annunzio), 2:609
Capaldi, Nicholas, 3:1514
Cape Colony, 1:256
as British settlement colony,
1:17–18, 19; 3:1115
Protestant missionary society in,
3:1527
Cape of Good Hope, 1:17; 3:1122
Cape St. Vincent, Battle of (1797),
3:1615
Capital (Marx), 2:756; 3:1462, 1466,
1467, 1468; 4:2205
capitalism, 1:349–357
Agricultural Revolution and, 1:27,
28, 358–359
artisans and, 1:104, 106–107
banking and, 1:176
Belgium and, 1:203
birthrate and, 4:1828
bourgeoisie and, 1:284, 290–291,
471
British working class and,
2:1006–1007
E U R O P E
as civilizing mission, 1:463
civil society and, 1:467
classical economists and, 2:712–718
communist opposition to, 2:521
cooperatives and, 2:557
corporations and, 2:711
crime and, 2:571
definitions of, 1:349
Engels’s view of, 2:754, 755
evolution theory and, 2:777
feminists and, 2:805
imperialism and, 3:1115, 1121–1122
individualism and, 2:709–710
Industrial Revolution (first) and,
3:1146, 1147, 1149
Industrial Revolution (second) and,
1:350–351; 3:1157–1158
institutional economists and,
2:709–710
Jewish investors and, 3:1231
Lenin’s view of, 3:1327
liberalism and, 3:1348, 1432
Luxemburg’s view of, 3:1400
Marx’s view of, 1:349, 350; 2:707,
708, 755, 1006; 3:1248, 1328,
1400, 1466–1467; 4:2205, 2210,
2213–2214
Mill (John Stuart) on, 4:2207
Napoleon Code and, 1:351
nationalism and, 1:355–356
neoclassical economists and, 2:707,
710
peasants and, 4:1755–1756, 1832
Protestantism and, 4:1892
Rhineland version of, 1:330
Ruskin’s opposition to, 4:2047
Saint-Simon and, 4:2080, 2081
serf emancipation and, 4:2149
socialist views of, 4:2201, 2205
sociology and, 4:2212
Spencer and, 4:2234
syndicalism and, 4:2298–2299
Tories and, 5:2321
United States and, 1:328
utopian socialism and, 5:2395
Weber’s thesis of, 1:349; 4:1892;
5:2447
welfare and, 5:2453–2454
See also economic growth and
industrialization; free trade;
market, the
Capitalism and Slavery (Williams),
2:708
capital, characterization of, 2:713, 715
capital punishment. See death penalty
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Capodistrias, Ioannis, 2:1019; 4:1982
Cappellari, Bartolomeo Alberto. See
Gregory XVI
Capriccio espagnol (Rimsky-Korsakov),
4:1999
Caprices (Paganini), 4:1698, 1699
Caprichos, Los (Goya), 2:997, 998;
4:1703, 2225
Caprivi, Leo von, 2:967; 5:2468–2469
Captains Courageous (Kipling), 3:1256
Captain’s Daughter, The (Pushkin),
4:1920
Captain Swing, 1:357–359; 3:1411;
4:1755, 1984; 5:2485
machine breaking and, 4:2264
See also Luddism
Capuana, Luigi, 5:2407
carabinieri, 4:1814
Caravaggio, 2:941
carbolic acid, 3:1358, 1359; 4:1744
Carbonari, 1:359–362; 2:881;
3:1198, 1254
Byron and, 1:333
founding in Naples of, 1:360–361;
3:1193
Mazzini and, 3:1479
Revolution of 1820 and, 4:1979,
1980, 2130; 5:2513
Revolution of 1830 and, 1:361;
4:1979, 2130, 2131; 5:2513
as secret society, 1:359;
4:2130–2131; 5:2513, 2514
Carbonari della montagna, I (Verga),
5:2407
carbon dioxide, 3:1312
carburetor, 3:1161
Card Players, The (Cézanne), 1:398
Carducci, Giosuè, 1:362–363
Caribbean, 1:363–366
British capitalism and, 2:708–709,
710
British-French rivalry in, 3:1115
colonialism and, 1:363–366, 499;
2:708, 1035–1036; 3:1116
French colonial rights and, 2:888
French slave rebellion and, 1:364,
365, 498, 501; 2:890
Protestant missionary societies in,
3:1527
slave labor in, 1:363, 364;
2:708–709, 890, 1036; 4:1925,
1927, 2190, 2191
slave trade and, 1:13, 14
trade and, 2:709
See also Haiti
Caricaturana (Daumier and Philipon),
2:621
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Caricature, La (French journal),
1:463; 2:621
caricature and cartoons
Cruikshank and, 2:585–586
Daumier and, 2:620, 621–622
Doré and, 2:676
Nadar and, 3:1577
newspapers and, 2:620–622; 4:1823
Caritat, Marie-Jean de. See Condorcet,
marquis de
Carlier, Achille, 5:2423
Carlisle Bridge (Dublin), 2:691
Carlism, 1:366–368; 2:809;
4:1763–1764, 2227, 2229–2231
anticlericalism and, 1:68, 366
conservatism and, 1:83, 366–368;
2:539
Carlist Wars (1883–1836), 1:367–368
Carlo Emanuele, prince of Carignano,
1:413
Carlos, Don. See Charles III, king of
Spain
Carlos I, king of Portugal, 4:1841
Carlsbad Decrees (1819), 1:361,
368–370; 2:861, 959, 1043;
4:1869, 1972
Metternich and, 1:369; 3:1494;
4:1971
Carlton House (Lond), 3:1602
Carlyle, Jane Welsh, 1:370, 371
Carlyle, Janice, 3:1514
Carlyle, Thomas, 1:103, 370–372,
371; 2:941; 5:2395
Mazzini friendship with, 3:1480
Mill (John Stuart) friendship with,
3:1513
Saint-Simonism and, 4:2081, 2202,
2203
socialism and, 4:2206
Carmelite nuns, 1:384, 385
Carmen (Bizet), 3:1675, 1676
Carmen (Mérimée), 5:2314
Carnap, Rudolf, 3:1409
Carnarvon, Lord, 4:2223
Carnaval (ballet), 3:1642
Carnaval des revues, Le (Offenbach),
3:1661
Carnegie, Andrew, 3:1158; 4:1697;
5:2387
Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace, 4:1697
Carnegie Institue Station for
Experimental Evolution, 2:770
Carnegie steel, 3:1158, 1159
Carnival romani, Le (Berlioz), 1:225
Carnot, Lazare (father), 2:518, 664,
900; 3:1588
Carnot, Sadi (son), 4:1943, 2108
INDEX
assassination of, 1:57; 2:857
heat theory of, 3:1249
Car of the German Empire Driven by
Wilhelm II, The (Heine), 5:2469
Carol I, king of Romania,
4:2016–2017
Caroline, queen of Naples, 2:533
Caroline Islands, 2:967; 3:1279,
1331; 4:1720
Caroline of Brunswick, queen of Great
Britain, 1:302, 489; 2:585–586,
954; 3:1284; 4:1834
Carpenter, Edward, 1:372–373;
2:745; 4:1747, 2206, 2296
Carpenter, Jules, 3:1397
carpet weaving, 3:1412
Carrà, Carlo, 1:157; 2:918
Carrel, Jean-Baptiste Nicolas Armand,
5:2310
Carriage at the Races (Degas), 2:636
Carrier, Jean-Baptiste, 2:563–565;
4:1951
Carrière, Eugène, 2:796
Carrington, Dora, 4:2259
Carrousel, arch of the (Paris), 4:1729
carrying capacity (ecology), 3:1426
cars. See automobile
Carson, Edward Henry, 2:692;
3:1184, 1185; 5:2465, 2466
Carte, Richard D’Oyly, 5:2464
carte-de-visite portrait, 4:1772
Cartellier, Pierre, 4:2043
cartels, 1:487; 2:967; 3:1315
Cartesian Meditations (Husserl),
2:1100
cartoons. See caricature and cartoons
Carvalho, Léon, 3:1675
Cary, Elizabeth Cabot, 1:23
Casa Amatller (Barcelona), 1:184
Casa Batilló (Barcelona), 1:183;
2:936, 937
Casa Calvet (Barcelona), 2:936
Casa de les Punxes (Barcelona), 1:184
Casa Figueres (Barcelona), 2:936
Casagemas, Carles, 4:1781
Casa Iuster (Barcelona), 1:184
Casa Milà (Barcelona), 1:183; 2:937,
937
Casati Law of 1859 (Italy), 5:2388
Casa Tomas (Barcelona), 1:184
Casa Viçens (Barcelona vicinity), 2:936
Casement, Roger, 1:205
Caspian Sea, 1:395
Cassagne, Armand, 5:2400
‘‘Cassandra’’ (Nightingale), 3:1637
Cassatt, Mary, 3:1126, 1128,
1131–1132; 4:2156
Castagnary, Jules, 3:1128
Castaigne, Andre, 1:126
2589
INDEX
Castelar y Ripoll, Emilio, 4:2230,
2231
Castel-Béranger (Guimard apartment
house), 2:1027
Castelfidardo, Battle of (1860),
4:1797
Castello, Antonio Paternò. See San
Giuliano, marquis di
caste system, 3:1208
Castiglione, Francesco Saverio. See Pius
VIII
Castile, 1:379; 2:950, 951
Castilhos, Julio de, 4:1844
Castle, The (Kafka), 3:1242, 1243
Castlereagh, Viscount (Robert
Stewart), 1:373–374; 4:1970,
1971; 5:2321
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532, 533,
534, 565, 1080
on Holy Alliance, 2:1081
Metternich and, 3:1493, 1494
Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1980,
1981, 1982
slave trade abolishment and, 1:308
castrati, 3:1670
Castro, Carlos Marı́a de, 3:1413
Castruccio, Prince of Lucca (Shelley).
See Valperga
casualties
Balkan Wars and, 1:165–166, 313
battlefield medicine and,
3:1307–1308
Boer War and, 1:258; 3:1259
cholera pandemics and, 1:436
Crimean War and, 2:629, 952
Franco-Austrian War and, 2:952
Franco-Prussian War and, 2:629
Geneva Convention and, 2:953
Jena battle and, 3:1221
Leipzig battle and, 3:1322
Majuba Hill and, 3:1423
Mukden and, 3:1557
Napoleonic campaigns and, 2:628,
644; 3:1340
Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow
and, 2:902
Navarino and, 3:1612
Omdurman and, 3:1668
Paris Commune and, 2:855
World War I and, 1:101
Catalanisme (Catalanism), 1:182;
2:935, 937, 938, 949; 4:2232
Catalonia, 1:62, 180–184; 4:2231,
2232
cabaret in, 1:335
Carlism and, 1:367, 368
education in, 2:726
2590
folk culture and, 1:182
Gaudı́ and, 2:935–938
Napoleonic occupation and, 1:180;
4:1765
textile production ind, 3:1151
women’s labor syndicates in, 3:1293
See also Barcelona
Catania, 4:2177
catastrophism, 2:615; 3:1402
Catéchisme des industriels (Saint-
Simon), 4:2081
‘‘Catechism of a Revolutionary, The’’
(Nechayev), 3:1613, 1614
Catena Librorum Tacendorum (Fraxi),
4:1836
Cathédrale, La (Huysmans), 2:1104
Cather, Willa, 1:214
Catherine II (Roslin), 1:375
Catherine II (the Great), empress of
Russia, 1:243, 374–377, 375,
400; 4:2047–2048, 2049, 2050
Alexander I and, 1:37
Cossacks and, 5:2370
counterrevolution and, 3:1625
Czartoryski and, 2:603
French Revolution and, 2:887;
4:1748
Peter the Great statue and, 4:2075
Poland and, 4:1806, 1807
Radishchev exiled by, 3:1552
Royal Cophenhagen china service gift
to, 2:647
St. Petersburg and, 4:2075,
2077–2078, 2079
secularization and, 4:2059, 2061
son Paul I’s reversal of policies of,
4:1747, 1748
Cathleen ni Houlihan (Yeats), 5:2510
Catholic Action, 1:389; 4:2025
Catholic Association (Ireland), 1:388;
2:1003; 3:1656
Catholic Center Party (Germany),
1:238, 383
Catholic Electoral Union (Italy), 2:972
Catholic emancipation, 1:211, 381,
415; 2:1002, 1003; 3:1177
Catholic emancipation (Britain),
1:211, 373; 2:693, 1003; 3:1177,
1345; 4:1895
O’Connell and, 3:1656–1657
Peel and, 1:381; 4:1758
Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829
(Britain), 1:415; 3:1345, 1656;
4:1758, 1895, 2118; 5:2457
Catholicism, 1:377–386
Acton and, 1:6
Albania and, 1:32
E U R O P E
as anticlerical target, 1:67, 68, 70,
180–181, 381, 388–389
anti-Semitism and, 1:73, 183
aristocracy and, 1:83
Austria-Hungary and, 1:138, 144,
145, 263, 377; 2:871, 957
Belgium and, 1:200–201
Berlin migrants and, 1:217
Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:273,
275, 276–277
Britain and. See Catholic
emancipation (Britain)
British Act of Union and, 3:1177
Carlism and, 1:83
charities and, 4:1581
cholera relief and, 1:438
Comte’s analysis of, 4:1844
Concordat of 1801 and, 2:527–529;
3:1586, 1588, 1598
cooperatives and, 2:556
Counter-Enlightenment and, 2:538
counterrevolution and, 2:566
culture of, 1:378–380
Directory and, 2:666
Dublin and, 2:693
Dvořák and, 2:700–701
Eastern Christian rite and, 5:2369,
2372
education and, 2:721, 723, 726,
812, 929
as eugenics opponent, 2:769
France and. See under France
Freemasonry and, 2:881
French Canadians and, 1:343
French church-state separation and,
4:1929–1930, 2136–2137;
5:2432–2433
French Revolution and, 2:843, 846,
888, 894, 896
See also Civil Constitution of the
Clergy
Gallicanism and, 1:269; 2:529
gender dimorphism and, 2:945
German state separation from, 2:966
Germany and. See under Germany
holidays and, 3:1324
Huysmans and, 2:1104
Ireland and, 1:327, 378, 379, 380,
383; 2:693, 1000, 1009, 1010;
3:1176, 1181, 1655–1657
Irish Devotional Revolution and,
3:1180–1181
Irish immigrants and, 3:1525
Italy and. See under Italy
Jerusalem and, 1:244
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Kulturkampf against, 3:1277,
1278–1280, 1331; 4:1903
labor movements and, 5:2488–2489
lay organizations and, 4:2025, 2037
Leo IX and, 4:1798
Leo XIII and, 3:1330–1331
Lithuania and, 3:1366
Lorraine and, 1:51
Louis-Napoleon and, 3:1591
Lueger and, 3:1393
Lyon and, 3:1405
Madrid and, 3:1412–1413
Mahler as convert to, 3:1418
Maistre and, 3:1422
Manning as convert to, 3:1440–1441
Manzoni and, 3:1441, 1442
Marian cults and. See Marian
devotion
migration and, 3:1111
missions and, 3:1527, 1528
modernism and, 1:213, 214,
382–383, 385
as Netherlands minority, 1:377, 383;
3:1618, 1619
Newman’s conversion to, 3:1621
nursing orders and, 3:1648,
1649–1650
Péguy and, 4:1760, 1761
Peninsular War and, 4:2227
pilgrimages and, 4:1787–1790;
5:2329–2330
Poland and. See under Poland
popular devotion and, 1:385, 393
Portugal and, 1:377; 4:1842
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1707
prostitution reform and, 4:1886
Protestantism contrasted with,
4:1891–1892
as Prussian minority, 1:381; 4:1901,
1972
Pugin’s conversion to, 4:1917–1918
Restoration and, 4:1968–1970
Rome and, 4:2033–2035, 2037
royalists and, 1:5
Salvation Army attacks on, 4:2083
Scotland and, 4:2118–2119
secularization and, 4:2134
Serbia and, 1:206
Slavophile view of, 4:2194, 2195
Spain and, 1:377, 379; 4:1766;
5:2488–2489
suffrage rights and, 4:2277
Switzerland and, 1:377; 4:2290,
2291
theology and, 1:384–385
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Tories and, 5:2321, 2322
Ukraine and, 5:2369–2372
ultramontanism and, 1:381–384,
388; 4:1721, 1722
Vietnam and, 3:143, 1138, 1140
voluntary associations and, 1:120
Warsaw, and, 5:2441
women’s idealization and, 1:287
See also papacy; papal infallibility;
Papal State
Catholicism, political, 1:377,
386–390
Action Française and, 1:4, 5; 3:1477
anticlericalism and, 1:68–70,
388–389
anti-Semitism and, 1:73; 2:684, 689
Austria and, 3:1393–1395
Belgium and, 1:200–201, 202, 203,
204, 205
Bismarck’s Kulturkampf against,
1:238, 239; 2:966
British empancipation and, 4:1758
Central Party and, 1:393–394; 2:966
Christian Democracy and, 1:389
Christian Socialism and,
4:2208–2209
conservatism and, 1:387, 388, 389;
2:540, 541; 3:1393
Dreyfus affair and, 2:684
Dublin and, 2:691
French landmarks and, 2:737
in Germany, 5:2467, 2469,
2472–2474
Ireland and, 2:673, 1003; 3:1177,
1185
Italy and, 2:972
Kulturkampf and, 3:1278–1280
labor movements and, 3:1291
liberalism and, 1:383; 3:1344, 1346
non expedit policy and, 4:2024–2025
O’Connell and, 3:1654–1657
papacy and, 4:1718–1719
peasants and, 4:1755
Revolutions of 1848 and, 1:388;
4:1995
Roman Question and, 4:2024–2026
Third French Republic and, 2:855,
856
Catholic League (Germany), 5:2474
Catholic Party (Belgium), 1:389
Catholic Register (Irish periodical),
3:1656
Catholic University (Dublin), 2:693
Caton Woodville, R., 2:563
Cato Street conspiracy, 1:361
Cato the Elder, 3:1663
INDEX
Catriona (Stevenson), 4:2256
Cattaneo, Carlo, 3:1480, 1501–1502;
4:2002
cattle. See livestock
Caucasus
Armenians in, 1:87, 88, 89, 91
Russia and, 2:703–704; 3:1625
Russian Islamic jadidism in,
3:1207–1208
Shamil and, 4:2164–2165
Cauer, Minna, 1:129
Cavacchioli, Enrico, 2:918
Cavaignac, Godefroy, 2:684; 3:1318;
4:2044
Cavaignac, Louis Eugène, 3:1590
Cavalieri, Tommaso, 4:2296
Cavalleria rusticana (Mascagni),
3:1676
‘‘Cavalleria rusticana’’ (Verga), 5:2408
cavalry, 1:94–95, 244; 2:578, 578
Cavazza, Francesco, 3:1307
Cavazza family, 3:1307
Cavendish, Henry, 3:1312; 4:2114
Cavendish Laboratory (Cambridge),
3:1478; 5:2387
Cavignac, Jean-Baptiste, 2:851
Cavour, Count (Camillo Benso),
1:380, 390–393; 2:581, 583,
662, 866; 4:2003–2004, 2036;
5:2325, 2404, 2410
Garibaldi and, 1:391, 392; 2:932,
933; 3:1198
impact of death of, 3:1200
liberalism and, 3:1343, 1345;
4:1786–1787
Pius IX’s condemnations of, 4:1797
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 1:390, 391, 392–393;
3:1197–1198, 1481
Cavour family, 1:322, 390
Cayley, George, 1:30
Cazals, F. A., 3:1213
CCHP. See Consultative Committee
on Public Health
CDU. See Christlich-Demokratische
Union
Céart, Henry, 2:1104
Cecchetti, Enrico, 4:1750
Cecil, Robert. See Salisbury, Lord
Cécile (Constant), 2:545
Celan, Paul, 2:1079
Célébrités du juste milieu (Daumier),
2:621
celestial mechanics, 4:1804
Celestial Mechanics (Leplace),
4:1779–1780
Cellier, Léon, 4:2085
2591
INDEX
Cello Concerto in B minor (Dvořák),
2:701
cell theory, 1:340; 3:1485
Cellularpathologie, Die (Virchow),
5:2425
celluloid, 3:1160
Celsius, Anders, 4:2285
Celtic (football club), 2:833, 834
Celticism, 3:1178, 1182–1183
Celtic Twilight, 5:2509, 2510
Cementiri de l’Est (Barcelona), 1:180
cemeteries, 2:628; 4:1731, 1858
Cenci, The (Shelley), 4:2170
Cenerentola, La (Rossini), 3:1670;
4:2038
censorship, 4:1869–1870
Armenia and, 1:89
Austria-Hungary and, 1:138, 142
Catherine II and, 1:377
Chateaubriand’s opposition to,
1:421
French fluctuating policies and,
1:450; 2:621; 3:1385;
4:1868–1870, 1899
French protests against, 1:450
German Carlsbad Decrees and,
1:368, 370; 2:959; 3:1494;
4:1869
German movement against, 1:336
Italy and, 4:1869, 2001
Joseph II’s relaxation of, 1:138
by London’s Lord Chamberlain,
3:1377
Napoleonic Empire and, 4:1869
Prussia and, 4:1869; 5:2512
Prussian relaxation of, 1:215, 216
Reign of Terror and, 4:1869
Russia and, 1:400; 2:1014, 1016;
3:1552, 1613, 1626, 1627;
4:1747, 1869, 1870, 2052, 2055
Spain and, 4:1869
Sweden and, 4:2283
See also freedom of the press
Centennial International Exhibition.
See Philadelphia Centennial
Exhibition
Center Party (Germany), 1:82, 388,
393–395
Bismarck policies against, 1:239;
2:966; 3:1278
naval buildup and, 3:1609
William II and, 5:2469
Windthorst and, 5:2472–2474
working class and, 5:2489
Central Asia, 1:395–397
imperial expansion and, 1:244, 395
2592
Russian colonial reforms in,
1:396–397
Russian expansion into, 1:39; 3:1116
Russian Islamic jadidism in,
3:1207–1208
Turkish nationalism and, 3:1690
Central Committee of Resistance to
Oppression (France), 2:800
Central Market Hall (Budapest), 1:310
Central Powers, 1:146, 313
Central Railway Station (Amsterdam),
1:53
Centre Català (Barcelona), 1:182
Centre Party (Germany). See Center
Party
Centre Pompidou (Paris), 2:590
Centuria Librorum Absconditorum
(Fraxi), 4:1836
ceramics
art nouveau, 1:107, 111–112, 113;
2:815, 1028
See also pottery
Cercle social (France), 2:994; 4:1961
Cerdà, Ildefons, 1:182
Cervantes, Miguel de, 2:621, 676,
950, 951
Cervara, La (Corot), 2:561
Cervera y Topete, Pascual, 4:2231
Ceuta, 3:1548
Ceylon, 1:436; 2:958
Cézanne, Paul, 1:397–399, 398
commemorative franc note for,
3:1398
cubism and, 1:156; 2:593; 4:1710
Delacroix as influence on, 2:641
impressionism and, 3:1126, 1128,
1131, 1132–1133; 4:1708
Impressionist Exhibition and, 4:1955
as Matisse influence, 3:1474
as Picasso influence, 4:1782
Pissarro and, 4:1792, 1793
postimpressionism and, 3:1530,
1536; 4:1710
Zola and, 5:2522
CGT. See General Confederation of
Labor
Chaadayev, Peter, 1:399–401; 2:772;
3:1170; 4:2050; 5:2459
Chabrier, Emmanuel, 3:1675
Chadwick, Edwin, 1:218, 401–402,
450
on criminality, 2:572
on hospital infections causes, 3:1358
Public Health Act and, 1:325;
4:1912
Chahut, Le (Seurat), 4:2157
Chaikovsky Circle, 3:1272
E U R O P E
chain reaction, 4:1781
Chains of Slavery (Marat), 3:1442
chalcolite, 2:594
Chalgrin, Jean François Térèse, 4:2043
Chaliapin, Fyodor, 2:654; 3:1575
Chalier, Joseph, 2:800; 3:1403
Challenger (British ship), 3:1658
Chalmers, Thomas, 2:1006
Chamberlain, Basil Hall, 1:402
Chamberlain, Houston Stewart, 1:75,
77, 402–404; 4:2023
Wagnerian cult of, 1:403, 404
Chamberlain, Joseph, 1:355,
404–406, 450; 2:505, 1011;
3:1348
imperialism and, 1:405; 3:1118
Irish Home Rule and, 1:405; 2:1010
tariff reform and, 3:1369
Tories and, 5:2322
Webb and, 5:2444
workers’ support of, 5:2489
chamber music, 3:1568, 1569, 1670
Beethoven and, 1:197
Rimsky-Korsakov and, 4:1999
Schubert and, 4:2106, 2107
Chamber of Deputies (France)
anti-Semitic members of, 2:689
Charles X dissolution of, 1:412;
3:1388
Clemenceau and, 1:479, 480
Delacroix decorations for, 2:640
Delcassé in, 2:642–643
Ferry and, 2:810–811
Gambetta and, 2:928, 929
Guesde and, 2:1026
Guizot and, 2:1029; 3:1389
July Monarchy and, 3:1389
Lafayette and, 3:1300–1301
Lamartine and, 3:1303
Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1318
Restoration and, 2:846
Revolution of 1830 and, 2:848
socialists and, 4:1732–1733
Third Republic and, 2:856
Chamber of Deputies (Italy), 2:581
Chamber of Labor (Milan), 3:1504
Chambers, Robert, 2:777
Chamber Symphony no. 1
(Schoenberg), 4:2102
Chambord, comte de (Henri-Charles-
Ferdinand-Marie Dieudonné
d’Artois), 2:855
Champagne (wine), 5:2476, 2477,
2478
Champassak, 3:1142
Champ-de-Mars (Paris), 2:736, 890
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Champollion, Jean-François,
1:406–407
Champs Elysees (Paris), 2:869; 4:1735
Chance (Conrad), 2:536
Chancery Court (Britain), 1:303
Chandelle verte, La (Jarry), 3:1214
Chandler, Alfred, 2:711
Changarnier, Nicolas-Anne-Theoduke,
3:1318
‘‘Channel Firing’’ (Hardy), 2:1045
Chansons des rues et des bois, Les
(Hugo), 2:1094
Chansons madécasses (Ravel), 4:1945
Chanteuse, La (Degas), 1:336
Chants du Crépuscule, Les (Hugo),
2:1093
Chanute, Octave, 4:2115
Chapman, Maria Weston, 3:1459
Chaptal, Jean-Antoine, 4:1790
Chapters on Socialism (J. S. Mill),
3:1514
Charbonnerie conspiracy, 1:337, 361
Charcot, Jean-Martin, 1:407–411,
409; 3:1665; 4:1908, 2255
Freud and, 2:639; 4:1904
Charcot’s joints, 1:408
Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon,
3:1474
Charenton (French prison/asylum),
4:2074
‘‘Charge of the Light Brigade’’
(Tennyson), 1:95, 244
Charging Chasseur (Géricault), 2:955
Charigot, Aline, 4:1956
charity
African colonization and, 1:222
Belgian Catholic relief work and,
1:203
Catholic poverty relief as, 1:383
fundraiser poster, 4:1853
Malthusian opposition to,
3:1425–1426
nursing and, 3:1649
poor relief and, 4:1847, 1849, 1850,
1851, 1852, 1854; 5:2450, 2451
unemployed workers and, 5:2454
voluntary associations and, 1:119
See also welfare
Charity Organization Society
(London), 2:769; 4:1851
Charivari, Le (French journal), 2:621,
622
Charlatans modernes, Les (Marat),
3:1443
Charles I, king of England, 4:1738,
1958
Charles VIII, king of France, 4:2300
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Charles X, king of France, 1:411–413;
2:1029; 3:1442; 4:2038
abdication of, 1:270, 457; 2:566,
640; 3:1301, 1303; 4:1984;
5:2310
accession of, 2:847–848
Algeria and, 3:1389
Bonald’s hostility to, 1:269
brother Louis XVIII and, 3:1386
Chateaubriand and, 1:421
counterrevolutionary program of,
3:1387
French Revolution and, 2:843;
3:1386, 1403
grandson of, 2:855
July Ordinances (1830) and, 1:412;
3:1387, 1388
Louis-Philippe and, 3:1388
Restoration and, 4:1968–1969, 1970
Revolution of 1830 and, 1:412, 413;
3:1393; 4:1983–1984; 5:2512
Rossini opera and, 3:1671
suffrage and, 4:2277
Talleyrand and, 5:2306
Charles VI, Holy Roman emperor,
5:2354
Charles III, king of Spain, 1:336;
2:809; 4:2227, 2229
Naples and, 3:1191, 1580
Charles IV, king of Spain, 4:2225
Carlist coup and, 1:366, 367
David commission from, 2:624
French Revolutionary War and,
2:899
Goya as court painter to, 2:997, 999
Napoleon and, 2:902; 4:1763–1764
son Ferdinand VII and, 2:808, 809,
998; 4:1763
Charles V (self-proclaimed), king of
Spain, 1:367, 368; 2:809
Charles XIII, king of Sweden, 1:226
Charles XIV John, king of Sweden and
Norway. See Bernadotte, Jean-
Baptiste
Charles XV, king of Sweden, 4:2283
Charles IV, king of the Two Sicilies. See
Charles III, king of Spain
Charles XII (Strindberg), 4:2286
Charles, archduke of Austria, 1:132,
133; 2:860, 901, 902; 5:2374
Charles Albert, king of Sardinia-
Piedmont, 1:413–414; 3:1195;
4:1969; 5:2409
constitution of, 1:414; 3:1196, 1197
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 4:2002, 2003
Venice and, 5:2403–2404
INDEX
Charles Baudelaire (Deroy), 1:187
Charles Emmanuel II, king of
Piedmont-Savoy, 4:1786
Charles Felix, king of Piedmont-Savoy,
1:413, 414; 2:539; 4:1786, 1969
Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.
See Carol I, king of Romania
Charles University (Prague), 3:1469;
4:1858
Charlotte, princess of Great Britain,
3:1334–1335, 1336; 5:2411
Charlotte, queen consort of Great
Britain, 3:1224
Charlottenburg (Berlin suburb),
1:217, 218
Charlton, D. B., 1:228
Charnock, Harry, 2:834
Charpentier, Charlotte, 4:2123
Charpentier, Georges, 4:1955
Charterhouse of Parma, The (Stendhal),
4:2253
Charter of 1814 (France), 1:270, 457;
3:1387; 4:1969, 1971, 1984
Charter of 1826 (Portugal), 4:1839,
1839–1840
Charter of Amiens (1906), 1:60
Charter of the Nobility (Russia, 1785),
4:1747; 5:2370
Chartism, 1:271, 290, 414–419, 459;
2:1006; 3:1286; 4:1991
artisans and, 1:111; 3:1286
Carlyle and, 1:371
cooperatives and, 2:555
Corn Laws repeal campaign and,
2:559
Engels and, 2:754
influence of, 1:417–418
Ireland and, 3:1657–1658
Lovett and, 1:414, 416, 418;
3:1390–1391
Manchester and, 3:1430
O’Connor and, 1:415, 416–417;
3:1657–1658; 4:2277
Peel government and, 4:1759
platform of, 1:414; 2:1003, 1009;
3:1286, 1657
police and, 4:1814
public education and, 2:720
Punch cartoon on, 1:416
repression of, 2:1004, 1004
republicanism and, 4:1963
Smiles and, 4:2199
sources of, 1:414–415
strikes and, 1:416–417; 4:2265
suffragism and, 4:2277; 5:2487
temperance movement and, 1:36
utilitarianism and, 5:2394
2593
INDEX
in Wales, 5:2434
Wilberforce and, 5:2462
working class and, 5:2483, 2486
Chartist Cooperative Land Company,
3:1658
Chartran, Theobald, 2:931
Chartres Cathedral (Gleizes), 2:590
Chartreuse de Parme, La (Stendhal),
4:2253
Chastenet, Jacques, 2:929
Chataldzha, Battle of (1912), 1:163
Chateaubriand, François-René, 1:269,
385, 387, 419–422; 3:1298
as Chaadayev influence, 1:400
on Christianity, 4:2133
conservatism and, 2:537
Doré illustrations for, 2:676
Romanticism and, 1:421; 4:2028,
2030, 2031
Spain and, 4:2228
Venice and, 5:2403
Chatelet, Parant du, 4:1910
Chatham, Lord. See Pitt, William
(the Elder)
Châtiments, Les (Hugo), 2:1093
Chat Noir (Parisian cabaret), 1:335
Chaumette, Pierre-Gaspard, 2:802
Chaumont, Treaty of (1814), 1:374
Chauncey, Isaac, 5:2440
Chausson, Ernest, 3:1675
Chauvin, Jeanne, 2:696
Chavannes, Puvis de, 4:2292
Chayanov, Alexander, 4:1756
Chazal, Aline, 2:939
Chazal, André, 5:2357
Chebyshev, Pafnuty, 4:2249
Chechen Wars, 4:2165
Chechnya, 4:2164
Cheddo (African soldiers), 1:15
Chekhov, Anton, 1:422–424; 2:654;
3:1436, 1495
Goncharov as influence on, 2:989
Moscow Art Theater and, 1:423;
3:1551
tuberculosis of, 5:2360
Turgenev and, 5:2365
chemical industry, 1:425, 426–427
fertilizers and, 1:25; 3:1164, 1305
French factories and, 2:792
Germany and, 2:967; 3:1159–1160
Lyon and, 3:1405
in Scotland, 4:2117
Second Industrial Revolution and,
1:351, 427; 2:709; 3:1157,
1159–1160
in Switzerland, 4:2290
water pollution and, 2:764
2594
chemical weapons, 2:953
chemistry, 1:424–427; 3:1153,
1159–1160, 1164; 4:2113–2114,
2115
Curie and, 2:594–595
electrochemistry and, 4:2114
first textbook of, 3:1312
Lavoisier and, 1:424; 3:1153,
1311–1313
Nobel and, 3:1644, 1645
nomenclature and, 3:1312
organic, 4:2109
Swedish contributions to, 4:2285
See also chemical industry
Chemotactic Hypothesis (Cajal),
1:342
Chénier, André, 2:518
Chéret, Jules, 2:550; 4:1845, 1846,
1846, 1853
Chernov, Victor M., 4:2210, 2211
Chernyshevsky, Nikolai, 3:1170, 1613,
1639, 1640; 4:2052
as populist influence, 4:1767, 1831
Cherry Orchard, The (Chekhov),
1:423; 3:1551
Cherubini, Luigi, 3:1673
Cheshire cotton industry, 3:1427,
1430
Chesterton, G. K., 4:2233
Chestnut Trees at Osny, The (Pissarro),
4:1793
Chevalier, Jacques, 3:1538
Chevalier, Michel, 1:491; 4:2202
Chevreul, Michel-Eugène, 4:2115,
2156
Cheyne, George, 2:546
Church of Saint-Germain l’Auxerrois
(Monet), 3:1535
Chiaramonti, Barnaba Gregorio. See
Pius VII
Chicago school (sociology), 4:2214
Chicago World’s Fair (1893). See
World’s Columbian Exposition
Chicherin, Boris, 5:2459, 2460
Chiesa, Giacomo della. See Benedict
XV
chiffonier, 3:1431–1432
Chigi family, 4:2035
childbed fever, 4:2134–2135
Child Claimed by the Church, the State,
and the Freemasons (Gir), 1:69
child custody
British reform and, 3:1646
women’s rights and, 2:943,
9446–9447; 3:1595, 1646
child development, 4:1909
Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (Byron),
1:332, 333; 4:2123
E U R O P E
Childhood (Tolstoy), 5:2318, 2319
childhood and children, 1:427–432
bourgeoisie and, 1:472;
3:1454–1455
Boy Scout/Girl Guide movements
and, 1:159–160
breastfeeding and, 1:431; 2:628,
645, 659; 4:1828
changed economic value of, 4:1830
child abandonment and, 1:431;
4:1829; 5:2454–2455
crime and, 2:573, 575–576
diarrhea prevention and, 2:667
disease and, 2:667
education and, 1:427–431, 472;
2:719–728
family planning and, 4:1828
foundling homes and hospitals and,
5:2450–2451
Freudian theory and, 2:96, 905, 908;
4:1905
gendered socialization and, 3:1471
Grimm fairy tales and, 2:1023;
3:1523
improved health of, 2:645
innocence concept of, 1:428
kindergartens and, 3:1680
Montessori method and,
3:1542–1543
in peasant families, 4:1752–1753
protective reforms and, 5:2451–2452
racism and, 4:1927
smoking and, 5:2315
tuberculosis and, 5:2361
vaccination of, 3:1224, 1224
welfare initiatives and, 5:2451–2452,
2454, 2455
working-class families and, 3:1455,
1456
See also child custody; child labor;
infant and child mortality;
marriage and family; motherhood
child labor, 1:427, 428–430, 431
Bohemia and, 1:261
bourgeois reforms and, 1:285, 288
British Industrial Revolution and,
1:350, 351, 352, 371; 2:708
British restraints on, 2:1003
Chadwick reforms and, 1:401
coal mining and, 1:371, 430
economic argument for, 2:708
factories and, 1:350, 351, 352, 371,
401, 429, 430, 430; 2:792, 793;
3:1150
family life and, 3:1455
family planning and, 4:1830
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Mill (John Stuart) on, 2:718
Norton’s writings against,
3:1645–1646
protective laws for, 2:793; 4:1830
Prussian minimum age for, 2:793,
967
textile industry and, 5:2486, 2487
Child Labor and the Industrial
Revolution (Nardinelli), 2:708
Child Labor Law of 1839 and 1853
(Prussia), 2:793
Child of the Factory, The (engraving),
3:1150
Child of the Islands (Norton), 3:1646
child prostitution, 1:332
children. See childhood and children
Children and Young Persons Act of
1908 (Britain), 5:2315
Children of the Factory, The (French
engraving), 1:430
Children’s and Household Tales
(Grimm brothers), 2:1023
Chile
football (soccer) and, 2:834
monetary system of, 3:1538
papal diplomacy with, 4:1795
chimney sweep, 2:1007
China, 1:432–436; 2:547
Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292–294
Britain and, 1:432, 433–435;
3:1578–1579; 4:1713, 2064
See also Opium Wars
Central Asia and, 1:395
clash of European culture with,
1:432–433, 434
East India Company and, 2:705;
3:1678, 1679
economic development and, 2:710
emigrants from, 3:1524
imperialism in, 1:434–435, 435;
3:1118, 1678–1680, 1679–1684
Japan and, 1:293–294, 434, 435,
435; 3:1210–1211, 1212; 4:2064
missionaries to, 3:1527–1528
Nanking Treaty and, 3:1578–1579,
1679
opium’s illegality in, 1:495; 3:1678,
1679
Palmerstons policy and, 4:1713
photographs of, 4:1772
rebellions in, 1:434, 435; 4:2171
reform of 1898 and, 1:435
Russia and, 4:2172
Russo-Japanese War and,
3:1556–1558, 1628
Shimonoseki Treaty and, 1:434;
4:2170–2171
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
as tea source, 1:495; 3:1678
trade and, 3:152, 1151; 5:2336
Vietnam and, 3:139, 1137, 1138,
1142, 1144, 1145
world’s fairs and, 5:2500
See also Opium Wars
china (pottery). See porcelain
China Inland Mission, 3:1527–1528
Chinese Eastern Railroad, 4:2064;
5:2426, 2479
Chinese immigrants, 3:1524
Ching dynasty, 3:1138
chinoiserie, 1:432
Chirac, Jacques, 2:685; 3:1593
chiralty, 4:1743
Chlopi (Reymont), 4:1756
chlorine bleaching, 3:1152
chocolate. See coffee, tea, chocolate
Choiseul, Étienne François, duc de,
3:1384
Chokwe war, 1:15–16
cholera, 1:251, 436–438, 450
Algeria and, 1:43, 44, 47
Barcelona and, 1:181
Berlin and, 1:218
Britain and, 1:325, 450; 2:716;
3:1378
Dublin and, 2:690
factors in spread of, 2:669, 765,
1091
Hamburg and, 1:438, 450; 2:628,
1040
industrialism and, 2:668, 716
Madrid and, 3:1412
mortality rate from, 2:644, 667
pandemics of, 1:436–437; 2:1.438,
668–669
Paris and, 1:437, 438; 2:765;
4:1729, 1915
pathogen identification for, 3:1263
peasant victims of, 4:1751
public health measures and, 2:436,
437, 438, 628, 769; 4:1912,
1915
Rome and, 4:2035
Russia and, 4:2055
Scotland and, 4:2122
social unrest and, 2:668–669
Vienna and, 5:2418, 2420
Chopin, Frédéric, 1:438–440, 439;
3:1565, 1571; 5:2430
Liszt and, 3:1360, 1361
Paganini as influence on, 4:1699
Polish national movement and,
1:440; 4:1818
Romanticism and, 4:2027
INDEX
Sand and, 4:2029, 2084
tuberculosis of, 5:2360
choral music, 3:1568, 1570
choral societies, 4:1989
choreography. See ballet
Chôshû family, 3:1210
Chotek, Sophie, 2:861–862
Chouans, Les (Balzac), 1:167
Christ Among the Doctors (Ingres),
3:1166
Christ Church Cathedral (Dublin),
2:693
Christenheit oder Europa, Die
(Novalis), 3:1647
Christian IX, king of Denmark, 2:609,
963; 3:1626–1627
Christian anarchism, 5:2320
Christian Democrats
Belgium and, 1:204
Christian Socialism and, 4:2209
France and, 1:5, 389
Leo XIII on, 3:1332
Christian Faith, The (Schleiermacher),
4:2097
Christian Frederik, king of Norway,
1:227
Christiania (Oslo), 3:1558
Christianity
Austrian Jewish converts to, 3:1525
Berdyayev reinterpretation of,
1:212
Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:273,
275, 276–277
Cabet on communism as, 1:338
charity and, 4:1847, 1850
Chateaubriand’s writing on, 1:420
civilizing mission of, 1:462; 2:508
conservatism and, 2:539, 541
Darwinian evolution and, 2:614,
615, 618
gender dimorphism and, 2:945
Germanic racism and, 1:403
Gothic architecture and, 4:1917
Haeckel’s view of, 2:1032
Hegel and, 3:1463–1464
Herzen’s view of, 2:1064
Holy Alliance and, 2:1079–1080
Kierkegaard and, 3:1251–1253
millet system and, 3:1516–1517
missionaries and, 3:1527–1529
missions in India and, 3:1134
mysticism and, 2:1080
Nietzsche’s critique of, 3:1532,
1629–1631, 1633, 1635
poverty and, 4:1847
Young Hegelians and, 5:2513
2595
INDEX
See also Catholicism; Orthodox
Church; Protestantism
Christian Socialism. See Socialism,
Christain
Christian Socialist, The (journal),
4:2208
Christian Social Party (Austria),
3:1393, 1395
Christian Social Union, 4:2208
Christian Social Workers movement,
2:967
Christian Viennese Women’s League,
3:1395
Christ in the House of His Parents
(Millais), 4:1864
Christ Leaving the Praetorium (Doré),
2:677
Christlich-Demokratische Union
(Germany), 1:189
Christliche, Gewerkvereine
Deutschlands (Germany), 1:389
Christlich-Soziale Union (Germany),
1:189
Christmas Carol, A (Dickens), 2:656
Christmas Eve (Rimsky-Korsakov),
4:1999
Christmas Eve: A Dialogue
(Schleiermacher), 4:2097
Christ’s Entry into Jerusalem (Doré),
2:677
Christ the Savior, Cathedral of
(Moscow), 3:1551
Chrobak, Rudolf, 2:905
chromo-luminarisme, 4:2156
chronometry, 4:2240
chrysanthemum wallpaper (Morris
design), 3:1550
Chrysler Building (New York City),
2:736
Chucca, Federico, 3:1414
Chulalongkorn, king of Siam, 3:1142
Chuprov, Alexander, 4:2249
church and state. See secularization;
separation of church and state
Church Army, 4:1886
Churchill, Winston, 3:1369, 1533,
1611; 5:2322
liberalism and, 3:1348
social reform and, 2:1012
Church Missionary Society (Anglican),
3:1527; 4:1896
Church of England. See Anglican
Church
Church of Humanity, 4:2213
Church of Ireland, 2:693; 4:1895
disestablishment of, 2:1008; 4:1895
Church of Saint Jaume (Barcelona),
1:180–181
2596
Church of Saint Vincent de Paul
(Barcelona), 1:181
Church of Scotland, 2:1002, 1006;
4:2118
Church of the Prussian Union,
4:1901, 1972
Church of the Resurrection (St.
Petersburg), 4:2079
Church Socialist, The (journal), 4:2208
Church Socialist League, 4:2208
Ciceri, Pierre-Luc, 2:605
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 1:465
Cieszkowski, August, 4:1808; 5:2512
cigarette box, art nouveau, 1:113
cigarettes, 5:2314–2315
women smokers of, 2:947
cigars, 5:2314
Cilicia, 1:92
Cinderella (J. Strauss), 4:2261
cinema, 1:440–443; 2:551, 815;
4:1772
Doré’s influence on, 2:677–678
Lumière brothers and, 1:441, 442;
3:1396–1398, 1414; 4:1774,
1824
Méliès and, 3:1482–1484
Milan and, 3:1504
montage and, 2:593
popular culture and, 4:1824
racism spread by, 4:1927
Cinématographe, 1:441; 3:1396,
1397
Cines (film company), 1:442
‘‘Cinque Maggio, Il’’ (Manzoni),
3:1441
Cinti, Decio, 2:918
Circassians, 1:92
Circerone, The (Burckhardt), 1:317
Circus (Seurat), 4:1845, 2157
Circus Parade (Seurat), 4:1845
Cirque, Le (Seurat), 4:1845, 2157
Cirque Médrano (Paris), 4:1782
Cisalpine Republic, 3:1192, 1497,
1501, 1584, 1597; 4:2187–2188,
2189
Cisleithania. See Austria-Hungary
Cispadine Republic. See Cisalpine
Republic
Citadel (Pest), 1:310
cities and towns, 1:443–456
administrative centers and, 1:445
Agricultural Revolution and, 1:24
Algeria and, 1:43
aristocracy and, 1:82, 83, 84, 85
artisan production in, 1:104–107
art nouveau and, 1:108
Baltic provinces and, 2:819
E U R O P E
Bohemian Lands and, 1:260–261
bourgeois elite and, 1:471–472
bourgeoisie and, 1:283, 289,
445–450, 452; 3:1452
British population percentage in,
3:1147; 4:1912
coal heat and, 1:486
consumerism and, 1:445; 2:548–551
crime and, 1:449, 455; 2:571–572,
575
death rates and, 2:628, 644
disease epidemics and, 2:667–668,
670, 1091
education and, 2:720–723
electric power and, 2:741–742
Europe’s most populous, 2:557
fin de siècle pessimism and, 2:816
German population shift to, 2:960
growth of, 2:1086–1087
homosexual/lesbian subculture in,
2:1083–1084
housing and, 2:1087–1088; 3:1456
as impressionists’ subjects, 3:1535
Jews in, 1:447; 3:1231, 1232, 1234,
1525
leisure activities and, 3:1323, 1324;
4:1824
markets and, 3:1447–1449
maternity hospitals in, 5:2450
migration and, 1:201; 3:1110, 1111,
1112–1113, 1308; 4:1753
musical events and, 3:1566
New Zealand and, 3:1624
parks and, 4:1738–1741
pollution and, 2:764–766
population growth of, 1:440, 443,
446–447, 446; 2:764,
1086–1087; 4:1911–1912
poverty and, 4:1849, 1850,
1853–1854
promise and dangers of, 1:454–455
public health and, 1:450; 3:1649
railroads and, 4:1936
Rome and, 4:2035–2037
Russia and, 1:40, 452
Scotland and, 4:2117, 2119, 2119,
2121
seaside resorts and, 4:2124–2126;
5:2328
secularization and, 4:1824, 1893,
2133
Serbia and, 4:2147
sexuality and, 4:2161
sociology and, 4:2212
street life and, 1:447–449, 451
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

street lights and, 1:207, 445–446;
2:548, 741, 742
subways and, 4:2271–2273
telephone service and, 5:2308
trade and, 5:2340–2342
tuberculosis incidence in, 5:2359
typhus incidence in, 2:670
urbanization and, 3:1308
working class and, 1:474; 5:2485
See also municipal government; cities
by name
citizen-army, French, 3:1340
citizenship, 1:456–461
active/passive distinction of, 1:458
British Catholics and, 3:1176, 1177
claims on state of, 1:459–460
colonies and, 1:501
definition of, 1:456
eligibility for, 1:458
French colonial regime and, 1:46;
2:888
French Revolution and, 2:843, 887,
888, 896; 3:1226, 1228, 1229,
1521
German vs. French view of, 1:51
Jews and, 3:1226, 1228, 1229
as male only, 3:1470
Netherlands and, 3:1620
racial and sexual barriers to,
1:458–459
republicanism and, 4:1958–1963
in Switzerland, 4:2290
women’s rights and, 2:801, 804–805
See also Catholic emancipation;
Jewish emancipation; suffragism
Citoyenne, La (French weekly), 1:127
City and South London Railway,
4:2272, 2273
City of London, 3:1378
Čiulionis, M. K., 3:1367
Ciutadella, La (Barcelona), 1:182
civic activism. See civil society
civic universities, 5:2379, 2385, 2387
Civil Code of 1804 (France), 1:287;
3:1314
Civil Code of 1900 (Germany),
3:1314, 1315
Civil Constitution of the Clergy of
1790 (France), 1:68, 268, 387;
2:890; 5:2305
Burke’s view of, 1:326
cartoon on, 2:889
Concordat of 1801 and, 2:527
counterrevolutionary movement and,
2:563
Directory and, 2:666
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
papacy and, 4:1717
passage and provisions of, 2:843,
888–889
civil engineers, 2:757–759
Civil Guard (Spain), 1:368
civilian militia, 2:958
Civilità Cattolica, La (Jesuit journal),
4:2026
Civilization: Its Cause and Cure
(Carpenter), 4:2206
civilization, concept of, 1:461–464
civil society and, 1:465
colonial policy and, 1:461–463,
498–500, 501; 2:504, 506–507,
509; 3:1134, 1513, 1522
degeneration and, 2:636–639
exploration and, 2:784
fate of indigenous peoples and,
2:504–505
Hellenism and, 4:1769
Herzen critique of, 2:1065
as imperialist rationale, 1:462–464;
3:1115, 1120, 1124–1125, 1174
international law and, 3:1174
manners and, 3:1440
masculinity and, 3:1472
missionaries and, 3:1527, 1528
Nietzsche’s critique of, 3:1629–1630
primitivism vs., 4:1873–1876
progress and, 2:814
race and racism debates and,
4:1923–1924
world’s fairs and, 5:2493, 2497
Civilization and Barbary (Wolfers),
1:109
Civilization and Its Discontents
(Freud), 2:908, 909
Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy,
The (Burckhardt), 1:318, 319,
320
civil law. See law, theories of;
Napoleonic Code
civil liberties and rights. See rights
civil service. See bureaucracy
civil society, 1:464–469
Austria-Hungary and, 1:140–151
Bismarck’s innovations and, 1:459
cooperative movements and,
2:555–557
Irish Catholics and, 3:1656
liberalism and, 3:1341
Octobrists and, 3:1659
policing and, 4:1815–1816
Polish reforms and, 4:1807
Russia and, 4:2049
Swiss republicanism and, 4:1963
INDEX
voluntary associations and,
1:115–122, 466, 467–468
Civil War, American, 1:66; 2:952;
3:1174
blocade of cotton exports and, 1:18;
2:732; 3:1431
British policy and, 2:1008
fire power and control and, 3:1507
German Forty-Eighter troop
volunteers and, 2:962
Pius IX and, 4:1795
Civil War, Russian, 3:1242, 1518,
1519, 1660
pogroms and, 4:1803
Civil War, Spanish, 1:62, 69, 366, 368;
2:937
Civil War in France, The (Marx),
3:1468
Cixi, dowager empress of China,
1:293, 294, 435
Clair, René, 4:2087
Clairmont, Claire, 4:2168
Clairmont, Mary Jane, 2:981; 4:2168
Clapham (London suburb), 1:36
Clapham Sect, 5:2463
Clare, John, 1:359
Clarke, Edward, 5:2465
Clarke, P. F., 3:1297
Clarke, William, 5:2444
Clarks of Paisley, 4:2117
Clark University, 1:341–342; 3:1239
class and social relations, 1:469–477
Action Française and, 1:5
anarchosyndicalism and, 1:59–62
anticlericalism and, 1:70
armies and, 1:96–97, 101
artisans and, 1:104–107
Athens and, 1:125–126
as Austen subject, 1:131
Australia and, 1:135
automobiles and, 1:150
Barcelona ‘‘Tragic Week’’ and,
1:181–182
baths and spas and, 5:2327–2328
beards and, 1:191
Belgian language choice and,
1:202–203, 204, 307
Berlin and, 1:219–220
Bismarck social program and, 1:459
body and, 1:253–255
Bosnian Muslim elite and, 1:273
British liberal meritocracy and,
2:1006
British tax policy and, 2:977, 1002,
1004
bureaucracy and, 1:321–325
2597
INDEX
Chartism and, 1:414–418; 3:1286
childhood conceptions and,
1:428–429
cholera epidemics and, 1:437–438;
2:669
cities and towns and, 1:445–449,
452
civil society and, 1:465, 467, 468
classical economics and, 2:714–718
clothing and, 1:481; 2:550
consumerism and, 2:547, 548, 549,
552, 912–913
cooperatives and, 2:555, 556
Corn Laws repeal movement and,
2:558–560
counterrevolution and, 2:567
criminality and, 2:572–574;
3:1371–1372
Crystal Palace and, 2:587, 589
diet and, 2:658–659
Disraeli and, 2:672
dueling and, 2:694–696
educational disparity and, 1:431;
2:719–728
Estates-General and, 2:767–768;
3:1385
eugenics and, 2:637, 769–770
fin de siècle fears and, 2:816
French Algeria and, 1:46
French Revolution and, 2:840–843,
885–887, 887, 888
furniture and, 2:912–914
gap between rich and poor and,
1:291
housing and, 2:550, 1090–1092
infant and child mortality and,
3:1455
Japan and, 3:1208
jingoism and, 3:1235
leisure and, 3:1323–1326
liberalism and, 3:1349
libraries and, 3:1352
London cultural life and, 3:1378
love vs. arranged marriages and,
3:1453–1454
Manchester and, 3:1430
manners and, 3:1437–1440
Marx’s class conflict theory and,
3:1306–1307, 1465
Naples and, 3:1581, 1582
newspapers and, 4:1870–1873
Paris and, 4:1732–1733
Paris Commune and, 4:1736
poverty and, 4:1847–1854
professions and, 4:1881
2598
racism and, 1:74
revolutions and, 1:459–460
Scotland and, 4:2116–2117, 2119,
2120, 2122
seaside resorts and, 4:2125
Social Democrats and, 1:231
suffrage extension and, 1:204
Table of Ranks (Russia) and, 1:286,
323
tobacco use and, 5:2314, 2315
tourism and, 5:2325–2331
utopian socialism and, 1:338
welfare initiatives and, 5:2450–2456
See also aristocracy; bourgeoisie;
landed elites; peasants; working
class
classical economists. See economists,
classical
classical period (music), 1:198
Classical Style, The (Rosen), 1:198
classicism, 1:286; 2:726–727
Canova and, 1:347–349
Goethe and, 2:985
Ingres and, 3:1166; 4:1705
Nash and, 3:1600, 1601
See also Hellenism
classification systems
Agassiz and, 1:23
Cuvier and, 2:598–599
Lamarck and, 3:1302
Class Struggles in France, The (Marx),
3:1466
Claude Gueux (Hugo), 2:1093
Claudel, Camille, 4:2009
Claude Monet (Isaacson), 3:1537
Claude Monet (Seitz), 3:1537
Clausen, George, 4:1948
Clausewitz, Carl von, 1:94, 477–479;
2:1033; 3:1237
definition of strategy by, 3:1505
on ‘‘fog and friction’’ of war, 2:869
mass armies and, 3:1340
Napoleon’s influence on, 3:1506
Clausius, Rudolf, 3:1160, 1249–1250
Clauzel, Bertrand, 3:1547
Clavic Congress, 4:1859
Clavière, Etienne, 4:1960
Clavigo (Goethe), 2:983
Clay, Henry, 5:2439
Cleave, John, 3:1390
Cleland, John, 4:1833
Clemenceau, Georges, 1:479–480;
2:696, 858; 4:1964
Boulanger and, 1:281
Caillaux and, 1:339
church-state separation and, 4:2136
E U R O P E
Dreyfus affair and, 2:684; 3:1216
Drumont duel with, 2:689
as Ferry opponent, 2:642, 812–813
syndicalist movement and, 4:2298,
2299
Zola’s defense of Dreyfus and, 2:684
Clement XIV, pope, 1:68, 347
Cleopatra (ballet), 3:1642
Clere, Anselm, 1:182
Clermont-Tonnerre (French deputy),
3:1226
Clias, Phokion Heinrich, 4:2241
Climacus, Johannes (Kierkegaard
pseud.), 3:1251
Cline, Henry, 3:1223
Clinical Medicine (Pinel), 4:1791
Clive, John, 3:1407
Clive, Robert, 2:706; 3:1133
clocks and watches, 3:1323,
1323–1324; 4:2290
cloisonnism (painting style), 2:939
Cloots, ‘‘Anacharsis,’’ 4:2187
Clothed Maja, The (Goya), 2:997
clothing, dress, and fashion,
1:480–485
art nouveau and, 1:109, 112
bathing costumes and, 4:2124;
5:2327
beards and, 1:190–191
consumerism and, 2:548, 549–550
cotton industry and, 4:2193
countercultural modes of, 1:484–485
couture houses and, 1:481–483;
2:548
gender and, 2:943–944; 4:2158
London police uniform and, 4:1814,
1815
manufacture of, 2:792
in Mehadia region, 1:139
New Woman and, 2:947
peasants and, 4:1751
sewing machine and, 1:483;
4:2158–2160
textile trade and, 3:1152
‘‘Cloud, The’’ (Shelley), 4:2170
Cloudsley (Godwin), 2:982
Clough, Anne, 1:331
clovers, 1:26
cloves, 1:16
Club des Haschischins (Paris), 2:687
Club du Faubourg, 4:1762
Club Messiac, 2:888
Club of the Cordeliers, 2:890
clubs. See associations, voluntary
CMS. See Church Missionary Society
CNT. See National Confederation of
Labor
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

coal mining, 1:485–488
aristocracy and, 1:85
Belgium and, 1:201, 203, 361, 485,
486, 487, 488
Bohemian Lands and, 1:260
Britain and, 1:485, 486, 487, 493;
3:1427; 4:1931, 2113; 5:2488
child labor and, 1:371, 430
environment and, 2:764
France and, 1:485, 486, 487, 488;
4:1936
Germany and, 1:352, 485, 486–487,
488; 2:967
Industrial Revolution and, 3:1150
production by country, 1:487
railway transport of, 4:1931, 1936;
5:2349–2350
Scotland and, 4:2117
steam power and, 1:485, 493
trade flow and, 5:2336
Wales and, 5:2434, 2435, 2436,
2436
women workers and, 1:488; 5:2488
workday/workweek and, 4:1824
coal pollution, 2:764
Coats and Clark, 4:2117
Cobbett, William, 1:489–490
Cobden, Richard, 1:490–491, 491;
2:1007
Corn Laws repeal movement and,
1:490; 2:558, 559, 707, 1005;
3:1325, 1345
laissez-faire and, 2:707, 709
peace activism and, 4:1695
Cobden-Chevalier Treaty (1860),
1:491, 491–492; 2:512; 3:1537
Coca-Cola, 2:688
cocaine, 2:687–688
Cocarde, La (French right-wing
newspaper), 1:185
Cochin China, 3:142, 1141, 1143
Cochrane, Lord, 3:1612
Cockburn, George, 5:2440
Cockerill, Charles, 1:492, 493
Cockerill, John, 1:492–494; 2:791
Cockerill, William, 1:492–493; 2:791
Cockerill works (Belgium), 2:791
cocoa, 1:22
Cocteau, Jean, 1:184, 192; 4:2087
Code de l’Indigént (France), 1:46
Code des femmes, Le (Richer), 4:1998
Code Napoléon. See Napoleonic Code
Code Noir of 1685 (France),
reintroduction of (1802), 2:897
Codex Theodosianus (Mommsen),
3:1533
Codrington, Edward, 3:1612
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Cody, W. F. (Buffalo Bill), 5:2500
coefficients of correlation, 2:927
coffee, tea, chocolate, 1:364, 494–496
Caribbean trade and, 2:709
chocolate history and, 1:496
coffee history and, 1:494, 495
English afternoon tea and, 3:1439
markets and, 3:1448
rising consumption of, 2:547, 549,
658, 710
slavery and, 4:2192, 2193
tea history and, 1:495
trade and, 3:1151, 1678, 1679;
5:2336
coffeehouses (Vienna), 2:1067
Cohl, Émile, 3:1484
Cohn, Ferdinand Julius, 3:1262
Cohnheim, Julius Friedrich, 3:1262,
1263
Coinage Law of 1821 (Prussia), 1:171
Coit, Pierre Auguste, 4:1710
coke. See coal mining
Coketown (Dickens description),
1:443, 455
Colas Breugnon (Rolland), 4:2015
Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 1:481
Colbran, Isabella, 4:2038
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (Long
Island, New York), 2:653, 770
Cold War, 1:320; 3:1146
Cole, G. D. H., 5:2395
Cole, Henry, 5:2494
Cole, William A., 3:1147
Colenso, Battle of (1899), 3:1507
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 1:496–497
Doré illustrations for, 2:676
as Mill (John Stuart) influence,
3:1513; 5:2394
opium addiction of, 1:496; 2:686
Pater essay on, 4:1746
Romanticism and, 1:496–497;
2:543; 4:2027, 2029, 2031
Wordsworth and, 5:2482
‘‘Coleridge’s Writings’’ (Pater),
4:1746
Colet, Louise, 2:828
Colette, 4:1945
Colette Baudoche (Barrés), 1:185
collage, 1:156; 2:591, 592, 593;
4:1710, 1784
Collected Poems (Doyle), 2:681
Collected Works (J. S. Mill), 3:1514
Collection of Architectural Designs
(Schinkel), 4:2093
collective bargaining, 4:2266
British bans on, 2:510–511
collective unconscious, 3:1239
INDEX
Collège de France, 1:227–228, 491;
4:1953; 5:2379, 2381
Egyptology chair of, 1:407
Laennec and, 3:1298
Michelet and, 3:1499
Mickiewicz and, 3:1500
Tarde and, 2:574
College Green (Dublin), 2:692
College Louis-le-Grand, 4:2073
Collegio Romano, 4:2024
Colline inspirée, La (Barrés), 1:185
Collini, Stefan, 3:1513
Collins, John, 3:1391
Collins, Wilkie, 2:657
Collinson, Charles, 4:1863, 1864
Collot d’Herbois, Jean-Marie, 2:800,
894
collotype, 4:1773
Cologne, 2:741; 4:1740
Cologne Communist Trial, The (Marx),
3:1466
Cologne Workers’ Association, 1:66
Colombia, 4:1720
Colònia Güell (Barcelona), 2:936
Colonial and Indian Exhibition
(Crystal Palace, 1886), 2:589
colonialism, 1:497–502
in Algeria, 1:18, 43–47, 498–499
armies and, 1:99
Bismarck and, 1:240; 2:967
British gentry and, 1:83
British warfare and, 3:1258–1259
Burke on, 1:327
Caillaux and, 1:339
capitalist nationalism and,
1:355–356
in Central Asia, 1:395–397
cholera epidemics and, 1:436
as civilizing mission, 1:461–463,
498–500, 501; 2:504, 506–507,
509; 3:1134, 1511, 1513, 1522
East India Company and, 2:705–706
Entente Cordiale and, 2:643
foreign investment and, 1:353–354
French national identity and,
3:1522
in Indochina, 3:1142–1145
limits and unintended consequences
of, 1:500–501
Malthusian theory and, 3:1427
missions and, 3:1528–1529
in Morocco and, 3:1547–1549
pornography and, 4:1835
Russian style of, 3:1207
in Sudan, 3:1668–1669
See also colonies; imperialism
2599
INDEX
Colonials, The (lithograph), 1:500
colonies, 2:503–510; 3:1114–1115
in Africa, 1:7–8, 17–22, 18, 19–22,
37, 205, 220–224, 240, 499;
2:508, 527, 582, 583, 663, 967;
3:115, 116, 1115–1116, 1125,
1258–1259, 1668–1669; 4:2218
in 1880, 3:1117
in 1914, 3:1119
African racial divisions and,
1:499–500
in Australia, 1:133–137, 351;
2:504–505, 509; 3:1115
British industrial financing by, 2:708,
710
in British North America, 1:343;
2:505, 999, 1000, 1005–1006
British trade and, 1:405, 498; 2:505,
505
in Canada, 1:342–347
in Caribbean, 1:363–366, 499;
2:708, 888, 1035–1036; 3:1115,
1116
in Central Asa, 1:397
convict, 1:134; 2:505, 779–781
definition of, 2:503, 509–510
economic value of, 2:505
emigration to, 2:747, 747
European rivalry for, 2:663
exploitation of, 2:506
forced labor and, 2:506
freedom from gender norms in, 2:948
French rights and, 2:888
as German economic drain, 2:967
growth of commodity trade with
Britain, 2:505
in Haiti, 2:1035–1037
imperialism vs., 2:504, 506, 663;
3:1115
indirect rule policy for, 2:508
in Indochina, 3:1142–1145
in Indonesia, 3:1617
international law and, 3:1174
Leopold II as only personal owner of,
3:1336–1337
in Libya, 3:1202
marriage and family life in, 3:1457
migrants to Europe from,
3:1524–1525
missions in, 3:1527
‘‘native policy’’ in, 2:507–509
in New Zealand, 3:1622
of nonsettlement, 2:506–507
penal exile to, 1:134; 2:505,
779–781
2600
prestige from, 3:1122
problems in ruling, 1:500–501
prostitution in, 4:1886
of settlement, 2:503–506; 3:1115
slave labor in, 1:308, 364, 498;
2:506; 4:1923, 1925,
2190–2191, 2190–2192
slavery abolishment in, 1:365, 458
slave trade and, 1:13, 303, 308
in South Africa, 4:2218–2224
Spain’s loss of, 1:181; 2:949
tourism and, 5:2330
trade and, 3:1151
world’s fairs and, 2:815
See also Boer War; colonialism;
imperialism; India
color-music, 4:1955
color photography, 3:1397–1398,
1578; 4:1774
color printing, 4:1845
color theory
Goethe study of, 2:986
Mach bands and, 3:1408
Maxwell and, 3:1477, 1478
Colt Company, 5:2505
Colt revolver, 2:588
Columbian Exposition (1893). See
World’s Columbian Exposition
Columbus, Christopher
Barcelona statue of, 1:182
Caribbean and, 1:363
European diet and, 2:658
Hispaniola colony of, 2:1035
Combe, Andrew, 4:1775
Combe, George, 4:1775
Combe, Thomas, 4:1864
Combes, Émile, 2:858, 881; 3:1217;
4:2137; 5:2433
Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800
(Britain), 2:510–511
combustion, 3:1312
Comédie-Française (Paris), 1:229; 2:696
Gouges and, 2:994
Offenbach and, 3:1660
Comédie humaine, La (Balzac), 1:167,
168–169
comic opera. See opéra comique
Comintern, 1:62
Comité d’Action Française. See Action
Française
Comité de Mendicité, 3:1664
Comité Français de la Liberation,
1:128
Commedia (Dante), 1:246
Commelynck, Fernand, 3:1496
Commentaries on the Laws of England
(Blackstone), 1:210
E U R O P E
commerce. See trade and economic
growth
commercial art, 1:192
commercial policy, 2:512–518
joint-stock banking and, 1:172–173
See also free trade; protectionism
Commission des Monuments
Historiques (France), 5:2422
Commission for the Protection of the
Natives (Belgium), 3:1337
Commission of Women’s National
Workshops (France), 3:1288
Commission on Intellectual
Cooperation, 2:595
Committee (Ring) of Seven, 4:1938
Committee for Popular Rescue (Lyon),
3:1403
Committee of Muslim Socialists,
3:1207, 1208
Committee of Public Safety, 1:457;
2:518–519, 845, 900
authoritarianism of, 2:665, 892
Danton and, 2:518, 610, 611, 612
Directory and, 2:845
emergency powers of, 3:1205–1206
federalist revolt and, 2:800
Jacobins and, 3:1205–1206
Reign of Terror and, 2:844; 4:1951,
1952
republicanism and, 4:1962
Robespierre and, 4:2006, 2007
Sieyès and, 4:2180
Committee of the Year Two (Huet),
2:845
Committee of Three Hundred
Signatories (France), 2:738
Committee of Union and Progress. See
Young Turks
Committee of Young Turkey at
Constantinople, 5:2515
common law, 1:303; 2:726; 3:1316
common market, 3:1539
Commons, John Rogers, 2:707
Common Sense (Paine), 4:1700, 2187
Communal Council (Brussels), 1:307
Commune (1871). See Paris Commune
communes (Russia), 4:2052, 2151,
2153, 2195, 2196, 2257; 5:2460
communications. See press and
newspapers; telegraph;
telephones; transportation and
communications
Communion, 1:378, 379, 379
Communión Tradicionalista (Spain),
1:368
communism, 2:519–522
Bernstein on, 4:2205
Bolsheviks and, 1:264–267
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Cabet’s vision of, 1:338
Engels and, 2:754; 3:1465–1466
Galiyev and, 3:1208
intelligentsia and, 3:1172
Lenin and, 4:2205
Marx and, 3:1464, 1465; 4:2203,
2204
Pius IX’s condemnation of, 4:1795,
1798
secret societies and, 4:2131
Sorel and, 4:2217, 2218
Third International and, 4:2128,
2129; 5:2364
Vietnam and, 3:1144–1145
See also Marxism; Soviet Union
Communist Information Bureau,
4:2128
Communist League, 2:521, 755;
3:1465; 4:2204
Communist Manifesto, The (Marx and
Engels), 1:104; 2:755; 3:1462;
4:1946, 2081
overview of, 3:1465–1466
Communist Party, British, 4:1715
Communist Party, French, 2:1025;
3:1144; 4:1732, 1762
Communist Party, German, 2:1071;
3:1356
Communist Party, Indochina, 3:1145
Communist Party, Soviet, 3:1496;
4:2212
communitarian ventures,
4:2200–2201; 5:2397
Community and Society (Tönnies),
2:698–699
community feeling (A. Adler
concept), 1:9
Community of St. Johns House,
3:1649
Community of the Special, 2:1086
Compagnie Universelle du Canal
Maritime de Suez, 2:732
Compagnon du tour de France, Le
(Sand), 4:2083, 2084
compagnonnages, 5:2486, 2487
Companion of the Tour of France, The
(Sand), 4:2083, 2084
Company of Russian Dramatic Artists,
3:1496
comparative advantage, principle of,
2:515; 4:1887
Complete Collection of the Laws of the
Russian Empire (1830), 4:2236
Complete Suffrage Union (Britain),
1:416; 3:1391
Complete Works (Burckhardt), 1:318
Composition 4 (Kandinsky), 3:1246
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
‘‘Compositions’’ (Kandinsky series),
3:1245
Composition VII (Kandinsky), 3:1245
compounds, organic, 1:425–426
Compromise of 1867 (Austria-
Hungary), 1:262; 2:627, 864
Compte générale de l’administraiton de
la justice criminelle (annual),
2:570
Comptes fantastiques d’Haussmann, Les
(Ferry), 2:810, 1050
Comptoir d’Escompte, 1:174, 175, 176
Compton, Spencer. See Hartington, Lord
compulsory education. See under
education
Computable General Equilibrium,
2:514
Comte, Auguste, 2:522–524, 573,
698; 4:2234; 5:2445, 2515
Bernard contrasted with, 1:228
feminism and, 2:946
on Gall’s theory, 2:926
law of three states of, 4:1843
Martineau’s translation/abridgement
of, 3:1459
Mill (John Stuart) correspondence
with, 3:1513, 1514; 4:1844
positivism and, 2:522, 523, 743;
3:1132; 4:1811, 1843–1844,
2133, 2202, 2213, 2214, 2238
Renan and, 4:1953
Saint-Simon and, 2:522–523;
4:2080–2081, 2202
sociology and, 4:2212, 2213
Webb and, 5:2444
Comte Ory, Le (Rossini), 4:2038
Comtesse de Rudolstadt, La (Sand),
4:2083
concentration camps, 1:257; 4:1949
Concept of Anxiety, The (Kierkegaard),
3:1251
conceptualism (legal theory), 3:1315
Concerning the Importance and
Conditions of an Alliance between
Germany and England (List),
3:1357
Concertgebouw (Amsterdam), 1:54
Concert of Europe, 2:524–527; 4:1971
alliance systems replacing, 1:47–50;
2:526–527, 663, 705
conservatism and, 2:540
decline of, 2:662–663
diplomatic solutions and, 2:661–662,
664, 1002; 3:1493
Metternich and, 3:1493
as negotiation system, 2:565
pre–World War I revival of, 2:527
INDEX
Concerto in D Major for the Left
Hand (Ravel), 4:1945
concerts
at Crystal Palace, 2:589
performance conventions of, 3:1567
solo performances and,
3:1359–1360; 4:1698, 1699
subscription series and, 3:1565, 1566
Conciliation Act of 1896 (Britain),
3:1291
‘‘Conciliation with the Colonies’’
(Burke), 1:327
Concluding Unscientific Postscripts to
the Philosophical Fragments
(Kierkegaard), 3:1251–1252
Concordat of 1516, 4:2136
Concordat of 1801, 1:69; 2:527–529,
565, 846; 3:1586, 1588, 1598;
4:1718, 1786, 2030
church-state separation and,
4:2136–2137
Concordat of 1855, 2:863
Concordat of 1929, 3:1199
Concordat of Fontainebleau of January
1813, 2:529
Condé, Louis-Antoine-Henri. See
Enghien, Duc d’
Condé, prince de, 1:469; 3:1388
Condé, princess de, 4:2073
conditioned reflexes, 4:1748–1749
Condition of the Working Class in
England, The (Engels), 2:754;
3:1430; 4:2203
Condo, Josiah, 3:1210
condoms, 2:947; 4:1827, 1829
Condorcet, marquis de (Marie-Jean de
Caritat), 2:522, 801, 802;
3:1425; 4:2279
Girondists and, 2:973, 974; 4:1700
Gouges and, 2:994, 995
Paine and, 4:1700
republicanism and, 4:1960,
1961–1962, 1963
Restoration and, 4:1973
conduct. See manners and formality
Confederación Nacional del Trabajo,
1:59; 4:2300
Conféderation Générale du Travail. See
General Confederation of Labor
Confederation of Targowica, 4:1807
Confederation of the Bar (Poland),
4:1806
Confederation of the Rhine, 2:860,
901, 957; 3:1597, 1599
Confederation of Trade Unions
(Sweden), 4:2284
Confession (Tolstoy), 5:2319
2601
INDEX
Confessions (Rousseau), 4:2026;
5:2318
Confession of a Child of the Century
(Confession d’un enfant du siécle ;
Musset), 4:2084
Confessions of an Economic Heretic
(Hobson), 2:1076
Confessions of an English Opium-Eater
(De Quincey), 2:686
Baudelaire translation, 1:188; 2:687
Confucianism, 3:1137, 1138, 1139,
1140, 1144, 1208
Congo, Belgian. See Congo Free State
Congo, French. See French Congo
Congo Free State
abuses in, 1:500; 2:507, 509;
3:1125, 1136–1137
as Belgian colony, 1:21, 205; 2:509;
3:1337
Berlin Conference on, 1:220–222,
308–309; 3:1118, 1173
Conrad’s experiences in, 2:535;
3:1336
Leopold II and, 1:20–21, 109, 205,
222, 223, 308–309; 2:509, 783;
3:1116, 1118, 1124, 1136–1137
rubber production in, 3:1336
slave trade and, 1:13, 14, 308
Stanley and, 2:783; 3:1336
trade commodities of, 1:15, 16–17,
109; 3:1336–1337
Congo River, 1:13, 15–16, 20, 205,
220; 3:1336
French-British spheres of influence
and, 2:795
internationalized navigation of,
3:1173
Congregationalists, 2:1002; 3:1527
Congregation for the Propagation of
the Faith, 4:1798
Congrés, Le (cartoon), 2:534
Congrès Français et International du
Droit des Femmes (1889), 4:1998
Congrès International du Droit des
Femmes (1878), 4:1998
Congress Kingdom of Poland, 1:38;
4:1808, 1810
Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818),
1:308; 2:861, 1081; 5:2362
Congress of Anatomists (Berlin), 1:340
Congress of Berlin (1878), 1:217;
2:529–531; 3:1173
Adrianople and, 1:12
Austria-Hungary and, 1:146, 240;
2:529, 530, 705
Bulgarian borders and, 1:312; 2:530;
3:1689
2602
Disraeli and, 2:1009
Eastern Question and, 2:703–704
France and, 2:530, 812; 5:2363
German Confederation founding by,
1:262
Poland and, 5:2441
relative peace following, 2:662
results of, 2:704; 3:1689
Romania and, 4:2017
Russian expansionism and, 1:39,
276; 2:530
San Stefano Treaty revision and,
3:1541, 1689; 4:2069–2070,
2086
Serbia and, 4:2144, 2145
Thessaly and, 2:530, 1022
Congress of Bourges (1904), 1:61
Congress of Criminal Anthropology
(Rome, 1885), 3:1371
Congress of Eastern Peoples (Baku),
3:1208
Congress of German Economists,
2:962
Congress of German Jurists, 2:1086;
5:2376
Congress of Laibach (1821), 2:861,
1081; 3:1494
Congress of Nancy (1865), 2:810
Congress of Nationalities (Romania),
4:2019
Congress of Paris (1856), 3:1173;
5:2410
Congress of Prague (1813), 2:1098
Congress of Rastatt (1797), 3:1597
Congress of Troppau (1820), 1:361;
2:531–532, 861, 1080–1081;
4:1971, 1981
Metternich and, 2:531–532; 3:1494
Congress of Verona (1822), 2:861;
3:1173; 4:2228
Congress of Vienna (1814–1815),
2:525, 532–535, 661–662,
1002; 5:2417–2418
Alexander I and, 1:38; 2:603, 1080
Austria and, 2:532–534, 565, 861,
958
balance of power restoration and,
1:374, 457
Castlereagh and, 1:374
Chateaubriand and, 1:420
counterrevolution and, 2:565–566
Czartoryski and, 2:603
diplomatic solution of, 2:661–662
Francis I and, 2:861
Hamburg’s sovereignty and, 2:1038
Holy Alliance and, 2:534, 1080;
3:1685
E U R O P E
international law and, 3:1173, 1174
Italy and, 2:533; 3:1193; 4:2001
Lithuania and, 3:1365
Louis XVIII and, 3:1387
Mediterranean spheres of influence
and, 3:1482
Metternich and, 2:532, 533, 534,
565, 861, 1080–1081; 3:1493
monarchical effects of, 1:457
Napoleon’s return and, 2:903;
3:1588
Papal State and, 4:1724
Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1785
Poland and, 2:532–533; 4:1808,
1817–1818
Prussia and, 4:1899, 1900, 1901
Quadruple Alliance and, 1:374; 2:662
Restoration and, 3:1387; 4:1967,
1972, 1973
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1986
Rome and, 4:2033
Stein and, 4:2252
Swiss neutrality and, 4:2289
Talleyrand and, 5:2306
territorial rearrangements by, 2:861,
958
warfare prevention approach of,
2:661–662, 1033
Wellington and, 5:2457
See also Concert of Europe
Congress System, 1:374
Coningsby (Disraeli), 2:672; 3:1430
Connolly, James, 1:61
Conrad, Jessie, 2:535
Conrad, Joseph, 2:535–536, 638,
948; 3:1336
primitivism and, 4:1875
Stevenson compared with, 4:2256
Wells and, 5:2458
Conroy, George, 3:1330
Consalvi, Ercole, 3:1193; 4:1718,
1724
conscription, 1:94, 97–98, 100; 2:804
France and, 3:1218, 1506, 1522
as French pre–World War I issue,
2:859
French Revolutionary and
Napoleonic Wars and, 2:892, 895,
900; 3:1192, 1193, 1339–1340,
1506, 1598, 1599
military tactics and, 3:1505, 1506
peasant revolts against, 4:1754
of Poles, 4:1809
in Russian Empire, 2:822, 1014,
1017; 3:1281
universal, 4:1960, 2052
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

consequentialism, 5:2394
Conservateur, Le (French weekly),
2:537
conservatism, 2:536–543
Action Française and, 1:4–6; 2:542;
3:1476
Alexander I and, 2:531, 603
Alexander III and, 1:40, 41, 89;
3:1627
aristocracy and, 1:81, 82, 83; 2:537,
540, 958
Austria-Hungary and, 1:139, 145;
2:861
Bagehot and, 1:161
Barrès and, 1:184–185
Bismarck and, 1:234, 237, 238–239,
241; 2:540–540, 966; 4:1903
Bonald and, 1:268–269; 2:537
Boulangism and, 1:280–283;
2:540–542
Burke and, 1:326, 327–328;
2:538–539, 603
Carlism and, 1:83, 366–368; 2:539
Carlsbad Decrees and, 1:369–370;
2:959; 4:1901
Catholic political parties and, 1:387,
388, 389; 2:540, 541; 3:1393
Chateaubriand and, 1:421; 2:537
Coleridge and, 1:496, 497
counterrevolutionaries and,
1:268–269; 2:563–568, 958
Davies and, 2:625
differing meanings of, 2:536–537
Dostoyevsky and, 2:678
Dreyfus affair and, 1:284; 2:542,
683, 857, 858
Endecja and, 2:752–753
Frederick William IV and, 2:877
German artisan guilds and, 1:104
Holy Alliance and, 2:565, 1079–1081
ideology of, 2:958
imperialism and, 3:1120
Italy and, 3:1201; 4:2002
lower middle-class and, 1:204
Maistre and, 4:1959
Malthus and, 3:1425–1426
Maurras and, 2:540, 542; 3:1476
Napoleon III and, 2:540, 541, 852,
853; 3:1591, 1592, 1593
nationalism and, 2:566; 3:1605
New Right and, 2:540–542, 858
Nicholas II and, 3:1627, 1628, 1660
Nietzsche’s philosophy and, 3:1629
nineteenth-century programs of,
2:540
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
origins of, 2:537–539
papacy and, 4:1718, 1719, 1720,
1721, 1724
Parnell’s program and, 2:1009
peasants and, 4:1756
Pius IX and, 1:388; 3:1278;
4:1719–1720, 1795–1796, 1798
radical right vs., 2:542
Ranke and, 4:1940
shopkeepers and, 1:106
Smiles and, 4:2199
Third French Republic and,
2:856–857, 858
Tories and, 2:537, 538; 5:2320–2323
ultramontane Catholicism and,
1:381, 382–383, 388
village communities and, 4:1756
William II and, 2:874, 967
See also counterrevolution
Conservative Judaism, 3:1227
Conservative Party (Britain). See Tories
Conservative Party (Germany),
3:1233, 1609
Conservative Party (Prussia), 1:394
Conservatoire National de Musique et
de Déclamation (Paris), 3:1565
Conservatory of Music (St.
Petersburg), 2:654
Considerant, Victor, 2:651, 838;
4:2202, 2279
Fourierism and, 5:2397
Considerations on Lord Grenville’s and
Mr Pitt’s Bills Concerning
Treasonable and Seditious
Practices, and Unlawful Assemblies
(Godwin), 2:981
‘‘Considerations on Representative
Government’’ (J. S. Mill), 3:1513
Considérations sur la France (Maistre),
3:1421, 1422
Conspiracy in Russia: A Nihilist Meeting
Surprised (illustration), 3:1639
Conspiracy of Equals (1796), 1:360;
2:665; 4:2129–2130
Constable, Archibald, 4:2123
Constable, John, 1:177; 2:543–545,
544
as Menzel influence, 3:1489
Romanticism and, 2:543–544;
4:1703, 1704–1705, 2029
on Turner, 5:2368
constabularies. See police and policing
Constant, Benjamin, 1:227, 270;
2:537, 545–546; 3:1343, 1588;
4:1962
Sismondi and, 4:2185
Staël and, 4:2247
INDEX
Constantine, prince of Russia, 3:1625;
4:1984, 2050
Constantinople. See Istanbul
Constantinople, Treaty of (1913),
1:165, 313
Constituent Assembly (France), 1:247;
2:563
counterrevolutionists and, 2:563
Louis-Napoleon’s election to, 1:271
Proudhon and, 4:1899
trial of Louis XVI by, 3:1386
women’s suffrage and, 1:128
Constitutional Charter of 1814
(France), 2:1029; 3:1305;
4:1870
Constitutional Democrats (Russia).
See Kadets
constitutionalism
Alexander I and, 1:38
Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:52
Austria-Hungary and, 1:142, 144,
145; 2:864; 5:2510
Bagehot essay on, 1:160–161
Bavaria and, 1:457; 2:959
Belgium and, 1:200, 383; 3:1334,
1335
Britain and, 1:326; 3:1345
British reform advocates and,
2:1001
Bulgaria and, 1:312
Burke on, 1:326
conservatives’ opposition to, 2:958
Crispi and, 2:581
Denmark and, 2:648
Directory and, 2:665
Fabians and, 2:787
France and, 1:270, 456, 458; 2:768,
810, 856, 929; 4:1700, 1701
Germany and, 1:457, 459; 2:567,
861, 875, 959, 962; 4:1903
Greece and, 2:1020–1021
Hamburg and, 2:1038, 1039–1040
Hungary and, 2:627
Italy and, 1:414; 3:1197, 1254, 1255
Japan and, 3:1210
Kadets and, 3:1241
liberalism and, 2:958; 3:1341
Netherlands and, 3:1617
Ottomans and, 3:1188, 1688–1690;
5:2514–2515
Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1786
Pius IX and, 4:1796, 1797
Poland and, 4:1807, 1808
Portugal and, 4:1839–1840
Prussia and, 2:1043; 4:1902
Revolutions of 1820 and, 1:361
2603
INDEX
revolutions of 1848 and, 1:142;
4:1988, 1995
Russia and, 3:1293; 4:2049–2050,
2055, 2056–2057, 2079, 2270
Saint-Simon and, 4:2081
Spain and, 1:366–367, 367
Sweden and, 1:227; 4:2283
Switzerland and, 4:2290, 2291
Turkey and, 1:1
utilitarianism and, 1:210
William I and, 5:2467
See also specific constitutions by name
Constitutionnel, Le (French
newspaper), 1:70; 5:2310
Constitution of 1791 (France), 1:458;
2:843, 890; 4:2180, 2277
women’s exclusion from, 2:995
Constitution of 1791 (Poland), 4:1807
Constitution of 1793 (France), 2:894;
4:1959, 2277
Constitution of 1795 (France), 2:894;
4:1701, 2181, 2277
Constitution of 1812 (Spain). See
Cortes of Cádiz
Constitution of 1848 (France),
4:2277–2278
Constitution of 1848 (Switzerland),
4:2290, 2291
Constitution of 1849 (Austria), 2:863
Constitution of 1849 (Germany),
2:871
Constitution of 1866 (Romania),
4:2017
Constitution of 1869 (Spain), 4:2278
Constitution of 1870 (France), 3:1592
Constitution of 1874 (Switzerland),
4:2291
Constitution of 1876 (Spain), 4:2232
Constitution of Man, The (G. Combe),
4:1775
Constitution of the United States,
4:2290
constructivism, 1:398; 2:593; 3:1496
Consuelo (Sand), 4:2083
Consulate (France), 2:845–846;
3:1340, 1585–1586
Consultative Committee on Public
Health (France), 4:1914–1915
consumerism, 2:545–553
Berlin poster, 2:969
bourgeoisie and, 1:288–290, 352,
445; 2:547, 549, 551, 552; 3:1453
British products and, 3:1153–1154
cities and, 1:445; 2:548–551
cooperatives and, 1:473; 2:555–557
Corn Laws and, 2:558
credit sales and, 2:550
2604
food and, 2:658, 659
furniture and, 2:912–913
London and, 2:548; 3:1378
luxury goods and, 3:1151–1152
markets and, 3:1447–1449
newspaper advertising and,
4:1867–1868
pornography and, 4:1834–1835,
1836
posters and, 4:1845, 1846, 1846
protectionism and, 4:1889
sewing machine and, 4:2159, 2160
sociology and, 2:552; 4:2235
white-collar women workers and,
1:352
working class and, 2:549–550, 555
world’s fairs and, 5:2505
consumption (disease). See tuberculosis
consumption (goods). See
consumerism
Contadinelle (Palizzi), 4:1757
Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864,
1866, and 1869 (Britain), 1:332;
2:804; 4:1815, 1884, 1886,
1896, 2162, 2301–2302
Contarini Fleming (Disraeli), 2:672
Contemplations, Les (Hugo),
2:1093–1094, 1095
Contemporary, The (Pushkin), 4:1920
Contemporary Club (Dublin), 5:2509
‘‘Contemporary Tasks of Russian Life’’
(Chicherin), 5:2460
Contes Barbares (Gauguin), 4:1874
Contes d’Hoffmann, Les (Offenbach),
3:1661
Continental law, 3:1593
Continental System, 2:553–555, 846,
902; 3:1586–1587
British blockade and, 1:272, 303;
2:512, 553–554, 659, 846, 902,
5121; 3:1586, 1587, 1588, 1599
Hamburg and, 2:1038
Italy and, 3:1193
Peninsular War and, 4:1763, 1765,
1767
Russia and, 1:272; 3:1319, 1588
contraceptives, 2:805, 947;
3:1425; 4:1829–1830,
2161–2162, 2163
gender norms and, 2:947
obscenity legislation and, 4:1836
Roussels advocacy of, 4:2041, 2042
types of, 4:1827, 1829
contract law, 3:1596
Contrasts (Pugin), 4:1917
Contributions to the Analysis of the
Sensations (Mach), 3:1409
E U R O P E
Contributions to the Natural History of
the United States (Agassiz), 1:23
Contributions to the Theory of Sensory
Perception (Wundt), 5:2507
Contribution to the Critique of Hegels
Philosophy of Right: Introduction
(Marx), 3:1465
Contribution to the Critique of Political
Economy, A (Marx), 3:1462,
1463, 1466
Engels’s review of, 2:756
Convention of al-Marsa (1883),
5:2363
Convention of Cintra (1808), 4:2227;
5:2457
Convention of Constantinople (1888),
4:2275
Convention on Land Warfare, 2:1035;
3:1175
Convent of Saint Joseph (Barcelona),
1:181
Convent of Saint Mary of Jerusalem
(Barcelona), 1:181
Conversations with Goethe in the Last
Years of His Life (Goethe), 2:987
convict colonies. See exile, penal
Cook, James, 1:133; 2:782; 3:1653
Cook, Thomas, 1:288; 4:2274;
5:2329, 2494
Cooks tours, 4:1824
Cooper, Anthony Ashley. See
Shaftesbury, Lord
Cooper, James Fenimore, 2:575;
4:2123
cooperative movements, 2:555–557
artisans and, 1:111; 3:1390
Blanc and, 1:247; 2:555
consumerism and, 1:473; 2:555–557
Denmark and, 2:647
guilds and, 5:2454
labor movements and, 3:1284, 1286,
1287
libraries and, 3:1352
Owenites and, 3:1286, 1390,
1692–1693; 5:2397
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1991
socialism and, 4:2206
Copenhagen, 2:649; 5:2308
Copenhagen Conventioin (1872),
3:1538
Coppée, François, 1:229
Coppello, Johannes Kappeyne van de,
3:1618
copper, 5:2433
‘‘Copper Beeches, The’’ (Doyle),
2:680
Coppola, Francis Ford, 2:873
Coptic language, 1:406
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

copyright. See intellectual property law
Coq d’or, Le (Rimsky-Korsakov),
4:2000
Corbusier, Le (Charles Edouard
Jeanneret), 2:590, 938; 5:2422
Corciato in Egitto, Il (Meyerbeer),
3:1671
Corday, Charlotte, 2:624; 3:1442,
1443
Cordeliers Club, 2:844
Corfu, 3:1482
Corinne (Staël), 2:802; 3:1333; 4:2247
Corinth Canal, 3:1482
Corinthians (football team), 2:834
Corio, Silvio, 4:1714, 1715
Corleone, 4:2174, 2175
Cormon, Fernand, 5:2323, 2400
Cornhill Magazine, 2:680;
4:2253–2254
Corn Law of 1815, 1822, 1828, and
1842 (Britain), 2:557–558, 1004
Corn Laws, repeal of (1846), 1:417,
459; 2:512, 557–560; 4:1889;
5:2339, 2413, 2494
Carlyle and, 1:371
Cobden and, 1:490; 2:558, 559,
707, 1005; 3:1325
Disraeli and, 2:672
Gladstone and, 2:976–977
laissez-faire economics and, 2:707,
715
liberalism and, 3:1345
Manchester and, 3:1429
Peel and, 2:540, 559, 672,
1004–1005; 4:1759
Ricardo and, 2:715
Cornwallis, Charles, 3:1133
Coronation Dunbar of 1903 (Delhi),
2:597
Coronation of Napoleon and Josephine,
The (David), 2:624
Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille, 1:177,
177; 2:560–562, 561; 4:1705,
1707
as impressionism influence, 3:1126,
1543; 4:1792
corporal punishment, 1:431; 2:781,
1016
Corporation Acts of 1828 (Britain),
5:2457
corporations, 1:106–107, 329–330;
2:711
European family leadership of, 1:330
law and, 3:1315
limited liability partnership and,
1:354
Second Industrial Revolution and,
1:355
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
white-collar workers and, 1:352
corporatism, 4:2081, 2082
corps (army unit), 1:95–96
Corps des Mines, 2:759
Corps des Ponts et Chaussées (France),
1:149; 2:759; 4:1932
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum,
3:1533
Corpus Juris Civilis (Mommsen),
3:1533
Correns, Carl, 2:653
Correns, Erich, 3:1486
‘‘Correspondence’’ (Baudelaire),
4:2292
Corriere della Sera (Milan newspaper),
3:1502, 1504
Corrupt Practices Act of 1883
(Britain), 2:1009
Corsair, The (Byron), 1:332
corsairs, 5:2362
Corsica, 2:571; 3:1583–1584
Cort, Henry, 3:1152; 4:2115
Cortes of Cádiz (Spain, 1812), 1:366,
367; 2:809; 3:1343; 4:1765,
1969, 2227, 2228, 2229
Cotton Market at New Orleans
Corti, Luigi, 2:530
Cortot, Jean-Pierre, 4:2043
Coubertin, Pierre de, 3:1473, 1666,
Corvisart des Marets, Jean-Nicolas,
3:1297, 1298; 4:1790, 1791
Coulomb, Charles-Augustin de, 4:1779
Cossa, Luigi, 4:1850
Council of the Five Hundred (France),
Cossacks, 2:562–563, 563; 3:1281;
4:1977; 5:2369–2370
Council of Trent (15451563), 1:378
Cossacks, The (Tolstoy), 5:2318
Counter-Enlightenment, 2:538
Costa, Andrea, 1:58; 3:1276, 1424
Counter-Reformation, 4:1712
Costa y Martı́nez, Joaquı́n, 2:950, 951
counterrevolution, 2:564–568
Coste, La (chateau), 4:2073, 2074
Côte d’Azur, 3:1325
Côte des Boeufs at l’Hermitage
(Pissarro), 3:1131, 1131
Côte d’Ivoire, 1:500; 2:812
Côte d’Or, Prieur de, 2:518
Cotswold ‘‘Olympick Games,’’ 3:1666
Cotta, Johann Friedrich, 4:1869
cottages, 2:1089
cotton
African production of, 1:18, 21
American Civil War and, 1:18; 2:732;
3:1431
Barcelona and, 1:182
Belgian mills and, 1:201
British child and women labor and,
1:285, 350; 2:708
British exports of, 3:1428
British output of, 3:1147
capitalist bourgeosie and, 1:284, 287
Caribbean market and, 1:364; 2:709
Central Asian production of, 1:396
clothing and, 4:2193
INDEX
Continental System and, 2:554
Denmark and, 2:647
Egypt and, 1:18; 2:731, 732; 4:2274
European manufacturing towns and,
1:351
factories and, 2:708, 790–791;
3:1149, 1427–1429
India and, 3:1135, 1151–1152
industrialization process and, 1:329;
2:710
Industrial Revolution (first) and,
2:709; 3:1427–1429
machine breaking and, 3:1410,
1411; 4:2264
Owen’s New Lanark mills and, 3:1692
Saxony and, 2:554; 3:1149
science and technology and, 4:2108,
2114
slavery and, 4:2191, 2192–2193
Switzerland and, 4:2290
technology and, 3:1152, 1153, 1410
trade flow and, 5:2336
women labor activists and, 3:1293
(Degas), 2:634
1666, 1667
2:845, 894–895; 4:2181
anti-Semitism and, 2:689
Bonald and, 1:268–269; 2:566
Bonapartism and, 1:270
Burke and, 1:326, 327–328; 2:538,
566
Carlsbad Decrees and, 1:361,
368–370; 2:959; 3:1494
Charles X and, 3:1387, 1403
as Directory backlash, 2:665
as feminist backlash, 2:802, 804;
3:1681
Francis I and, 2:860, 861
Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:871–872
Frederick William III and,
2:875–876
Frederick William IV and, 2:876
as French Revolution backlash,
2:843–844, 887, 890, 891, 894,
973
Germany and, 2:871–872, 961, 962
Holy Alliance and, 2:959,
1079–1081; 3:1561
2605
INDEX
ideology of, 2:958
Italy and, 3:1193, 1254
against liberal nationalism, 3:1522
liberalism viewed by, 3:1342, 1343,
1344, 1522
Louis XVIII and, 3:1387
Louis-Napoleon and, 3:1591–1592
in Lyon, 3:1403
Maistre and, 2:566; 3:1421–1422
Marian pilgrimages and,
4:1788–1789, 1790
Maurras and, 3:1476
Metternich and, 2:566, 567, 959;
3:1494
Neapolitan Republic and, 3:1254
Nicholas I and, 2:566, 1081; 3:1625,
1626
Nicholas II and, 3:1628, 1660
papacy and, 4:1718, 1796–1797
Portugal and, 4:1839
as Reign of Terror backlash, 3:1206
Restoration and, 4:1967–1969,
1970, 1971, 1973
as Revolutions of 1848 backlash,
4:1993–1994
Russian repression and, 2:781;
4:1810, 1818, 1832
Countess of Carpio (1757–1795),
Marquesa de la Bolana (Goya),
1:79
Countess of Rudolstadt, The (Sand),
4:2083
Count Robert de Montesquiou
(Boldini), 2:1082
Country Doctor, A (Kafka), 3:1243
country houses, 1:186; 3:1305–1306,
1306
County Clare, 2:1003
county councils (Britain), 2:1010
County Donegal, evictions in, 3:1184
County Mayo, 4:1789–1790
County Wexford, 2:1000
Couperin, François, 1:440
Courbet, Gustave, 1:25; 2:568–570,
569; 3:1353; 4:1757, 1898, 2133;
5:2496
avant-garde and, 4:1706–1707
as impressionist influence, 3:1126,
1128
Manet and, 3:1433
Menzel and, 3:1489
realism and, 2:568–569; 3:1126,
1128; 4:1702, 1706–1707, 1708,
1946–1947, 1956
Couriau, Emma and Louis, 2:697
Courier de l’Europe (newspaper),
4:1871
2606
Courland, Duchy of, 2:817, 818, 819,
822–823
Courmont, Jules, 3:1405
Cours de philosophie positive (Comte),
2:522, 523; 4:1843, 1844
Courtauld family, 1:471
Courtet, Émile, 1:73
Court of Chancery (Britain), 1:303;
3:1646
Cousin, Victor, 2:1054; 3:1298
Cousine Bette, La (Balzac), 1:169
Cousin Phillis (Gaskell), 2:934
Cousin Pons, Le (Balzac), 1:169
Couthon, Georges, 2:800
Couture, Thomas, 3:1431
couture houses, 1:481–483; 2:548
Covent Garden (London), 3:1377,
1567
coverture, 3:1595
Covetous Knight, The (Pushkin),
4:1919
Cowling, Maurice, 3:1514
cowpox, 3:1223
Coxe, William, 4:2076
Crace, John Gregory, 4:1918
Crackanthorpe, Montague, 2:770
Cracow. See Kraków
Cradle, The (Morisot), 3:1544
Craft, Robert, 4:2263
craftsmen. See artisans and guilds; art
nouveau
craft unions. See labor movements
Crane, Walter, 1:191; 4:2201
Cranford (Gaskell), 2:934
craniology. See phrenology
Crawford, John, 3:1139
Craxi, Bettino, 2:933
Crayon (journal), 4:1864
creation, 2:614, 615, 776, 1103;
4:2182
creationist theory, 4:2133
‘‘creative destruction’’ theories, 1:162
Creative Evolution (Bergson), 1:213,
214
‘‘creative evolution’’ theory,
2:777–778
credit
banks and, 1:170–176
buying on, 2:550
Creditanstalt, 4:2041
credit cooperatives, 2:556
Crédit Industriel et Commercial,
1:174
Crédit Lyonnais, 1:174, 176; 3:1405
Crédit Mobilier. See Société Générale
de Crédit Mobilier
Credito Italiano, 3:1503
Creditors (Strindberg), 4:2269
credit societies, 1:55
E U R O P E
Creek Indians, 5:2440
Creighton, Mandell, 1:6
Cremer, William Randal, 4:1697
Crémieux decrees (1870), 1:46
Crespi family, 3:1504
Crete, 2:530; 3:1691
Creuzé de Lesser, Augustin, 3:1580
cricket, 3:1378; 4:2240, 2243, 2245
Cri du Peuple, Le (French leftist
periodical), 5:2524
crime, 2:570–577
Athens and, 1:125–126
Bentham prison reform and, 1:211
cities and, 1:449, 455; 2:571–572,
575
criminal class theory and, 2:572–574;
3:1371–1372
degeneracy and, 2:573, 574, 636,
637, 638, 639, 769; 3:1472
Doyle’s novels on, 2:680–681
fin de siècle pessimism and, 2:816
fingerprints and, 2:576, 927; 4:1816
forensic psychiatry and, 3:1270
homosexual acts as, 2:1082–1083,
1084, 1085; 5:2376
law and, 3:1315
literature ont, 2:574–575
London and, 3:1375
mafia and, 3:1414–1417, 1583
Naples and, 3:1583
penal exile for, 2:779–781
photographic records and, 2:576;
4:1816, 1816
police system and, 4:1814–1817
popular culture and, 4:1821
Romanies’ association with, 4:2022,
2023
St. Petersburg and, 2079
scapegoats and, 2:575–576
Siberian exile for, 4:2172
Sicily and, 4:2176–2177, 2178
statistical analysis of, 2:570, 571;
4:1922, 2248
theories of, 2:572–574, 638;
3:1371–1372; 4:1816
against women, 2:943
See also prisons
Crimea
Black Sea and, 1:243, 244; 2:1007
Russian annexation of, 1:376;
3:1683
Russian Islamic jadidism in,
3:1207–1208
See also Crimean War
Crime and Punishment (Dostoyevsky),
2:678
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Crimean War, 1:234, 491; 2:530,
577–580, 580, 964; 3:1686
Alexander II and, 1:38–39; 3:1626
armies and, 1:95
Austria and, 1:143, 244; 2:577, 861,
863, 866, 1081; 3:1541
Austro-Prussian War and, 1:236;
2:866
Black Sea and, 1:243–244
Bosphorus control and, 1:278; 2:576
Britain and, 1:38–39, 94, 95, 244,
278; 2:577–580, 578, 1007,
1007–1008; 4:1713, 2048, 2051;
5:2410, 2413
British cavalry and, 1:94–95; 2:578,
578
casualties of, 2:952
Cavour and, 1:391
cholera transmission and, 2:669
Concert of Europe breakdown and,
2:525
deaths and, 2:629, 952
France and, 1:38–39, 94, 244, 271,
278; 2:577–580, 866; 3:1592;
4:2048, 2051; 5:2410
as Holy Alliance dissolution, 2:1079,
1081
Italy and, 5:2410
Mickiewicz and, 3:1500
myths of, 2:578–579
Napoleon III and, 2:579, 580;
3:1626
Nicholas I and, 3:1626
Nightingale’s nursing and,
3:1637–1638, 1637, 1649
origins of, 1:244; 2:576
Palmerston and, 4:1713
photography and, 4:1771
Piedmont and, 2:1007; 3:1198;
4:1787
Poland and, 4:1811
results of, 2:579–580
Russia and, 1:38–39, 243–244;
2:577–580, 1007; 4:1975, 2048,
2051, 2149–2150, 2153, 2196;
5:2410
Russian defeat in, 1:94; 2:1014,
1015; 3:1626
Slavophilism and, 4:2196
Crime of Father Amaro, The (Crime do
Padre Amaro, O; Eça de Queriós),
1:70
criminal anthropology, 2:574;
3:1371–1372
criminal class theories, 2:572–574;
3:1371–1372
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Criminalité comparée, La (Tarde),
2:574
criminal law. See crime
Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885
(Britain), 2:639, 1083; 4:2297
Criminal Man (Lombroso), 2:638;
3:1371
Criminal Prisons of London and Scenes
of Prison Live (Mayhew and
Binny), 2:573
criminal type, 2:638
Criminal Woman, the Prostitute, and
the Normal Woman (Lombroso
and Ferrero), 3:1371
criminology. See crime
Crisis, The (Owenite journal), 2:650
‘‘Crisis of European Thought,’’
3:1535
Crisis of the European Sciences, The
(Husserl), 2:1100
Crisis of Western Philosophy, The
(V. Soloviev), 4:2216
Crispi, Francesco, 2:581–583, 582,
947
Carducci’s support for, 1:362
Ethiopian campaign and, 1:8, 362;
2:582, 583; 3:1200
Giolitti and, 2:971
as prime minister, 2:582–583;
3:1200, 1348
Roman Question and, 4:2025
Sicilian Fasci and, 4:2174–2175, 2178
Umberto I and, 5:2377, 2378
Critica, La (periodical), 2:584
Critica sociale (socialist journal),
3:1276; 5:2363
criticism, art
Baudelaire and, 1:188; 3:1543
on impressionists, 3:1126–1127,
1128, 1132
Ruskin and, 4:1864
criticism, literary
Arnold and, 1:102–103
Belinsky and, 1:207–208
Coleridge and, 1:496, 497
Eliot (George) and, 2:744
Herder and, 2:1061
political, 1:102–103
in Russia, 4:2050
Schlegel and, 4:2094–2096
Shaw and, 4:2165
Strachey and, 4:2258
Tolstoy and, 5:2319
criticism, music, 3:1565, 1566
on Beethoven, 1:197
by Berlioz, 1:224, 225
by Schumann and, 3:1566, 1570
INDEX
Critique of Abstract Principles, A
(V. Soloviev), 4:2216
Critique of Political Economy (Marx),
4:2205
Critique of the Gotha Program, The
(Marx), 2:522; 4:2205
Critiques (Kant), 2:813
Critz, José Morilla, 5:2337
Croatia, 4:1993, 1994; 5:2380
Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:276
Gaj and, 2:924–925
Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:137, 141
Hungarian compromise with, 1:144
Jelačić and, 3:1219–1220
Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1599
nationalism and, 2:924–925;
3:1267–1268
Serbia and, 1:242
Croatian National Society (Bosnia),
1:276
Croce, Benedetto, 2:583–585; 4:2189
Crofters Wars, 4:2120
Croix, La (Catholic daily), 1:383; 2:684
Cromer, Lord (Evelyn Baring), 2:734;
4:2275
Crompton, Samuel, 3:1152, 1153
Cromwell (Hugo), 2:1092
Cromwell, Oliver, 2:831
Cronin, Archibald Joseph, 4:1882
Cronstadt, 2:579
Crook, Will, 3:1296
‘‘Crooked Man, The’’ (Doyle), 2:680
Crookes, William, 4:2238, 2239
crop rotation, 1:26; 2:762, 960;
4:1751, 1753
Cros, Antoine-Jean, 2:955
Crosby, Alfred W., 2:668
Cross, John, 2:743
Cross, Viscount (Edward Assheton),
2:674
cross-dressing, 2:1082
‘‘Crossing the Bar’’ (Tennyson), 5:2310
Cross in the Mountains (Friedrich),
2:910–911
Crouzet, François, 3:1587
Crouzet, Michel, 4:2253
crowd behavior, 3:1317; 4:1909
Cruikshank, George, 2:585–587, 586,
1023
Cruikshank, Isaac (father), 2:585
Cruikshank, Robert (brother), 2:585,
586
Crusenstolpe, Magnus, 4:2283
Crystal Palace, 2:587–590; 3:1376,
1378; 5:2494–2495, 2495, 2496,
2505–2506
Cruikshank etching of, 2:586
fire destruction of, 2:589
2607
INDEX
influence of, 2:589–590, 1006
interior of, 2:589
south entrance of, 2:588
success of, 4:1738
crystals, 1:425; 4:1743
Cualterio, Filippo, 3:1415
Cuba, 1:363–364, 365–366
slave emancipation in, 1:365
slavery in, 2:506; 4:2192, 2193,
2194
Spanish colonial rule in, 1:499;
4:2231
Spanish loss of, 1:181; 2:949;
3:1414
tobacco and, 5:2313
Cuban War of Independence
(1895–1898), 1:366
Cubières, marquis de, 2:994
cubism, 1:214, 398; 2:590–594;
4:1732, 1875
avant-garde and, 1:156, 157
Braque and, 1:156; 2:590, 591, 592,
592, 593, 797; 3:1530; 4:1710,
1784
futurism and, 2:918; 4:1711
Picasso and, 1:156; 2:590, 591, 592,
593; 3:1530; 4:1710, 1783–1784
Cubitt, Thomas, 3:1373
Cudgel War (Luxembourg), 4:1755
Cuérin, Robert, 2:834
Cui, César, 4:1999
Cuisine, La (Vlaminck), 2:796
Cullen, Paul, 1:379
Cullen, William, 4:2108
cultural nationalism. See nationalism
cultural pessimism, 2:631
cultural Zionists, 5:2521
Cultur der Renaissance in Italien, Die
(Burckhardt), 1:318, 319, 320
culture. See popular and elite culture
Culture and Anarchy (Arnold), 1:103
Cumnock News (Scottish newspaper),
2:1043
Cuoco, Vincenzo, 3:1192
CUP. See Young Turks
Cupid and Psyche (Canova), 1:349
Curie, Irène, 2:594, 596
Curie, Marie, 2:594, 594–597, 738;
4:1811
Curie, Pierre, 2:594, 595, 596
currency. See banks and banking; gold
standard; monetary unions
‘‘Cursory Strictures on the Charge
Delivered by Lord Chief Justice
Eyre to the Grand Jury’’
(Godwin), 2:981
Curzon, George, 1:597–598; 3:1135,
1136
2608
Cusack, Michael, 3:1182
Cust, Henry, 2:798
Custine, Astolphe de, 2:1084
Custine, marquis de, 4:2076
Custom House (Dublin), 2:691
Customs House (Yokohama), 3:1209
customs union. See monetary unions
Custom War (1906–1911), 1:206
Custoza, Battle of (1848), 4:1993,
2002
Custoza, Battle of (1866), 1:148
Cuvier, Georges, 2:598–599
as Agassiz mentor, 1:22
evolution theory and, 2:776
Lamarck’s acquired characteristics
theory and, 2:614; 3:1302
natural history museum and,
3:1562–1634
Cuza, Alexandru Ion, 4:2016
cycling, 2:599–602
bicycle boom of 1890s and,
2:601–602
Netherlands and, 3:1619
racing and, 2:599–600, 601, 602;
3:1326; 4:1824
rubber tires and, 2:551, 600, 601;
3:1336
as sport, 4:2242, 2245
tourism and, 5:2330–2331
as transportation, 3:1163; 4:1824;
5:2350
Cyclists’ Touring Club (Britain), 2:600
Cyclopaedia of Useful Arts and
Manufactures, 4:2114
Cyprus, 5:2391
British control of, 2:530, 705; 3:1690
Kitchener in, 3:1257
Mediterranean and, 3:1481
Mehmet Ali and, 3:1613
Cyril, St., 4:1716
Czartoryski, Adam, 2:602–604;
4:1807, 1808, 1810–1811
Czartoryski, Konstanty, 2:603
Czech language, 1:145, 259, 261,
262, 263; 4:1711, 1716, 1858,
1860–1861
Czech National Party, 4:1712;
5:2510–2511
Czech national revival, 1:261–264,
447; 3:1469; 4:1716
Dvořák and, 2:700–701
Masaryk and, 3:1469
Palacký and, 4:1711–1712, 1861
Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716–1717
Prague as center of, 4:1856–1861
Prague Slav Congress and,
4:1861–1863
E U R O P E
Czech National Theater (Prague),
4:1857–1858, 1860
Czechoslovak Republic, 1:264;
3:1469; 4:1856
‘‘Czech Quartet, The,’’ 2:700
Czech Republic. See Bohemia,
Moravia, and Silesia
Czerny, Carl, 3:1360
n
D
Dada, 1:153; 2:593; 3:1214
Dagestan, 4:2164
Dagnan-Bouveret, Pascal-Adolphe-
Jean, 4:1948
Daguerre, Louis, 1:440; 2:605–607;
4:1770
daguerreotypes, 2:605, 606–607;
4:1770, 1771
pornographic, 4:1834
dahis, 4:2142
Dahlbäck, Lars, 4:2269
Dahlmann, F. C., 2:960
Dahomey, 1:13, 14, 15, 20, 21; 2:812
Dáil Éireann (Irish Parliament),
3:1185
Daily Mail (London newspaper),
4:1868, 1871, 2280
Daily Mirror (London newspaper),
4:1871
Daily News (London newspaper),
3:1459
Daily Telegraph (London newspaper),
2:968
Daimler, Gottlieb Wilhelm, 1:148,
150; 3:1161; 5:2351
Daimler Motor Company, 2:793
daimyo. See samurai
Dai Nam. See Vietnam
dairy farming, 2:960; 3:1623, 1624
Dai Viet. See Vietnam
Dakar, 1:20
Dale, Peter Allan, 4:2254
Dalhaus, Carl, 1:295
Dalhousie, Lord, 3:1134; 4:2138
Dalian (China), 1:292; 4:1837
Dalmatia, 2:958; 3:1203
Dalton, John, 1:424; 3:1430; 4:2114
Damala, Jacques, 1:230
Dame aux camélias, La (Dumas),
1:229
Damnation de Faust, La (Berlioz),
1:225
Damned, The (Huysmans), 2:1104
Dan, Fyodor, 3:1460, 1487
Da Nang, 3:1140
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

dance. See ballet
Dance at Bougival (Renoir), 4:1955
Dance of Death, The (Strindberg),
4:2269, 2286
Dance of Death genre, 2:629
‘‘Dancing Man, The’’ (Doyle), 2:681
Dandré, Victor, 4:1750
Daniel Deronda (G. Eliot), 2:744,
745; 5:2519
Danilevsky, Nikolai, 2:773, 775;
4:1832
Danilo II, prince of Montenegro,
3:1540, 1541
Danish-German War, 2:607–609, 648
Bismarck and, 1:235–236, 237;
2:963; 4:1902
Danish troops in, 2:608
Geneva Convention and, 2:952
German unification and, 2:963
See also Schleswig-Holstein
Danish language, 3:1259
Danish Shooting Federation, 4:2243
Danish Sports Federation, 4:2245
D’Annunzio, Gabriele, 1:443;
2:609–610, 633, 951; 5:2405
Giolitti and, 2:972
Danse, La (Matisse), 3:1474, 1475
danse moderne. See modern dance
Dante Alighieri, 1:246; 2:640;
3:1193; 4:2008, 2030, 2095
Doré illustrations for, 2:676
Dante’s Barque (Delacroix), 2:640
Danton (Rolland), 4:2015
Danton, Georges-Jacques, 2:610–612
Committee of Public Safety and,
2:518, 610, 611, 612
execution of, 2:610, 893
as Jacobin, 3:1205
Reign of Terror and, 2:610, 612,
893; 4:1952
Robespierre and, 4:2007
September Massacres and, 2:973
Danube River, 1:205, 243, 244
Budapest and, 1:309
Crimean War and, 2:577
international navigation of, 3:1173
Danzig, 4:1900
Daphnis and Chloé (Ravel), 4:1944
Darboy, Georges, 1:68; 4:1722, 1736
Darcy, Henri, 2:760
Dardanelles, 1:243; 2:703, 709
Bosphorus and, 1:278
Crimean War and, 2:577
Eastern Question and, 2:704–705
Mediterranean and, 3:1481–1482
Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2391,
2392
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Dardanelles, Treaty of (1809), 1:278
Dargan, William, 2:693
Dargomyzhsky, Alexander, 3:1575
Darmstädter (bank), 1:175
Dartmouth (British warship), 3:1612
Darty, Paulette, 4:2086–2087
Daru, Pierre, 4:2252
Darwin, Charles, 2:613–620, 619,
696, 740, 770, 872; 4:1909,
2071, 2255; 5:2458
Agassiz theories vs., 1:23
creationist theorists and, 4:2133
degeneration theorists and, 2:238, 239
Engels and, 2:756
evolution cartoon and, 2:778
Freud’s interest in, 2:904
Galton and, 2:637, 769, 927
Haeckel and, 2:1031, 1031–1032,
1069
Hirschfeld and, 2:1070
Huxley’s defense of, 2:614, 616,
617, 777, 1101, 1102
as Kautsky influence, 3:1248
Kelvin energy laws and, 3:1250
Kropotkin critique of, 3:1273
Lamarckian theory and, 3:1302
Lyell as influence on, 2:615; 3:1402
Malthus as influence on, 2:161, 615,
617; 3:1426
Morant Bay uprising and, 1:371
natural history museums and, 3:1563
natural selection and, 2:239, 613,
616, 617, 618, 653, 776, 777,
778–779
Polish positivists and, 4:1811
progress and, 2:814
research approach of, 4:1908
on Romanies, 4:2021
Spencer and, 4:2233, 2234
as Suttner influence, 4:2282
Wallace and, 5:2437
on women’s evolution, 2:945
Darwin, Emma Wedgwood (wife),
2:617
Darwin, Erasmus (grandfather), 2:613,
777, 927; 4:2111, 2168, 2233
Darwin, Leonard (son), 2:770
Darwin, Robert Waring (father),
2:613, 927
Darwin, Susannah Wedgwood
(mother), 2:613
Darwinism (Wallace), 5:2437
Dasein concept, 3:1252
Dashnaktsutiun Party (Armenian), 1:92
Data of Ethics (Spencer), 4:2235
Daubigny, Charles-François, 1:178
INDEX
Daudet, Alphonse (father), 1:5;
5:2523
Daudet, Léon (son), 4:2084
Daughter of Sláva (Kollar), 4:1716
Daum brothers, 1:108, 111
Daumier, Honoré, 1:35; 2:620–623,
622, 623, 850; 4:1881
Cruikshank as influence on, 2:586
Nadar and, 3:1578, 1579
Davaine, Casimir-Joseph, 4:1744
Davenport, Charles, 2:770–771
David, Jacques-Louis, 2:623–625;
3:1165, 1167, 1558; 4:1702,
1705, 1960, 2007
painting of Marat’s assassination by,
3:1442
David Balfour (Stevenson), 4:2256
David Copperfield (Dickens), 2:656
Davidsfonds (Belgium), 1:202
Davidson, Emily Wilding, 2:805–806
Davies, Emily, 2:625–627
Davis, Edward Thompson, 4:1848
Davitt, Michael, 2:1009; 3:1181;
4:1741
Davout, Louis-Nicolas, 1:133; 3:1221
Davy, Humphry, 1:424, 487; 4:2111,
2114, 2168
Days of Freedom (Russia), 4:1978
‘‘Dayspring Mishandled’’ (Kipling),
3:1257
day-trippers, 3:1324; 4:2126; 5:2328
dazio consumo, 4:2174
Deaconesses of Kaiserswerth, 3:1649
deaconess movement, 3:1649, 1650
Dead Souls (Gogol), 1:208; 2:988
Deák, Ferenc, 2:627–628, 864;
3:1346
Deane, Phyllis, 3:1147
Dearborn, Henry, 5:2439, 2440
death and burial, 2:628–629
cremation and, 4:1894
dueling and, 2:695
political funerals and, 4:1963
secularization of, 4:1894
suicide and, 2:629, 632, 699, 816
See also casualties; mortality rates
Death and Maiden (Schiele), 4:2090
‘‘Death and the Maiden’’ string quartet
(Schubert), 4:2106
Death as Victor (Rethel), 2:629
Death in the Sickroom (Munch),
3:1559
Death in Venice (Mann), 3:1435, 1436
Death of Empedocles, The (Hölderlin),
2:1078
‘‘Death of Ivan Ilych, The’’ (Tolstoy),
5:2319
Death of Marat (David), 4:1960
2609
INDEX
Death of Oenone, Akbar’s Dream, and
Other Poems, The (Tennyson),
5:2310
Death of Sardanapalus, The
(Delacroix), 2:640
Death of the Settler, The (Ivanov),
4:1757
death penalty
British debates on, 2:570
in France, 4:1963, 2005
French debate on, 2:575
French guillotine and, 2:888
See also Reign of Terror
Hugos writings against, 2:1093
penal exile as alternative to,
2:779–780, 781
public hangings and, 1:288
for sodomy, 2:1082, 1083
death rates. See infant and child
mortality; mortality rates
De Beers Consolidated Mines, 1:18;
4:1996
Debits and Credits (Kipling), 3:1257
Déblaiement d’art (van de Velde),
1:108
De Buonaparte et des Bourbons et de la
nécessité de se rallier à nos Princes
légitimes pour le bonheur de la
France et celui de l’Europe
(Chateaubriand), 1:421
Debussy, Claude, 1:154; 2:630–631,
654; 3:1565, 1572
Chopin’s influence on, 1:440
impressionism and, 3:1133
opera and, 3:631, 1675
Ravel and, 4:1944, 1945
Satie and, 4:2086
Decadence, 2:631–633
art nouveau and, 1:109, 152
death and, 2:629
degeneration and, 2:631, 632, 636,
638
fin de siècle and, 2:629, 631–633,
638, 815–816; 3:1476
Huysmans and, 2:632, 1104, 1105
Maurras’s fixation on, 3:1476
Nietzsche and, 3:1631
Pater and, 4:1746
Picasso and, 4:1781
poets and artists and, 2:940
symbolism and, 2:633; 4:2292–2294
Décadent, Le (literary journal), 2:632
Décade philosophique, La (French
journal), 4:1961
Decembrists, 1:38, 360, 400; 4:2050,
2236
Chaadayev and, 1:400
2610
Herzen and, 2:1064
intelligentsia and, 3:1170
Nicholas I’s crushing of, 3:1625
Pushkin and, 4:1919
dechristianization. See secularization
decimal system, monetary, 3:1538
Decisi (secret society), 1:360
Declaration of Independence
(Hungary, 1849), 3:1268
Declaration of Paris (1856), 2:1034;
3:1175
Declaration of the Rights of Man and
of the Citizen (1789), 1:283–284,
498; 2:665, 768, 843, 891;
3:1521; 4:1850
free press guarantee of, 4:1869
French buffer states and, 3:1597
National Assembly vote on,
2:886–887; 3:1299–1300
women’s exclusion from, 2:801, 941,
995
Declaration of the Rights of Man and
the Citizen
republicanism and, 4:1959–1960
Robespierre’s support of, 4:2005
secularization and, 4:2132–2133,
2134, 2186–2187
Declaration of the Rights of Woman
and of the Female Citizen
(Gouges), 2:801, 802, 941,
995–996
decorative arts
art nouveau and, 110; 1:107–114,
152, 153; 2:815, 1028
Beardsley and, 1:192
Burne-Jones and, 4:1865
Crystal Palace exhibits and, 2:588
Morris and, 3:1549–1551; 4:1865
Pugin and, 4:1917, 1918
See also furniture
Dedekind, Julius Wilhelm Richard,
2:883
Dedham Lock and Mill (Constable),
2:544
Dedham Vale (Constable), 2:543
Dedreux, Alfred, 1:285
deductive systematicity (legal theory),
3:1315
De écriture hiératique des anciens
égyptiens (Champollion), 1:407
Deerbrook (Martineau), 3:1459
defamiliarization, 5:2320
Defenders of the Constitution (Serbia),
4:2144–2145
Defense of Poetry, A (Shelley), 4:2170
Défenseur de la constitution, La
(Robespierre newspaper), 4:2006
E U R O P E
DeFeure, Georges, 1:110
De Forest, Lee, 3:1163
Degas, Edgar, 1:252, 336, 354, 470;
2:633–636, 635; 3:1130; 4:1874,
1955, 2156; 5:2323
absinthe drinking and, 1:3, 3
art collection of, 2:634, 636
Daumier as influence on, 2:622
impressionism and, 3:1126, 1128,
1129–1130, 1131; 4:1708, 1709
Liebermann monograph on, 3:1353
Menzel and, 3:1490
modernism and, 3:1530
Morisot friendship with, 3:1544
photography and, 4:1773
De Gasperi, Alcide, 2:933
de Gaulle, Charles, 1:269, 271
‘‘Degenerate Art’’ exhibition (Munich,
1937), 2:649
degeneration, 2:636–640, 683
criminality theory and, 2:573, 574,
636, 637, 638, 639, 769; 3:1472
Decadence and, 2:631, 632, 636,
638
eugenics and, 2:241, 636, 637, 769,
928
fin de siècle and, 2:816
homosexual/lesbian subculture and,
2:1083, 1084
male fears and, 3:1472
Degeneration (Nordau), 2:816
Degeneration: A Chapter in Darwinism
(Ray), 2:238
De Gérando, Joseph Marie, 4:1850
Dehmel, Richard, 4:2102
Dehn, Siegfried, 2:979, 980
Deich, Lev, 5:2517
Dei delitti e delle pene (Beccaria), 3:1371
deism, 4:1893
Deiters, Otto, 1:340
‘‘Dejection: An Ode’’ (Coleridge),
1:496
Déjeuner sur l’herbe (Manet), 3:1432,
1433, 1530, 1535; 4:1707
Delacroix, Charles, 5:2305
Delacroix, Eugène, 1:439, 439; 2:634,
640–642, 848, 939
Constable as influence on, 2:544
Friedrich’s importance compared
with, 2:910
Liszt and, 3:1360
naturalism and, 4:1701
Paris Exposition of 1855 and, 5:2496
Romanticism and, 2:640–642, 910;
4:1705, 2027, 2030
Sand and, 4:2084
self-portrait of, 2:640
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Talleyrand and, 5:2305
Van Gogh and, 5:2400
De la Démocratie en Amérique
(Tocqueville), 1:115–116
De la littérature du midi de l’Europe
(Sismondi), 4:2185
De l’Allemagne (Heine), 2:1056
De l’Allemagne (Staël), 2:1056; 4:2095
De la monarchie selon la charte
(Chateaubriand), 1:421
De la prostitution dans la ville de Paris
(Parent-Duchâtelet), 4:1884, 2301
De la religion (Constant), 2:545
De la réorganisation de la société
européenne (Saint-Simon),
4:2081, 2202
De la Rey, Jacobus Hercules (‘‘Koos’’),
1:257
De la richesse commerciale; ou, Principes
d’économie politique appliqués à la
législation du commerce
(Sismondi), 4:2185
Delaunay, Robert, 1:156; 2:590, 738;
4:2158
Delaunay-Terk, Sonia, 1:156
De l’auscultation mediate (Laennec),
3:1298
Delbrück, Rudolph, 1:238; 5:2526
Delcassé, Théophile, 2:642–643, 795,
857
Moroccan Crisis and, 3:1545
Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432
Delesalle, Paul, 1:56
Delhi, 3:1135, 1137
Delicias Atocha station (Madrid),
3:1413
Deliyannis, Theodore, 2:1021
Della Guerra nazionale d’insurrezione
per bande (Saint-Jorioz), 5:2514
Deloraine (Godwin), 2:982
Delphine (Staël), 2:802; 4:2247
Del primato morale e civile degli
italiani (Gioberti), 3:1195;
4:1796, 2002
Del romanzo storico, e in genere de
componimenti misti di storia e
dinvenzione (Manzoni), 3:1442
Delvard, Marya, 1:336
Demandt, Alexander, 3:1533
democracy
aristocracy and, 1:81–82, 83, 86
Arnold’s literary criticism and, 1:103
artisan radicalism and, 1:104
Athenian, 4:1769–1770
bourgeois liberalism and, 1:458
Chartist platform and, 1:414–415,
418, 459
civil society and, 1:467
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
classical economists and, 2:713
colonization and, 2:504
Guizot’s view of, 2:1030
labor movements and, 3:1292
Luxemburg’s socialism and, 3:1401
Mazzini and, 3:1479, 1480
Nietzsche’s repudiation of, 3:1629
press freedom and, 4:172, 1870
Protestanism and, 4:1892
racial/sexual inequality and,
1:458–459
republicanism and, 4:1958, 1959
Second International and, 3:1294
Serbia and, 1:207
Social Democrats and, 1:231
voluntary associations and,
1:115–116, 119, 120–122
Democracy in America (Tocqueville),
1:115–116; 3:1513; 4:2213;
5:2316–2317
Democratic Association (Brussels),
3:1465
Democratic Federation, 4:2205
Democratic National Party (Poland),
2:753
Democratic Party (Germany), 1:189
Democratic Party (Portugal), 4:1842
Democratic Republic of Congo. See
Congo Free State
Democratic Republic of Vietnam,
3:1145
democratic socialism, 1:282
Democritus, 3:1464
demography, 2:643–646
agarian production and, 2:762
Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:52
Athens and, 1:125
Belgrade and, 1:206
cholera pandemics and, 1:436, 438;
2:668
death rate decline and, 2:628
Dublin and, 2:690
emigration and, 2:746–752
epidemic infections and, 2:667–668,
670–671
eugenics and, 2:637
family life effects of, 3:145
Germany and, 2:960
housing shortage and, 2:1086–1092
illegitimate births and, 4:1828
Industrial Revolution and, 3:1147,
1148
Irish Potato Famine’s effect on,
2:1005
land enclosures and, 1:26
literacy and, 4:1822
INDEX
London and, 3:1372
Madrid and, 3:1412
Malthusian theory and, 3:1425–1427
as migration factor, 3:1112
Moscow and, 3:1553–1554
New Zealand and, 3:1622
old age and, 3:1662
Paris and, 4:1727–1728
peasants and, 4:1751, 1752
population control and, 4:1827–1831
Prague and, 4:1856
public health measures and,
2:670–671
Romania and, 4:2017
Scotland and, 4:2120–2122
Serbia and, 4:2146
social history and, 1:251
statistics and, 4:2248–2250
urban death rates and, 1:451
urban overcrowding and, 4:1912
See also birthrate; fertility rate;
immigration and internal
migration; infant and child
mortality; mortality rates
Demoiselles (French peasant protests),
1:359
Demoiselles d’Avignon, Les (Picasso),
1:156; 2:593; 4:1710,
1782–1783, 1783, 1875
Demolins, Edmond, 5:2516
Demos (Gissing), 2:975
Denis, Maurice, 1:154; 4:2294
Denmark, 2:649–649
Africa and, 1:19
alcohol consumption in, 1:35
as Berlin Conference participant,
1:221
British naval attack on, 3:1615
Caribbean colonialism and, 1:363
cholera and, 1:436
colonies and, 3:1114
commercial policy and, 2:512
education in, 2:648
emigrants from, 2:506
established church in, 4:1895
football (soccer) and, 2:833
German unification and, 1:47, 96;
4:1993
Hamburg and, 2:1038
Kierkegaard and, 3:1250–1254
labor movements in, 3:1290, 1291
life expectancy in, 2:643
monetary union and, 3:1538
Napoleonic Wars and, 2:901
poor relief and, 4:1851
2611
INDEX
population of, 2:647
Protestant population of, 4:1890,
1890
Prussia and, 1:234, 236, 237; 2:963;
5:2353
See also Danish-German War
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1985
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987,
1990, 1993–1994
Schleswig-Holstein and, 1:147,
235–236, 237; 2:871, 963
slavery abolishment and, 1:18, 19,
365, 458, 499; 2:506
slave trade and, 1:13, 308
socialist party strength in, 3:1293
sports in, 4:2241, 2243
suffrage in, 4:2278
Sweden’s cession of Norway from,
1:226, 227; 4:2287
telephone service in, 5:2308
temperance societies in, 4:1896
trade and, 5:2336, 2338, 2339
welfare initiatives in, 5:2452
Dennewitz, Battle of (1813), 3:1320
Denon, Dominique Vivant, 4:2043
DeNora, Tia, 1:199
Dent, J. M., 1:192
department stores, 1:288–290; 2:551,
552; 3:1453; 5:2341
cities and, 1:445
clothing sales and, 1:483, 484
credit and, 2:550
London and, 3:1378
shoplifting and, 2:574, 576
white-collar women workers and,
1:352
Departure of the Volunteers in 1792 (La
Marseillaise; Rude), 4:2031,
2043, 2044
Dépêche de Toulouse, La (journal),
3:1215, 1217
dependency theory, 2:708
depressions, economic. See Great
Depression
Depretis, Agostino, 2:581–582;
3:1200; 5:2377
De Profundis (Wilde), 5:2466
De Quincey, Thomas, 1:188; 2:686,
687
Derain, André, 1:153; 4:1784
fauvism and, 2:795, 796, 797;
4:1875
Matisse and, 3:1474
Deraismes, Maria, 1:127; 2:649–650,
804; 4:1998
Derby, Lord (Edward George Geoffrey
Smith Stanley), 2:673, 674, 1008
2612
Dernier chant du pèlerinage d’Harold,
Le (Lamartine), 3:1303
Dernière Incarnation de Vautrin, La
(Balzac), 1:169
Dernier jour d’un condamné, Le
(Hugo), 2:1093
Deroin, Jeanne, 2:652–654, 654;
3:1288; 4:2013, 2279
Déroulède, Paul, 1:282; 2:857, 858
Deroy, A., 4:1789
Deroy, Charles, 1:187
Derrida, Jacques, 3:1635
De Sanctis, Francesco, 1:317; 3:1556
Descamps, Edouard, 4:1697
Descartes, René, 2:926; 4:1907, 2026
Descent of Man, The (Darwin), 2:617,
777
Deschanel, Paul-Eugène-Louis,
3:1218
Des classes dangereuses de la population
dans les grands villes et des moyens
de les rendre meilleurs (Frégier),
2:572
Description de l’Égypte, 1:44, 406;
2:731
Descriptions automatiques (Satie),
4:2087
Des époques de la nature (Buffon),
2:776
‘‘deserving poor’’ concept,
5:2450–2451
Desgeorges, Frédéric, 1:248
Deshoulières, Antoineete de, 2:994
design. See decorative arts
Deslon, Charles, 3:1490
Desmond, Adrian, 2:614
Desmoulins, Camille, 2:611, 893;
3:1205; 4:1869, 1960
De Sousa, Felix, 1:13
Despero, Fortunato, 2:917
Dessalines, Jean-Jacques, 2:1036;
5:2333
Desserte, La (Matisse), 3:1474
Desserte rouge, La (Matisse), 3:1474
Destitute Men Applying for Admittance
to a London Night Refuge (Doré),
5:2455
Desvaillières, Georges, 1:153
Desvosges, François, 4:2043
detective novel, 2:680, 816
detectives, 4:1815
determinism, 1:214
De Tham, 3:1143, 1144
Deutsche-Asiatische Bank, 1:176
Deutsche Bank, 1:175, 176; 2:965
Deutsche Bund. See German
Confederation
Deutsche Demokratische Partei
(Germany), 1:189
E U R O P E
Deutsche Frauenzeitung (women’s
periodical), 1:66
Deutsche Grammatik (J. Grimm),
2:1024
Deutsche Kolonialverein, 3:1118
Deutsche Mythologie (J. Grimm),
2:1023
Deutscher Schulverein, 1:262
Deutscher Wehrverein, 3:1546
Deutsches Requiem, Ein (Brahms),
1:295
Deutsche Turnerschaft, 1:118; 4:2243
Deutsche Uebersee-Bank, 1:176
Deutsche Zentrumspartei. See Center
Party
Deutschland: Ein Wintermärchen
(Heine), 2:1056
‘‘Deutschland über alles’’ (song),
2:960–961
Deux aveugles, Les (Offenbach), 3:1660
Deux danseurs (Matisse), 3:1475
Deux journées, Les (Cherubini), 3:1673
Deval, Pierre, 1:43
De Valera, Eamon, 3:1185
Development of Capitalism in Russia,
The (Lenin), 3:1327
Development of Psychoanalysis, The
(Rank and Ferenczi), 4:1938
DeVigne, Robert, 3:1514
Devils, The (Dostoyevsky), 2:679;
3:1614
Devil’s Disciple, The (Shaw), 4:2166
Devils Island, 2:683
Devonshire, duke of, 1:84; 5:2387
Devoy, John, 4:1741
De Vries, Hugo, 2:61, 652–653;
3:1486
De Vries, Jan, 3:1152
deys, 5:2362
Dhaka, 3:1136
Diaghilev, Sergei, 1:154; 2:654–655,
774; 4:1750, 2077
Nijinsky and, 3:1642, 1643
Ravel and, 4:1944–1945
Repin and, 4:1957
Rimsky-Korsakov and, 2:654;
4:2000
Satie and, 4:2087
Stravinsky and, 2:654, 655; 4:1876,
2261–2262
World of Art group and, 4:2181
Diagne, Blaise, 2:509
dialectic
Fichte and, 2:814
Hegel and, 3:1252
Kierkegaard and, 3:1252, 1253
Marx and, 3:1252, 1400
Dialectics of Nature (Engels), 2:756
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Dialogue on Poetry (Schlegel), 4:2095
diamonds, 1:18, 99
Lavoisier study of, 3:1312
South African mining of, 4:1996,
1997, 2221–2222, 2222
‘‘Diaphaneite’’ (Pater), 4:1746
diaphragm, 2:947; 4:1827, 1829
diarrhea prevention, 2:667
‘‘Diary of a Superfluous Man’’
(Turgenev), 5:2365
Diary of Vaslav Nijinsky, The (Acocella,
ed.), 3:1643
Diaz de La Peña, Narcisse-Virgile,
1:178
Dichtung and Wahrheit (Goethe),
2:982, 987
Dickens, Catherine Hogarth,
2:656–657
Dickens, Charles, 2:535, 655–658,
656, 830, 1046; 4:1776, 2022;
5:2314, 2395
Austen compared with, 1:130
Brontë sisters and, 1:300
Carlyle as influence on, 1:371
on city’s evils, 1:443, 455
on criminal gangs, 2:573, 575
Cruikshank and, 2:585, 587
Crystal Palace vilified by, 2:590
Doré illustrations for, 2:676
French Revolution novel of, 1:371;
2:657; 3:1586
Gaskell friendship with, 2:934
legacy of, 2:657
Morant Bay uprising and, 1:371
on New Poor Law, 4:1820, 1848
Norton divorce trial and, 3:1646
nurse portrayal by, 3:1649
opium use by, 2:686
on placard-carriers, 4:1845
popularity of, 3:1407; 4:1823,
1825
spiritualism and, 4:2237
utilitarian education lampooon of,
3:1511
on Venice, 5:2403
Dickson, William, 3:1396, 1398
Dictionary of National Biography,
4:2253, 2254
Dictionnaire Annamite-Français,
3:1142
Dictionnaire des idées reçues (Flaubert),
1:3
Dictionnaire des sciences médicales,
4:1791
Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture
française du XIe au XVIe siècle
(Viollet-le-Duc), 5:2422
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier
français de l’époque carlovingienne
à la Rénaissance (Viollet-le-Duc),
5:2422
Diderot, Denis, 1:93, 498; 4:1833,
1843, 2026, 2047
Dien Bien Phu, fall of (1954), 3:1145
Dieppe, 4:2124, 2125
Diesel, Rudolf, 3:1161
diesel engine, 3:1161
diet and nutrition, 2:658–660
coffee, tea, chocolate and,
1:495–496; 2:658
demographic effects of in, 2:667
food adulteration and, 2:658, 659
food cooperatives and, 2:555
food preservation and, 2:659;
3:1164; 4:1743
food prices and, 4:1989
food riots and, 4:1754–1755, 1990;
5:2488
Irish potato dependency and, 3:1178
markets and, 3:1447, 1448, 1449
peasants and, 4:1751, 1752,
1754–1755
population growth and, 2:615;
3:1425, 1426–1427; 4:1828
restaurants and, 4:1964–1967
scarcity and, 2:658
trade and, 5:2340–2342
wine and, 5:2475–2478
working-class consumers and, 2:549,
550
See also bread; famine; Irish Potato
Famine
Diet of Speyer (1529), 4:1890
Dieu (Hugo), 2:1095
Diez, Carl Immanuel, 2:1051
Difesa delle lavoratrici, La (socialist
newspaper), 3:1277
Different from the Others (film), 2:1071
differential equations, 4:1804
Digest of the Laws (Russia,
1832–1839), 4:2236
Dilettantism and Scholarship (Herzen),
2:1064
Dilettantism in Science (Herzen),
2:1064
Dillmann, Alfred, 4:2023–2024
Dillon, John, 4:1741
Dilthey, Wilhelm, 1:9; 2:660–661
Dimitrijević-Apı́s, Dragutin,
1:242–243
Dinard, 4:2125
Dinshaway incident (1906), 2:734
diode valve, 3:1444
Diorama, 2:605, 606, 607
INDEX
diphtheria, 2:667
diplomacy, 2:661–664
arbitration and, 4:1697–1698
Bismarck and, 1:234–235, 239–240;
2:663, 705, 965; 3:1198
China and, 3:1579
Concert of Europe and, 2:525,
661–663, 1002; 3:1493
Congress of Berlin and, 2:530, 705
Czartoryski and, 2:603, 604
Delcassé and, 2:643
Disraeli and, 2:674
Haitian recognition and, 2:1037
imperialism as factor in, 1:1033;
3:1118, 1122
international law and, 3:1172–1173,
1174, 1175
Japan and, 3:1210, 1211–1212
Leopold I and, 3:1335
Metternich and, 2:861;
3:1492–1494
Napoleon I and, 3:197, 1584
Ottoman embassies and, 3:1683
papacy and, 4:1720, 1721, 1795
realpolitik and, 3:1198
as war prevention, 2:661–664, 1033
Diplomatic Revolution (1756), 3:1445
direct action syndicalism. See
anarchosyndicalism
direct current, 3:1116
Directory, 1:457; 2:664–666; 3:1388
Batavian Republic and, 4:2189
Bonald and, 1:268
coups against, 2:664, 665
embargoes of, 2:553
establishment of, 2:519, 844–845;
4:1701
Festival of Old Age and, 3:1663
Fouché and, 2:837
Italy and, 3:1254; 4:2001
Napoleon and, 3:1584, 1585
policy under, 2:666, 894–895;
3:1340
press and, 4:1869–1870
republicanism and, 4:1961
Saint-Simon and, 4:2080
secret societies and, 4:2129
Sieyès and, 4:2180, 2181
Talleyrand and, 5:2305
Venetian Republic and, 5:2402
Disasters of War, The (Goya), 2:998,
998
disability insurance, state-sponsored,
2:966; 3:1664; 4:1915
disarmament. See armaments; pacifism
Disaster at Sea (Turner), 5:2368
2613
INDEX
Discipline and Punishment (Foucalt),
1:211
discontinuous inheritance, 2:652–653
Disconto-Gesellschaft (Berlin), 1:175,
176
Discourse on Method (Descartes), 4:2026
Discourses on Architecture (Viollet-le-
Duc), 5:2422
Discourses on the Scope and Nature of
University Education (Newman),
3:1621
Disdéri, André-Adolphe-Eugène, 4:1772
disease, 666–671
Aboriginal Australians and, 1:134
African colonization and, 1:19, 44
alcoholism as, 1:37
Algeria and, 1:43, 44, 47
bacteriology and, 1:438
Barcelona and, 1:181, 182
Berlin and, 1:218, 219
body and, 1:251, 253
childhood mortality rate and, 4:1829
cholera, 4:2035, 2055, 2122;
5:2418, 2420
colonial expansion and, 1:356
death-rate decline and, 2:628
Dublin and, 2:690
epidemiological/sanitary transition
and, 2:628, 644
germ theory of, 3:1164, 1262–1264,
1358; 4:1744–1745, 2135
hospital care and, 3:1649
infant deaths from, 2:667
London and, 3:1372, 1378
Madrid and, 3:1412
old age and, 3:1665
peasant deaths from, 4:1751
Semmelweiss’s theory on,
4:2134–2135
social upheavals from, 2:267–268
stethoscope invention and, 3:1298
warfare and, 3:1307
water pollution and, 1:437, 438,
450; 2:658
See also medicine; public health;
vaccination; specific diseases by
name
Disraeli, Benjamin, 1:204; 2:672–675
Carlyle as influence on, 1:371
Congress of Berlin and, 2:530
conservatism and, 2:540–540, 559;
5:2332
on Franco-Prussian War, 2:957, 964
gerontocracy and, 3:1664
Gladstone rivalry with, 2:673, 977
on grain trade, 5:2342
2614
imperialism and, 2:673, 673, 674,
977; 3:1122
Jewish origins of, 1:75; 2:672, 674
jingoism and, 2:589, 1009; 3:1234
on Manchester, 1:454–455; 3:1430
myth about, 2:674
peerage of, 2:675, 1009
as prime minister, 2:673–674,
1008–1009
protectionism and, 2:1005
Reform Act (1867) and, 2:1008
on Sepoy Mutiny, 2:508, 673
Suez Canal and, 2:733; 4:2275
Victoria and, 5:2414
Zionism and, 5:2519
Disruption of 1843, 4:2118
Dissenters (Britain). See
Nonconformists
Dissertation or Discourse (Drǎsković),
2:925
distance races, 4:2240
distilled spirits. See alcohol and
temperance
Divine Comedy (Dante), 4:2008, 2095
divine-right monarchy, 2:566; 3:1387;
4:1968, 1970–1971
division of labor, 2:515, 712–713, 716
gender and, 3:1452, 1453, 1455, 1471
labor movements and, 3:1286
Division of Labor, The (Durkheim),
2:698
divorce
Brougham and, 1:302, 303
French rights and, 2:812, 843;
3:1595; 4:1962, 1998
French women’s rights and, 2:649,
650, 897
George IV suit for, 1:302, 489, 490;
2:585–586, 954; 4:1834
Italian legislatiion and, 2:971
Mill (Harriet Taylor) on, 3:1509
Napoleonic Code and, 2:897
no-fault, 4:1962
Norton and, 3:1646
Parnell scandal and, 2:978, 1011;
4:1742
women’s status and, 1:66, 287;
2:649, 650, 801, 804, 897, 946;
3:1645, 1646
Divorce, Le (Richer), 4:1998
Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act of
1857 (Britain), 3:1646
Djilas, Milovan, 3:1172
Djurdjura region (Algeria), 1:44
Dmowski, Roman, 2:752, 753;
4:1811–1812
E U R O P E
Dnieper River, 1:243; 2:562
Dniester River, 1:243
Dobelbower, Nicolas, 2:683
Doberan, 4:2124
Dobrolyubov, Nikolai, 3:1170
Dobrovsky, Josef, 4:1716
Dobruja, 2:530; 4:2017, 2069, 2085
Dock Strike of 1889 (Britain), 1:59
dock workers, 5:2485–2486
Doctor Faustus (Mann), 3:1436–1437
doctors. See medicine; surgery
Doctrinaires, 4:1971–1972, 1973
Doctrine of Lapse, 4:2138
Doctrine of Saint-Simon, The (Saint-
Simonian manifesto), 4:2202
Dodd, Frank, 3:1669
Doellinger, Ignaz von. See Döllinger,
Johann Josef Ignaz von
Dogali massacre (1887), 2:582
Dohm, Ernst, 2:675
Dohm, Hedwig, 2:675–676; 4:2280
Dohna, Friedrich Ferdinand
Alexander, 2:1042
Dokuchayev, Vasily, 2:775
Dolbadern Castle (Turner), 5:2367
Dolgorukova, Catherine, 1:39
Döllinger, Johann Josef Ignaz von,
1:6, 385; 4:1719, 1722, 1723
Doll’s House, A (Ibsen), 2:942;
3:1108, 1473
Dolmabahçe, 3:1190
Dombey and Son (Dickens), 2:656
Domènech i Montaner, Lluis, 1:112,
183
domesticity. See marriage and family
domestic novels, 3:1453
domestic servants, 1:473, 474
bourgeois domesticity and, 3:1453
clothing of, 1:484
London and, 3:1374
Paris and, 1727
women’s predominance as, 2:943;
3:1472
Dominican Republic, 1:363; 2:1035
Dom Sébastien (Donizetti), 3:1672
Donatello, 4:2008
Don Carlos. See Charles III, king of
Spain
Don Carlos (Verdi), 3:1678; 5:2406
Doncieux, Camille-Léonie, 3:1535
Donders, F. C., 4:1909
Dongen, Kees van, 1:153; 2:796
Donizetti, Gaetano, 3:1572,
1670–1671, 1672; 4:2038
as Glinka influence, 2:979; 3:1673
Verdi compared with, 3:1673
Don Juan (Byron), 1:333; 3:1426
Don Juan in Hell (Shaw), 4:2166
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Don Juan Tenorio (Zorrilla), 2:951
Donna, La (feminist journal), 3:1556
Donna delinquente, la prostituta e la
donna normale (Lombroso and
Ferrero), 3:1371
Donna del lago, La (Rossini), 3:1670,
1671; 4:2038
Donna ei suoi rapporti sociali, La
(Mozzoni), 3:1555
Donne, John, 5:2310
Donner, Wendy, 3:1514
Donoso Cortés, Juan Francisco Marı́a
de la, 4:1969, 2208
Don Pacifico affair, 4:1713
Don Pasquale (Donizetti), 3:1670,
1672
don Quichotte, Le (French journal),
1:352
Don Quichotte à Dulcinée (Ravel),
4:1945
Don Quixote (Cervantes), 2:621
Doré illustrations, 2:676
Don River, 1:243; 2:562, 579
Don Valley, 2:792
‘‘Door in the Wall, The’’ (Wells),
5:2458
Doppler, Christian, 3:1485
‘‘Dora’’ case (Freud), 2:907; 4:1905
Doré, Gustave, 2:586, 676–678, 677,
687; 3:1376; 4:1815, 1850, 2008;
5:2455
Doré Bible, The, 2:676
Doré Vase, The, 2:677
Dos I and II (Matisse), 3:1474
Dos Passos, John, 1:299
Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 1:208; 2:535,
536, 654, 678–679, 830; 4:2217
on Crystal Palace, 2:590
Nechayev’s trial and, 3:1614
nihilist portrayal by, 3:1641
as Sand admirer, 4:2084
Slavophiles and, 4:2048, 2196
Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307
Dostoyevsky, Mikhail, 2:678
Dot (Matisse), 3:1474
Double, The (Dostoyevsky), 2:678
double standard, 1:469; 2:947;
3:1471
feminist campaign against, 2:797,
798, 804
Doucet, Jacques, 1:483
Douglas, Alexander (Lord Hamilton),
2:625
Douglas, Alfred Bruce, 5:2465, 2466
Douglas, John Sholto (marquess of
Queensberry), 5:2465, 2466
Douglass, Frederick, 2:657
Doukhobors, 1:346
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Doumer, Paul, 3:1142
Dovbush, Oleksa, 4:1821
‘‘Dover Beach’’ (Arnold), 1:102
Dowie, Ménie Muriel, 4:2235
Downie, George, 5:2440
dowries, 1:472; 3:1453, 1454, 1582
divorce and, 3:1595
Doyle, Arthur Conan, 2:679–680;
4:1823
D’Oyly Carte, Richard. See Carte,
Richard D’Oyly
Dracula (Stoker), 4:1822, 2255
draft. See conscription
Drageoir à épices, Le (Huysmans),
2:1103–1104
Dragomirov, Mikhail I., 4:2068
dragonfly woman corsage ornament
(Lalique), 1:111, 111
Dragonne, La (Jarry), 3:1214
Drahomanov, Mykhailo, 5:2373
drama. See theater
Drǎsković, Janko, 2:925
Dr. Baker and Factory Girls
(engraving), 1:475
Dreadnought, HMS (battleship),
2:681–683, 682, 968; 3:1610,
1611
dream analysis, 2:905–906; 3:1239;
4:1905
Dream of Pilate’s Wife, The (Doré),
2:677
Dreamplay, A (Strindberg), 4:2269
‘‘Dreary Story, A’’ (Chekhov), 1:423
‘‘Drei Klavierstücke’’ (Schubert), 4:2107
Dresden, 1:154
Dresden, Battle of (1813), 3:1320
Dresden Convention (1838), 1:171;
3:1538
Dresdner Bank, 1:175, 176
dress. See clothing, dress, and fashion
dressmakers, 1:481, 484; 2:792
Dreyfus, Alfred, 1:97; 4:1929, 1964,
2137; 5:2523
case against, 2:683–684, 858, 1068
case details, 3:1216
French government formal apology
to, 2:685
intellectuals’ defense of, 3:1168–1169
pardon of, 2:685
Dreyfus, Lucie, 2:684
Dreyfus affair, 1:338; 2:683–686,
696, 858, 1074; 4:1964; 5:2502
Action Française and, 1:4; 3:1476
anticlericalism and, 1:69; 2:858
anti-Semitism and, 1:4, 75–76, 77,
185, 383; 2:683, 684, 689, 816;
3:1233
church-state separation and, 4:2137
INDEX
Clemenceau and, 1:480
conservatism and, 1:284; 2:542, 683,
857
Degas and, 2:634
French Radicals and, 4:1929
Herzl and, 2:685, 1068
intellectuals and, 3:1168–1169
Jaurès and, 3:1216
LeBon and, 3:1316
Maurras and, 2:684; 3:1476
Mélière film on, 3:1483
Michel’s view of, 3:1497
military culture and, 1:94; 2:684
Péguy and, 4:1760, 1761
Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432
Zola and, 1:480; 2:684, 685, 685,
858; 3:1168, 1216; 5:2523–2524
drinking establishments, 1:34, 35
drinking water, 1:450; 2:628, 658;
3:1164
Paris and, 2:1049; 4:1731
‘‘drink question.’’ See alcohol and
temperance
Drinkwater, Peter, 3:1692
Driscoll, Jim, 5:2435
drive theory (Freud), 2:908; 4:1904
Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (Stevenson).
See Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and
Mr Hyde
Dr. Koch’s Treatment for Consumption
at the Royal Hospital, Berlin
(engraving), 5:2360
Droit des Femmes (Auclert), 1:127
Droit des femmes (French feminist
journal), 2:649; 4:1998
Droit des femmes (Paris), 1:127
Droit des gens, Le (Vattel), 3:1173
Droynik (Dostoyevsky), 2:678
Droysen, Johann Gustav, 1:316, 318
drugs, 2:686–688; 5:2477
See also opium; tobacco
‘‘Drummer Hodge’’ (Hardy), 2:1045
Drummond-Hay, John, 3:1548
Drumont, Édouard, 2:540, 542,
688–690
Drunkard’s Children, The
(Cruikshank), 2:586–587
drunk boxing, 4:2240
Drury Lane theatre (London), 3:1377
Drzymala, Michal, 4:1755
Dual Alliance (1879), 1:48, 50, 96,
239; 2:864, 965
Dual Monarchy. See Austria-Hungary
Dublin, 2:690–694, 692, 1000; 4:1964
architecture in, 2:590
Easter insurrection of 1916 and,
3:1185
2615
INDEX
insurrection of 1803 and, 3:1177
international exhibitions and, 2:693;
5:2495, 2497
population of, 1:446; 2:690
Protestant population of, 2:691
United Irishmen in, 3:1176
world’s fair (1907) and, 5:2504
Dublin Corporation, 2:691–693
Dubliners (Joyce), 2:694
Dublin Industrial Exhibition (1853),
2:693
Dublin University, 2:693
Du Bois, W. E. B., 5:2503
Du Camp, Maxime, 4:1772
Duc giornate, Le (Mayr), 3:1670
Duchamp, Marcel, 1:156; 4:1784
cubism and, 2:590, 593
Jarry and, 3:1214
Duchamp-Villon, Raymond, 1:156;
2:590
Duchy of Warsaw. See Grand Duchy
of Warsaw
Ducommun, Elie, 4:1697
Ducos, Jean-François, 2:973
Ducpétiaux, Édouard, 4:1851
Du Cubisme (Gleizes and Metzinger),
2:593
Dudevant, Amandine (Aurore).
See Sand, George
dueling, 2:689, 694–696;
3:1471–1472
Dufau, Pierre-Armand, 1:297
Dufaure, Armand, 2:856
Dufaure Law of 1872 (France), 2:825
Dufayel (Paris department store),
2:550; 4:2160
Dufy, Raoul, 1:153; 2:796
Dugdale, William, 4:1834
Du Haschisch et de l’Aliénation
Mentale (Moreau de Tours),
2:687
Dühring, Eugen, 5:2395
Duino Elegies (Rilke), 1:65
Duke of Bridgewater’s canal, 3:1428
Duma (Russia), 1:42, 265–266, 290
abolition of, 3:1660
creation of, 3:1328, 1627
Finland and the Baltic provinces and,
2:823
Kadets’ seats in, 3:1241–1242, 1518,
1519
liberals and, 3:1349
Mensheviks and, 3:1488
Moscow programs, 3:1555
Nicholas II and, 3:1627, 1628
Octobrist party in, 3:1658–1660
Dumas, Alexandre, 1:229; 3:1577
2616
Doré illustrations for, 2:676
Doré monument to, 2:677
as Eiffel Tower opponent, 2:738
hashish and, 2:687
on peasant as proletarian, 4:1757
translation of Garibaldi’s Memoirs
by, 2:930
DuMaurier (illustrator), 4:1965
dumdums (expanding bullets), 2:1034
Du Mesnil, Octave, 2:1091
Dumouriez, Charles-François du Perier,
2:974; 3:1339, 1388, 1443
Dunant, Jean-Henri, 2:867, 952;
3:1650; 4:1948–1950
Duncan, Isadora, 1:154; 2:1031
Dundee, 4:2117, 2119
Dunedin, 3:1624
Dunlop, John, 2:601
Dunrobin Castle (Scotland), 1:186
Duo for Piano and Cello (Ravel), 4:1945
Dupanloup, Félix, 4:1722
Du Pape (Maistre), 3:1422
Dupleix, François, 2:706
Dupont de l’Étang, Pierre-Antoine,
4:1757, 2227
Dupont de l’Eure, Jacques-Charles,
1:337
Dupotet, Charles, 3:491
Düppel, assault on (1864), 2:607, 608
Dupré, Jules, 1:178; 5:2400
Dupuy, Charles, 3:1215–1216
Durand, Marguerite, 2:696–697
Durand-Fardel, Maxime, 3:1665
Durand-Ruel, Paul, 2:634, 940;
3:1535; 4:1708, 1793, 1794
Duration and Simultaneity (Bergson),
1:213
durée (Bergson concept), 1:214
Dürer, Albrecht, 3:1213
Durham, 1:485
Durkheim, Émile, 1:106, 214;
2:697–700; 4:1844, 1875
Saint-Simon and, 4:2081
secularization viewed by, 4:2133
sociology and, 4:2213, 2214, 2215
statistics and, 4:2248
Stephen and, 4:2254
Durnovo, Peter, 4:2059
Duruy, Victor, 2:853, 1073; 5:2386
Duse, Eleonore, 2:609
Dussap, Srpouhi, 1:90
Düsseldorf School of landscape
painting, 2:912
Du système industriel (Saint-Simon),
4:2081
Du système penitentiaire aux États-
Unis (Tocqueville and
Bonninière), 5:2316
E U R O P E
Dutch East India Company, 1:17
Dutch East Indies. See Indonesia
Dutch language, 1:200, 202, 204, 307
Dutch Reformed Church, 3:1618,
1619; 4:1890
duties. See protectionism
Duties of Man, The (Mazzini), 3:1481
Dutrieux, Hélène, 1:31
Duval, Paul (Jean Lorraine), 2:633
Dvořák, Antonin, 2:700–701;
3:1565, 1571; 4:2102
Dvořák, František, 2:700, 701
dyestuff, 3:1159
Dying Swan, The (ballet), 4:1750
dynamite, 3:1160
dynamo, 1:485; 2:741
dynamo-electric principle, 4:2179
dysentery, 4:1751
n
E
Eagleton, Terry, 1:302
earth, age of, 2:615; 3:1250, 1402
Earthly Paradise, The (Morris),
3:1550–1551
East Africa, 1:16–17, 240; 2:582
exploration of, 2:784
Germany and, 2:967
Portuguese colonies in, 2:509
See also Sudan
East Cowes Castle, 3:1602
Easter (Strindberg), 4:2286
East End (London), 3:1373, 1375,
1377
East End Gallery (London), 3:1376
East End Opium Den (Doré), 2:687
‘‘Easter 1916’’ (Yeats), 5:2510
Eastern Armenians. See Russian
Armenians
Eastern churches. See Orthodox
Church
Eastern Crisis (1875–1878), 2:674,
703; 3:1687–1690; 4:2017
Eastern Europe
ethnoliguistic homogeneity attempts
in, 3:1605
intelligentsia in, 3:1172
Jewish population of, 3:1227,
1232–1233
Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716–1717
Soviet post–World War II occupation
of, 2:522
Eastern Life: Present and Past
(Martineau), 3:1459
Eastern Orthodox Church. See
Orthodox Church
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Eastern Question, 2:703–705
Abdul-Hamid II and, 1:2
Albania and, 1:32–34
Bismarck and, 2:526
Black Sea and, 1:243–244
Bosphorus control as root of, 1:278
Concert of Europe and, 2:525, 526,
527, 662
Disraeli and, 2:674, 1009; 3:1234
international conferences on, 3:1173
jingoism and, 3:1234
Münchengrätz treaty and,
3:1560–1561
Ottoman Empire and, 3:1681,
1682–1692
revival of, 2:663, 704–705;
3:1687–1688
Russo-Turkish War and, 4:2067
Serbia and, 1:206
Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and,
5:2391–2392
See also Congress of Berlin
Eastern Rumelia, 2:530, 705; 3:1689
Eastern Thrace, 3:1691
Easter Rising of 1916 (Ireland), 2:693;
3:1185; 5:2510
East India College (Haileybury),
3:1426
East India Company, 1:327, 495, 498;
2:705–707; 3:1133, 1134
Africa and, 1:17, 17
Chinese trade monopoly of, 2:705;
3:1678, 1679
elimination of, 1:499
Great Exhibition of 1851 and,
5:2495
London and, 3:1374
loss of Indian rule by, 3:706, 1135
Mill (James) and, 3:1510, 1511,
1512
Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1512–1513
opium smuggling and, 2:687;
3:1678
Sepoy Mutiny and, 2:706, 1008;
3:1135; 4:2137–2140
Whigs and, 5:2461
East Indies. See Dutch East Indies
East London Federation of the
Suffragettes, 4:1714
East London Waterworks Company,
1:437
Eastman, George, 3:1396
East Prussia, 4:1900
Ebbinghaus, Hermann, 5:2508
Ebb Tide, The (Stevenson), 4:2256
Eberhardt, Isabelle, 2:784
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Ebert, Friedrich, 3:1356
Ebro River, 4:1764
Eça de Queirós, José Marı́a, 1:70;
4:1840
Ecce Homo (Nietzsche), 3:1631
Eckermann, Johann Peter, 2:987
Eckhart, Meister Johannes, 3:1238
Eckmann, Otto, 1:112
École Centrale (Paris), 2:759
École de Médecine (Paris), 4:2080
École de Nancy, 1:111
École des Beaux-Arts (Paris), 1:177,
397; 2:634; 4:1954, 2043;
5:2502, 2522
fauves and, 2:795–796
Guimard and, 1:177
Matisse and, 3:1473
Millet and, 3:1515, 1516
École Militaire (Paris), 4:1727
École Normale Supérieure (Paris),
2:666
Jaurès and, 3:1215
Laplacian physics and, 4:1780
Michelet and, 3:1499
Pasteur and, 4:1743
École Polytechnique (Paris), 1:96;
2:522, 523, 666, 728; 4:1969,
2080; 5:2396
engineer graduates of, 2:757, 759
founding of, 2:738
École Pratique des Haute Etudes
(Paris), 2:1073; 5:2386
ecology, 3:1426
Economic Doctrines of Karl Marx, The
(Kautsky), 3:1248
Economic Ethics of the World Religions,
The (Weber), 5:2446, 2447
economic growth and industrialization,
2:707–712
Amsterdam and, 1:53
aristocracy and, 1:83, 84, 85
armies and, 1:101
Athens and, 1:125
Austria-Hungary and, 1:137, 142,
143, 144
banking and, 1:170–176
Barcelona and, 1:182, 183
Belgium and, 1:199, 201–202, 203,
351
Belgrade and, 1:206, 207
Berlin and, 1:216–219
Bohemian Lands and, 1:259–261,
351
bourgeoisie and, 1:284, 287, 470,
471
Britain and, 1:329, 330, 350;
2:708–709, 710, 1003–1004
INDEX
Brussels and, 1:305
Budapest and, 1:310
business firms and, 1:328–331
capitalism and, 1:350–357
cholera pandemics and, 2:668, 716
cities and, 1:445, 449, 454–455
coal’s importance to, 1:485–486
Communist Manifesto on,
3:1465–1466
conservativism and, 2:540
consumerism and, 2:549–550,
551–552
crime and, 2:571
dietary effects of, 2:658–669
Dublin and, 2:691
economic thought on, 2:707–709
education and, 2:721
electricity and, 2:741–742
environment and, 2:761–766, 765
epidemiology and, 2:667–668
factories and, 2:788–793
France and, 1:329, 330, 351; 3:1149
free trade advocacy and, 2:1005
gender and, 2:944–995
Germany and, 1:40–41, 47–48, 331,
351; 2:960, 967, 969; 5:2524,
2525–2526
global divergence and, 3:1150–1151
globalization and, 3:1151–1152
Great Exhibtion of 1851 and,
2:587–588, 589
Hamburg and, 2:1040–1041
Hobson’s economic theory on,
2:1075–1076
housing and, 2:1087
imperialism and, 3:1115, 1124
India and, 3:1135
Krupp and, 3:1273–1276
labor movements and, 3:1288,
1290–1291
leisure activities and, 3:1323–1324
literacy and, 2:720
Lyon and, 3:1404
machinery and, 3:1410
Manchester and, 3:1427–1431
mass production and, 3:1162
Milan and, 3:1501, 1502, 1504
Poland and, 4:1811
protectionism and, 1:355
protoindustrialization and,
3:147–149, 1152
railroads and, 4:1935–1936
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1988
Romania and, 4:2018
Russia and, 1:40–41; 3:1627
2617
INDEX
Saint-Simon’s concept of, 4:2081,
2202
science and technology and,
4:2115–2116
Scotland and, 4:2117, 2122
Serbia and, 4:2147
Siberia and, 4:2173
South Africa and, 4:2222–2223
utopian socialist view of, 5:2395
Wales and, 5:2433, 2436
welfare state and, 1:356
working class and, 1:473–474
See also Industrial Revolution, First;
Industrial Revolution, Second;
trade and economic growth
Economic Interpretation of Investment,
The (Hobson), 2:1076
economics
Bagehot studies in, 1:161
consumerism and, 2:551–552
crime incidence and, 2:571
Hobson and, 2:1075–1076
land enclosures and, 1:26–27
List and, 3:1356–1357
major schools of, 2:707–710
Marx and, 3:1466–1468
railroads and, 4:1930–1931
republicanism and, 4:1961
Sismondi and, 4:2185–2186
Struve and, 4:2270–2271
Weber and, 5:2446
See also economists, classical; laissez-
faire; market, the
Economic Studies (Bagehot), 1:161
economies of scale, 1:27, 329, 351,
354; 3:1157
Economist, The (British periodical),
1:160; 2:558, 716; 4:2201, 2233
economists, classical, 2:712–719
on consumerism, 2:551
free trade and, 2:515, 707, 708, 709;
3:1348; 4:1887; 5:2333–2334,
2338, 2339, 2340
liberalism and, 3:1341, 1342,
1348–1349
Malthus as, 3:1426
Martineau as, 3:1459
as Marx’s targets, 3:1466
Mill (James) as, 3:1510
Mill (John Stuart) as, 3:1513, 1514
neoclassical economists and, 2:707,
709
from Scotland, 4:2120
See also Ricardo, David; Smith, Adam
Economy and Society (Weber), 5:2446,
2447–2448
2618
écriture aftiste (literary style), 2:991
Ecuador, 2:687
Ecumenical Patriarchate of
Constantinople, 3:1687
Edelfelt, Albert, 4:1948
Edgar (Puccini), 4:1916
Edgeworth, Francis Ysidro, 4:2248,
2249
Edicts of Toleration of 1781 (Joseph
II), 1:138, 259; 3:1225,
1225–1226, 1229; 4:1856
Edinburgh, 4:2117, 2118, 2123
Old Town conditions in, 1:453
school for poor children, 2:722
Edinburgh Academy, 3:1477
Edinburgh Phrenological Society,
4:1775
Edinburgh Review (periodical), 1:102,
332; 3:1513
Brougham and, 1:302–303
Macaulay essays in, 3:1407, 1408
Edinburgh University. See University
of Edinburgh
Edirne. See Adrianapole
Edison, Thomas Alva, 3:1398; 4:2112,
2113; 5:2499, 2500, 2505
cinema and, 1:441; 3:1396
electricity and, 2:741, 742; 3:1162
Editorial Montaner i Simon
(Barcelona), 1:183
Edo. See Tokyo
education, 2:719–729
Adler (Alfred) reforms and, 1:9–10
Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:52
Armenians and, 1:89
of army officers, 1:96
Arnold and, 1:103
Baltic provinces, 2:821
Belgium and, 1:202
Bohemian Lands and, 1:261, 262;
2:723
Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:276
bourgeoisie and, 1:286–287, 472
Britain and, 1:32, 211, 303, 321, 325,
431; 2:720–721, 722, 724, 728,
1008, 1009, 1010, 1103; 4:1868
British secularization of, 4:1896
Bulgaria and, 1:313; 3:1687
bureaucracy and, 1:320, 322
Central Asia and, 1:396
of children, 1:427–431, 472;
2:719–728
civil society and, 1:468
classical learning and, 1:286;
2:726–727
class restraints and, 1:431;
2:720–728
E U R O P E
compulsory, 1:429, 430–431; 2:648,
719, 721, 723, 723–724, 856,
947; 4:1830, 1868, 1891
Denmark and, 2:648
Egypt and, 2:731
of engineers, 1:355; 2:759–760;
4:2112
French July Monarchy reforms,
2:1029; 3:1388
French national identity and, 3:1522
French Revolution reforms, 1:286;
2:666, 846; 3:1361
French secularization of, 2:721, 723,
810, 811, 856, 858, 929; 4:1868,
1891
Germany and, 1:286; 2:723–724
Habsburg reforms and, 1:138; 2:723
hierarchical structure of, 1:291
Huxley reforms and, 2:1101,
1102–1103
jadidism and, 3:1207
Jews and, 3:1229, 1230, 1232
libraries and, 3:1352
in medicine, 1:410
Mill (James) theory of, 3:1511–1512
monitorialism and, 2:720
Montessori method of, 3:1542–1543
municipal government and, 1:450
in national language, 2:719,
724–725
Netherlands and, 3:1618, 1619
in nursing, 3:1649, 1650
Owen theory of, 3:1692
Poland and, 2:603; 4:180, 18117
professional, 2:726–727;
4:1876–1877
professional certification and, 1:285
Prussia and, 1:431; 2:723–724, 728;
3:1277; 4:1972
Prussian secularization of, 2:966;
3:1278; 4:1900
racism spread by, 4:1927
republicanism and, 4:1961, 1964
Russia and, 1:39, 376; 2:720, 723,
727, 1016, 1017; 4:2051–2052
in science, 2:1103; 4:2112
Serbia and, 4:2148
Sweden and, 4:2285
women and, 1:286–287; 2:625, 626,
721, 723, 724, 725, 726, 727,
728, 801, 929; 4:1891
See also literacy; universities
‘‘Education’’ (Mill), 5:2394
Education Act of 1870 (Britain),
2:722, 1008; 4:1868
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Education Act of 1872 (Scotland),
4:2120
Education and Employment of Women,
The (Butler), 1:332
Éducation féministe des filles, L’
(Pelletier), 4:1762
Edward Augustus, duke of Kent, 5:2411
Edward VII, king of Great Britain,
1:114–115; 2:729–731, 730;
3:1638
Asquith and, 1:114–115; 2:730–731
as auto enthusiast, 1:150
Coronation Dunbar and, 2:597
Edwardian Age and, 2:1011
as horse enthusiast, 2:730, 731
Indian coronation assembly for, 3:1135
lifestyle of, 2:729–731
mother Victoria and, 2:730; 5:2415,
2415
son George V and, 2:730, 1011
E = mc2 (Einstein theory), 2:740
Effendi, Reshid, 1:1
Effi Briest (Fontane), 2:828, 829
Eglinton, Lord, 1:72
Église Reformée, 4:1890
Église Taitbout (Paris), 4:2136
Egmont (Goethe), 2:983
Ego and the Id, The (Freud), 2:908
ego ideal, 2:908
egoism, 5:2394, 2396
Egypt, 2:731–734, 733
bankruptcy of, 2:733
British Museum collection from,
3:1596
British occupation of, 1:2, 18, 20,
221, 222; 2:731–734, 794–795;
3:1116, 1118, 1122, 1338, 1482,
1549, 1585, 1668, 1686; 4:2274,
2275–2276
British slave trade prohibition for,
1:308
British withdrawal from, 2:598
European interests in, 1:18–19, 20,
49; 2:731–734
Fashoda Affair and, 2:643, 663,
794–795; 3:1668
Greek War of Independence and,
2:1020; 3:1612–1613
Kitchener and, 3:1668
Mediterranean and, 3:1482
Münchengrätz Treaty and,
3:1560–1561
Napoleon’s invasion of, 1:18–19, 43,
44, 278, 406; 2:731, 895, 900;
3:1134, 1337, 1585
Ottoman decline in, 1:2, 278;
3:1420; 5:2361
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
photographs of, 4:1772
revolt against Ottomans by, 2:525;
3:1686
Rothschilds and, 4:2040
Suez War and, 4:2276
Sydenham Crystal Palace exhibit and,
2:588
Syrian occupation by, 2:732;
3:1420–1421; 5:2391, 2392
tobacco and, 5:2313
tourism in, 5:2330, 2330
woman with water vessel, 2:732
Young Turks and, 5:2515
See also Suez Canal
Égypte sous les Pharaons (Champollion),
1:406
Egyptology, 1:406–407; 2:731;
3:1585
Ehrenfels, Christian von, 1:298
Ehrlich, Eugen, 3:1315
Ehrlich, Paul, 2:734–736
Eichtal, Gustave d’, 4:2202
Eiffel, Gustave, 1:351; 2:736, 738,
759, 760; 5:2500
commemorative franc note for,
3:1398
Panama Canal investment and,
3:1338
Eiffel Tower, 1:351; 2:736–738, 737,
760; 4:1731; 5:2500, 2501,
2503, 2505
construction of, 2:760
Eiffel Towery (Delaunay), 2:590
Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis
Bonaparte, The (Marx), 3:1462,
1466, 1589–1590
Eighth Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419
Einstein, Albert, 1:215; 2:738–741,
739, 1063; 3:1435
Curie (Marie) tribute by, 2:596
Mach and, 2:739; 3:1409
Planck and, 4:1799
Poincaré (Henri) and, 4:1805
special relativity theory of,
2:739–740; 3:1409;
4:1780–1781, 1805
Einstein, Maja, 2:738, 740
Einstein, Margot, 2:740
Einzige und sein Eigentum, Der
(Stirner), 5:2513
Eisenach, Eldon J., 3:1514
Eisenstein, Sergei, 3:1482; 4:1976
Either/Or (Kierkegaard), 2:648;
3:1251, 1252
Eitingon, Max, 4:1905
Eixample (Barcelona section), 1:181,
182
INDEX
élan vital (Bergson concept), 1:214
Elba Island, 2:533, 846, 903, 958,
1098; 3:1387, 1588
Elberfeld system, 4:1850–1851
Elbe River, 1:148; 2:553, 1038;
3:1319, 1320
elderly people. See old age
Electeur, L (Ferry), 2:810
Electrical Engineering Society, 4:2179
electricity, 2:741–743; 4:2113
Belgrade and, 1:207
coal mining and, 1:487–488
dynamo and, 1:485
Eiffel Tower and, 2:737
German industry and, 2:967, 1041
Hertz waves and, 2:1058,
1062–1063; 4:1780
housing and, 2:1090
physics and, 4:1779, 1780
progress and, 2:815
Second Industrial Revolution and,
1:351; 2:709, 741–742; 3:1157,
1161–1162
street lighting and, 1:446; 2:741,
742; 3:1414
subways and, 4:2271–2272
telegraph and, 3:1161, 1477
world’s fairs and, 5:2499, 2500,
2501, 2503
See also electromagnetism
electric lifts, 4:2273
electrochemistry, 1:426; 4:2114
electrodynamics, 2:1058; 3:1162;
4:1804
electrolysis, 4:2114
electromagnetism, 2:649, 740, 741
Faraday theory of, 4:1780
Hertz waves and, 2:1058,
1062–1063; 3:1163
Marconi experiments with, 3:1444
Maxwell’s theory of, 3:1249, 1478;
4:1780, 2109, 2114
physics and, 4:1779, 1780
Poincaré (Henri) and, 4:1804–1805
electron, 4:1804
discovery of, 1:427
electrostatics, 3:1249
Elektra (R. Strauss), 3:1675–1676
elektrotechnik, 4:2179
Eléméns de perspective pratique à lusage
des artistes (Valenciennes), 2:561
Elementary Education Act of 1870
(Britain), 2:721
Elementary Forms of the Religious Life,
The (Durkheim), 2:699–700
elements, radioactive, 2:595
Elements of Geology (Lyell), 3:1402
2619
INDEX
Elements of Political Economy (J. Mill),
2:717; 3:1510
Elena Pavlovna, grand duchess of
Russia, 4:2154
Elettra (yacht), 3:1445
Elf Scharfrichter (Munich cabaret), 1:336
Elgar, Edward, 2:701
Elgin, Lord, 3:1376, 1562
Elias, Norbert, 1:461
Eliot, George, 2:743–745; 3:1408;
4:1756, 1844
as Sand admirer, 4:2084
Spencer and, 4:2235
Stephen and, 4:2254
Zionism as theme of, 5:2519
Eliot, T. S., 1:214; 2:657; 3:1256;
4:2182; 5:2310
Elisabetta regina d’Inghilterra
(Rossini), 4:2038
Elisir d’amore, L’ (Donizetti), 3:1670
elite culture. See popular and elite
culture
elites. See aristocracy; landed elites
Elizabeth, empress of Austria, 2:627,
863; 4:2044
assassination of, 2:865
Elizabeth, empress of Russia,
1:374–375; 2:603; 4:1747, 2076,
2077
Elizabeth and Essex (Strachey), 4:2259
Elizabethan Poor Laws. See Poor Law
Elizabethan style, 1:186
Elkan, Sophie, 4:2287
Elkin, Stanley, 4:2101
Elle et lui (Sand), 4:2084
Elliot, George, 3:1679
Elliotson, John, 3:1491; 4:1775
Ellis, Edith Lees, 2:745, 746
Ellis, Edwin John, 1:246
Ellis, Havelock, 1:372; 2:745–746,
906, 948, 1085; 4:1747, 2162
Symonds and, 4:2296
Ellis, Tom, 5:2435
Elsen, Albert E., 4:2011
Elssler, Fanny, 4:1750
Elster Bridge, 3:1322
Elster River, 3:1320, 1321
Elvira Studio (Munich), 1:112
Emancipated, The (Gissing), 2:975
emancipation. See antislavery
movement; Catholic
emancipation; Jewish
emancipation; serfs, emancipation
of
Emancipation Act of 1829 (Britain),
1:381
Emancipation Act of 1833 (Britain),
1:17
2620
Emancipation of Labor (Russian
group), 4:1801; 5:2518
Émancipation sexuelle de la femme, L’
(Pelletier), 4:1762
Embargo Act of 1807 (United States),
5:2439
embargoes. See Continental System
embroidery, 1:112; 4:2290
embryogeny, 4:1953
embryology, 2:1102
Embryons desséchés (Satie), 4:2087
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 3:1574;
4:2030
Emigrants, The (Walker engraving),
2:751
emigration, 2:746–752
from agricultural crises, 2:646, 658
from Alsace-Lorraine, 1:52
Balkan Wars and, 3:1691
of Bosnian Muslims, 1:276
from Britain, 1:343, 344, 346, 351;
2:505, 506
counterrevolutionaries and, 564;
2:566
from Denmark, 2:647
from Dublin, 2:690
from Europe, 1:353; 2:646
from Europe (1830– 1914), 2:747
of European laborers, 1:353
from European overseas
(1830–1914), 2:747
as export of labor, 3:1113
German decline in, 2:967
from Germany, 2:646, 960, 962
increased returns and, 2:749–750
from Ireland, 4:2118, 2121
from Irish Potato Famine, 2:646,
748, 1005
from Italy, 2:506, 747, 747, 748,
748; 3:1195, 1199, 1255
key peak years in, 2:748
from Lithuania, 3:1367–1368
of peasants, 4:1756
of Poles from Russia, 4:1808, 1818
as population control, 2:646
rates per year per thousand
population, 2:748
reasons for, 2:747–748
from rural to urban areas, 4:1753
of Russian Jews, 1:40; 3:1113; 4:1804
to settlement colonies, 2:503–505
from Sicily, 4:2175, 2178
from Spain, 5:2337
from Sweden, 4:2285, 2287
from Venice, 5:2405
voluntary associations and, 1:119
E U R O P E
See also immigration and internal
migration
Émigrés Army of the Princes (France),
1:420
Émile (Rousseau), 2:942
Eminent Victorians (Strachey), 4:2259
Emin Pasha (Eduard Schnitzer), 2:783
Emma (Austen), 1:130, 131
Emmerich, Anna Katharina, 1:385
Emmet, Robert, 3:1177, 1604
emotion, Romanticism and,
4:2027–2029
Empecinado, El, 4:2229
‘‘Empedocles on Etna’’ (Arnold),
1:102
Empedocles on Etna and Other Poems
(Arnold), 1:102
‘‘Emperor’’ (Fifth) Piano Concerto
(Beethoven), 1:196
‘‘Emperor’s New Clothes, The’’
(Andersen), 2:648
Emperor Waltz (Strauss), 4:2260
‘‘Empfindungen vor Friedrichs
Seelandschaft’’ (Kleist), 2:911
empire. See imperialism; specific empires
by name
Empire Day, 2:505
Empirical Psychology (Wolff), 4:1907
Employés, Les (Balzac), 1:168
Ems telegram, 2:853
Enabling Act of 1933 (Germany),
2:966
enclosure acts (Britain), 1:26–27, 28,
358; 2:762; 4:1754
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 3:1272,
1408; 5:2394
Maxwell as physics editor of, 3:1478
Mill (James) as contributor to,
3:1510
Encyclopédie nouvelle, 4:2013
Endecja, 2:752–754; 4:1811–1812,
1818
Endell, August, 1:112
‘‘Enemy from the East, The’’
(Soloviev), 4:2217
Enemy of the People, An (Ibsen),
3:1108
energy conservation, principle of,
2:1057, 1058; 3:1250
energy systems, 2:764; 3:1153,
1160–1162; 4:1781
Maxwell and, 3:1478
thermodynamics and, 3:1249–1250
Enfance du Christ, L’ (Berlioz), 1:225
Enfant et les sortilèges, L’ (Ravel),
4:1945
Enfantin, Barthélemy-Prosper, 2:803;
4:2081, 2202; 5:2396
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Enfant prodigue, L’ (Debussy), 2:630
‘‘Enfranchisement of Women, The’’
(H. T. Mill), 3:1509
Engel, Ernst, 2:552
Engels, Friedrich, 2:754–756, 755,
1006; 4:2205
on artisans, 1:104
Bernstein friendship with, 1:230–231
on class, 1:474, 475
communism and, 2:520, 521, 522,
754; 3:1465–1466
Communist Manifesto and, 4:1946,
2081
on family life, 3:1450
Fourierism and, 2:838
Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:871
Guesde and, 2:1025
Kautsky and, 3:1248
Lassalle and, 3:1311
Manchester and, 1:455; 2:754, 756;
3:1430, 1466
Marx collaboration with, 3:1461,
1462, 1465, 1466; 4:2203, 2204
on peasants’ situation, 4:1756
Saint-Simon and, 4:2081
Schelling and, 4:2088
Second International and, 4:2127
as secret society critic, 4:2131
Social Democratic Party and, 3:1399
on Ulrichs’s writing, 5:2376
utopian socialism and, 5:2395
on Wales, 5:2433
on women’s rights, 2:805, 946
on women workers, 5:2487
as Young Hegelian, 5:2512
Engels, Robert, 3:1159, 1275
Enghien, duc de (Louis-Antoine-Henri
Bourbon-Condé), 1:420; 5:2306
Engineering Employers Federation
(Britain), 3:1291
engineers, 2:757–761; 3:1149
Brunel as, 1:303–305
Cockerill family as, 1:492–493
Eiffel Tower and, 2:736, 738, 760
French vs.German training of, 1:355
Industrial Revolution and, 3:1430
Panama Canal and, 4:2080
St. Petersburg development and,
4:2076
Siemens as, 4:2178–2180
Suez Canal and, 4:2274–2276
technology and, 4:2111–2112
engines. See internal combustion
engine; steam engine
England. See Great Britain
England Cup Tournament, 4:2241
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
English and Scottish Cooperative
Wholesale Societies, 2:555
English Bards and Scotch Reviewers
(Byron), 1:332
English Constitution, The (Bagehot),
1:160–161
English Football Association,
4:2242
‘‘English Idylls’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309
English language
Canada and, 1:343, 346
Grimms Law and, 2:1024
India and, 3:1134, 1407
English Laws for Women in the
Nineteenth Century (Norton),
3:1645
English Literature and Society in the
Eighteenth Century (Stephen),
4:2254
English Local Government (Webb and
Webb), 5:2445
English Republic, The (journal), 4:1964
English Schools Football Association,
2:833
English Utilitarians, The (Stephen),
4:2254
English Woman’s Journal, 2:625
engraving, 1:244
Doré and, 2:676–678, 677
Matisse and, 3:1475
Enlightenment, 1:28, 67, 254; 4:1756
agricultural reform and, 2:28, 762
anticlericalism and, 1:67
aristocracy and, 1:80
associations and, 1:116, 121
Balkans and, 3:1684–1685
Berlin and, 1:215
Burke’s critique of, 1:327–328;
2:566
Carlist opposition to, 1:83
Catherine II and, 1:377
Chaadayev’s critique of, 1:400
civilization concept and, 1:461
civil society and, 1:465
conservative response to, 1:326,
327–328; 2:537, 538, 539, 566;
3:1425; 4:1968
counterrevolutionaries vs., 1:268,
269; 2:566
as Czartoryski influence, 2:602, 603
dueling critique of, 2:296, 694
Freemasons and, 2:878
free trade and, 2:515; 4:1887
French Revolution’s origins and,
2:841, 885
gender and, 2:941, 945
as Gouges influence, 2:994
INDEX
Hamburg and, 2:1038
intellectuals and, 3:1167
Jews and, 3:1228–1229, 1233
John of Austria and, 3:1235
Jomini military theory and,
3:1236–1237
leisure and, 3:1323
liberalism and, 1:231; 3:1341
love viewed by, 4:2029
Maistre on, 3:1422; 4:1893
Malthus critique of, 3:1425
masculine-only rights and, 3:1470
mechanization and, 3:1411
Mill (James) and, 3:1510
museums and, 3:1562
national identity and, 3:1521
nature viewed by, 4:2158
Nietzsche critique of, 3:1633
O’Connell’s Catholicism and,
3:1655–1657
optimism of, 3:1425, 1426
pornography and, 4:1833
progress and, 2:631, 714
religion and, 2:545
Restoration and, 4:1968, 1972, 1973
Romanticism vs., 4:2026–2027,
2028, 2029
in Scotland, 1:464; 3:1510; 4:2120,
2123
Sieyès and, 4:2180, 2181
slavery opposed by, 4:2192
utilitarianism and, 1:211
women’s status and, 2:800–801,
941, 945
Young Hegelians and, 5:2512
Enoch Arden (Tennyson), 5:2310
Enquiry Concerning Political Justice
(Godwin), 2:980–981, 1000
En Route (En Rade; Huysmans),
2:1104
Ensor, James Sydney, 1:307; 2:638;
4:1845
Entartung (Nordau), 2:638
Entente Cordiale, 1:49, 50, 96; 2:526,
609; 4:2098
Delcassé and, 2:642, 643, 795
as Fashoda Affair aftermath, 2:795
Moroccan Crisis and, 1:49; 3:1545,
1546, 1549
Entführung aus dem Serail, Die
(Mozart), 3:1673
Entrance of Christ into Brussels, The
(Ensor), 1:307
Entretiens sur l’architecture (Viollet-le-
Duc), 5:2422
entropy, 2:652
2621
INDEX
environment, 2:761–767
Malthusian theory and, 3:1426, 1427
racial debate and, 4:1924
Soloviev (Vladimir) on, 4:2217
See also nature; pollution; sanitation
Eötvös, József, 3:1266
Epicurus, 3:1464
epidemics. See disease; specific diseases
epidemiologic transition, 2:628, 644
‘‘Epipsychidion’’ (Shelley), 4:2170
Epirus, 1:2; 4:2085
Episcopalians. See Anglican Church
epistemology, Helmholtz and, 2:1058
Epping Forest, 3:1550
Eppinghoven, baroness von (Arcadia
Claret), 3:1336
Epstein, Gustav, 5:2420
Epstein, Jacob, 5:2466
equal rights. See rights
equity courts, 1:303
Eragny-sur-Epte, 4:1794
Erbsloh, Adolph, 1:155
Erekle II, 4:2164
Erfurt Program, The (Kautsky), 3:1248
Erfurt Union, 4:1902
Ericsson, John, 3:1644
Eritrea, 1:8; 3:1200
‘‘Erlkönig, Der’’ (Goethe), 2:984
‘‘Erlkönig, Der’’ (Schubert), 4:2106
Ermione (Rossini), 3:1672
Ernani (Verdi), 5:2406
Ernest Augustus, king of Hanover,
2:959–960, 1024; 5:2471
Ernst, Heinrich Wilhelm, 4:1700
‘‘Eroica’’ (Third) Symphony
(Beethoven), 1:197, 198
Eros (Verga), 5:2407
Eros: The Male Love of the Greeks
(Hössli), 2:1085
Eros und Psyche: Eine biologisch-
psychologische Studie (Weininger),
5:2449
Erotika biblion (Riquetti), 4:1833
error curve. See bell curve
Error judicaire, Une (Lazare
pamphlet), 2:684
Ertartung (Nordau), 2:632
Erté (Romain de Tirtoff), 1:192
Erwartung (Schoenberg), 3:1676;
4:2102
erysipelas, 4:2198
Erzerum, 1:91, 92
escalators, 4:2273
Escoffier, Georges Auguste, 4:1967
Española. See Dominican Republic;
Haiti
Espartero, Baldomero Fernández,
4:2229
espionage, 2:683, 684
2622
‘‘Esplanade System, The’’ (Strindberg),
4:2268
Esquirol, Jean-Étienne-Dominique,
4:1791
Essai analytique sur les lois naturelles de
l’ordre social (Bonald), 1:268
Essai historique, politique et moral sur
les révolutions anciennes et
modernes, considérées dans leurs
rapports avec la révolution
française (Chateaubriand), 1:420
Essais litteraires et historiques
(Schlegel), 4:2096
Essai sur la littérature anglaise
(Chateaubriand), 1:421
Essai sur la théorie des proportions
chimiques (Berzelius), 1:424
Essai sur le principe générateur des
constitutions politiques (Maistre),
3:1422
Essai sur l’inegalité des races humaines
(Gobineau), 1:74
Essaouira, 3:1548
Essay Concerning Human
Understanding (Locke), 4:1907
Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent,
An (Newsman), 3:1621
Essay on Catholicism, Liberalism, and
Socialism (Donoso Cortés),
4:2208
‘‘Essay on Classification’’ (Agassiz),
1:23
Essay on Privilege (Sieyès), 4:2180
‘‘Essay on the Development of
Christian Doctrine’’ (Newsman),
3:1621
Essay on the First Principles of
Government (Priestly), 5:2393
Essay on the Principle of Population
(Malthus), 2:615, 714–715;
3:1425, 1426
Godwin answer to, 2:981
Essays in Criticism (Arnold), 1:102
Essays in Freethinking and
Plainspeaking (Stephen), 4:2254
‘‘Essays on Government’’ (J. Mill),
3:1510
Essen, 3:1273, 1274, 1274
Essen, Siri von, 4:2268
Essence of Christianity, The
(Feuerbach), 2:744, 754; 4:2133;
5:2512
essentialism, 1:23
Establishment for Gentlewomen
During Illness (London), 3:1637
Estampes (Debussy), 2:631
Estates-General, 2:767–768, 841,
842, 885, 886; 3:1385
Freemasons and, 2:881
E U R O P E
Lafayette and, 3:1299
Sieyès and, 4:2180
suffrage and, 4:2276, 2277
women’s grievances and, 2:801
workers’ grievances and, 3:1411
Este family, 3:1191
Esterhazy, Ferdinand, 2:684
Esterica come scienza dell espressione e
linguistica generale (Croce), 2:584
Estevadeordal, Antoni, 2:515
Estonia, 1:40; 2:817, 818, 819, 820,
821, 821, 822, 823
Estonia Society, 2:821
État Indépendant du Congo. See
Congo Free State
États-unis d’Europe, Les (journal),
4:1696
etchings, 2:998
Eternité par les Astres, L’ (Blanqui),
1:249
Etex, Antoine, 4:2043
ether, 4:1780, 2109
‘‘Ethical Problem of the Light of
Philosophical Idealism, The’’
(Berdyayev), 1:212
Ethics (Spinoza), Eliot translation,
2:744
Ethiopia, 1:362; 2:582, 583, 609, 794;
3:1116, 1118, 1200; 4:2175
Addis Ababa Treaty and, 1:7–8
ethnicity
race vs., 3:1520
See also minorities
ethnography, 2:873
ethnonationalism, 3:1524–1526
Etiology, the Concept, and the
Prophylaxis of Childbed Fever, The
(Semmelweiss), 4:2135
etiquette. See manners and formality
Eton College, 4:2240, 2241
etymology, 2:1024
Euclidean geometry, 2:883
eudiometer, 4:2114
Eugene Onegin (Pushkin), 4:1919
Eugene Onegin (Tchaikovsky), 5:2307
eugenics, 2:769–771, 779; 5:2489
Chamberlain (Houston) and, 1:403
degeneracy theory and, 2:241, 636,
637, 769, 928
fin de siècle and, 2:816
Galton and, 2:652, 637, 779, 927,
928; 4:2249
German social and racial hygiene and,
4:1914
‘‘racial hygiene’’ movement and,
2:619, 639
See also social Darwinism
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Eugenics (Davenport), 2:770
Eugenics Education Society (London),
2:769, 770
Eugenics Records Office (U.S.),
2:769, 770–771
Eugénie, empress of France, 1:482;
2:732
Biarritz and, 4:2126; 5:2328
spiritualism and, 4:2237
Suez Canal opening and, 4:2274
Thiers and, 5:2311
Eugénie Grandet (Balzac), 1:168
Dostoyevsky translation of, 2:678
Eulenburg, Philipp zu, 2:1084
Eulenburg affair (1907), 2:1071, 1084
Euler, Carl, 4:2242
Euler characteristic, 4:1804
‘‘Eulogy for Ravachol’’ (Adam),
4:1943
Eurasianism, 2:771–776
Euréka (Baudelaire), 1:188
Eureka Field (Australia), 1:134
Euripides, 4:2095
Eurocentrism, 3:1174
Europe (Blake), 1:244, 246
European Coal and Steel Community,
1539
‘‘Europe and Mankind’’ (Trubetskoy),
2:775
European Monetary Institute, 3:1539
European Parliament, 3:1539
European Union, 2:643; 3:1539, 1600
absinthe controls and, 1:4
European Union Constitutional Treaty
(2006), 3:1539
euthanasia, 2:629
Eva (Verga), 5:2407
Evangelical Gymnasium (Budapest),
2:1066–1067
evangelicalism
awakenings and, 4:1894–1895,
1896, 2136
Britain and, 2:1002, 1006; 3:1180;
4:1892–1893, 1895, 1896
childhood and, 1:428
church-state separation and, 4:2136
France and, 4:1968
Gladstone and, 2:976
St. Petersburg and, 4:2079
Salvation Army and, 4:2082–2083
Scotland and, 2:1006
temperance movement and, 1:36
Wales and, 5:2434
Wilberforce and, 5:2463
See also Methodism; missions
Evangelical Party (Scotland), 2:1006
Evans, Frederick H., 1:192
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Evans, Mary Ann. See Eliot, George
Evans, Walker, 1:123
Eve (Péguy), 4:1760
Eve contre Dumas (Deraismes), 2:649
Eve dans l’humanité (Deraismes), 2:649
Evening News (London newspaper),
4:1871
evening primrose, 2:653
Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka
(Gogol), 2:988
Everybody’s Political What’s What
(Shaw), 4:2167
evolution, 2:776–779
Agassiz opposition to, 1:23; 2:618
capitalist application of, 2:777
civilization concept and, 1:461
cultural pessimism and, 2:631
Cuvier opposition to, 2:599
Darwin’s theory of, 2:614–619, 776,
945; 4:1908, 2071
degeneration as reversal of, 2:239,
636; 3:1472
Galton and, 2:927
Goethe’s theory of, 2:986
Haeckel and, 2:1031–1032, 1069
Huxley and, 2:1101, 1102, 1103
as Kautsky influence, 3:1248
Kelvin’s energy laws and, 3:1250
Lamarck’s theory of, 2:599, 928;
3:1302–1303
Lombroso ‘‘born criminal’’ theory
and, 3:1371
Lyell and, 3:1402
Malthus and, 3:1426
Marxist application of, 2:756
mutation and, 2:653
natural history museums and, 3:1563
pre-Darwinian theories of, 2:614,
615, 776–777
progress and, 2:617, 814
Spencer’s theory of, 2:615–616, 777;
4:2233–2235
Wallace’s view of, 2:616; 5:2437, 2438
Evolutionary Socialism (Bernstein),
4:2205
Evolution of Modern Capitalism, The
(Hobson), 4:2206
Ewers, Hans Heinz, 2:633
Examen de la philosophie de Bacon
(Maistre), 3:1422
examinations
civil service, 1:324; 2:726
professional, 4:1879–1880
university degree, 4:1877
Examples of Gothic Architecture
(Pugin), 4:1917
Excursion, The (Wordsworth), 5:2482
INDEX
Execution of Emperor Maximillian
of Mexico, 19 June 1867, The
(Manet), 2:854
Execution of the Defenders of Madrid, 3
May 1808 (Goya), 4:1703, 2226
Executive Commission (France), 3:1304
exercise. See sports
Exeter College (Oxford), 3:1550
exhibitionism, 3:1270; 4:2162
Exhibition of Modern Consumer Goods,
Berlin, 1909 (poster), 2:969
exile, penal, 1:134; 2:504, 779–782
Siberia and, 4:2050, 2054, 2172
Zasulich and, 5:2517
existentialism, 2:1101; 3:1252, 1635;
4:2028
Exodus to the East (Trubetskoy), 2:775
Expedition of the Thousand (1860),
1:392; 2:581; 3:1198
experimental psychology, 4:1908;
5:2506–2508
Experiment in Autobiography (Wells),
5:2459
Expiatory Chapel (Paris), 3:1386;
4:1729
Expiatory Temple of the Sagrada
Familia. See Sagrada Familia
exploitation, Marx’s theory of, 3:1467
explorers, 2:782–785
Galton as, 2:927
Humboldt (Alexander) as,
2:1096–1097; 3:1658
Kropotkin as, 3:1272
masculinity and, 3:1472
oceanic, 3:1653–1654
Verne’s portrayal of, 5:2408
Explosion of a Bomb on the Avenue de la
Republique, Paris, by the Russian
Anarchists and Nihilists
(illustration), 1:58
explosives, 3:1160, 1644
export-led growth theory, 5:2334
exports. See trade and economic growth
export subsidies, 4:1887
Exposition de la doctrine de Saint-
Simon (lecture series publication),
4:2081
Exposition of 1888 (Barcelona),
1:182–183
Exposition of 1892 (Brussels), 1:108
Exposition Universelle of 1855 (Paris),
2:641; 3:1660; 4:1947;
5:2495–2496
Courbet paintings and, 2:568–569
Exposition Universelle of 1857 (Paris),
2:641
Exposition Universelle of 1867 (Paris),
3:1433, 1661; 5:2497–2498
2623
INDEX
Exposition Universelle of 1878 (Paris),
1:298; 5:2498–2499
Goya ‘‘Black’’ paintings and, 2:999
Exposition Universelle of 1889 (Paris),
1:282, 351; 2:589, 647; 4:2127;
5:2500–2502, 2501
advertising and, 2:550
Eiffel Tower and, 2:736, 737, 738;
4:1731
electric lighting and, 2:742, 815
German participation in, 3:1354
as paean to progress, 2:815
peace activists and, 4:1696
photography and, 4:1772
Exposition Universelle of 1900 (Paris),
2:589, 1031; 4:1732, 2010;
5:2502–2504, 2504
advertising and, 2:550
art nouveau and, 1:108, 110, 111,
113; 2:1027
electric lighting and, 2:742
Lumière Photorama screen and, 3:1397
Nadar exhibit and, 3:1578
Exposition Universelle of 1925 (Paris),
1:108
Exposition Universelle of 1937 (Paris),
1:108; 2:589
expressionism, 2:797; 3:1530;
4:1710–1711
avant-garde and, 1:154–156, 157
Berlin painters and, 1:220, 220
Gaudı́ as influence on, 2:938
Munch as precursor of, 3:1558
Schiele and, 4:2089; 5:2421
Schoenberg’s music and, 4:2102
Strindberg and, 4:2269
See also Brücke, Die
Expression of Emotion in Animals, The
(Darwin), 2:617
external economies, 4:1887
Extinction du paupérisme, L’ (Louis-
Napoleon), 1:271; 3:1590
extinction theories, 2:599, 613; 3:1302
Eyck, Frank, 2:871
Eyck, Jan van, 3:1166; 4:1863
Eylau, Battle of (1807), 2:902; 3:1586
Eyre, Edward John, 1:371; 2:781
Eyüp, 3:1186
n
F masculinization of work and, 3:1470
Fabergé, Carl, 4:2079
Fabian Essays (Shaw, ed.), 2:787; 5:2445
Fabians, 1:230, 372; 2:787–788,
1011; 3:1693; 5:2443–2445
2624
Labour Party and, 3:1295
London School of Economics and,
3:1377
Shaw and, 1:987; 4:2166, 2206;
5:2444, 2458
socialism and, 1:230, 372, 787–788;
4:2206
Webb and, 2:788; 4:2206; 5:2443,
2444–2445, 2458
Wells and, 4:2206; 5:2445, 2458
Fables (La Fontaine), Doré illustrations
for, 2:676
Fable of the Bees (Mandeville), 2:551
Fabra, Pompeu, 4:2232
Fabre d’Eglantine, Philippe-François-
Nazaire, 2:611
Fabri, Friedrich, 3:1121
Fabrizi, Nicola, 2:581
Façade of Rouen Cathedral (Monet),
3:1535–1536
‘‘Facino Cane’’ (Balzac), 1:168
factories, 2:788–794
air pollution from, 2:764
Berlin and, 1:217, 219
Britain and, 1:350, 429; 2:708,
788–793; 3:1149, 1427–1431
British improved conditions in,
2:1003, 1004
capitalism and, 1:350
Catalan housing for, 1:183
child workers in, 1:350, 351, 352,
371, 401, 429, 430, 430; 2:708,
792, 793; 3:1150
cities and, 1:444, 445, 446, 449,
452, 454, 455
coffee or tea drinking and, 1:494
Denmark and, 2:647
diet and, 2:658–659
electricity and, 2:741
German Ruhr and, 1:357
Hamburg and, 2:1040–1041
Industrial Revolution (first) and,
1:351; 3:1146, 1148
Industrial Revolution (second) and,
1:352
labor movements and, 1:474; 2:793;
3:1291
legislation and, 2:793
Luddism and, 3:1391–1392
machine breaking and, 3:1410–1412
Madrid and, 3:1413
mass production and, 3:1162;
5:2352
Milan and, 3:1504
Owen reform proposals for, 3:1692
E U R O P E
paternalism and, 2:793, 1087, 1088;
3:1275
Poland and, 4:1812
rise of, 1:328–329; 2:788–789
St. Petersburg, and, 4:2079
sewing machines and, 4:2159
social impact of, 2:792–793
steam power and, 2:709, 791–792;
3:1152, 1152, 1153, 1410, 1427
women workers in, 1:350, 351, 352,
371, 401, 475; 2:789, 792, 945;
3:1148
workday/workweek limits for, 1:285,
288, 401, 417; 2:793; 4:1824
worker housing and, 1:474; 2:793
workers and, 1:473, 474; 2:555
workshops vs., 2:788–789
Factory Act of 1833 (Britain), 1:401;
2:793
factory towns, 1:446
F. A. Davis Company, 2:746
Fadeyev, Rostislav, 5:2478
Faguet, Emile, 4:1697
Fairbairn, Thomas, 4:1864
Fairbairn, William, 3:1430
fairy tales, 2:648; 3:1523
Doré illustrations of, 2:676
Grimm brothers and, 2:1023–1024
Faith and Love (Novalis), 3:1647
Falange (Spain), 1:368
Falk, Adalbert, 2:966
Falkenhayn, Erich Georg Anton
Sebastian von, 1:232
‘‘Fallacies of Hope’’ (Turner), 4:1704
Fallen Jockey (Degas), 2:634
Falstaff (Verdi), 3:1676; 5:2406
Familia de Carlos IV, La (Goya),
4:2225
familial suffrage, 4:2278
Familiar Studies of Men and Books
(Stevenson), 4:2255
Familistère (utopian community),
2:838
family. See marriage and family
Family, The (Schiele), 4:2091
Family of Charles IV, The (Goya),
2:997; 4:1703
Family of Saltimbanques, The (Picasso),
4:1782
family-owned businesses, 1:330, 355
famine
Belgium and, 1:201
Great Hunger of 1846–1847,
4:1751, 1754
India and, 3:1427
Naples and, 3:1580
peasants and, 4:1751, 1754–1755
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1989
Russia and, 4:1755, 2055, 2056
See also diet and nutrition; Irish
Potato Famine
Fanciulla del West, La (Puccini), 4:1916
Fanfarle, La (Baudelaire), 1:188
Fanny Hill (Cleland), 4:1833
Fanny’s First Play (Shaw), 4:2167
fans, electric, 2:741
Fantasio (Offenbach), 3:1661
Fantastic Symphony (Berlioz), 1:25,
224
Fantasy in F Minor (Schubert), 4:2107
Fante Confederation, 1:19
Fantin-Latour, Henri, 3:1432
Faraday, Michael, 1:441; 2:741;
3:1162, 1478; 4:1779, 1780,
2108
Far from the Madding Crowd (Hardy),
2:1045; 4:1757
Farman, Henri, 1:30
Farmers League (Belgium), 1:204
farming. See Agricultural Revolution;
farm labor; peasants; specific crops
farm labor, 1:24; 2:762
children as, 1:428, 429–430
gender and, 2:943
Germany and, 2:960
land reform and, 3:1305
machine breaking and, 1:357,
358–359; 3:1411
mezzandria system and, 3:1195;
4:2186
Po Valley and, 3:1195
Scotland and, 4:2116–2117, 2120,
2121
slaves as, 4:2190–2191
socialist neglect of, 3:1294
Wales and, 5:2433–2434, 2435
See also Agricultural Revolution;
peasants; rural life; serfs,
emancipation of
Farnese Palace (Rome), 1:186
Farr, William, 1:437
Farrer, Thomas, 4:1864
far right. See New Right
fascism
Action Française prefiguring, 1:4;
2:542, 686
Boulangism linked with, 1:282
Crispi and, 2:583
Croce’s opposition to, 2:585
ideological precursors of, 1:184, 185;
2:539, 542
Italian Futurist Party and, 2:921
Italy and, 2:972, 973; 3:1199, 1201,
1203; 4:2004, 2037; 5:2364
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Lateran Pact and, 1:382; 3:1199
Manns opposition to, 3:1435
Marconi and, 3:1445
Milan and, 3:1504
political Catholicism and, 1:389
racism and, 4:1928
Second Empire prefiguring, 3:1592
Sorel and, 4:2217, 2218
Spain and, 1:368
syndicalism and, 1:61, 62
fashion. See clothing, dress, and fashion
Fashoda Affair (1898), 2:663, 784,
794–795, 1033; 3:1117–1118;
5:2502
Delcassé and, 2:643
Kitchener and, 2:794–795; 3:1668
Fasti (Ovid; Frazer translation), 2:873
Fat Cattle (Gillray), 1:29
Father, The (Strindberg), 4:2269
Fatherland Party (Germany), 1:404
Fathers and Sons (Turgenev), 3:1168,
1170, 1639; 5:2365
Father Thames Introducing His
Offspring to the Fair City of
London (cartoon), 4:1911
fauborgs, 5:2485
Fauchet, Claude, 2:973; 4:1961
Faure, Félix, 2:684; 5:2432
Fausse industrie, La (Fourier), 4:2202
Faust (Goethe), 2:982, 983, 985, 987
Faust (Gounod), 3:1672
Faust legend, 4:2030
Faute de l’Abbé Mouret, La (Zola), 1:70
fauvism, 2:795–797, 796; 4:1710
as avant-garde, 1:153, 154
Bergson’s influence on, 1:214
coining of term, 1:156; 2:795
as Kandinsky influence, 3:1244,
1245; 4:1711
Matisse leadership of, 3:1474, 1530;
4:1710
modernism and, 3:1530
‘‘wildness’’ and, 4:1875
‘‘favorable variation’’ (Darwin theory),
2:615
Favorite, La (Donizetti), 3:1672
Favre, Jules, 3:1404
Favretto, Giacomo, 5:2405
Fawcett, Millicent Garrett, 2:626,
797–799, 798; 4:2279
Fawkes, Walter, 5:2367
Fay, C. R., 2:714
Fâzil, Mustafa, 5:2514
Fear and Trembling (Kierkegaard),
3:1251, 1252
Feast in Time of the Plague (Pushkin),
4:1919
INDEX
Feast of the Federation (France),
5:2305
Febre d’Or (Barcelonan ‘‘gold fever’’),
1:182
Febronianism, 4:1721
February Patent of 1861 (Austria-
Hungary), 1:262
February Revolution (Russia). See
Revolution of 1917
Febvre, Lucien, 1:461
Fechner, Gustav Theodor, 4:1909;
5:2507
Fechner-Smarsly, Thomas, 4:2269
Federal-Constitutional Union, 5:2472
Federalist Papers, The (U.S.), 4:1958
Federalist Party (U.S.), 4:1701;
5:2439, 2440
federalist revolt (1793), 2:799–800,
844, 974; 3:1403
Federal Polytechnic (Zurich), 1:317
Fédération des Bourses du Travail,
4:2298
Fédération des groupes de la libre
pensée de Seine-et-Oise, 2:649
Fédération du Livre, 2:697
Fédération Internationale de Football
Association, 2:834
Federation of American Womens
Clubs, 2:596
Federation of French Rowers, 4:2244
Federation of Land Workers Leagues,
3:1294
Federazione Ginnastica d’Italia,
4:2243
Fedorov, V. A., 2:1014
feeblemindedness, 2:770, 771
Feen, Die (Wagner), 5:2430
felicitific calculus, 1:211
Felix Holt (G. Eliot), 2:744
Felix Krull (Mann), 3:1437
Fellowship of the New Life (Britain),
1:372; 2:787
female emancipation. See feminism
Female Reader, The (Wollstonecraft),
5:2479
femininity. See gender; separate
spheres; women
feminism, 2:800–807, 945–946, 948
anarchism and, 3:1497–1498
Anneke and, 1:66–67
Auclert and, 1:127–128
Augspurg and, 1:129
backlash to, 2:802
Bäumer and, 1:188–190
birth control and, 2:805, 947;
4:1830–1831
Bloomsbury Group and, 4:2259
British gains and, 2:1008; 3:1646
2625
INDEX
Butler and, 1:331–332
caricatures of, 2:802, 943
Carpenter and, 1:372
Comte and, 2:523
Davies and, 2:625–626
Deraismes and, 2:649–650
Deroin and, 2:650–651
Dohm and, 2:675–676
Durand and, 2:696–697
equality vs. difference currents in,
2:801, 803
Fawcett and, 2:797–799
fin de siècle tensions and, 2:816;
3:1472–1473
first use of word, 2:800
French Radicals and, 4:1929
French republicans and, 4:1962
French Revolution and, 2:897
German movement and, 4:2280
Gissing novel on, 2:975
Gouges and, 2:801, 802, 843, 941,
993–996, 995–996
Kuliscioff’s view of, 3:1276
labor movements and, 3:1288,
1292–1293
lesbianism linked with, 2:1084
liberal individual critique of, 1:458
literary, 2:802–803
Luxemburg and, 3:1401
marital loss of rights and, 1:287, 303
‘‘masculinity crisis’’ and,
3:1472–1473
Michel and, 3:1497–1498
Mill (Harriet) and, 3:1509
Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1509,
1513, 1514, 1555
Mill’s Subjection of Women and,
2:804, 946, 1008
Mozzoni and, 3:1555–1556
Napoleonic Code vs., 1:128, 338;
2:802, 942–943
Netherlands and, 3:1620
Norton and, 3:1645–1646
nursing and, 3:1650
organized, 2:946
Otto and, 3:1680–1681
Owenism and, 4:2201
pacifism and, 1:129; 4:1696
Pelletier and, 4:1761–1762
politique de la brèche strategy of,
4:1998
property rights and, 1:458
prostitution and, 4:1884, 1886
Protestantism and, 4:1891, 1892
republicanism and, 4:1962
2626
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1992
Richer and, 4:1998–1999
Roland and, 4:2013–2014
Romanticism and, 2:945–946;
4:2029
Roussel and, 4:2041–2042, 2162
Sand and, 4:2085
Schnitzler and, 4:2100
second-wave (1970s) of, 2:806;
4:1761, 1762, 2041
sexual double standard and, 4:2162
socialism and, 1:194–195; 2:805,
946; 3:1276, 1288, 1293;
4:1714
Spencer and, 4:2235
Staël and, 4:2247
symbolist movement and, 4:2293
temperance movements and, 1:35
Tristan and, 5:2357–2358, 2358,
2397
university education and, 1:372;
2:625, 626
utopian socialism and, 1:338;
5:2397, 2487
Wollstonecraft and, 2:802, 945, 995,
1000; 5:2481
Zetkin and, 2:946
See also women’s suffrage
feminist scholarship
on Beethoven, 1:199
on Bernhardt, 1:230
on colonialism, 3:1457
on family system, 3:1450, 1451
Gaskell’s rediscovery by, 2:934
on masculinity, 3:1470
on Mill (Harriet and John Stuart)
collaboration, 3:1509
on Mill (John Stuart), 3:1514
on Mozzoni, 3:1556
on Pelletier, 4:1761, 1762
on Pre-Raphaelite women, 4:1864,
1865
Femme au chapeau (Matisse), 2:797;
3:1474
Femme en lutte pour ses droits, La
(Pelletier), 4:1762
femme fatale character, 4:2292–2293
Femme libre (feminist newspaper),
2:650
Femmes de la Révolution (Michelet),
2:996
fencing rooms, 4:2241
Fénéon, Félix, 3:1132; 4:2156, 2157
Fenêtre ouverte á Collioure, La
(Matisse), 2:796; 3:1474
Fenian Collar, 3:1604
E U R O P E
Fenians (Irish Republican
Brotherhood), 2:1009; 3:1009,
1185; 4:1815, 2132
Fennoman movement, 2:820
Fenton, Roger, 3:1591; 4:1771
Ferdinand I, emperor of Austria,
1:140, 142; 2:567, 606,
807–808; 3:1495
abdication of, 2:807, 808, 863
Kossuth and, 3:1267
Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1980
Venice and, 5:2403
Ferdinand I, king of the Two Sicilies,
2:531, 532, 564, 565; 3:1193,
1254–1255, 1267
Ferdinand II, king of the Two Sicilies,
3:1196, 1255
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1990,
1993, 2002
Ferdinand IV, king of Naples. See
Ferdinand I, king of the Two
Sicilies
Ferdinand VII, king of Spain,
1:180, 181; 2:808–810;
4:2225–2229
Carlist coup and, 1:367; 2:809;
4:1763, 1764
Goya and, 2:998, 999
military revolt against, 4:1969
Napoleon and, 4:1763–1764, 1766
Restoration and, 1:420; 2:998, 999;
4:1969, 1970
Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1979
Ferdinand Maximilian, archduke of
Austria, 5:2355, 2374
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
prince of Bulgaria, 1:312–313
Ferdinand VII Swearing in the
Constitution (engraving), 4:2228
Féré, Charles Samson, 2:636
Ferenczi, Sándor, 4:1938
Ferenczy, Károly, 4:1948
Ferguson, Adam, 4:2120, 2212
Ferguson, Samuel, 5:2464
Férie (film effect), 3:1483
Ferme générale, 3:1311–1312
fermentation, 4:1743
Fernand Cortez (Spontini), 3:1671
Fernández de los Rı́os, Ángel de los,
3:1413
Ferrara, Francesco, 4:2176
Ferrari, Giuseppe, 3:1480
Ferrer, Francisco, 1:69
Ferrero, Guglielmo, 3:1371
Ferri, Enrico, 2:573; 3:1371
Ferrier, Gabriel, 3:1473
Ferris wheel, 2:815; 5:2503, 2505
Ferro, Vito Cascio, 4:2174, 2175
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Ferry, Jules, 2:643, 810–813, 856,
929; 4:1868, 1891
assassination attempt on, 2:813
Delcassé and, 2:642
Haussmann exposé by, 2:810, 1050
imperialism and, 2:812–813; 3:1118,
1121, 1522
secularism speech of, 2:811
as self-described liberal, 3:1346
Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432
Ferry Laws (1879–1885), 2:811;
4:1891
fertility rate, 2:645–646, 667, 760;
3:1662
contraceptives’ effect on, 2:947
decline in, 4:1829–1831
increase in, 4:1827–1829
fertilizers, 2:762, 764, 960; 3:1164;
4:1753
Agricultural Revolution and, 1:25
chemistry and, 3:1160, 1164, 1305
urban waste as, 2:766
Fervaal (d’Indy), 3:1675
Fesch, Joseph, 3:1298
Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey, 3:1163
Festival of Empire (Crystal Palace,
1911), 2:589
Festival of Old Age (France), 3:1663
Festival of the Federation (France,
1790), 2:888, 890
Festival of the Republic (France,
1798), 4:1961
Fet, Afanasy, 1:249
Fête foraine au Havre, La (Marquet),
2:796
fetishism, 3:1270; 4:2162
feudalism
Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:871
French Revolution ending of, 2:886,
892, 897; 3:1305; 4:1754
Japan and, 3:1208–1209
Napoleon’s abolishment of, 3:1192,
1254
Neapolitan abolishment of, 3:1414
nobility and, 3:1304; 4:1754
Prussian abolishment of, 2:958;
4:1754
See also serfs, emancipation of
Feuer, Lewis, 3:1514
Feuerbach, Ludwig, 2:744, 754;
3:1464; 4:2088–2089, 2133
socialism and, 4:2203, 2204
Young Hegelians and, 5:2512, 2513
Feuillants, 2:890
Feuilles d’automne, Les (Hugo), 2:1093
Feure, Georges de, 4:1845
fevers, 2:667, 690; 3:1372
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Fez, Treaty of (1912), 3:1549
Fiat (automobile manufacturer), 5:2352
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 2:813–814;
4:2241
as Belinsky influence, 1:207
Berlin lectures of, 1:215
German cultural unification and,
3:1523, 1604
Hölderlin as student of, 2:1078
Novalis study of, 3:1647–1648
Schelling and, 2:1051; 4:2088
‘‘Fichte Studies’’ (Novalis),
3:1647–1648
Fidelio (Beethoven), 1:196; 3:1670,
1673; 5:2417
Field of Waterloo, The (Turner), 5:2367
field theory, 3:1248, 1478; 4:1780
Fierrabras (Schubert), 4:2106
Fifth Republic (France), 1:69
Fifth Symphony (Mahler), 3:1418,
1419
Fifth Symphony (Tchaikovsky),
5:2307
Figaro, Le (Paris daily), 1:156, 184
campaign to oust Caillaux by, 1:339
futurist manifesto and, 2:917, 920
Figatae Pallada, The (Goncharov),
2:989
Figgis, John Neville, 1:7
Fighting Organization, 4:2210, 2211
Figner, Vera, 4:1832
Figueras, Estanislao, 4:2230
Filangieri, Gaetano, 3:1580
Fildes, Samuel Luke, 5:2405
Filiger, Charles, 3:1213
Fille Élisa, La (E. Goncourt), 2:991
Filles de la Charité de Sainte-Vincent-
de-Paul, 3:1648
Filleul, Adelaide, countess of Flahaut,
5:2305
film. See cinema
Filosofia della practica (Croce), 2:584
financial markets. See banks and
banking; stock exchanges
Fin de Satan, La (Hugo), 2:1095
fin de siècle, 2:814–817
art nouveau and, 1:107–113,
152–153; 2:815
Bernhardt and, 1:229–230
Constable and, 2:543
death and, 2:629
Debussy and, 2:630–631
Decadence and, 2:629, 631–633,
638, 815–816
degeneration and, 2:631, 632,
636–639, 816; 3:1472
gender-norm changes and, 2:816,
947–949; 3:1472–1473
INDEX
Generation of 1898 and, 2:949–952
historical dating of, 2:816–817
Hofmannstahl and, 2:1076–1077
homosexual/lesbian stereotypes and,
2:1084
illustrated posters and, 4:1845
Jarry and, 3:1213–1214
Klimt and, 3:1260–1262
Lueger and, 3:1393, 1395
masculinity concerns and,
3:1472–1473
museum exhibits and, 3:1564
music and, 2:815; 3:1572–1573
Nietzsche’s philosophy and, 3:1629
optimistic vs. pessimistic views of,
2:814–816
papacy and, 4:1720
Paris and, 4:1732
Picasso and, 4:1781–1782
Puccini’s operas and, 4:1917
right-wing nationalism and,
3:1476–1477
symbolist movement and, 4:2292
Vienna 1900 and, 5:2421
Viennese cultural scene and, 2:1067;
3:1418, 1419
Finding of the Saviour in the Temple,
The (Hunt), 4:1864
Finer, S. E., 1:402
fingerprints, 2:576, 927; 4:1816
Finland and the Baltic provinces,
2:817–824
art nouveau in, 1:108, 113–114
cholera and, 1:436
Continental System and, 2:553, 554
electric lights and, 2:741
emigrants from, 2:748
labor movements in, 5:2489
potato blight in, 2:1005
Protestant population of, 4:1890
Revolution of 1830 and, 4:1986
Russian policies in, 1:41, 226;
2:821–822, 823; 4:1933, 1976,
2055, 2288
St. Petersburg and, 4:2076
socialist party strength in, 3:1293,
1294
Stolypin and, 4:2257
strikes in, 4:2267–2268
suffrage in, 4:2279, 2281
Sweden and, 4:2288
telephone service in, 5:2308
temperance movement in, 1:35
universities in, 5:2379–2380
women’s suffrage in, 2:823, 947;
4:2281
2627
INDEX
world’s fairs and, 1:113; 5:2503,
2505
See also Estonia; Latvia; Livonia
Finnish Party, 2:822
Finnish Pavilion, 1:113
Finsen, Niels Ryberg, 2:649
Fiore, Pasquale, 3:1175
Fiquet, Marie-Hortense, 1:398
Firebird, The (Stravinsky), 2:654;
4:2261–2262
Fireworks (Stravinsky), 4:2261
First Balkan War (1912), 1:12,
163–164, 166, 207; 2:704–705;
4:1949, 2149
Montenegro and, 3:1541
First Blood in the Revolution
(Kockkock), 4:1977
First Carlist War, 4:2229
First Coalition. See War of the First
Coalition
First Congress of Ottoman Opposition
Parties (1902), 5:2515
First Empire (France). See Napoleonic
Empire
First Estate (France), 2:767, 841, 842,
886
First Germanic Sound Shift (Grimms
Law), 2:1024
First Industrial Revolution. See
Industrial Revolution, First
First International, 1:203, 248; 2:521,
824–825; 3:1289; 4:1899, 2127,
2131
anarchist-Marxist split in, 2:824;
3:1289
anarchosyndicalism and, 1:60, 61
Bakunin and, 1:162; 2:824, 825, 1025
feminism and, 2:805
Jaurès and, 3:1217, 1218
Marx’s founding of, 3:1467–1468;
4:2205
membership card of, 3:1467
Michel and, 3:1497
Naples and, 3:1424
pacifism and, 2:825
Paris Commune and, 3:1289
See also Second International
First International Congress of
Eugenics (1912), 2:771
First Italo-Abyssinian War, 1:7–8
First London Co-operative Trading
Association, 3:1390
‘‘First Love’’ (Turgenev), 5:2365
First Men in the Moon, The (Wells),
5:2458
First Moroccan Crisis. See Moroccan
Crises
2628
First National Conference on Race
Betterment (1914), 2:771
First Nations, The (Kipling), 3:1257
First Navy Law of 1898 (Germany),
3:1609, 1610, 1611; 5:2312
First Opium War. See Opium Wars
First Partition of Poland (1772),
4:1900
‘‘First Philosophical Letter’’
(Chaadayev), 4:2050; 5:2459
First Principles (Spencer), 4:2234,
2235
‘‘First Program for the System of
German Idealism, The’’
(Hölderlin), 2:1078
First Republic (Austria), 1:10, 11
First Republic (France), 1:457; 2:610,
737
declaration of, 2:844–846, 891;
3:1205
Napoleon and, 3:1585–1586
new calendar of, 2:892–893
First Republic (Spain), 3:1414
First Restoration. See Restoration
First Serbian Uprising (1804), 1683;
4:2142
First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895).
See Sino-Japanese War
First String Quartet (Schoenberg),
4:2102
First Symphony (Brahms), 1:295
First Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419
First Vatican Council. See Vatican
Council, First
First Vienna Football Club, 2:833
First Workingmen’s International. See
First International
First Zionist Congress (Basel, 1897),
2:1068; 5:2520
Fischer, Christian August. See Althing
Fischer, Fritz, 2:968
Fish, Hamilton, 3:1210
Fisher, John Arbuthnot, 2:682, 730;
3:1610
Fisher, Ronald, 3:1486
fisheries, 1:344
Fishermen at Sea (Turner), 5:2366
Fitzherbert, Maria Anne, 2:953–954
Fiume, 2:610, 972
Five, The (Russian composers),
3:1571, 1575
Five Days of Milan (1848), 3:1196
Five Pieces for Orchestra (Schoenberg),
4:2102
‘‘Five Swans’’ tapestry (Eckmann),
1:112
Five Weeks in a Balloon (Verne),
5:2408
flagellation, 4:1836
E U R O P E
Flame of Life, The (d’Annunzio), 5:2405
Flanders, 1:199, 200, 201, 202, 204
World War I battle in, 1:232
flâneur, 2:825–827; 3:1128
flapper, 2:947
Flaubert, Gustave, 2:535, 827–828,
830
on absinthe, 1:3
Decadence and, 2:632
as Kafka influence, 3:1243
peasant portrayal by, 4:1756
prosecution of, 5:2522
realism and, 2:991
Sand and, 4:2084
Turgenev and, 5:2365, 2523
Zola and, 2:827; 5:2523
Flaxman, John, 3:1165; 4:1702
Fledermaus (Vienna cabaret), 1:336
Fledermaus, Die (Strauss), 4:2261;
5:2420
Fleet Street (London), 3:1377
Fleetwood (Godwin), 2:981
Fleming, John Ambrose, 3:1444
Flemish language, 1:307
Flemish rights movement, 1:202
fleur-de-lis flag, 2:855
Fleurs du mal, Les (Baudelaire), 1:187;
3:1432, 1529; 4:2008, 2293;
5:2314
Fleurus, Battle of (1794), 2:518, 893
Fliedner, Theodore, 3:1649
Fliegende Holländer, Der (Wagner),
3:1360; 5:2430
Fliess, Wilhelm, 2:904–905
‘‘Flight of the Bumble Bee, The’’
(Rimsky-Korsakov), 4:2000
Flinders, Matthew, 2:782
Floating Island, The (Verne), 5:2409
Flöge, Emilie, 1:152
Floquet, Charles-Thomas, 2:811
Flora Danica (Royal Copenhagen
china), 2:647
Flore française (Lamarck), 3:1301
Florence
child abandonment in, 5:2455
futurism and, 2:920
girls’ sewing class, 2:725
Ingres in, 3:1165
opera and, 3:1669
flour, 5:2335
Flourens, Marie-Jean-Pierre, 1:228;
4:1735
Flournoy, Theodore, 3:1238, 1239;
4:2238
Flower, William Henry, 3:1564
Flowers of Evil, The (Baudelaire), 1:187;
3:1432, 1529; 4:2008, 2293;
5:2314
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Flute Concert with Frederick the Great
in Sanssouci (Menzel), 3:1489
Flying Dutchman, The (Wagner),
3:1360; 5:2430
flying machines. See airplanes; balloons
flying shuttle, 3:1410
Flynn, Dennis, 3:1151
Foch, Ferdinand, 1:97, 100
Fogel, Robert, 4:1930, 1931
Fokine, Michel, 2:655; 3:1642;
4:1750, 1751
Folies Bergères (Paris), 2:550; 4:1845
folk culture
Catalonia and, 1:182
elite culture and, 4:1825
Finland and the Baltic provinces and,
2:820
German cultural nationalism and,
3:1523
Grieg and, 4:2287
Grimm brothers and, 2:1023–1024
Jung and, 3:1239
nationalism and, 4:1756
as popular culture, 4:1821
rural life idealization and, 4:1756
Russian peasants and, 4:1823
folklore. See folk culture
Folklore in the Old Testament (Frazer),
2:872
Folk Psychology (Wundt), 4:1909
Fölsing, Albrecht, 2:1063
Fondation Saint-Simon, 4:2081–2082
Fontaine, Margaret, 2:948
Fontaine, Pierre-Prançois-Leonard,
3:1602
Fontainebleau, Treaty of (1807),
4:2225
Fontainebleau Decree (1810), 2:553
Fontainebleau forest, 1:177, 178;
2:562; 4:1705
Fontana de Oro (Madrid café), 3:1414
Fontane, Theodor, 2:828–830;
3:1436
Fonthill Abbey (Britain), 4:2030
food adulteration, 2:658, 659
food preservation, 2:659; 3:1164;
4:1743
food prices, 4:1989
food riots, 4:1754–1755, 1990;
5:2488
food supply. See Agricultural
Revolution
football (Gaelic), 3:1182
football (rugby), 2:832, 833; 3:1378;
4:2240–2241, 2242, 2246; 5:2435
football (soccer), 2:830–835, 832;
3:1378, 1414; 4:1824,
2242–2243, 2244, 2245
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Football Association (Britain), 2:830,
831, 833, 834; 4:2241
Challenge Cup, 2:832, 833; 4:1824
Football Association of Wales, 5:2435
Football League (Britain), 2:831
Forain, Jean-Louis, 5:2323
Forbes, Edward, 2:1102
Forbes, James, 3:1477
Forbes, John, 3:1298
Forbin, Auguste de, 2:605
Ford (automobile manufacturer),
5:2352
Ford, Henry, 2:552; 3:1162
Fords (cars), 1:149
Forefathers’ Eve (Mickiewicz), 3:1500
foreign relations. See diplomacy; specific
countries by name
Forel, Auguste Henri, 1:37, 341;
3:1238
forensics. See crime
Förester-Nietzsche, Elizabeth, 3:1629
forests, 1:80–81; 2:763
Forge, Andrew, 3:1537
formalism, 3:1246
formality. See manners and formality
Formosa (Taiwan), 3:121, 1210–1211
Foro Bonaparte complex (Milan),
3:1501
‘‘Forsaken Merman, The’’ (Arnold),
1:102
Fors Clavigera: Letters to the Workmen
and Labourers of Great Britain
(Ruskin), 4:2047
Forster, E. M., 2:835–836
Fort, Paul, 4:2295
Fortnightly Review (journal), 4:1746,
2254; 5:2458
Fortschrittliche Volkspartei (Germany),
1:189
Fortunes of Nigel, The (Scott), 4:2123
Forty-Eighters, 1:66; 2:962; 4:2016,
2019
Foscolo, Ugo, 5:2403
fossil history, 1:23; 2:599, 613, 776;
3:1402
Foucault, Michel, 1:211, 431; 2:1082;
3:1270; 4:1848; 5:2393
Nietzsche and, 3:1635
Fouché, Joseph, 2:800, 836–838,
894; 4:1815, 2001
Talleyrand and, 5:2305
Fouillée, Alfred, 3:1518
Foules de Lourdes, Les (Huysmans),
2:1104
Foundation and Manifesto of Futurism
(Marinetti), 1:156–157; 2:917,
918, 920
Foundation of the Entire
Wissenschaftslehre (Fichte), 2:813
INDEX
Foundations of Arithmetic, The (Frege),
2:883
Foundations of Natural Right (Fichte),
2:813
Foundations of the Nineteenth Century,
The (H. Chamberlain), 1:75, 77,
403, 404; 4:2023
foundling homes/hospitals,
5:2450–2451, 2453
Fountain of Bakhchisarai, The
(Pushkin), 4:1919
Fouquier-Tinville, Antoine-Quentin,
3:1446–1447; 4:1951, 1952
Fourier, Charles, 1:111; 2:555, 803,
838–839; 3:1286; 4:2131
gender equality and, 3:1288, 1555
reincarnation and, 4:2238
republicanism and, 4:1962
Romanticism and, 4:2031
socialism and, 4:2031, 2200,
2201–2202
spiritualism and, 4:2238
Tristan and, 5:2357
utopian socialism and, 1:247, 248,
459; 2:838–839; 4:2081; 5:2395,
2396, 2397
Fourier, Jean-Baptiste-Joseph, 1:406;
3:1249
Fourierists (utopians), 1:247, 248,
459; 4:2201–2202; 5:2396
Fournier, Alfred-Jean, 4:2302–2303
Fournier, Edmond, 3:1431
Fournier, Henry-Alban (Alain-
Fournier), 4:1760
Four Ordinances of 1830 (France),
4:1983
14 juillet au Havre (Dufy), 2:796
Fourth Coalition. See War of the
Fourth Coalition
Fourth Estate, The (Pellizza da
Volpedo), 4:1757
Fourth International, 4:2128–2129
Fourth Piano Concerto (Beethoven),
1:196
Fourth Symphony (Brahms), 1:295
Fourth Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419
Fourvière basilica (Lyon), 3:1405
Four Zoas, The (Blake), 1:246
Fox, Charles James, 2:839–840
constitutional reform and, 2:1001,
1002
George IV and, 2:953, 954
Whigs and, 5:2461
Fox, Kate and Margaret, 4:2237
Fox, William Johnson, 3:1459, 1513
Fra Diavolo. See Pezza Michele
Fragmens d’un ouvrage abandonné sur
la possibilité d’une constitution
2629
INDEX
républicaine dans un grand pays
(Constant), 2:545
‘‘Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of
Hysteria:`Dora’’ (Freud), 4:1905
Fragment on Government (Bentham),
1:210; 5:2393
Fragment on Mackintosh (J. Mill),
3:1510
Fragments on Recent German
Literature (Herder), 2:1061
Fragments Written for Hellas (P. B.
Shelley), 4:2170
franc (French monetary unit), 3:1538,
1586
France, 2:840–860
absinthe and, 1:2–4
Action Française and, 1:4–5
African colonies and, 1:18, 19, 20,
21, 43–47, 500; 2:812; 3:1122,
1389, 1548, 1549
African trade commodities and, 1:15
Agadir Crisis and, 3:1546
agriculture and, 1:24, 28; 2:762;
3:1305
airplanes and, 1:30, 31, 31
alliance system and, 1:41, 47–50;
2:1013
Alsace and Lorraine and, 1:50–52
American Revolution and,
2:840–841, 884; 3:1385
anarchists and, 1:56, 57, 59, 60, 62;
2:857; 3:1497
anticlericalism and, 1:67–69, 70,
380, 389, 410–411, 479; 2:540,
689, 812; 4:1929, 1969
anti-Semitism and, 1:4, 5, 74–77, 97,
184, 185, 383; 2:540, 542,
683–686, 688–690, 816, 1068;
3:1233, 1338; 5:2489, 2520
architecture in, 4:2030
aristocracy in, 1:80, 81
army system of, 1:93–94, 95, 96, 97,
98, 99, 100–101, 271; 3:1222
artisans in, 1:104–105, 106, 459
art nouveau and, 1:109–112, 152;
2:815
Atget and, 1:123–125
Austria and, 4:1937, 2001; 5:2305,
2306, 2374, 2442
Austrian war with. See Franco-
Austrian War
Austro-Prussian War and, 1:236
automobile industry and, 1:148–150;
5:2352
avant-garde and, 1:151–158;
3:1675; 4:1706–1709
Balzac and, 1:166–169
2630
banking and, 1:170, 171, 173, 174,
175, 176
banquet campaigns and, 4:1990
Barbizon painters and, 1:176–180
Barrès and, 1:184–185; 4:1705
baths and spas and, 5:2327
Baudelaire and, 1:186–188
beards as fashion in, 1:191
Becquey Plan and, 5:2348
Belgian immigrants in, 1:201
Belgian neutrality and, 2:566–567
Belgium and, 1:199, 200, 201
belle époque of, 2:817
Bentham and, 5:2393–2394
Bergson and, 1:213–215
Berlin Conference and, 1:221
Berlioz and, 1:224–225
Bernhardt and, 1:229–230
Blanc and, 1:247–248
Blanqui and, 1:248–249
Boer support by, 5:2502
Bonapartism and, 1:269–271
Boulanger affair and, 1:279–281
Bourbon restoration and. See
Restoration
bourgeoisie in, 1:106, 283–291, 471
Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292, 293
Braille and, 1:296–298
British free trade treaty with,
1:491–492; 3:1537
British naval agreement with, 3:1546
bureaucracy in, 1:320–322; 2:846;
3:1387
business firms in, 1:329
cabarets in, 1:335
Cabet and, 1:337–338
Caillaux and, 1:338–340
canals in, 2:757–758; 5:2347–2348,
2350
Carbonari and, 4:2130–2131
Caribbean colonialism and, 1:363,
364; 2:1035, 1036–1037
Catholicism in, 1:278–279, 377,
378–379, 380, 381, 383, 384,
384, 385, 386–388; 3:1648;
4:1721, 1929, 2030, 2031,
2136–2137; 5:2305, 2488
Catholic nursing care in, 3:1648,
1649–1650
Catholic political parties in, 1:388,
389
Cavour and, 1:390, 391–392
censorship in, 4:1869
Charbonnerie conspiracy in, 1:337,
361
E U R O P E
Charter of 1814 and, 4:1969, 1971,
1984
chauvinism in, 3:1235
chemistry in, 1:424–425, 427; 3:1153
child abandonment in, 5:2454–2455
child labor in, 1:429, 430, 430;
4:1830
China and, 1:432, 434–435; 3:1579,
1679–1680
chocolate and, 1:496
cholera epidemics and, 1:436, 437,
438; 2:669; 4:1915
Chopin and, 1:439, 440
Christian Democrats in, 4:2209
Christian Socialism in, 4:2208
church-state separation in. See
separation of church and state
cinema in, 1:440, 441, 442, 443;
3:1396–1398, 1482–1484;
4:1824
citizenship and, 1:456, 458
civilizing mission of, 1:462–463, 464
civil society and, 1:466
Clemenceau and, 1:479–480
coal mining in, 1:485, 486, 487,
488; 4:1936
coffee consumption in, 1:494
colonialism and, 1:339, 498, 499,
501; 2:504, 507–508, 507, 508,
642, 859; 3:1114, 1151, 1154;
5:2330, 2332–2333, 2363
See also Algeria; Indochina
colonial wars and, 2:505
commercial policy and, 2:512, 514,
516, 517
commodity transport by, 5:2350
Comte and, 2:522–524; 4:1844
Congress of Berlin and, 2:530, 812;
5:2363
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–534,
565
conservatism and, 2:537–538,
541–542
Constant and, 2:545–546
consumerism and, 2:548, 549
contraception legislation and, 4:2042
cooperative movements in, 2:555–557
Corot and, 2:560–562
corporations in, 1:354
cotton production in, 1:329
counterrevolutionists in, 1:268–269;
2:563–568, 567
Courbet and, 2:568–569
Crimean War and, 1:38–39, 94, 244,
271, 278; 2:577–580, 866;
3:1592; 4:2048, 2051; 5:2410
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

criminality and, 2:570, 572,
573–574, 575, 576–577; 4:1816
cubism and, 2:590–593; 3:1530
Curies and, 2:594–597
Cuvier and, 2:598–599
cycling and, 2:599–600, 602
Daguerre and, 2:605–607
Danish-German War and, 2:608, 609
Daumier and, 2:620–622
David and, 2:623–625
death penalty and, 4:1963, 2005
Debussy and, 2:630–631
Decadence and, 2:631, 632–633
Degas and, 2:633–636
Delacroix and, 2:640–642, 910
Delcassé and, 2:642–643
demograpic data for, 2:643
Deraismes and, 2:649–650
Deroin and, 2:650–651
Doctrinaires and, 4:1971–1972,
1973
Doré and, 2:676–678
Dreyfus affair and, 1:75–76, 77;
2:683–686, 1068; 4:1929, 1964,
2137; 5:2432, 2502, 2523–2524
drinking culture of, 1:2–4, 34, 35, 36
Drumont and, 2:688–690
dueling code in, 2:695, 696; 3:1472
Durand and, 2:696–697
Durkheim and, 2:698–700
Eastern Question and, 1:278
economic growth rate of, 1:331
education in, 1:428, 431; 2:720,
721, 723, 724, 810, 811, 856,
929, 1029; 3:1522; 4:1868
Egypt and, 1:18, 222; 2:731, 732,
733, 794–795; 3:1585; 4:2274,
2275
Egyptology and, 1:406–407
Eiffel Tower and, 2:736–738, 760
emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 748
engineers and, 2:757, 758–760
Entente Cordiale and, 1:49, 50, 96;
2:64, 526, 609, 642, 643, 795;
3:1545; 4:2098
Ethiopia and, 1:8
eugenics and, 2:769, 771
exploration and, 2:782, 784
factories in, 2:790–792
fashion and, 1:481–483; 2:792
Fashoda Affair and, 2:643, 663,
794–795; 3:1117–1118, 1668;
5:2502
fauvism and, 2:795–797
female teachers in, 2:724
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
feminism in, 1:127–128; 2:649–650,
650–651, 696–697, 801–802,
802, 803, 804, 947, 948,
995–996; 3:1288; 4:1761–1762,
1998–1999
feminist backlash in, 2:804
Ferry and, 2:810–813; 3:1118, 1121
fertility decline in, 4:1829
fin de siécle and, 2:814–817
fin de siécle right-wing nationalism
in, 3:1476–1477
First International and, 2:824
Flaubert and, 2:827–828
football (soccer) in, 2:833, 834
Fouché and, 2:836–837
foundling homes/hospitals in,
5:2451, 2453
Fourier and, 2:838–839
Fourierism in, 4:2202; 5:2397
Freemasons in, 2:877, 880–881,
882; 4:1929, 1998, 2243
futurism and, 2:917, 920
Gallicanism and, 4:1721
Gambetta and, 2:928–929
Gauguin and, 2:939–941
gender practices in, 2:941–943
Géricault and, 2:955–956; 4:1705
German antagonism of, 1:232;
2:859; 3:1546
See also Franco-Prussian War; World
War I
German relations with, 2:968; 5:2311
Goncourt brothers and, 2:990–992
Gouges and, 2:993–996
Greek War of Independence and,
2:1020; 3:1612, 1613, 1685,
1686
Guesde and, 2:1025–1026
guild abolishment in, 1:106
Guimard and, 2:1026–1028
Guizot and, 2:1029–1030
gymnastics clubs and, 1:118
Haiti and, 2:1035–1036, 1037
Haussmann and, 2:1046–1050
Herzen’s critique of, 2:1065
historiography and, 2:1073, 1074;
3:1499
Holy Alliance and, 4:1971
homosexual/lesbian acts
decriminalization in, 2:1083
housing and, 2:1089
Hugo and, 2:1092–1095
as imperial power, 3:1115, 1116,
1118–1119, 1121, 1122; 5:2362
impressionism and, 3:1126–1133
INDEX
India and, 3:1115, 1134
Indochina and, 3:1137–1138, 1139,
1140–1145
industrialization of, 1:329, 330, 351;
3:1149
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
and, 4:1961; 5:2493
infant mortality rate in, 4:1829
Ingres and, 3:1165–1167
inheritance law in, 3:1450
intellectuals and, 3:1167–1168,
1169
inventions and, 3:1153
iron production in, 1:329
Japan and, 3:1210, 1212; 4:2171
Jarry and, 3:1212–1214
Jaurès and, 3:1214–1219
Jewish emancipation in, 1:73;
3:1225, 1226–1227
Jews in, 3:1229, 1232
Jomini and, 3:1236–1237
labor movements in, 3:1217,
1285–1292; 4:2298–2299;
5:2485–2488, 2491, 2492
Laennec and, 3:1297–1298
Lafayette and, 3:1298–1301
Lamarck and, 3:1301–1303
Lamartine and, 3:1303–1304
landed elites in, 3:1304–1305
languages and, 2:725
Larrey and, 3:1307–1308
Lavoiseir and, 3:1311–1313
law and, 3:1313–1315, 1315,
1594–1596; 4:1951–1952
See also Napoleonic Code
LeBon and, 3:1316–1317
Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1317–1319
leisure activities in, 1:288
Leo XIII relations with, 3:1331
Lesseps and, 3:1337–1338
liberal impediments in, 3:1346, 1348
liberalism in, 4:1971–1972, 2247;
5:2310
libraries in, 3:1350, 1352
literacy in, 2:720; 3:1522; 4:1822,
1868
Louis XVI and, 3:1384–1386
Louis XVIII and, 3:1386–1387
Louis-Napoleon and. See Napoleon III
Louis-Philippe and, 3:1387–1389
Lumière brothers and, 3:1396–1398
lycée experience in, 1:428
Lyon and, 3:1403–1405
machine breaking in, 3:1410–1411,
1412; 4:1821, 2264
2631
INDEX
Manet and, 3:1431–1434;
4:1707–1708
Marat and, 3:1442–1443
Marie-Antoinette and, 3:1445–1447
marriage and family in, 1:287;
4:1827–1828, 1830
maternity hospitals in, 5:2450
Matisse and, 3:1473–1475
Maurras and, 3:1476–1477
medicine in, 1:227–228, 407–411
Mediterranean and, 3:1482
Mediterranean tourist towns in,
1:288, 303
Méliès and, 3:1482–1484
mesmerism in, 3:1490–1491
Mesmer’s success in, 3:1490
Michel and, 3:1496–1498
Michelet and, 3:1498–1499
military schools in, 1:96
military tactics and, 1:95;
3:1505–1506
millennium celebration (2000) in,
2:738
Millet and, 3:1515–1516
modernism and, 3:1530
Monet and, 3:1534–1537
monetary union and, 3:1538
Morisot and, 3:1543–1545
Moroccan Crises and, 2:663;
3:1545–1546
Morocco and, 3:1548
museums in, 3:1562
music in, 3:1565, 1572
mutual aid societies in, 3:1284
Nadar and, 3:1577–1578
Napoleon and. See Napoleon I
Napoleon III and. See Napoleon III
national anthem of, 1:457; 2:518,
891; 4:1826
national identity and, 3:1521–1522
newspapers and, 4:1867,
1868–1869, 1872
nobility in, 1:78
North American colonies of, 1:343
Offenbach and, 3:1660–1662
old age in, 3:1662, 1663–1664,
1664, 1665
Olympic Games and, 3:1667
opera and, 3:1669, 1670,
1671–1672, 1673, 1675
Opium War and, 3:1679–1680
Ottoman Empire and, 5:2391
painting and, 1:397–399; 4:1701,
1702, 1705–1708
Panama Canal and, 3:1338
2632
Papal State and, 4:1719, 1725, 1726
Paris Commune and, 4:1964, 1998,
2132, 2204; 5:2311, 2485, 2486,
2488, 2491, 2523
Pasteur and, 4:1742–1745
patriotic holiday of, 4:1826
Paul I’s antipathy toward, 4:1747
peasant enfranchisement in, 4:1755
peasant households in, 4:1752
peasant rebellion in, 1:359
Péguy and, 4:1760–1761
Pelletier and, 4:1761–1762
penal exile and, 2:780
Peninsular War and, 4:2227–2228
philosophy and, 1:213–215
photography in, 4:1770–1772
phylloxera vineyard infestation in,
4:1777–1778
physiocrats and, 1:269; 2:515; 3:1304
Piedmont and, 2:866, 867; 4:2001;
5:2306
pilgrimages and, 4:1787–1789
Pinel and, 4:1790–1792
Pissarro and, 4:1792–1794
Poincaré (Henri) and, 4:1804–1805
Poincaré (Raymond) and,
4:1805–1806
police system in, 2:837;
4:1813–1814, 1815, 1816
Polish migrants to, 4:1808
political clubs in, 4:1991
popular culture in, 4:1821–1822,
1826
population growth of, 4:1827, 1830
pornography and, 4:1833, 1834,
1835
Portugal and, 4:2225
positivism and, 4:1844
postal service in, 4:1937
poster art and, 4:1845, 1846
press freedom and, 4:1870
professional certification in, 1:284;
4:1879
professionals in, 4:1878, 1880
prostitution in, 4:1883, 1884, 1885,
2301
Protestant minority in, 4:1793,
1890, 1891, 1891, 1895, 1970,
2136–2137, 2279
Protestant missions to, 3:1527
Proudhon and, 4:1897–1899
Prussia and, 4:2004, 2092, 2225,
2251–2252; 5:2311, 2374–2375,
2442, 2467, 2526
See also Franco-Prussian War
E U R O P E
psychological research tradition of,
4:1908
public health in, 4:1909, 1910,
1912–1913, 1914–1915
Radicalism in, 4:1928–1930, 1964
railroads and, 2:764; 4:1932–1935,
1937; 5:2349
Ravachol and, 4:1941–1943, 1942,
1943
Ravel and, 4:1944–1945
Red Cross and, 4:1949
Renan and, 4:1952–1954
Renoir and, 4:1954–1956
republicanism and, 1:248–249,
479–480; 4:1958–1964
restaurants in, 4:1964–1967
Revolution of 1789. See French
Revolution
Revolution of 1820. See under
Revolutions of 1820
Revolution of 1830. See under
Revolutions of 1830
Revolution of 1848. See under
Revolutions of 1848
Richer and, 4:1998–1999
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 1:392; 2:931–932, 932;
3:1198; 4:2001, 2003
roads in, 5:2346, 2349, 2352
Robespierre and, 4:1951, 1952,
1960, 2005–2008
Rodin and, 4:2008–2011
Roland and, 4:2013–2014
Rolland and, 4:2014–2016
Romania and, 4:2017; 5:2381
Romanticism and, 4:2028, 2030,
2031, 2247, 2252
Rome and, 4:2003, 2004, 2033,
2034–2035
Rothschilds and, 4:2040, 2041
Roussel and, 4:2041–2042
Rude and, 4:2031, 2043–2044
Russia and, 1:411; 2:526, 642,
643, 795; 4:2048, 2050–2051,
2054; 5:2306, 2374, 2417, 2440,
2442
Sade and, 4:2073–2074
Saint-Simon and, 4:2080–2082,
2200
Sand and, 4:2083–2085
San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2086
Satie and, 4:2086–2087
Schlieffen Plan and, 4:2098–2099
science and, 1:227–228; 4:2112
seaside resorts in, 3:1325; 4:2124,
2125, 2126; 5:2328
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Second International and, 4:2127,
2128
secret societies in, 4:1995, 2129–2132
secularization of, 2:810–812, 856;
4:2136
September Massacres and, 4:2006
Serbia and, 4:2147
Seurat and, 4:2155–2158
Sieyès and, 4:2180–2181
slavery and, 4:1959, 2192
slavery abolishment and, 1:18, 19,
365, 458, 499; 2:506, 1036
slavery reinstatement and, 1:498;
2:897
slave trade and, 1:13, 308, 309
smallpox epidemic in, 4:2198
socialism and, 1:247–248; 2:824,
859; 4:1929, 1930, 2127, 2128,
2129, 2200, 2201–2203, 2205,
2265, 2298, 2299
social reform in, 1:285–286
sociology and, 4:2214
Sorel and, 4:2217–2218
Spain and, 4:1981, 2225–2229
spiritualism and, 4:2237, 2238
sports in, 4:2241–2246
Staël and, 4:2246–2247
statistical study and, 4:2250
steamships and, 5:2350
Stendhal and, 4:2252–2253
strikes in, 2:857; 3:1288; 4:1930,
2265–2267; 5:2484, 2485, 2488,
2491
subways and, 4:2271–2273; 5:2502,
2503
Sudan and, 3:1668–1669
Suez Canal and, 3:1337–1338;
4:2274
suffrage in, 1:203, 247;
4:1928–1929, 1961, 1964, 1998,
2181, 2276–2281; 5:2317
Sweden and, 4:2283
Switzerland and, 4:2288
symbolists and, 1:214; 4:2292–2295
syndicalism and, 1:61, 62; 3:1292;
4:2266, 2267, 2298–2299;
5:2485, 2491
syphilis control in, 4:2300–2303
Talleyrand and, 5:2305–2306
tea drinking in, 1:495
technology and, 4:2112
telephone service in, 4:1937; 5:2308
temperance movement in, 5:2477
theater in, 1:229–230
Thiers and, 4:1932; 5:2310–2311
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
tobacco and, 5:2313, 2314
Tocqueville and, 4:2213;
5:2316–2318
Toulouse-Lautrec and, 5:2323–2325
tourism and, 5:2326, 2327, 2328,
2330
Toussaint Louverture and, 5:2332
trade and, 5:2334, 2336–2340
Trieste and, 5:2354
Triple Intervention of 1895 and,
4:2064
Tristan and, 5:2357–2358, 2358,
2397
tuberculosis treatment and, 5:2361
Tunisia and, 2:582; 5:2362, 2363
ultraroyalist reactionaries and, 2:539
universities in, 5:2378–2379, 2381,
2386–2387
Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2392
utilitarianism and, 5:2393
Venetian Republic and, 5:2354,
2402
Verne and, 5:2408–2409
Vichy government and, 4:2303
Victor Emmanuel II and, 5:2410,
2497
villages in, 4:1752
Viollet-le-Duc and, 4:2030;
5:2422–2423
voluntary associations in, 1:116, 117,
118, 119
Waldeck-Rousseau and,
5:2432–2433
War of 1812 and, 5:2438
wars of. See Franco-Austrian War;
Franco-Prussian War; French
Revolutionary Wars and
Napoleonic Wars; World War I
welfare initiatives in, 3:1664;
5:2450–2452, 2454–2456, 2491
wine and, 4:1777–1778;
5:2475–2478
women’s status in, 2:721, 723, 804,
843
women’s suffrage and, 1:127–128;
4:2279–2280, 2281
women university students in, 2:728
women workers in, 5:2487–2488
workers’ rights and, 2:716
working class and, 5:2483–2488,
2491, 2492
world’s fairs and. See Exposition
Universelle
Zola and, 5:2522–2524
See also Consulate; Directory; First
Republic; Lyon; Napoleonic
INDEX
Empire; Paris; Restoration;
Second Empire; Second Republic;
Third Republic
France, Anatole, 3:1168, 1217
France et progrès (Deraismes), 2:649
France Juive, La (Drumont), 2:540,
688, 689, 690
Franchi, Alessandro, 3:1330
Franchomme, August, 1:439
Francis I, emperor of Austria, 1:139,
140; 2:860–861
abolishment of Holy Roman Empire
by, 2:860, 957–958
Austerlitz and, 1:132; 2:901
brother John, archduke of Austria,
and, 3:1235, 1236
Congress of Berlin and, 2:534, 534
daughter Marie-Antoinette and,
3:1384, 1445
French Revolution and, 2:860, 957
French Revolutionary Wars and,
2:899
grandson Francis Joseph and, 2:863
Holy Alliance and, 2:1079
Metternich and, 3:1492, 1493,
1494, 1495
Münchengrätz treaty and, 3:1560
Naples and, 2:932; 3:1255
Napoleon and, 2:901, 902; 3:1597
son Ferdinand I and, 2:807–808
Francis II, Holy Roman emperor. See
Francis I, emperor of Austria and
king of Hungary
Francis II, king of the Two Sicilies,
3:1255, 1581; 4:2003
Francis Charles, archduke of Austria,
2:807
Francis Ferdinand, archduke of Austria,
2:861–862
assassination of, 1:49, 207, 232,
242–243, 277; 2:663, 705, 861,
862, 865, 968; 3:1218, 1628;
4:2149
October Diploma of, 2:627
Romania and, 4:2019
Francis Joseph I, emperor of Austria
and king of Hungary, 2:863–866,
864, 961, 962
assassination plots against, 5:2356
constitutionalism and, 5:2510
counterrevolution and, 2:567
Diamond Jubilee of, 1:263;
4:1861
Ferdinand I’s abdication and, 2:807,
808
Francis Ferdinand and, 2:861–862,
865
2633
INDEX
Franco-Austrian War and, 2:866,
867; 3:1198
gerontocracy and, 3:1164
government reforms and,
1:262; 2:864
Jewish policy of, 1:73
Kossuth and, 3:1268, 1269
Lueger and, 3:1393
neo-absolutism and, 2:863–864
Pius IX and, 4:1795
Prague demonstration and,
4:1860, 1861
program of, 1:142, 143, 144–145
Social Democrats and, 1:10, 11
son Rudolf and, 2:861, 864;
4:2044–2045
Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2260
Suez Canal opening and, 4:2274
Venice and, 5:2402, 2403
Vienna and, 5:2418, 2420
William II and, 5:2469
world’s fairs and, 5:2498
World War I and, 2:862, 863
Franc-Nohain (playwright), 4:1944
Franco, Francisco, 1:366; 2:937
Franco-Austrian War (1859),
2:866–867, 952; 3:1198–1200;
4:1937
Austrian defeat in, 2:863, 867;
3:1198, 1255
Bohemian Lands and, 1:262
Cavour and, 1:392
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and,
3:1255
outcomes of, 3:1592
Franco-Prussian War, 1:478;
2:867–870; 4:1937, 2054;
5:2386, 2526
alliance system following, 1:47
Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:50, 51–52,
281; 2:870; 4:1734
armistice terms of, 4:1734–1735
balloon use in, 2:868; 3:1578
Bavaria and, 3:1383
Bernhardt and, 1:229
Bismarck and, 1:235, 236; 2:526,
662, 868, 870, 953, 964; 4:1734,
1736, 1903
Blanqui and, 1:248
Boulanger affair and, 1:279
Charcot’s medical work in, 1:411
cholera epidemic and, 2:669
Clemenceau and, 1:479
Daumier caricatures and, 2:622
deaths from, 2:629
2634
as Decadence factor, 2:632
Disraeli on, 2:957
Ferry and, 2:810, 812
First International and, 2:825
Frederick III and, 2:874
French defeat in, 2:810, 854–855,
870, 928, 964; 3:1667;
4:1734–1735
French drive for revenge following,
1:279, 281–282; 2:526; 3:1546
French feminist movement and,
4:1998
French indemnity payment and,
4:1837
French social effects of, 1:118
Gambetta and, 2:928, 929
Garibaldi and, 2:932
Geneva Convention and, 4:1949
Geneva Convention disuse in, 2:952;
3:1175
German Reich formation following,
1:171; 2:964
Goncourt brothers and, 2:991
historians on, 2:1074
Louis II of Bavaria and, 3:1383
Michel and, 3:1497
microbial infection and, 4:1743
military technology and, 3:1507
Moltke and, 3:1532
Napoleon III and, 1:271; 2:569,
853–854, 868, 870, 928, 964;
3:1593; 4:1734
nursing and, 3:1650
as Olympic Games impetus, 3:1667
origins of, 2:853, 867–868, 964;
4:1903
outcomes of, 2:662, 854
papal infallibility pronouncement
and, 2:966
papal loss of Rome and, 4:1719
Paris and, 4:1734–1735
Paris Commune and, 4:1734–1737
Pius IX and, 4:1797
Prussian general staff and, 1:96
Prussian technology and, 1:217
Renan racial theory and, 1:74
responsibility for, 2:964
Second Empire and, 2:853–855,
867–870; 3:1592
William I and, 5:2467
world’s fairs and, 5:2498, 2499
Franco-Russian Alliance (1894),
1:411; 2:526, 642, 643
Franco-Spanish system (migration),
3:1110
E U R O P E
Frank, Manfred, 3:1647–1648
Frank, Semyon L., 3:1171
Frankenstein (M. Shelley), 2:945;
4:2029, 2168
Frankfurt, 2:958, 959
counterrevolution and, 2:567
financial wealth and, 1:83–84
Hegel and Hölderin in, 2:1051
Jewish quarter of, 3:1233
John of Austria in, 3:1236
Prussian annexation of, 2:964
railroads and, 4:1934
Revolution of 1830 and, 1:457
Revolution of 1848 and, 4:1994
Rothschilds and, 4:2039
Frankfurt, Treaty of (1871), 1:50,
52; 5:2311
Frankfurt National Assembly. See
Frankfurt Parliament
Frankfurt Parliament (1848), 1:261,
393; 2:870–872, 877; 3:1287,
1346, 1523
Austria and, 1:141, 142
Frederick William IV and,
2:961–962; 4:1902
Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1860,
1861
serf emancipation and, 4:1754
Frankfurt Parliament, The (Eyck),
2:871
Franklin, Benjamin, 2:741
Franklin, John, 3:1658
Franklin Society (France), 3:1352
Franko, Ivan, 5:2373
Frantz, Brian, 2:515
Franz, Friedrich, 3:1484
Französische Maler (Heine), 2:1056
Französische Zustände (Heine), 2:1056
Fraser, John Foster, 1:136
Frasers Magazine (Scotland), 1:370;
4:2254
Fratellanza artigiana d’Italia, 1:104
Fratuzzi, I, 4:2174
Frauen-Zeitung (feminist magazine),
1:66; 2:804; 3:1680, 1681
Frau in der Kulturbewegung der
Gegenwart, Die (feminist
magazine), 1:189
Frau Jenny treibel (Fontane),
2:828, 829
Fraülein Else (Schnitzler), 4:2100
Frau und der Sozialismus, Die (Bebel),
1:194–195
Fraxi, Pisanus (Ashbee pseud.), 4:1836
Frazer, James, 2:872–873
Frazer, Lilly, 2:872
Frédéric, Léon, 4:1948
Frédéric Chopin (Delacroix), 1:439
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Frederick II (the Great), king of
Prussia, 1:215, 375; 2:958, 963,
968; 4:1900
Carlyle biography of, 1:371
censorship and, 4:1869
centenary of, 4:1740
education reform and, 2:723
Menzel paintings of, 3:1489
military tactics and, 3:1505
utilitarianism and, 5:2393
Frederick III, king of Prussia and
emperor of Germany, 1:240;
2:873–875; 4:1900
death of, 4:2045; 5:2468
father William I and, 2:874, 966
short reign of, 2:966
Siemens and, 4:2180
Frederick VI, king of Denmark, 2:648
Frederick William I, king of Prussia,
2:790
Frederick William III, king of Prussia,
2:606, 875–876; 5:2467
Carlsbad Decrees and, 1:369
Congress of Troppau and, 2:531,
534, 534
Hardenberg and, 2:1042, 1043
Holy Alliance and, 2:1079
Jena and, 3:1221
Napoleonic Wars and, 2:901,
902–903; 4:1900
reform and, 2:876, 958; 4:1900
Restoration and, 4:1972
Schinkel and, 4:2092
Schleiermacher and, 4:2097
son Frederick William IV and,
2:876, 877
Stein and, 4:2251
ultraconservative response to, 2:539
War of 1805 and, 5:2374
Frederick William IV, king of Prussia,
2:876–877
Bismarck and, 1:233, 234, 235
bureaucracy and, 1:324
German imperial crown refusal by,
2:961–962; 4:1902
papacy and, 3:1279
Polish territory and, 4:1808–1809
poor relief and, 4:1849
Ranke and, 4:1940
reforms and, 4:1901–1902
Revolutions of 1848 and, 1:216;
2:567, 961–962; 4:1901
Schelling and, 4:2088
Schlegel and, 4:2096
Schleswig-Holstein and, 2:871
suffragism and, 1:290
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
William I as successor to, 2:962;
5:2467
Young Hegelians and, 5:2512
Frederick Augustus I, elector of
Saxony, 2:534
Frederick the Great (Carlyle), 1:371
‘‘Frederick the Great’’ (Macaulay),
3:1408
Free Alliance (Berlin), 3:1291
free association (psychoanalysis),
4:1904
Free Association of German
Unions, 1:61
free churches, 4:2136
Free Church of Scotland, 2:1006;
4:2118
Freedom (anarchist newspaper), 3:1272
freedom of association, 1:119
freedom of the press, 1:216, 369;
2:812, 958; 4:1869, 1873
France and, 4:1845
Russian Great Reforms and, 2:1016
Freedom of Trade and Occupation
Acts of 1810 (Prussia), 2:958
freedom of worship. See religious
tolerance
freehold movement, 1:490; 2:647
free love, 2:803
free market. See capitalism; free trade;
laissez-faire
Freemasons, 2:877–882; 4:2130
anticlericalism and, 1:70
B’nai Brith modeled on, 1:119
Carbonari modeled on, 1:360
Catholic antagonism toward, 1:383
Chaadayev and, 1:400
Czartorysky and, 2:603
in France, 2:877, 880–881, 882;
4:1929, 1998, 2243
French nationalist Right vs., 1:5
French women’s rights and, 2:649;
4:1761
historical mythology of, 2:881
masculinity and, 3:1471
in Ottoman Empire, 5:2515
Pelletier and, 4:1761, 1762
in Portugal, 4:1841
prominent members of, 2:878
Russian repression of, 1:377; 3:1552
termnology and abbreviations of,
2:879
women and, 2:881, 882, 882
Freemasons Hall (London), 2:880
Free School (legal theory),
3:1315–1316
Free Thinkers, 2:1032; 4:1929
Freetown colony, 1:13–14; 3:1537
INDEX
free trade, 1:28, 353; 2:512; 5:2339,
2340, 2354, 2413, 2494
Belgium and, 1:201, 203
Bismarck and, 1:239
Britain and, 2:512, 514, 707, 708,
715–717, 1004–1005, 1007,
1011, 1012; 3:1345, 1369
capitalism and, 1:354, 355;
2:515, 709
Cobden advocacy of, 1:490–491;
2:707, 709, 1005
Cobden-Chevalier Treaty and, 1:491,
491–492; 2:512; 3:1537
colonies and, 1:498; 2:505
Congo and, 1:221, 223, 308–309
conservative opposition to, 2:958
Continental System and, 2:512
Corn Laws repeal and, 2:558, 560,
718, 1004–1005
decline of, 3:1124
definition of, 2:707
economic liberalism and, 3:1341
Gladstone and, 2:976, 977, 1007
institutionalist arguments on, 2:709
liberals’ support for, 2:958; 3:1348
List’s rejection of, 3:1357
Manchester and, 3:1427, 1429
Napoleon and, 1:106
Netherlands and, 3:1617
peace activists and, 4:1695
Peel and, 4:1759
Philosophic Radicals and, 3:1512
Piedmont and, 3:1255
protectionism vs., 2:515–516;
4:1887–1889
Prussia and, 2:959
theory of, 4:1887–1888
Zollverein and, 1:171, 487;
2:505, 512
Free Trade Hall (Manchester), 3:1429,
1566
Free University of Amsterdam, 3:1619
free verse, 1:102; 4:2292
free will, 2:239
Free Womb Law of 1880 (Cuba),
1:366
Frege, Gottlob, 2:882–884, 1100
Frégier, Honoré, 2:572, 575
Freiberg, Hedwig, 3:1263
Freicorps (Serbia), 3:1247
Freie Bühne (Berlin), 3:1109
Freiheit in Krähwinkel (Nestroy),
5:2419
Freikorps (private paramilitary), 3:1356
Freiligrath, Ferdinand, 1:66
Freischütz, Die (Weber), 3:1570, 1673
2635
INDEX
Frémiet, Louis and Sophie, 4:2043
French Academy. See Académie
Française
French Academy (Rome), 3:1165
French Academy of Sciences. See
Academy of Sciences
French Canadians, 1:343, 344,
345, 346
French Celtic League, 2:590
French Communist Party, 2:1025;
3:1144; 4:1732, 1762
French Congo, 1:339; 2:783;
3:1546, 1549
French Congrés International du Droit
des Femmes, 2:649
French Cyclists’ Union, 4:2245
French Equatorial Africa, 1:20–21, 500
French Eugenics Society, 2:769
French Flag Hoisted at Timbuktu, The
(illustraton), 2:507
French Geographical Society (Paris),
2:782, 784
French Guiana, 2:780–781
French Guinea, 2:780, 812
French Indochina. See Indochina
French language
Belgium and, 1:199–200, 202, 307
Brussels and, 1:307
Canada and, 1:343, 344
French opera, 3:1669, 1670,
1671–1672, 1673, 1675
French Revolution, 1:130; 2:840–844,
845, 884–899; 4:2212
aggression and, 2:661
Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:50–51
anarchism and, 1:55–56
anticlericalism and, 1:68, 387; 2:843,
844, 888, 894, 1000;
4:1717–1718
antislavery movement and, 1:308
aristocracy and, 1:78, 80–81, 471;
2:840–841, 842, 843, 845,
886, 897
artisans and, 1:104
Bastille storming and, 2:842,
886–887; 3:1300, 1385;
4:1728, 1729
beginning (official) of, 3:1385
Bonapartism and, 1:269, 270
bourgeoisie defined by, 1:283–284
bread prices and, 3:1385; 4:1728
Burke’s view of, 1:326, 327–328;
2:538, 566, 887; 3:1422; 4:1700
as Cabet influence, 1:337
Caribbean slave revolt and, 1:364;
2:890
caricatures and, 2:886
2636
Carlyle’s history of, 1:370–371
Catherine II and, 1:376
Catholic Church and, 1:381; 4:2136
Catholic political activity and,
1:386–387, 389
centenary of (1889), 2:550, 737;
4:1696, 1731
Charles X and, 2:843; 3:1386, 1403
as Chartist influence, 1:415
Chateaubriand and, 1:419, 420
citizenship and, 1:456, 458; 2:843,
896; 3:1228, 1229
coal mine concessions and, 1:488
as Coleridge influence, 1:497
colonial revolutions and, 1:498
Committee of Public Safety and,
2:518–519, 845
communism and, 2:520
counterrevolutionaries and,
1:268–269, 326; 2:537, 538,
539, 542, 564–565, 689,
843–844, 887, 890, 891, 894;
3:1343, 1344
crime statistical collection and, 2:570
Danton and, 2:610, 611–612
David and, 2:623, 624; 4:1702
Directory and, 2:664–666, 894–895
disagreeable consequences of, 3:1343
École Polytechnique founding and,
4:1780
education reforms of, 1:286; 2:666,
846; 3:1361
émigré compensation and, 2:847
émigrés from, 1:268, 412, 420;
2:563, 843, 844; 3:1111, 1205,
1300, 1386
ending of (1802), 2:894–895, 901
Estates-General and, 2:767–768;
3:1385
European reaction to, 2:887; 3:1191
family law and, 3:1595
federalist revolt (1793) and,
2:799–800, 844
feminism and, 2:801–802, 806,
941, 945
First Republic and, 2:844–846,
891–893; 3:1205
foreign coalition against, 2:890–891
Fox’s view of, 2:839–840
Freemasons and, 2:881
as Gambetta inspiration, 2:929
gender exclusions by, 2:941, 945;
3:1470
German reaction to, 2:957, 959;
3:1523
E U R O P E
Girondins and, 2:610, 612, 799,
844, 973–974
Goethe’s view of, 2:987
Gouges and, 2:994–996
Great Fear and, 2:886
Guizot’s view of, 2:1030
Habsburg reaction to, 1:139–140
health citizenship and, 4:1909, 1915
Hegels support for, 2:1051, 1053
Hellenism and, 4:1769
initial popularity of, 2:888
intellectuals and, 3:1167
Irish perception of, 3:1176
as Irish republicanism influence,
2:1000
Italian reaction to, 3:1191, 1192
Jacobins and, 3:1205–1206
Jaurès’s socialist history of, 3:1216
Jewish emancipation and, 1:73;
2:843; 3:1226, 1228, 1229
Lafayette and, 2:890; 3:1299–1300
Lamartine history of, 3:1304
land confiscation and, 3:1305
Lavoisier and, 3:1313
legal reforms and, 2:888;
3:1313–1314, 1315, 1316
leisure practices and, 3:1323
liberal ideals and, 3:1342–1345
liberal postrevolutionary critique of,
2:546
Louis XVI and, 3:1385–1386, 1446
Louis XVIII and, 3:1386
Louis-Philippe’s support for,
3:1387–1388
Lyon and, 3:1403
machine breaking and, 3:1411
Maistre on, 3:1421–1422
Marat and, 3:1443
Marie-Antoinette and, 3:1445,
1446–1447
‘‘Marseillaise’’ and, 1:457;
2:518, 891
mass deaths and, 2:628, 892–894;
3:1192
mass mobilization and, 3:1339–1340
Michelet’s history of, 3:1499
museum democratization and, 3:563,
1561; 4:1825
Napoleon and, 3:1584, 1586
national identity and, 3:1521–1522
nationalism and, 3:1603
old age and, 3:1662, 1664
origins of, 2:840–841, 884–885;
3:1385
Paine and, 4:1700–1701
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

painting and, 4:1701, 1702–1703
papacy and, 4:1717–1718
Paris and, 2:842–845, 886, 887,
890, 891; 4:1727–1729
Parisian mob violence and, 2:799,
845; 4:1728
peasants and, 4:1755
penal exile and, 2:780–781
phases of, 3:1192
pilgrimage ban and, 4:1787–1788
pogroms and, 4:1802
police system and, 4:1813
political clubs and, 2:890
positivism and, 4:1844
posters and, 4:1845
press’s role in, 4:1868, 1869
radicalization of, 2:890–894; 3:1192
See also Reign of Terror
Ranke on, 4:1940
republicanism and, 4:1958–1964
Robespierre and, 4:2005–2006
Rome and, 4:2033
royal family and, 3:1385–1386
Russia and, 4:2047–2048
Sade and, 4:2074
Saint-Domingue and, 5:2332
Saint-Simon and, 4:2080, 2082
sans-culottes and, 1:111; 2:844,
887, 890
secret societies and, 4:2129
secularization and, 4:2132, 2133
September Massacres and, 2:799,
891, 973
serf emancipation and, 2:886, 892,
897; 3:1305; 4:1754, 2149
Sieyès and, 4:2180–2181
significance of, 2:895–896
spread of ideals of, 1:456–457, 459,
461–462; 2:669, 895–896, 1019;
3:1176, 1342–1345; 4:1696
Staël and, 4:2246–2247
suffragism and, 4:2277, 2279
Tories and, 5:2321
utopian socialist view of,
5:2395–2396
Vendée insurgency and, 2:563, 565,
844, 892
Venetian Republic and, 5:2402
Wollstonecraft and, 5:2480
women’s rights and, 2:843,
941–942, 945; 4:2279
working class and, 5:2483
See also French Revolutionary Wars
and Napoleonic Wars; Reign of
Terror
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
French Revolution, The (Blake), 1:244
French Revolution, The (Carlyle),
1:370–371
French Revolutionary Wars and
Napoleonic Wars, 2:891–892,
893, 895, 899–903
Alexander I and, 1:37–38, 226
allied unity and, 1:374
aristocracy and, 1:81
armies and, 1:93–94
Austerlitz and, 1:132–133; 2:846;
3:1586
Austria and, 1:93, 132–133,
139–140, 170; 2:611, 844, 846,
860–861, 861, 890, 893, 895,
899, 900, 901, 902, 903, 957;
3:1235–1236, 1254, 1319,
1492–1493, 1588; 4:1900;
5:2374, 2417, 2442
balance of power restoration after,
1:457
banditry and, 2:571
banking and, 1:170, 171
Belgium and, 1:199, 200; 2:899,
900, 903; 3:1587
Berlin occupation and, 1:215
Bernadotte and, 1:226–227; 2:903;
3:1319, 1320
blockades and, 2:553
Bonapartism and, 1:269–271
Borodino and, 1:272–273; 2:902;
3:1588
bourgeoisie and, 1:284, 471
Britain and, 2:846, 891, 895,
900–901, 1002; 3:1319, 1339,
1493, 1585, 1586–1587, 1588;
4:1764–1766
British rule in India and, 3:1134
Castlereagh and, 1:373, 374
Catherine II and, 1:376; 4:1748
Catholicism and, 1:387
Charles Albert and, 1:413
Clausewitz and, 1:477
Concert of Europe and, 2:524–527,
540, 661–664
Congress of Vienna and. See
Congress of Vienna
Continental System and, 2:553–554
Czartoryski and, 2:603
Danton and, 2:610
deaths from, 2:628, 644
Denmark and, 4:2287
diplomacy and, 2:661
Egypt and, 1:18, 43, 44, 406;
2:731, 900
First Coalition and, 2:860, 899–900
INDEX
Fourth Coalition and, 1:38; 2:903
Frederick William III and, 2:875
Frederick William IV and, 2:876
French abolition of slavery and,
2:1036
French museum collections acquired
from, 3:1562
French provocation for, 3:1596
French territorial expansion and, 2:895
See also Napoleonic Empire
Germany and, 1:368–369; 2:957
Girondins and, 2:844, 974
Goya’s paintings and, 2:98, 997
gymnastics and, 4:2241
Hamburg and, 2:1038
Hundred Days and, 2:1098–1099
imperialism and, 3:1114, 1115
as international conflict, 3:1176
international law and, 3:1172, 1175
Ireland and, 2:1000
Italy and, 3:1191–1192, 1254;
4:1786, 2000–2001
Jacobins and, 3:1205, 1206
Jena and, 3:1221–1222
Jewish emancipation and, 3:1227
John, archduke of Austria, and,
3:1235036
Jomini and, 3:1236–1237
Kutuzov and, 3:1281–1282
Lafayette and, 3:1300
Larrey and, 3:1308
Leipzig battle and, 3:1319–1322,
1588
Leopold I and, 3:1334
levée en masse and, 3:1338–1340
Louis-Philippe and, 3:1388
medical services and, 3:1307–1308
Metternich and, 3:1491, 1492–1493
migrations and, 3:1110–1111
military tactics and, 3:1505–1506
Moscow’s destruction in, 3:1551
mythologies about, 3:1340
Napoleon and, 2:957; 3:1584–1588
Napoleonic Empire as legacy of,
3:1596–1597
Napoleon’s defeats and, 2:846, 847,
902–903, 1099; 3:1322, 1493,
1588, 1599; 4:1765–1767
Nelson and, 3:1615
Ottoman Empire and, 3:1683
Papal State and, 4:1724
Paul I and, 4:1748
penal exile and, 2:780
Peninsular War’s impact on outcome
of, 4:1766
2637
INDEX
Poland and, 4:1807, 1808, 1817
Prussia and, 1:93, 133, 477; 2:553,
610, 611, 844, 846, 875, 876,
891, 895, 899–903, 957, 958,
1038, 1042, 1043; 3:1221–1222,
1319, 1493, 1586, 1588;
4:1899–1901, 2252
rationale for, 2:891–892, 895
resort development and, 4:2124
Restoration and, 4:1967, 1968
Russian invasion and, 1:38; 2:603,
846, 861, 958; 3:1281–1282,
1308, 1319, 1492, 1551, 1588,
1599; 4:1766
Second Coalition and, 2:860, 895,
900–901
Serbia and, 3:1683
sister republics and, 2:666;
4:2186–2187
Spain and. See Peninsular War
sugar-beet farming and, 4:1753
Third Coalition and, 1:37–38;
2:603, 860, 901–902;
3:1586–1587
tobacco smoking and, 5:2314
tourism and, 5:2327
Trafalgar battle and, 3:1586, 1615;
5:2344–2345, 2438
Turner and impact of, 5:2366–2367
Ulm and, 5:2374–2375
Vienna’s occupation and, 5:2417
War of 1812 and, 5:2438
Wars of Liberation and, 4:1900
Waterloo and, 4:2039, 2124;
5:2367, 2442–2443, 2457
Wellington and, 5:2442–2443, 2457
wine and, 5:2476
See also Congress of Vienna;
Napoleonic Empire
French Royal Academy. See Royal
Academy (France)
French Section of the Workers
International, 4:2299
French Socialist Party, 3:1217, 1218
Ho Chi Minh and, 3:1144
Pelletier and, 4:1761
Socialist Party of France vs., 3:1217,
1292
French Union for Womens Suffrage,
1:128; 4:2279–2280
French Workers Party, 1:127; 2:1025,
2205
Frères Zemganno, Les (E. Goncourt),
2:991
Frerichs, Friedrich Theodor von, 2:735
Fréron, Louis, 2:894
2638
Fresch, Cardinal, 1:420
Fresnaye, Roger de la, 1:156
Fresnel, Augustin-Jean, 4:1779, 1780
Freud, Anna, 2:904, 909; 4:1904
Freud, Sigmund, 1:464; 2:872,
903–910, 905; 3:1509, 1535;
4:2255
Adler (Alfred) and, 1:8–10; 2:907,
908
Andreas-Salomé and, 1:65
anti-Semitism and, 2:904
Brentano’s influence on, 1:298, 299
cocaine and, 2:688
degeneration and, 2:638–639
on Dostoyevsky’s insights, 2:679
fin de siècle and, 2:816
Fourier seen as precursor of, 2:838
gender theories of, 2:948–949
Greek tragedy and, 4:1770
homosexuality theory of, 2:906,
1085; 4:2163
hysteria and, 1:410; 2:904–905
Jung and, 2:907, 908, 909;
3:1238–1239, 1240
as Kafka influence, 3:1242
on male potency, 3:1472
neuroanatomy and, 1:341, 342
psychoanalysis and, 1:8–9;
2:638–639, 904, 905–909;
3:1240; 4:1904–1905, 1908;
5:2421
Rank and, 4:1938
Schnitzler and, 4:2100
Schoenberg and, 4:2102
Schopenhauer as influence on,
4:2104
sexuality theory and, 2:905,
906–907, 908; 4:1904, 1905,
2104, 2163, 2164
on Ulrichs’s theory, 5:2376
Weininger and, 5:2449
Freud, Sophie, 2:908
Freycinet, Charles-Louis de, 1:279;
2:642, 856–857
Freycinet Plan (France), 4:1964
Fried, Alfred Hermann, 4:1697, 2282
Friedell, Egon, 1:336
Friedjung, Siegfried, 1:10
Friedland, Battle of (1807), 2:846,
902; 3:1586
Friedman, Milton, 2:707
Friedrich, Caspar David, 2:910–912,
911; 4:1703, 2027, 2029–2030
Friedrich Nietzsche in seinen Werken
(Andreas-Salomé), 1:64
Friedrichshain (Berlin), 4:1740
Friedrichstrasse (Berlin), 1:218, 219
E U R O P E
Friedrichswerder Church (Berlin),
4:2093
Friedrich Wilhelm University. See
Humboldt University
friendly societies, 2:1019; 5:2490
Friendship’s Garland (Arnold), 1:103
Friends of the People (France), 1:290;
3:1285
Fries, J. F., 2:1053
Friesz, Othon, 1:153; 2:796, 797
Frieze of Life, The (Munch), 3:1559,
1560; 4:2294
Fröding, Gustav, 4:2287
From Eugène Delacroix to Neo-
Impressionism (Signac), 4:2158
From the Other Shore (Herzen), 2:1065
From the Papers of One Still Living
(Kierkegaard), 3:1251
Fronde, La (Paris daily), 2:696–697
frozen food, 2:659; 3:1623
Fructuosa Rivera, José, 2:931
fruit, 5:2337, 2342
Fry, Elizabeth, 3:1649
Fry, Roger, 2:835; 4:1865, 2258
Fuad Pasha, 3:1686
Fuchs, Ernst, 3:1316
fueros, 4:2229
Fuller, Loie, 5:2503
Fulton, Robert, 2:760
‘‘Function of Criticism at the Present
Time, The’’ (Arnold), 1:102
functions, theory of, 4:1804
Fundamental Laws of 1906 (Russia),
4:1978, 2057, 2211, 2257
Fundamental Pact of 1846 (Tunisia),
5:2362, 2363
Funen, 2:647
funerals. See death and burial
funerary monuments, 1:347
fungicides, 3:1164
Furet, François, 4:1962, 2081–2082
furniture, 2:912–915, 913, 1090
art nouveau and, 1:107–108, 109,
110–112, 113; 2:815
consumerism and, 2:549, 912–913
Morris designs for, 3:1550
fur trade, 2:505; 4:2172
‘‘Fusées’’ (Baudelaire), 1:188
Fuseli, Henry (Füssli, Johann
Heinrich), 4:1703, 2027; 5:2480
Fustel de Coulanges, Numa-Denis,
1:51
Future of Illusion, The (Freud),
2:908–909
Future of Science, The (Renan), 4:1953,
2133
Future of War, The (Bloch), 2:1034
futurism, 2:550, 774, 915–921;
4:1711
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

avant-garde and, 1:155, 156–158
Bergson’s influence on, 1:214;
2:918, 921
collage and, 2:592
modernism and, 3:1530–1531
Russia and, 4:2182–2183
Venice and, 5:2405
Futurist Manifesto, The (Marinetti),
2:917
Futurist Political Party (Italy), 2:921
‘‘Futurist Refashioning of the
Universe’’ (Balla and Despero),
2:917
Fux, Johann, 3:1484
Fuzhou, 3:1679
n Rome and, 4:2003, 2004,
G Gambara (Balzac), 1:168
Gabon, 2:783, 812
Gabriel, Jacques-Ange, 4:1727
Gadamer, Hans-Georg, 2:661, 1062
Gaelic Athletic Association, 3:1180,
1182
Gaelic language, 4:2120
Gaelic League, 3:1180, 1182
Gagelin-Opigez, 1:482
Gagern, Heinrich von, 2:871,
923–924; 3:1346
Gailleton, Antoine, 3:1405
Gainsborough, Thomas, 2:543
Gaj, Ljudevit, 2:924–925; 4:1861
Gala Méliès, 3:1484
Galanti, Giuseppe Maria,
3:1580–1581
Galápagos Islands, 2:613
Galata, 3:1186, 1190
Galata Bridge (Istanbul), 3:1684
Galerie Bernheim-Jeune (Paris), 2:918
Galgani, Gemma, 1:385
Galiani, Ferdinando, 2:515; 3:1580
Galicia (Austria-Hungary), 1:140, 145;
4:1993, 2020; 5:2369–2373,
2380
Jewish population in, 3:1229, 1232;
4:1808
peasant uprising in, 4:1755
Polish autonomy in, 4:1809, 1818
Galicia (Spain), 1:367–368; 4:1765
Galilei, Galileo, 4:2113
Galiyev, Sultan, 3:1208
Gall, Franz Joseph, 2:523, 925–926;
4:1775, 1908
Gallagher, John, 1:498
Gallé, Émile, 1:108, 110, 111
Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II (Milan),
3:1503
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Gallery of Machines (Paris), 5:2500
galley slavery, 2:779
Gallia (Dowie), 4:2235
Galliani, Ferdinando, 4:1887
Gallican Articles of 1682, 2:529
Gallicanism, 1:269; 2:529; 4:1721
Galliffet, Gaston-Alexandre-Auguste
de, 3:1216; 5:2432
Galli-Marié, Célestine, 3:1676
Gallipoli, 1:163, 278; 2:669; 3:1624
Galton, Francis, 2:927–928
eugenics and, 2:619, 637, 652, 769,
770, 779, 927, 928
human variation study of, 4:1908
statistical variation and, 2:652, 770;
4:1922, 2248–2249
Galton curve, 2:652
Galvani, Luigi, 4:2168
galvanometer, 3:1249
Gambetta, Léon-Michel, 2:810, 853,
928–930; 3:1122, 1219
Delcassé and, 2:642
peasant voters and, 4:1755
republicanism and, 4:1963
separation of church and state and,
4:2136
Third Republic and, 4:1734
Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432
Gambia, 1:13, 15, 21
Gambia River, 2:780
Gambler, The (Dostoyevsky),
2:678–679
Gamkrelidze, Thomas V., 2:1024
gamma-rays, 4:1804
Gandhi, Mohandas, 1:501; 3:1524;
4:2047; 5:2320
Gandon, James, 2:691
gangrene, 3:1308
gangs. See banditry; youth gangs
Ganivet, Angel, 2:950
Gänserupferinnen, Die (Liebermann),
3:1353
Ganz electric company, 2:741, 742
Gapon, Georgy, 4:1976
Garabit Viaduct (Cantal, France),
2:759, 760
Garašanin, Ilija, 4:2145, 2148
Garbo, Greta, 4:2287
garçonne (flapper), 2:947
Garde Mobile (France), 5:2487
‘‘Gardener, The’’ (Kipling), 3:1257
gardens, 3:1305, 1600
Gardiner, A. G., 2:1044
Gare Saint-Lazare (Paris), 3:1535;
4:1732
Garfield, James, 4:1768
Gargantua (French journal), 2:621
INDEX
Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 1:362, 391, 392;
2:930–933
caricature of, 2:931
Cavour and, 1:391, 392; 2:932, 933;
3:1197
Crispi and, 2:581
mafia and, 3:1415
myth of, 2:930, 932–933
pacifism and, 4:1696
popularity of, 3:1481
republicanism and, 4:1963
Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1197;
4:1719, 1796
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 2:931–932; 3:1195,
1197–1198, 1581; 4:1726
Roman Republic and, 3:1197
2034–2035, 2037
Sicilian revolt and, 3:1255, 1415
Sicily and, 4:2003, 2175, 2176
Victor Emmanuel II and, 4:2004;
5:2410–2411
Young Europe and, 3:1195
garments. See clothing, dress, and
fashion
Garnier, Charles, 2:738, 1049; 3:1672;
4:1708, 1731; 5:2500
Garnier, Joseph, 3:1538
Garnier, Tony, 3:1405
Garno, Diana, 1:338
Garofalo, Raffaele, 3:1371
Garrick, David, 1:327
Garrigue, Charlotte, 3:1468–1469
Garrison, William Lloyd, 3:1459
Garshin, Vsevolod, 2:633
gases, dynamic theory of, 3:1478;
4:1922
Gaskell, Elizabeth, 1:302; 2:657,
933–935, 934; 3:1430
Gaskell, William, 2:934, 935
Gaskell Society, 2:934
gas lighting, 5:2418
Gasprinski, Ismail Bey, 3:1207
gas street lights, 1:445–446; 2:548
electric lights compared with, 2:742
Gates of Hell, The (Rodin), 4:2008,
2009
Gatrell, Simon, 2:1045
GATT (General Agreement on Trade
and Tariffs), 2:512
Gaudı́, Antonio, 1:112, 183–184;
2:935–938; 4:1826, 2232
Gaudreault, André, 3:1482
Gauguin, Clovis, 2:939
Gauguin, Paul, 2:939–941, 940;
3:1530; 4:1757, 1874, 2156;
5:2501
2639
INDEX
avant-garde and, 1:152, 154; 2:941;
4:1710
Degas collection of works of, 2:634
as fauve influence, 2:795, 796
Jarry and, 3:1213
as Matisse influence, 3:1474
Pissarro and, 4:1792, 1793
postimpressionism and, 4:1709
primitivism and, 4:1874, 1875
symbolism and, 4:2294
Van Gogh and, 5:2401
Gaulard-Gibbs transformer, 3:1116
Gaulle, Edme, 4:2043
Gaumont, Léon, 3:1397
Gaumont company, 1:442; 3:1483
Gauner (criminal type), 2:572
Gautier, Théophile, 3:1432, 1577;
4:2182; 5:2314
Baudelaire essay on, 1:188
hashish and, 2:687
Gavarni, Paul, 2:586
Gaveaux, Pierre, 3:1673
Gay, Jean-Baptiste-Sylvère, 2:847
Gay, Jules, 4:1836
gay culture. See homosexuality and
lesbianism
gay liberation movement, 2:1086
Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, 2:1096
Gay Science, The (Nietzsche), 3:1631,
1632, 1635
gay studies, 4:2297
Gazette de France (newspaper), 4:1869
Gazette de Leyde (newspaper), 4:1867,
1868
Gazette des femmes (newspaper), 2:803
Gazette médicale de Paris (periodical),
4:1913
gazettes. See press and newspapers
Gazza ladra, La (Rossini), 4:2038
Gdańsk, 4:1808
GDP (gross domestic product)
contrasting European per capita levels
of, 1:350, 350
protectionism and, 2:513, 514
Second Industrial Revolution growth
per capita, 1:352
Gebhardt, Willabald, 3:1666
Gedichte (Fonante), 2:828
Geer, Louis de, 4:2283–2284
Geiger, Theodor, 1:106
Geist (Hegelian concept), 2:1052
Geistliche Lieder (Novalis), 3:1647
Geliebte von Elftausend Mädchen
(Althing), 4:1834
Gellner, Ernest, 3:1607
Geman Romanticism, national culture
and, 3:1523
Gem company, 4:2113
2640
gemeinschaft, 4:2212–2213
Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft
(Tönnies), 2:698–699
Gemignani, Elvira, 4:1915
Gendarmerie Nationale (France),
4:1813–1814
gender, 2:941–949
aristocratic prerogatives and, 1:469
Austen’s novels and, 1:131
Australia and, 1:136
automobiles and, 1:149
beards and, 1:190–191
body and, 1:251
bourgeois domesticity and, 1:287;
2:943
Catholicism and, 1:379, 383
Chartism and, 1:418
church attendance and, 4:1893–1894
civil society and, 1:466, 467
criminality theories and, 2:574;
3:1372
Davies’s equality belief and, 2:626
Decadence and, 2:632
definition of, 2:941
dimorphism and, 2:798, 802,
942–949; 3:1470, 1471
division of labor and, 3:1450, 1452,
1453, 1455, 1471
as Doyle issue, 2:680
dueling code and, 2:695, 696
educational opportunity and, 2:719,
721, 723
educational path and, 2:724, 725
equality vs. differences and, 2:801
factory work and, 1:474
family roles and, 3:1450, 1453, 1471
fashion and, 4:2158
fin de siècle tensions and, 2:816,
947–949; 3:1472
French workforce and, 2:697
homosexual identity concerns and,
2:816
homosexuals and lesbians and,
2:1082–1086
Ibsens Doll’s House and, 2:942;
3:1108, 1473
imperialism and, 3:1472
impressionist painting and, 3:1130
inheritance laws and, 287
labor movements and, 3:1288, 1292
law practice and, 2:726
leisure and, 3:1325
literacy and, 2:274, 719, 723;
3:1363, 1363; 4:1822, 1868
London cultural life and, 3:1378
manners and, 3:1438–1439
E U R O P E
migration and, 3:1114
misogyny and, 2:632, 675,
816, 995
Moscow ratio of, 3:1553–1554
Napoleonic Code and, 2:942–943;
3:1595
New Woman and, 1:485; 2:947
old-age pensions and, 3:1665
Paris Commune and, 4:1736
Pelletier’s theory of, 4:1761, 1762
professions and, 4:1881
propriety and, 3:1438–1439, 1439
prostitution and, 4:1883–1886
role resistance, 2:942
Romanticism and, 4:2029
Sand and, 4:2084
sewing and, 4:2158–2159
sexual double standard and, 1:469;
2:797, 798, 804, 947; 3:1471
sports and, 4:2245–2246
teachers and, 2:724
two-sex model of, 3:1470
university admission and, 2:728
voluntary associations and, 1:116
white-collar workers and, 1:473
working class and, 2:943, 944;
3:1741; 5:2487–2488
See also feminism; masculinity;
separate spheres; women
gene, coining of term, 2:653
Genealogy of Morals, The (Nietzsche),
1:64; 3:1633
General Act of the Berlin Conference
of 1885, 1:221–223, 308; 3:1173
General Act of the Brussels Conference
Relative to the African Slave Trade
of 1890, 1:309
General Agreement on Trade and
Tariffs, 2:512
General Association of German
Workers, 3:1289
General Board of Health (Britain),
1:325, 402; 4:1912
General Confederation of Labor
(France), 1:59, 60, 61; 3:1217,
1218, 1289, 1292; 4:2298, 2299;
5:2491
General Confederation of Labor
(Italy), 1:61; 3:1202, 1289;
4:2299
General German Workers Congress
(1848), 3:1287
General Jewish Workers Union. See
Bund, Jewish
General Nicolas Guye (Goya), 2:997
General Postal Union (Bern, 1874),
3:1173
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

General School Ordinance of 1774
(Austria), 2:723
General Service Enlistment Act of
1856 (India), 4:2140
general staff (army), 1:96
general strikes, 1:62; 4:2267–2268,
2298–2299, 2300; 5:2390
Belgium and, 1:203, 204; 3:1293
British first planned (1842), 3:1284
Italy and, 3:1504
Russia and, 4:1974, 1977–1978,
2055–2056
St. Petersburg and, 2:823
for suffrage, 3:1293; 4:2268
General Theory (Keynes), 2:1076
general theory of relativity, 3:1409
General Treaty and Convention of
Commerce and Navigation
(1856), 3:1548
General Union of Carpenters and
Joiners, 3:1284
General Union of Spinners, 3:1284
General Union of Workers (Spain),
3:1289
general will (Rousseau theory), 3:1603
Generation of 1870 (Portugal),
4:1840
Generation of 1898, 2:949–952
Generelle Morphologie der Organismen
(Haeckel), 2:1031
genero chico, 3:1414
genetics
criminality theories and, 2:573–574;
3:1371
de Vries plant breeding and,
2:652–653
eugenics and, 2:637, 769–770, 927
evolution theories and, 2:618,
778–779
Galton theories and, 2:927, 928;
4:1922
gene theory and, 2:653
Lamarck and, 2:615, 637, 777–779,
928; 3:1302
Mendel and, 2:652, 769–770, 778;
3:1484–1486
statistical laws and, 4:1922
Geneva, Republic of, 4:2288
Geneva Convention (1864),
2:952–953; 3:1173
amendments (1906, 1929, 1949),
2:953; 3:1175
protocols (1977), 2:963
Red Cross and, 3:1650;
4:1948–1950
Geneva First International Congress
(1872), 2:825
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Geneviève, Saint, 4:1760
Genga, Annibale della. See Leo XII
Genghis Khan, 2:773
Genius of Christianity, The (Génie du
Christianisme, Le;
Chateaubriand), 1:420; 4:2030
Genoa, 4:2000
harbor, 1:448
Mazzini and, 3:1479
Piedmont-Savoy and, 3:1193;
4:1785, 1786
as republic, 3:1191, 1584, 1599;
4:2188
sister republics and, 4:2001, 2188
genocide
Armenian, 1:2, 90, 92
Nazi ‘‘racial hygiene’’ and, 2:928
Gens de justice, Les (Daumier), 2:621
Gensonné, Armand, 2:973
Gentile, Giovanni, 2:584, 585
Gentiloni, Ottorino, 4:2025
Gentiloni, Vincenzo, 2:972
Gentiloni Pact (1913), 2:972
‘‘gentlemanliness’’ theory, 1:485
gentlemen’s clubs, 4:1966
gentry, 1:80, 83, 84–85, 86
leisure and, 3:1323
Gentz, Friedrich von, 2:540
Gény, François, 3:1315
geodesy, 4:1921
Geographical Distribution of Animals,
The (Wallace), 5:2438
geography, 2:784, 1097
Geological Society of London, 2:1102;
3:1376, 1401, 1402
Geologic Map of England and Wales
with Part of Scotland (Smith),
4:2113
geology, 4:2113
Agassiz and, 1:22–23
age of earth and, 2:615, 776
Cuvier and, 2:599
Humboldt (Alexander) and, 2:1097
Kelvin and, 3:1250
Lyell and, 2:615; 3:1401–1402
geometry, 2:883
geopolitics, 3:1357
George, Stefan, 3:1529; 4:2102
George I, king of Greece, 2:1021,
1022
George III, king of Great Britain,
1:246; 3:1224; 5:2411, 2470
China and, 1:432, 433
Fox and, 2:839, 840, 1001
George IV regency and, 2:953, 954
Irish emancipation and, 1:373;
2:1000
INDEX
London urban development and,
3:1375
mental instability of, 2:1000
Pitt the Younger and, 5:2321,
2460–2461
George IV, king of Great Britain,
2:953–955, 954; 5:2471
Cruikshank caricatures of, 2:585–586
death of, 2:1003
divorce suit of, 1:302, 489, 490;
2:585–586, 954; 4:1834
Jenner and, 3:1224
London development and, 3:1375
Luddism and, 3:1391
Nash architectural designs and,
3:1602
Scotland and, 4:2121
Scott and, 4:2123
George IV (Lawrence), 2:954
George V, king of Great Britain, 1:42,
114–115; 3:1624; 5:2415, 2472
father Edward VII and, 2:730, 1011
Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel
(Schlesinger), 2:1052
Georgia (Russia), 4:2164, 2257
Georg-Speyer House (Frankfurt),
2:735
Gerdt, Pavel, 4:1750
Gerhardt, Charles-Frédéric,
1:425–426
geriatrics. See old age
Géricault, Théodore, 1:285, 333;
2:640, 955–956, 956; 4:1705
Gerke, Anton, 3:1575
Gerlach, Ernst Ludwig von, 1:233,
234; 2:876
Gerlach, Joseph von, 1:340, 341
Gerlach, Leopold von, 1:233, 234;
2:876
Germ (Pre-Raphaelite journal), 4:1864
Germaine Lacerteux (Goncourt
brothers), 2:991
German Anthropological Society,
5:2425
German Army League, 3:1546
German Brethren, 2:960
German Casino (Prague), 4:1858
German Center Party. See Center Party
German Colonial League, 2:967
German Communist Party, 2:1071;
3:1356
German Confederation. See Germany;
specific members
German Customs Union. See
Zollverein
German Democratic Party, 1:189
German Dictionary (Grimm brothers),
2:1024
2641
INDEX
German expressionism. See
expressionism
German Fatherland Party, 5:2313
German Football Association, 2:834
German Grammar (J. Grimm), 2:1024
German Gymnast Society, 1:118
German History in the Nineteenth
Century (Treitschke), 5:2353
German Ideology, The (Marx and
Engels), 2:755; 4:2203
German Imperial Statistical Yearbook,
5:2335
German Internists’ Congress, 2:735
German Jurists, 2:962
German language
academic nationalism and, 2:960
Austria-Hungary and, 1:138–139,
142, 143; 2:865; 3:1525
Baltic nobility and, 2:818–819
Bohemian Lands and, 1:259,
261–262; 4:1856, 1859,
1860–1861
cultural nationalism and, 3:1523
Grimms Law and, 2:1024
Kafka’s writings in, 3:3.1242
Marx’s writings in, 3:1466
Polish partition and, 1:239;
4:1812–1813, 1818
German Legends (Grimm brothers),
2:1023
German Medical Weekly, 1:341
German Navy League, 2:967
German Nurses’ Asociation, 3:1650
German opera, 3:1673, 1674–1675
Bayreuth and, 1:403, 404; 3:1383,
1567, 1571, 1635, 1674
Singspiel and, 3:1673, 1674
German Peace Society, 4:2282
German philosophy. See philosophy
German Popular Stories (Taylor
translation), 2:1023
German Racial Hygiene Society, 2:769
German Requiem (Brahms), 3:1571
German Romance (Carlyle), 1:370
German Romanticism, 4:2195
Berlin and, 1:215
Fichte and, 2:814
Frederick William IV and, 2:876–877
Friedrich and, 2:910–912; 4:1703
Goethe and, 2:985
Heine and, 2:1055–1057
Jena Circle and, 3:1647–1648
national culture and, 3:1523
Novalis and, 3:1647–1648
German Social Democratic Pary. See
Social Democratic Party
(Germany)
2642
German Sonderweg, 1:106
German unification, 1:47–48, 98, 217,
262; 2:962–967, 964; 4:2242
Bavaria and, 3:1383
Bismarck and, 1:233, 235–237;
2:526, 662, 874, 962–967;
3:1198, 1383, 1523, 1605;
4:1902–1903
commercial union as first step in,
2:512
Concert of Europe and, 2:526
conservative nationalism and, 2:566;
3:1605
counterrevolution and, 2:567
Crimean War and, 2:580
cultural unification and,
3:1522–1523
Czechs and, 4:1860
dueling craze and, 2:696
economic growth and, 2:967
fin de siècle power of, 2:815
as Franco-Prussian War outcome,
1:171; 2:964
Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:870–872
Frederick III and, 2:874
Frederick William IV and, 2:962
Gagern and, 2:923, 924
German Empire proclamation and,
2:964, 965; 4:1903
global power-politics and, 2:967
international law and, 3:1174
John of Austria and, 3:1236
Kulturkampf and, 3:1277–1280;
4:1903
liberals and, 3:1346
Moltke and, 3:1531, 1532
monetary union and, 3:1537, 1538
See also Zollverein
Poland and, 4:1809, 1812–1813,
1818, 1993
Polish territory and, 4:1809,
1812–1813, 1818
population increase and, 4:1829
Prague Slav Congress as response to,
4:1861, 1862
proclamation of (1871), 4:1903
Prussia and, 2:871, 924, 962–967;
4:1899, 1901, 1902–1903
Prussian authoritarianism and,
3:1523
Prussian defeat of Austria (1866) and,
1:393; 2:964; 4:1902
Prussian dominance and, 4:1903
Revolutions of 1848 and, 2:567;
4:1992–1993, 1995
Schleswig-Holstein and, 2:648
E U R O P E
Treitschke and, 5:2352–2353
wars of.See Austro-Prussian War;
Danish-German War; Franco-
Prussian War
William I and, 3:1383; 4:1903;
5:2467
William II and, 2:966–969
German Union for Women’s Suffrage,
4:2280
German Women’s League, 2:967
Germany, 2:957–970; 4:1967, 1972,
1985
Action Française parallels in, 2:542
African colonies, 1:20, 222, 240,
256; 3:1116, 1125
aging population in, 3:1662, 1664
Agricultural Revolution and, 2:762,
960; 3:1160
agricultural workers and, 1:24; 2:960
Alexander III policies and, 1:40, 41
alliance system and, 1:47–50, 146;
2:663–664
Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:50, 51–52
Andreas-Salomé and, 1:63–65
Anneke and, 1:66–67
anticlericalism and, 1:69–70, 382,
388; 2:966; 3:1277–1279
anti-Semitism and, 1:71–72, 74, 75,
77, 82; 2:689, 815; 3:1233;
5:2353, 2472–2473
architecture in, 4:2030
aristocracy and, 1:82, 83, 84, 85,
87, 471
army system and, 1:94, 96, 97, 98,
99; 2:696
artisans and, 1:105, 106–107, 459;
2:960
art nouveau in, 1:108, 112, 152;
2:815
Augspurg and, 1:128–130
Austria and, 1:10, 11, 141, 143, 147,
148; 2:703–704, 863, 864, 958,
962; 5:2355
automobiles and, 1:148, 150; 5:2352
avant-garde and, 1:154–156
Baltic provinces and, 2:821, 822
banking in, 1:17, 83–84, 172,
174–175, 176, 216–217; 2:965
baths and spas and, 5:2327
Bäumer and, 1:188–190
Bebel and, 1:194–195
Beethoven and, 1:195–199; 3:1570
Belgium invasion by, 1:199, 205
Berlin as capital of, 1:217–220
Berlin Conference and, 1:221
Bernstein and, 1:230–231
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Bethmann Hollweg chancellorship
and, 1:232
Bismarck and, 1:84, 233–241;
2:525, 662, 966
bourgeoisie in, 1:106–107, 286,
471, 473
Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292–294
Brahms and, 1:294–296;
3:1570–1571
British naval power and, 2:681,
682–683, 1013; 3:1609–1611;
5:2312
bureaucracy in, 1:323–324; 4:1880
business firms and, 1:330; 2:711
cabarets and, 1:335–336
Caillaux’s negotiations with, 1:339
canals in, 5:2350
Carlsbad Decrees and, 4:1971, 1972
Catholicism and, 1:377, 380,
383–384; 2:960; 4:1721; 5:2467,
2469, 2472–2474, 2489
Catholic political activity and,
1:388–389, 393–394; 2:966
Cavour’s relations with, 2:583
censorship in, 1:336, 368, 370;
2:959; 3:1494; 4:1869, 1870
Center Party in, 1:82, 388, 393–395;
5:2469, 2472–2474, 2489
chemistry in, 1:425, 426, 427;
3:1159–1160
child labor and, 4:1830
child-study movement and, 1:428
China and, 1:435
cholera epidemics and, 1:436, 438;
2:669
Christian Democrats and, 4:2209
Christian Socialism and, 4:2208
cinema in, 4:1824
city government and, 1:449–450
Civil Code (1900) of, 3:1314
civil society and, 1:466
class structure in, 1:106–107
coal production in, 1:352, 485,
486–487, 488; 2:967
coffee consumption in, 1:494
commercial policy of, 2:512, 516, 517
common currency in, 1:171
Congress of Berlin and, 2:530
Congress of Vienna and, 2:533, 958
constitutional movements in,
1:457, 459
corporations in, 1:355; 2:711
cotton production in, 1:329
credit cooperatives in, 2:556
criminality theory and, 2:572–573
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
cycling and, 2:602
Decadence and, 2:633
degeneration and, 2:769
Denmark and. See Danish-German War
department stores in, 2:551
Dilthey and, 2:660–661
Dohm and, 2:675–676
dramatists in, 3:1108
dress reform and, 1:485
drinking culture of, 1:34, 35, 36
dueling in, 2:695, 696; 3:1472
Durkheim’s university studies in,
2:698
economic growth and, 1:40–41,
47–48, 331, 351; 2:960, 967, 969
education and, 1:286; 2:723–724
Ehrlich and, 2:734–736
elected assemblies in, 1:290
emigrants from, 1:351; 2:506, 646,
748, 960
‘‘encirclement’’ fears of, 1:48, 49;
2:526, 527; 3:1545–1546, 1549
Engels and, 2:754–756
engineering training in, 2:759
established church in, 4:1895
eugenics and, 2:769–770
expressionism and, 3:1530
factory housing in, 2:1088
Febronianism in, 4:1721
feminism in, 1:129, 188–190;
2:675–676, 803–804, 946, 947;
3:1680–1681
Fichte and, 2:813–814
fin de siècle mood of, 2:815
Fontane and, 2:828–830
football (soccer) in, 2:833–834
forestry and, 2:763
Forty-Eighters from, 1:66; 2:962
France and, 5:2311
Frankfurt Parliament and,
2:870–872, 961–962
Frederick III and, 2:873–874
Freemasons and, 2:877, 881
French rivalry with, 1:232; 2:590
Friedrich and, 2:910–912; 4:1703
Gagern and, 2:923–924
gender hierarchy in, 2:947
German Confederation ending and,
2:964; 4:1902
German Confederation founding
and, 1:262; 2:533, 875, 958
Goethe and, 2:982–987
Greek Revival style in, 4:1769
Grimm brothers and, 2:1023–1024
guild continuance in, 1:105, 106
INDEX
gymnastics movement in, 1:118;
4:2241–2242, 2243, 2245
Haeckel and, 2:1031–1032
Hague Convention critique by,
2:1035
Hegel and, 2:1051–1054
Heine and, 2:1055–1057
Hellenism and, 4:1769, 1770
Helmholtz and, 2:1057–1058
Herder and, 2:1059–1062
Hertz and, 2:1062–1063
Hirschfeld and, 2:1069–1071
historiography and, 2:1072–1073,
1074
Hölderlin and, 2:1077–1079
imperialism and, 1:20, 222, 240,
256, 339, 403; 2:506, 967,
967–968; 3:1116, 1120, 1121,
1122, 1125, 1545–1546; 5:2353
industrial electricity and, 2:741
industrialization of, 1:47–48, 329,
330, 350, 351, 355, 357; 4:2179;
5:2524, 2525–2526
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
of, 5:2493
Industrial Revolution (first) in, 1:351
Industrial Revolution (second)
leadership of, 1:330–331,
351–352
industrial towns in, 1:445
infant mortality rate in, 4:1829
intellectuals and, 3:1167
international law textbooks and,
3:1175
iron production in, 1:329
iron protectionism and, 2:967
Italy and, 4:2098; 5:2377
Japan and, 3:1210, 1212; 4:2171
Jewish cultural identity and, 3:1232
Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225,
1227, 1229
Jews in, 1:73, 84, 217; 3:1228,
1229, 1231, 1232, 1233; 5:2353,
2472–2473
Kierkegaard’s influence in, 3:1253
Koch and, 3:1262–1264
Krafft-Ebing and, 3:1270–1271
Krupp and, 3:1273–1276, 1274
Krupp steel empire and,
3:1273–1276
Kulturkampf and, 3:1277–1280,
1329; 4:1719, 1720, 1723, 1795;
5:2353, 2425, 2473
labor movements in, 3:1285–1291,
1293, 1294, 1310–1311; 5:2484,
2487, 2489–2492
2643
INDEX
landed elite in, 1:469
Lasker-Schüler and, 3:1309–1310
Lassalle and, 3:1310–1311
law and, 3:1314, 1315
law education in, 2:726
liberalism and, 3:1346–1347
liberal reformists and, 1:457;
2:959–960, 961
libraries and, 3:1350, 1352
Liebknecht and, 3:1355–1356
Liebermann and, 3:1353–1355
List and, 3:1356–1357
literacy in, 2:720; 4:1822, 1868
literary naturalism and, 1:219
Lutheranism in, 4:1892, 1895
machine breaking in, 3:1411, 1412;
4:2264
Mann and, 3:1434–1437
as Marx’s target, 3:1466
Maurras’s screed against, 3:1476, 1477
Menzel and, 3:1488–1490
mesmerism in, 3:491
Metternich and, 3:1494
migration and, 3:1111, 1113
militarism and, 1:41
monetary systems and, 3:1535–1538
monetary union. See Zollverein
Moroccan Crises and, 2:663;
3:1545–1546, 1549; 5:2312
mortality rate decline in, 2:762
music and, 3:1569, 1570–1571,
1572, 1670
mutual aid societies in, 3:1284
Napoleon and, 2:901, 902–903,
957–958; 3:1319–1322, 1597,
1599
national debt and, 2:968
national identity and, 3:1522–1523
nationalism and, 1:84, 368–369,
402; 2:542, 607, 662, 814,
870–871, 923–924, 958,
960–961; 3:1523, 1635, 1675;
4:1992–1993, 2131;
5:2352–2353, 2472
natural history museums and, 3:1563
naval buildup and, 2:967, 968;
3:1609–1611
naval rivalry with Britain and, 2:681,
682–683, 1013; 3:1609–1611;
5:2312
newspapers and, 4:1867, 1868,
1869, 1870
Nietzsche and, 3:1628–1636
Novalis and, 3:1647–1648
nursing and hospitals in, 3:1648,
1649, 1650
2644
obscenity codes and, 4:1833–1834
opera and, 3:1567, 1673,
1674–1675
Otto and, 3:1680–1681
painting and, 4:910–912, 911,
1703, 1711
papal infallibility doctrime and,
4:1722, 1723
parent-child relations in,
3:1454–1455
parks in, 4:1738, 1740–1751
phrenology and, 4:1776
pilgrimages and, 4:1788
Planck and, 4:1798–1800
pogroms and, 4:1802
Poland and, 1:315
police system in, 4:1814–1815
political clubs in, 4:1991, 1995
poor relief in, 4:1850–1851, 1854
population of, 2:960, 967
postal service in, 4:1937
professional certification in, 1:285;
4:1879–1880
professionals in, 4:1878, 1881
prostitution in, 4:1883, 1884
protectionism and, 4:1889
Protestant missions and, 3:1527
Protestant population of, 4:1890,
1890, 1892, 1892, 1895
psychological research tradition of,
4:1908
public health interventions in,
4:1913–1914
race and racism and, 4:1927
railroads and, 2:764; 4:1933–1937
Ranke and, 4:1939–1941
Red Cross and, 4:1949
revolutionary right and, 2:542
Revolution of 1830 and, 1:370, 457;
2:923, 959; 4:1984, 1985, 1986
Revolution of 1848 and, 2:567, 870,
923, 924, 961–962; 3:1412;
4:1987, 1990–1994, 1995
Romanies and, 4:2021, 2023–2024
Romanticism and, 4:2028, 2030,
2195
Rothschilds and, 4:2039, 2040, 2041
Russia and, 2:968; 4:2054, 2059,
2070, 2098–2099; 5:2478
San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2086
Schelling and, 4:2087–2089
Schinkel and, 4:2091–2094
Schlegel (August) and, 4:2094–2096
Schleiermacher and, 4:2095,
2096–2098; 5:2381
E U R O P E
Schleswig-Holstein and, 2:607–609,
648
Schlieffen Plan and, 4:1937,
2098–2099
Schnitzler’s view of, 4:2100
Schopenhauer and, 4:2103–2106
science and technology in,
4:2111–2112
seaside resorts in, 4:2124,
2125, 2126
Second International and, 4:2127,
2128, 2129
serf emancipation and, 4:1754
settlement colonies of, 2:504
Siemens and, 4:2178–2180
Simmel and, 4:2183–2184, 2215
Social Democrats and, 3:1292;
4:2127, 2128, 2129, 2205;
5:2469, 2473, 2484, 2485, 2487,
2490, 2492
social insurance in, 1:239, 291, 321,
356, 459; 2:540, 966; 3:1664;
4:1915
socialism and, 1:194–195, 230–231;
3:1310–1311, 1399–1400;
4:2127, 2128, 2129, 2203, 2205;
5:2473, 2489, 2490–2491
Socialist Party strength in, 3:1293
sociology and, 4:2212–2215
sodomy law in, 2:1083
spiritualism and, 4:2237, 2238
sports in, 4:2241–2246
statistical study and, 4:2248, 2250
steamships and, 5:2350
steel industry and, 2:967; 3:1158,
1159, 1159, 1273–1276, 1274
strikes in, 3:1288, 1289; 4:2266,
2268
submarine warfare and, 1:232
subways in, 4:2271–2273
suffrage in, 1:203, 290; 4:2279,
2280; 5:2490
symbolism and, 3:1529
syndicalism and, 1:61
telephone service in, 4:1937; 5:2308
temperance movement in and, 1:36;
4:1896
Third Reich and, 4:2021, 2023
Three Emperors’ League and,
2:703–704; 3:1690
Tirpitz and, 5:2312–2313, 2353
tobacco and, 5:2313
tourism and, 5:2327
trade and, 5:2335–2338, 2340, 2343
Treitschke and, 5:2352–2353
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Triple Alliance and, 1:48, 166, 239;
2:526, 965; 3:1200; 4:2017
Triple Intervention of 1895 and,
4:2064
tuberculosis treatment and, 5:2361
Ulrichs and, 5:2375–2377
unification of. See German unification
universities and, 2:728; 5:2378,
2381–2383
urban development and, 1:452
urbanization of, 1:443
vaccination requirements in, 4:2198
Virchow and, 5:2425–2426
voluntary associations and, 1:116,
117, 118, 119
Wagner and, 3:1567, 1674–1675;
5:2429–2431
waterway transport in, 5:2348, 2350
weaponry and, 1:99
Weber and, 5:2446–2448
Weimar Republic and, 5:2446
welfare initiatives in, 3:1664;
5:2450–2456, 2490
William I and, 5:2325, 2467, 2468
William II and, 2:663; 5:2312, 2382,
2415, 2467, 2468–2470, 2474
Windthorst and, 5:2471–2474
women’s suffrage and, 4:2280
women university students in, 2:945
women workers in, 5:2487
worker housing in, 2:1089
working class in, 5:2484, 2485,
2487, 2489–2492
world’s fairs and, 5:2495, 2498,
2502, 2503
World War I and, 3:1508;
5:2312–2313, 2343
World War I origins and, 2:663–664,
705, 968–969
World War I reparations and,
4:1806
Wundt and, 5:2506–2508
Young Hegelians and, 5:2511–2513
Young Turks and, 1:278
Zollverein and, 1:171; 3:1357;
5:2524–2526
See also Bavaria; Berlin; Hamburg;
Holy Roman Empire; Prussia;
other specific cities and states
Germany and the Next War (book),
4:1826
Germany Society of the Divine Word,
1:292
Germinal (Zola), 5:2524
germ theory of disease, 3:1164;
4:2113, 2114, 2135
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Lister antisepsis measures and,
3:1358–1359; 4:1744, 1745
Pasteur and, 4:1742, 1743–1744
public health and, 4:1914
See also bacteriology; vaccination
Gerome, Jean-Leon, 2:940
gerontocracy, 3:1663–1664
Gershuni, Grigory A., 4:2210
Gerstl, Richard, 4:2102
Gesamtkunstwerk, 4:2294
art nouveau and, 1:108, 112
Wagner and, 1:11; 3:1674
‘‘Gesand der Geister über den
Wassern’’ (Goethe), 2:984
Gesangbuch (Novalis), 3:1647
Geschichte der Baukunst (Kugler),
1:318
Geschichte der deutschen Sprache
(J. Grimm), 2:1024
Geschichte der neueven Baukunst: Die
Renaissance in Italien
(Burckhardt), 1:318
Geschichte Friedrichs des Grossen
(Kugler), Menzel drawings for,
3:1489
Geschichten aus dem Wienerwald
(Strauss), 4:2260
Geschlecht und Charakter: Eine
prinzipielle Untersuchung
(Weininger), 5:2448, 2449
‘‘Geschwister’’ (Andreas-Salomé), 1:65
Gesellius, Herman, 1:113
Gespäche mit Eckermann in den Letzten
Jahren seines Lebens (Goethe),
2:987
Gesselschaft der Musikfreunde, 3:1565
Getting Married (Strindberg), 4:2268
Gettysburg, Battle of (1863), 1:148
Gevorg (George) V, Catholicos, 1:89
Gewandhaus Orchestra (Leipzig),
3:1568
Gewerbesteueredikt (1810), 2:1042
Geyer, Ludwig, 5:2429
Ghana, 1:13
Ghaznavids, 4:2022
Ghent, 1:200, 201, 202, 203
Ghent, Treaty of (1814), 5:2440
ghetto, Jewish, 3:1227, 1525; 4:1718,
1797
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 4:2008
Ghil, René, 4:2294
Ghosts (Ibsen), 3:1108, 1109
Ghost Sonata, The (Strindberg), 4:2269
Gia Dinh Bao (Vietnamese
newspaper), 3:1141
Giaimo, Nunzio, 4:2174
Gia-Long, 3:1137, 1138, 1141, 1145
Giambi ed epodi (Carducci), 1:362
INDEX
Gianni Schicchi (Puccini), 4:1916
Gianour, The (Byron), 1:332
Gibbon, Edward, 2:1051
Gibraltar, 2:780; 4:1713
Gibraltar, Straits of, 3:1548
Gide, André, 1:184; 2:679; 4:2295
Gide, Charles, 2:555, 556
Gids (Dutch review), 3:1619
Gierke, Otto von, 3:1315
Gifford, Emma Lavinia, 2:1045
Giftas trial, 4:2268
gig mill, 3:1410
Gilbert, William, 3:1661
Gilbert and Sullivan, 5:2464
Gilbert-Martin, 1:352
Gil Blas (periodical), 2:795
Gilchrist, Percy, 3:1158
Gillot, Hendrik, 1:63
Gillray, James, 1:29
Gilly, David, 4:2091
Gilly, Friedrich, 4:2091
Gimeno de Flaquer, Concepción de,
2:952
gin, 1:34, 35
Ginzberg, Asher (Ahad Haam),
5:2521
Gioberti, Vincenzo, 1:382; 3:1195,
1334, 1480; 4:1796, 2002
Gioia, Melchiorre, 3:1192
Giolitti, Giovanni, 2:609, 610,
971–973; 3:1201–1202, 1203
Kuliscioff and, 3:1276–1277
labor movements and, 5:2491
liberalism and, 2:973; 3:1349
Roman Question and, 4:2025
Sicilian Fasci and, 4:2174
Turati and, 5:2363–2364
Giorno di regno, Un (Verdi), 5:2406
Giotto, 2:634
Giovine Italia. See Young Italy
Giovine Italia (journal), 5:2514
Gippius, Zinaida, 4:2181–2182,
2183
Gir, Charles Felix, 1:69
Giradengo, Costante, 2:602
Giraldez, Arturo, 3:1151
Girardin, Émile de, 1:421; 4:2013
Girardin, Saint-Mark, 1:227
Giraud, Maximin, 4:1788
Girault, Charles-Louis, 5:2504
Girieud, Pierre, 1:155
Girl Guides, 1:160; 4:2082
Girlhood of Mary Virgin (D. G.
Rossetti), 4:1863–1864
Girl of Chioggia Dreaming of Her
Loves, A (Naya), 2:946
Girl of the Golden West (Belasco),
4:1916
2645
INDEX
Girls in the Garden of an Orphanage in
Amsterdam (Liebermann), 2:796;
3:1354
Girodet Roucy, Anne-Louis, 3:1165
Giro d’Italia, 2:602
Girondins, 2:973–974
executions of, 2:892, 974
federalist revolt and, 2:799–800,
974; 3:1403
French Revolutionary Wars and,
2:844; 3:1339
indictment of Marat by, 3:1443
Jacobins vs., 2:610, 612, 799, 844,
891; 3:1205
Paine and, 4:1700
Reign of Terror and, 4:1952
republicanism and, 4:1960
Robespierre and, 4:2006, 2007
sister republics and, 4:2187
Girton College (Cambridge), founding
of, 2:625, 626
Giselle (ballet), 4:1750
Gissing, George, 2:589, 974–976;
4:1844, 1871
Gittings, Robert, 2:1045
Giverny, 3:1535, 1536
Gizzi, Pasquale, 4:1796
Gladstone, Catherine Glynne, 2:977
Gladstone, Mary, 1:7
Gladstone, William, 2:976–979;
4:2118; 5:2322, 2414, 2490
Acton friendship with, 1:6, 7
Asquith and, 1:114; 2:1012
Bourbon critique by, 3:1581
Chamberlain (Joseph) challenge
to, 1:405
Cobden-Chevalier Treaty and, 1:492
Disraeli rivalry with, 2:673, 977
Eastern Question and, 2:703, 1009
on Frederick III, 2:873
gerontocracy and, 3:1664
governments of, 2:1008,
1009–1010, 1011
international law and, 3:1174
Irish Home Rule and, 2:978, 1010,
1011; 3:1181, 1184; 4:1742
Irish Land Act and, 3:1181; 4:1741
Labour Party pact of, 3:1296
on Leopardi’s poetic work, 3:1334
liberalism and, 3:1345, 1348
Mill’s (John Stuart) support for, 3:1513
Neapolitan political prisoners and,
3:1255
Palmerston and, 4:1713
on papal infallibility, 4:1722, 1896
Parnell and, 4:1741, 1742
2646
in Peel cabinet, 2:1004, 1007
reform agenda of, 2:11, 976, 978,
1008, 1009–1010
Sudan and, 2:734
suffrage expansion and, 2:977, 1008
‘‘Gladstone on Church and State’’
(Macaulay), 3:1408
Glasgow, 4:2117, 2119, 2119, 2121
art nouveau and, 1:112
commercial growth of, 1:304
population of, 1:446; 2:1087
slum photographs of, 4:1772
spiritualist societies in, 4:2237
subway in, 4:2272
world’s fairs and, 5:2504,
2505, 2506
See also University of Glasgow
Glasgow Weekly Mail (periodical),
2:1043
glass industry
art nouveau design, 1:108, 111, 113
French factories and, 2:792
Murano spinners, 3:1202
See also stained glass
Glauben und Liebe (Novalis), 3:1647
Glazunov, Alexander, 2:654; 4:1957,
1999
Gleaners, The (Millet), 1:179; 3:1515,
1516
Gleanings in Bee Culture (journal),
1:30
Gleichheit (socialist journal), 1:11
Gleizes, Albert, 1:156, 214; 2:590,
591, 593
Glen, Heather, 1:302
Gleyre, Charles, 3:1534; 4:1954
glial cells, 1:341
Glidden, Joseph Farwell, 4:2108
gliders, 1:30
Glinka, Mikhail, 2:979–980; 3:1579,
1673
globalization, 3:1151–1152, 1155,
1158
agriculture and, 4:1936
effects of, 5:2342, 2343
monetary unions and, 3:1537–1538
Globe, Le (journal), 2:1029
Gloeden, Wilhelm von, 4:2177
Glorious Revolution of 1688, 2:839,
1001; 5:2321
Ireland and, 3:1176
Gluck, Christoph Willibald, 3:173,
1661, 1670
Glückliche Hand, Die, (Schoenberg),
4:2103
Glucksberg dynasty, 2:1021
Glyn, Elinor, 2:598
E U R O P E
Gmelin, Leopold, 3:1160
Gobat, Charles Albert, 4:1697
Gobineau, Arthur de, 1:74, 403
Goblet, René, 1:279
Godet, Henri, 4:2042
Godet, Mireille, 4:2042
Godin, Jean-Baptiste, 2:838
‘‘God is dead’’ (Nietzsche dictum),
3:1629–1631
Gödöllö Workshops (Budapest), 1:112
Godoy, Manuel de, 2:808, 902, 997,
998; 4:1763, 1764, 2225
Godwin, William, 1:56, 57, 244;
2:980–982, 1000; 3:1425
daughter Mary Shelley and, 4:2168,
2169
as O’Connell influence,
3:1654–1655
wife Wollstonecraft and, 5:2480
Goeben (German battle cruiser), 1:278
Goegg, Marie, 4:1696
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 2:660,
678, 743, 982–987, 984, 1078
as Carlyle influence, 1:370
Chamberlain’s (Houston)
interpretation of, 1:403–404
as Delacroix influence, 2:640
dueling defended by, 2:694
Friedrich and, 2:910
Haeckel and, 2:1031, 1032
Ibsen as influence on, 3:1108
as Jung influence, 3:1238
as Mann influence, 3:1436
Menzel lithographs and, 3:1489
Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1513
nature studies of, 2:986, 1031
Rank and, 4:1938
Romanticism and, 2:985; 4:2027,
2028, 2030
Schelling and, 4:2088
Schlegel’s reviews of, 4:2094–2095
as Schubert inspiration, 4:2106
secularization viewed by, 4:2133
Goethe (H. Chamberlain), 1:403
Goethe in the Roman Campagna
(Tischbein the Elder), 2:984
Gogh, Vincent van. See Van Gogh,
Vincent
Gogol, Nikolai, 2:678, 988–989;
4:1756
Belinsky critique of, 1:208
Bely writings on, 1:210
on Pushkin, 4:1920
on St. Petersburg, 4:2076
Turgenev and, 5:2365
goguettes, 5:2486
Gökap, Mehmet Ziya, 3:1690
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

gold
Australia and, 1:134, 135; 2:780
as basis of nations wealth, 2:515;
4:1887
as German currency basis, 1:171
mercantilism and, 2:515
New Zealand and, 1622; 3:1623,
1624
South Africa and, 1:18, 99, 256;
2:505; 4:1997, 2223, 2224
uniform coinage of, 3:1538
Gold Coast, 1:13, 19, 22
Golden Age, 4:2181, 2183
Golden Age, The (Ingres), 3:1165
Golden Bough, The (Frazer), 2:872
Golden Fleece (avant-garde periodical),
1:157
Golden Horde, 2:774
Golden Horn, 1:278; 3:1186, 1190
bridges on, 3:1188, 1684
Gold Fields of South Africa Company,
4:1997
Goldman, Emma, 3:1273
Goldman and Salatsch (Vienna firm),
3:1381–1382
Goldoni, Carlo, 5:2402
Goldsmith, Oliver, 1:327
gold standard, 2:709; 3:1537;
4:2223
world trade and, 1:353, 357
Goldwyn, Samuel, 4:2166
golf, 4:2240, 2243, 2245
Golgi, Camillo, 1:340–341, 342
Golitsyn, Alexander, 2:1080
Golitsyn, Grigory, 1:89
Golovnin, Vasily, 2:1016; 3:1209;
4:2064
Goluchowski, Agenor, 4:1809
Goluchowski-Muraviev agreement
(1897), 2:704
Gómez Labrador, Pedro, 2:532
Goncharov, Ivan, 1:208; 2:989–990;
3:1641
Goncharova, Natalya, 1:157; 4:1920
Goncourt, Edmond and Jules de,
1:177; 2:990–992; 5:2523
Goncourt Academy, 2:1104
Góngora y Argote, Luis de, 2:951
Gonne, Maude, 5:2510
gonorrhea, 4:2301
González Bravo, Luı́s, 4:2229, 2230
Gooch, Daniel, 1:304
Good Templars, 1:37
Goodwin, John, 4:2176
Goodyear, Charles, 3:1160
Goodyear rubber, 2:588; 3:1160
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 2:536; 4:2196
Gorchakov, Alexander, 2:530; 4:2067
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Gordon, Charles, 2:734; 4:2259
Gordon, George. See Byron, George
Gordon
Gordon, George Hamilton. See
Aberdeen, Lord
Gordon, Lyndall, 5:2481
Gordon, Robert, 3:1537
Gordon riots (1780), 1:246
Görgey, Artúr, 3:1268, 1269
Göring, Hermann, 3:1393
Gorky, Maxim, 2:992–993
Gorosy, Antal, 4:1992
Görres, Joseph, 1:385
Gorsas, Antonie-Joseph, 2:973, 974
Gosse, Edmund, 4:2296
Göteborg, 1:35
gothic novels, 4:2030
Gothic Revival, 4:1917–1918, 2030
gothic style, 1:112, 185, 186; 4:2046;
5:2422
Morris and, 3:1550; 4:1865
Nash and, 3:1600
Pugin and, 4:1917, 1918
Gots, Mikhail R., 4:2210
Gott, Benjamin, 4:2115
Götterdämmerung (Wagner), 3:1571,
1674
Göttingen Seven, 2:959, 960
Göttinger, 1:457
Göttinger Gelehrte Anzeigen (journal),
4:2094–2095
Gott-Natur (Theophysis) (Haeckel),
2:1032
Gotto, Sybil, 2:770
Gottschalk, Andreas, 1:66
Götz von Berlichingen (Goethe), 2:983
gouache paper cut-outs (Matisse),
3:1475
Goudstrikker, Sophia, 1:129
Gouges, Olympe de, 2:801, 843, 941,
993–996, 995; 4:1962
execution of, 2:802, 996
Gould, Stephen Jay, 2:618
Gounod, Charles, 2:881; 3:1672,
1675; 4:2030
Goupil and Company, 5:2399, 2400
Gourmont, Rémy de, 3:1213
‘‘Government’’ (Mill), 5:2394
government employees. See
bureaucracy
Government of National Defense
(Paris), 2:810; 4:1734
Govoni, Corrado, 2:918
Gowers, William, 1:408
Goya, Francisco, 1:79; 2:996–999,
998; 3:1433; 4:1703, 2225,
2226
Graham, Frank, 2:515; 4:1887
Graham, James, 5:2322
INDEX
grain
anti-threshing machine riots and,
1:357, 358–359; 3:1411
British Corn Laws and, 2:557–560,
1004; 4:1759, 1889
Canadian colonial trade and, 2:505
as diet basis, 2:658
failed harvest of 1846 and, 4:1989
free trade and, 4:1887
German protectionism and, 2:967
German yields of, 2:960
Hamburg as transit port for, 2:1038
peasants and, 4:1751, 1755
price rise/theft link and, 2:571
protectionism and, 2:512, 514,
517, 967
Russian exports of, 1:243, 278
as trade commodity, 5:2335–2339,
2342, 2343
See also bread; Corn Laws, repeal of
Grain Sifters (Courbet), 2:568
Grainstacks, The (Monet), 3:1536
Grammar of Science (Pearson), 4:2249
Gramsci, Antonio, 1:465, 467;
2:1026; 5:2484
on intellectuals, 3:1169, 1172
Grand, Sarah, 4:2235
Grand Canal (Trieste), 5:2354, 2355
Grand Duchy of Posen, 4:1808, 1809
Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 2:603, 958;
3:1493, 1588, 1599; 5:2441
establishment/liquidation of,
4:1808, 1817
Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein, La
(Offenbach), 3:1660
Grande Jatte, La (Seurat). See Sunday
Afternoon on the Island of La
Grande Jatte
Grande Loge symbolique écossais de
France: Le Droit Humain,
2:649, 881
Grande Odalisque, The (Ingres),
3:1165, 1166, 1167
Grande Place, La (Brussels), 1:306
Grande Rue de Pera (Istanbul), 3:1190
Grandmaison, Louis de, 1:100
Grand National Assembly (Bulgaria),
1:312
Grand National Consolidated Trades
Union (Britain), 3:1284, 1286,
1693
grand opera. See under opera
Grand Palais (Paris), 5:2502, 2503,
2504, 2505
grandparents, 3:1663, 1664
Grand Sanhedrin (France, 1807),
3:1227
2647
INDEX
Grands Études d’Execution
Transcendantes (Liszt), 3:1360
Grands Magasins de Louvre (Paris),
2:548
Grands Travaux (Haussmann), 1:53
grand tour, 1:288, 332; 5:2326–2327,
2329
Grand traité d’instrumentation et
d’orchestration modernes (Berlioz),
1:225
Grand Véfour (Paris restaurant), 4:1966
Granet, François-Marius, 2:605
Gran Hotel International (Barcelona),
1:183
Granjouan, 4:1835
Granovsky, Timofei, 2:1064;
5:2459–2460
Grant, Duncan, 4:2259
Grant, Jane, 4:2258
Granville, Lord (George Leveson-
Gower), 3:1210
graphic arts
advertising and, 2:550
Beardsley and, 1:192
cabarets and, 1:335, 336
Diaghilev and, 2:654
Kafka and, 3:1242
Kandinsky and, 3:1243–1246
Liebermann and, 3:1353–1355
posters and, 4:1845–1847
See also caricatures and cartoons
Grass, Günter, 5:2449
Grasset, Eugène, 4:1845
Grattan, Henry, 1:327; 2:1000
Dublin statue of, 2:692
Grattan Parliament (1782), 2:100,
1009; 3:1177
Graubünden, 4:2288
Grave, Jean, 1:56, 57; 4:1794
Gravelotte-St. Privat, Battle of (1870),
3:1319
Graves de Communi Re (1901
encyclical), 3:1332; 4:1720
Gray, Asa, 1:23; 2:618
Gray, Effie, 4:2047
Gray, Elisha, 3:1163
Gray, John, 3:1514, 1693; 4:2201
gray-matter discontinuity hypothesis,
1:341
Graz, 3:1236
Great Awakening, 4:1894
Greatbach, George, 3:1637
Great Boer War, The (Doyle), 2:681
Great Britain, 2:999–1014
Act of Union (1801), 1:373, 415;
2:999–1000; 3:1117, 1177, 1179
Afghanistan war and, 2:674, 977,
1009; 3:1118
2648
Africa and, 1:13–14, 15, 17–18,
19–22, 221–222; 2:663
afternoon tea in, 3:1439
Agadir Crisis and, 3:1546
aging population in, 3:1662, 1664
Agricultural Revolution and,
1:24–29; 3:1305
airplanes and, 1:30
alliance system and, 1:47, 48, 49;
2:1013; 3:1546
American colonies independence
from, 2:1000
anarchists in, 1:56, 59; 3:1272
anticlericalism and, 1:67, 68
anti-imperialists and, 3:1182
anti-Semitism in, 5:2489
antislavery movement in, 1:303, 308;
4:1896, 2192, 2193;
5:2462–2463
architecture in, 1:185–186;
4:1769, 2030
aristocracy in, 1:78, 80, 82–86,
284, 469
army system of, 1:94, 95, 96, 97, 98,
98, 99, 100
artisans and, 1:104
art nouveau and, 1:107, 109
Arts and Crafts movement and,
1:152, 153
asepsis and, 3:1358
Asquith and, 1:114–115;
2:1112–1113
Austen and, 1:130–132
Australia and, 1:133–137
Austro-Prussian War and, 1:236
Baden-Powell and, 1:159–160
Bagehot and, 1:160–161
bank holidays in, 1:285; 3:1324
banking in, 1:84, 161, 170,
171–173, 173, 175–176, 284
Barry and, 1:185–186
baths and spas in, 5:2327
Beardsley and, 1:191–192
Belgian neutrality and, 2:566–567
Bentham and, 1:210–211
Berlin Conference and, 1:221–222
black population in, 3:1524
Blake and, 1:244–246
Bloomsbury Group in, 2:835;
4:2258–2259
Boer War and. See Boer War
bourgeoisie in, 1:172, 284, 285,
287–288, 290, 452, 471
Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292–294
Brontë sisters and, 1:300–302
E U R O P E
Brougham and, 1:302–303
Brunel and, 1:303–305
budget deficits and, 2:1004
bureaucracy in, 1:321, 324–325
Burke and, 1:326–328
business firms in, 1:330, 355; 2:711
Butler and, 1:331–332
Byron and, 1:332–333
Canada and, 1:343–347
canals and, 2:757, 763
capitalist economic principles in,
1:350
Captain Swing riots in, 1:357–359;
4:1755, 1984, 2264; 5:2485
Caribbean colonialism and, 364;
1:363, 365; 2:708–709, 710
Carpenter and, 1:372–373
Castlereagh and, 1:373–374
Catholic cathedral in, 4:1918
Catholic emancipation in, 1:211,
381; 2:1003; 3:1177, 1345,
1656; 4:1757
Catholicism in, 3:1440–1441;
4:1895, 2118; 5:2321, 2322,
2457, 2461, 2489
Chamberlain (Joseph) and,
1:404–405
Chartism and, 1:111, 414–418, 458;
2:1003; 3:1286; 4:1963, 1991,
2277; 5:2394, 2434, 2462, 2483,
2486
chemistry in, 1:424, 425, 426, 427;
3:1160
child labor in, 1:429, 430; 2:1003;
4:1830
China and, 1:432, 433–435;
3:1578–1579; 4:1713, 2064
cholera epidemic and, 1:436, 437
cholera riots in, 2:669
Christian Socialism in, 4:2207–2208;
5:2488
church attendance in, 4:1824,
1893, 1894
cinema and, 1:440, 441–442; 4:1824
civilizing mission of, 1:462, 463, 464
civil liberties and, 2:1001, 1002
civil rights and, 2:1001
classical economic theory and,
2:712–718
coal mining in, 1:485, 486, 487, 493;
3:1427; 4:1931, 2113; 5:2488
Cobbett and, 1:489–490
Cobden and, 1:490–491
Cockerill and, 1:492–493
cocoa and, 1:496
coffeehouse, 1:495
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Coleridge and, 1:496–497
colonialism and, 1:99, 408, 498,
501; 3:1114; 4:2218–2224,
2302; 5:2330
colonial migrants to, 3:1524–1525
colonial policy and, 1:498; 2:504,
505, 508
colonial trade and, 2:504, 505;
3:1151, 1154–1155
colonial wars and, 2:505
colonies of settlement and, 3:1115
colonizers from, 2:503–504
Combination Acts, 2:510–511
commercial policy and, 2:512, 514,
515, 516, 517
commonwealth and, 2:505
Concert of Europe and, 2:524–527,
565, 1002
Congress of Berlin and, 2:530, 705
Congress of Troppau and,
2:531, 532
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–534,
565, 958, 1002
Congress System and, 1:374
conservatism and, 2:537; 3:1176
Constable and, 2:543–544; 4:1703,
1704–1705
consumerism and, 2:547–548, 551
Contagious Diseases Acts, 4:2162,
2301–2302
Continental System blockade and,
1:272, 303; 2:512, 553–554,
659, 846, 902, 5121; 3:1586,
1587, 1588, 1599
contraception and, 4:1829–1830
cooperative movements in,
2:555–557; 4:2206
Corn Laws repeal and, 2:557–560,
715, 1004–1005; 4:1889;
5:2339, 2413, 2494
corporations in, 1:330, 353; 2:711
cotton exports and, 3:1428
Crimean War and, 1:38–39, 94, 95,
244, 278; 2:577–580, 578, 1007;
4:1713, 2048, 2051; 5:2410,
2413
criminality and, 1:471; 2:570,
575, 576
Cruikshank and, 2:585–587
Crystal Palace and, 2:587–590, 1006
Curzon and, 2:597–598
cycling in, 2:600, 601, 602
Danish-German War and, 2:607,
608, 609
Darwin and, 2:613–620
Davies and, 2:625–626
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Decadence and, 2:631, 633
demographic data for, 2:643, 645,
667, 1087
Dickens and, 2:655–657
diet and nutrition in, 2:658–659
Disraeli and, 2:540, 672–674
domestic ideology in, 3:1453
domestic servants in, 1:474
Doyle and, 2:679–680
drinking culture of, 1:34, 35
Dublin migrants to, 2:690
dueling rejected in, 2:696–697
Dvořák’s visit to, 2:701
Eastern Crisis and, 3:1690
Eastern Question and, 1:278; 2:703
East India Company and,
2:705–707; 4:2137–2140;
5:2461, 2495
economic expansion of,
2:1006–1007
economic growth rate of, 1:331;
2:710
education in, 1:32, 211, 303, 321,
325, 431; 2:720–721, 722, 724,
728, 1008, 1009, 1010, 1103;
4:1868, 1896
Edward VII and, 2:729–730
Egypt and, 1:2, 18, 20, 221, 222;
2:731–734, 794–795; 3: 1116,
1338, 1482, 1549, 1585, 1686;
4:2274, 2275–2276
electric lighting in, 2:742
Eliot (George) and, 2:743–744
Ellis and, 2:745–746
emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 747,
748, 748
emigrants to North America from,
1:343, 344, 346, 351; 2:504,
505, 506, 646
enclosures in, 1:26–27, 29; 2:762
engineers and, 2:757–758, 760
Entente Cordiale and, 1:49, 50, 96;
2:526, 609, 642, 643, 795;
3:1545, 1546; 4:2098
epidemic effects in, 2:667
established church in, 4:1895
See also Anglican Church
estate inheritance in, 3:1306
eugenics movement in, 2:637,
769, 770
evangelicalism in, 2:1002, 1006;
4:1894
exploration and, 2:782, 783, 784;
3:1653, 1654
Fabians and, 1:230, 372; 2:787–788,
1011
INDEX
factories in, 1:350, 429; 2:708,
788–793, 1003, 1004; 3:1149,
1427–1431
fashion and, 1:481–482, 485
Fashoda Affair and, 2:643, 663,
794–795; 3:1117–1118; 5:2502
feminism in, 1:331–332; 2:625–626,
802, 803, 804, 946–947
First International in, 2:824, 825
football (soccer) in, 2:830–833, 832,
834
Forster and, 2:835–836
Fourierism in, 4:2202
Fox and, 2:839–840, 1001
France and, 5:2306, 2321,
2344–2345, 2374, 2438, 2442,
2457, 2502
Freemasons in, 2:877, 878, 880, 880,
881, 882
free press and, 4:1870
free trade and, 1:491–492; 2:512,
1004–1005, 1007, 1011; 3:1537
French alliance with (1846), 3:1389
French free trade treaty with,
1:491–492; 2:512; 3:1537
Galton and, 2:927–928
Gaskell and, 2:933–934
gender roles in, 2:946
gentlemen’s clubs in, 4:1966
George IV and, 2:953–955
German expansionism and, 2:1013
German naval rivalry with, 2:681,
682–683; 5:2312
Gissing and, 2:974–975
Gladstone and, 2:976–999, 1008,
1009–1010
Godwin and, 2:980–982
Great Game and, 1:395
Greece and, 4:1982
Greek War of Independence and,
2:1020; 3:1194, 1612–1613,
1685, 1686
guild decline in, 1:106
Hardy and, 2:1044–1046
hashish use in, 2:687
historiography and, 2:1072–1073,
1074
Hobson and, 2:1075–1076
homosexual act criminalization in,
2:746, 1082, 1083, 1084; 4:2297
housing in, 2:1088, 1089, 1091;
3:1453
Huxley and, 2:1101–1103
as imperial power, 1:405, 501;
3:1115, 1118–1119, 1122–1123;
4:1997, 2218–2225, 2275; 5:2414
2649
INDEX
impressionist school in, 3:1133
India and. See India
Indochina and, 3:1140
industrial city and, 1:454–455
industrialization of, 1:329, 330, 350;
2:708–709, 710, 1003–1004
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
and, 5:2493–2494
Industrial Revolution and, 1:24,
303–305, 331, 371;
3:1146–1155, 1427–1429;
4:2193
infant mortality rate in, 4:1829
intellectuals and, 3:1167, 1168
international law textbooks and,
3:1175
international law and, 3:1174
inventions and, 3:1152–1153
Ionian Islands and, 2:1022
Irish Catholic policies of, 1:327;
3:1176
Irish immigrants in, 3:1372, 1373,
1524–1525
Irish Potato Famine response by,
3:1180
Irish question and. See Ireland; Irish
Home Rule
iron production in, 1:329, 492–493;
2:709; 3:1427
isolationism of, 2:526
Italy and, 2:977; 4:2003
Japan and, 3:1209, 1210, 1211,
1212, 1624, 1628; 4:2064, 2171
Japanese naval treaty with, 2:526
Jenner and, 3:1222–1224
Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225,
1227, 1229, 1345
Jewish financiers in, 1:84
Jews in, 3:1232; 5:2322
jingoism and, 3:1234–1235
Kelvin and, 3:1249–1250
Kipling and, 3:1256–1257
Kitchener and, 3:1257–1259
Kossuth’s reception in, 3:1269
labor movements in, 2:510–511,
1003, 1008, 1009, 1011, 1012;
3:1284, 1284–1285, 1285, 1286,
1288, 1290, 1290, 1291, 1292,
1293, 1411; 5:2484, 2486,
2489–2490, 2491
Labour Party and, 3:1295–1297
laissez-faire philosophy and, 2:707,
708, 715–717
landed elite in, 1:83, 86, 284, 290,
291
law and, 3:1314, 1316
2650
law education in, 2:726
leisure in, 1:288; 3:1324; 4:1824
liberalism and, 3:1342, 1343,
1345–1346, 1347, 1348, 1349;
5:2394
libraries and, 3:1351, 1351, 1352
Lister and, 3:1358–1359
literacy in, 2:720, 723; 4:1822, 1868
Lloyd George and, 3:1368–1370
Lovett and, 3:1390–1391
Luddism and, 3:1391–1392, 1410;
4:1821
Lyell and, 3:1401–1402
Macaulay and, 3:1407–1408
machine breaking in, 1:357,
358–359; 3:1410, 1411; 4:1821,
2264
Malthus and, 3:1425–1427
Manning and, 3:1440–1441
marriage and family in, 3:1453
married woman’s legal nonexistence
in, 3:1645
Martineau and, 3:1458–1459
May Day celebration in, 4:1822
Mediterranean control and, 3:1481,
1482, 1615
mesmerism and, 3:1491
Methodism in, 4:1895
Metternich’s diplomacy and, 3:1493,
1494
migration and, 3:1112
military schools in, 1:96
Mill (Harriet Taylor) and,
3:1508–1509
Mill (James) and, 3:1510–1512
Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1512–1515
monarch’s declining power in, 2:730
monetary system in, 3:1538
Moroccan Crisis and, 3:1545, 1549
Morocco and, 3:1548
Morris and, 3:1549–1551
most-favored-nation treaties and,
1:491
museums in, 3:1562, 1564
music and, 2:589
mutual aid societies in, 3:1284
Napoleonic Wars and. See Peninsular
War; under French Revolutionary
Wars and Napoleonic Wars
Nash and, 3:1600–1602
naval agreement with France of
(1913), 3:1546
naval power of, 2:579, 681–683,
968, 1013; 3:1586–1587,
1609–1611
E U R O P E
naval rivalry with Germany of, 2:681,
682–683; 5:2312
Neapolitan trade war with, 3:1255
Nelson and, 3:1614–1616
Netherlands and, 1:53
‘‘New Liberalism’’ and,
2:1011–1012
Newman and, 3:1620–1621
newspapers and, 4:1866, 1867,
1868, 1869, 1870, 1871, 1872
New Zealand and, 3:1622,
1623–1624
Nightingale and, 3:1636–1638,
1649
Nonconformists in, 1:418; 2:1002
Norton and, 3:1645–1646
nursing in, 3:1648, 1649
Olympic Games and, 3:1666–1667
Omdurman and, 3:1668–1669
opium trade and, 1:495;
3:1678–1679
opium use and, 2:686–687
Opium Wars and, 1:355, 495;
2:1008; 3:1125, 1578–1579,
1678–1680
Ottoman Empire and, 3:1690;
5:2391
overseas investment by, 1:353–354
Owen and, 3:1692–1693; 4:2081,
2200–2201
painting and, 4:1702–1705, 1707
Palmerston and, 4:1712–1713
Pankhursts and, 4:1714–1715
Pater and, 4:1745–1747
Peel and, 4:1757–1759
penal exile and, 2:779–780
Peninsular War and, 2:1002;
4:1764–1766, 2227–2228;
5:2314
photography in, 4:1770, 1771
phrenology and, 4:1775–1776
physics and, 1:427
police system of, 3:1375;
4:1814–1815, 1817
political reform and, 1:457
political system and, 1:161
Poor Law and, 2:714, 1003;
4:1819–1820, 1848–1849, 1850,
1852–1853, 1854
popular culture and, 4:1821, 1822
population British/Irish ratio in,
3:1177
population growth in, 3:1147
pornography and, 4:1833, 1834,
1835
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Portugal and, 2:1002; 4:1764–1766,
1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842,
1843
positivism and, 4:1844, 2213
posters and, 4:1845
poverty in, 4:1847–1848,
1852–1854
Pre-Raphaelites in, 4:1707,
1863–1864
professionals in, 4:1878, 1879, 1880,
1881
prostitution in, 1:332; 2:804;
4:1815, 1884, 1886, 1896, 2162
protectionism and, 5:2334, 2339,
2343
Protestant missions and, 3:1527,
1528–1529
Protestant population of, 4:1890,
1890, 1892, 1893
Prussia and, 5:2414–2415
psychoanalysis and, 4:1905
psychological research tradition of,
4:1908
public health intervention in, 1:325,
454; 2:667; 4:1910–1912
public school experience in, 1:428;
2:726, 728
Pugin and, 4:1917–1918
Quadruple Alliance and, 1:374;
2:662
Quintuple Alliance and, 2:531, 532
race and racism and, 4:1927
railroads and, 2:764; 4:1931, 1932,
1934–1937, 1935
Raj and, 3:1135–1137
Red Cross and, 4:1949
Reform Act of 1832 and, 4:1985,
2002, 2277, 2278, 2279; 5:2394,
2412, 2461, 2471, 2483
republicanism and, 4:1963, 1964
response by, 3:1180
restaurants in, 4:1966
Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1980,
1981, 1982
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1984,
1986
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1991
Rhodes and, 4:1996–1997
roadways in, 5:2346
Romanticism and, 2:543; 4:1738,
1739, 1740, 2029, 2030
Rothschilds and, 4:2039, 2041
Royal Navy of, 5:2312, 2344–2345,
2438, 2439, 2440, 2470
Ruskin and, 4:2045–2047
Russia and, 4:2172
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Russian Central Asian conquest and,
1:395
Russian Jewish immigrants in, 1:40
Russian royal family and, 1:41, 42
Russo-Turkish War and, 4:2068, 2069
Salvation Army and, 4:2082–2083
San Stefano Treaty and, 2:703;
4:2069, 2086
Scotland’s union with (1707), 2:999,
1006; 3:1177
seaside resorts in, 1:288; 3:1324;
4:2124, 2125–2126; 5:2328
secularization and, 4:1896, 2133
Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2137–2140
Shaw and, 4:2165–2167
Shelley (Mary) and, 4:2168–2169;
5:2480
Shelley (Percy Bysshe) and,
4:2169–2170
slavery and, 4:1925, 2190, 2192,
2193; 5:2461, 2462–2463
slavery abolishment and, 1:18, 19,
365, 458, 499; 2:506, 1003
slave trade and, 1:13–14, 303, 308,
365; 2:708
socialism and, 1:59, 86, 372, 373;
2:1011; 3:1295, 1297,
1692–1693; 4:2200–2201,
2205–2207; 5:2490
social reform and, 1:285, 303,
401–402
social unrest in, 2:1011
sociology and, 4:2213
sodomy law in, 2:1082, 1083
Spain and, 1:180; 4:1763, 1764,
2225, 2227–2228
Spencer and, 4:2233–2235
spiritualism and, 4:2237
sports in, 4:2239–2246
statistical study and, 4:2250
steamships and, 5:2350
steel manufacture and, 3:1273
Stephen and, 4:2253–2254
Strachey and, 4:2258–2259
strikes in, 2:1008, 1011; 3:1288,
1441; 4:2265, 2266
subways in, 4:2271–2273, 2272
Sudan and, 1:18, 19; 2:734, 794;
3:1668–1669
Suez Canal and, 3:1338; 4:2274,
2275–2276
suffrage in, 1:203; 4:2276–2281,
2278, 2280; 5:2461, 2487
Sweden and, 4:2285
Symonds and, 4:2296–2297
syndicalism and, 1:61
INDEX
syphilis control in, 4:2301–2302
Talleyrand’s expulsion from, 5:2305
tea preference of, 1:495
technological innovation and,
3:1152–1154
telephone service in, 5:2308
temperance movements and, 1:36,
37; 4:1896; 5:2476–2477
Tennyson and, 5:2309–2310
tobacco and, 5:2313, 2314–2315
Tories and, 5:2320–2323, 2412,
2457, 2471
tourism and, 5:2326–2330
trade and, 4:1889; 5:2334–2336,
2338–2340, 2343
Trafalgar and, 5:2344–2345
Treitschke’s hatred of, 5:2353
tuberculosis prevention in, 5:2361
Tunisia and, 5:2363
Turner and, 2:910; 4:1703–1704,
2029; 5:2366–2368
universities in, 5:2379, 2384–2385,
2385, 2387
university admittance in, 2:728
Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and,
5:2392
urbanization of, 1:443;
2:1086–1087; 4:1912
utilitarianism and, 1:210–211;
5:2393, 2394
vaccination in, 3:1224, 1224;
4:2197, 2198
Victoria and, 4:2121; 5:2309, 2339,
2411–2416
Victorian family portrait and, 2:1001
Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in,
2:1012
Victoria’s Golden Jubilee in, 2:742
village community in, 4:1752, 1754
voluntary associations in, 1:116, 117,
117, 118, 119, 120
Wallace and, 4:2206; 5:2437–2438
War of 1812 and, 2:846;
5:2438–2441
Waterloo and, 4:2039;
5:2442–2443, 2457
waterways and, 5:2347
wealth ownership in, 1:291
weaponry and, 1:20
Webb (Beatrice) and, 5:2443–2445
welfare initiatives in, 3:1664;
5:2450–2452, 2454–2456, 2462
Wellington and, 4:2227–2228;
5:2321, 2322, 2442–2443,
2457–2458
Wells and, 5:2458–2459
2651
INDEX
Whigs and, 4:1984; 5:2321, 2367,
2385, 2412, 2457, 2460–2462,
2471
Wilberforce and, 5:2462–2463
William II of Germany and, 5:2469
William IV and, 5:2411–2412, 2461,
2470–2471
wine and, 5:2475
Wollstonecraft and, 4:2168;
5:2479–2481
women medical students in, 2:728
women’s rights and, 4:2201, 2278,
2279, 2280–2281, 2280
women’s suffrage movement in,
2:797–799, 805–806, 806, 947,
1044; 4:1714–1715
Wordsworth and, 4:2029, 2030;
5:2481–2482
workhouses in, 1:351, 359, 401,
415; 2:715; 4:1820, 1848;
5:2450, 2454
working class in, 5:2483, 2485,
2489–2490, 2491
working women’s protective laws in,
2:944
world’s fairs and. See Crystal Palace;
Great Exhibition of 1851
World War I and, 2:1013
Zionism and, 2:1068
See also Ireland; London; Manchester;
Scotland; Wales
Great Britain (steamship), 1:305
Great C Major Symphony (Schubert),
4:2107
Great Depression (1873–1896),
2:966; 4:1755; 5:2490
birth control and, 4:1830
Great Depression (1930s), 1:176;
4:2041
Great Divergence, The (Pomeranz),
2:710
Great Eastern (steamship), 1:305
Greater Bulgaria. See Bulgaria
Greater Serbia. See Serbia
Great Exhibition of 1851 (London),
1:134, 288, 350; 5:2412, 2493,
2494–2495, 2495
Crystal Palace and, 2:587–588, 589
leisure travel and, 4:1824
London police and, 4:1814
museum collections and, 3:1576
photography and, 4:1771
pleasure parks and, 4:1738
Great Expectations (Dickens), 2:657
Great Expectations (film), 2:677
Great Fear of 1789 (France), 2:886;
4:1755
2652
Great Game, 1:244, 395
Great Hunger of 1846–1847, 4:1751,
1754
‘‘Great Idea’’ (Greek nationalist
movement), 1:2
Great Illusion, The (Angell), 4:1698
Great Irish Famine. See Irish Potato
Famine
Great Jew and Tatar Market
(Moscow), 3:1231
Great Kabyle Rebellion (1870–1871),
1:45
‘‘great men’’ theory, 5:2319
Great Northern War, 2:817
Great Odalisque, The (Ingres), 3:1166
Great Powers
African colonialism and, 1:205, 499
Albania and, 1:32, 33
Armenian Question and, 1:91–92
Austria-Hungary’s status as, 1:143
balance of power and, 1:374
Balkan crises and, 2:663
Balkan peace negotiations and,
1:164, 166; 2:705
Belgian independence and, 1:200;
3:1335
Berlin Conference and, 1:12,
221–222
Bismarck’s foreign policy and, 1:239,
240; 2:526
Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:276
Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292–294
Bulgarian division by, 1:312
Chinese policies of, 1:434
Concert of Europe and, 2:524–527,
565, 1002
Congress of Berlin and, 2:529–531
Congress of Vienna and, 1:374;
2:532–534, 565, 958
consultations and congresses of,
3:1173–1174
Danish-German War and, 2:607–609
diplomacy and, 2:661–664
Eastern Question and, 2:703–705;
3:1681, 1687–1690
general staffs and, 1:96
Geneva Convention and, 2:952
Germany’s status as, 1:239
Greek War of Independence and,
2:1020–1021; 3:1612, 1685,
1686
international congresses and, 2:1081
Leipzig battle and, 3:1319–1322
Mediterranean and, 3:1482
Mehmet Ali and, 3:1686
Montenegrin policies of, 3:1541
E U R O P E
mutual equality concept and, 2:525
Ottoman Empire and, 1:33;
3:1681–1682
Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1785
Russia’s Great Reforms and, 2:1014
slave trade abolition by, 1:308–309
See also Austria-Hungary; France;
Great Britain; Italy; Prussia; Russia
Great Pyramid at Cheops, 5:2330
Great Reforms (Russia), 1:39, 88–89;
2:1014–1018; 4:1880,
2048–2049, 2051
Alexander III’s backlash against, 1:40
People’s Will and, 4:1767
revolution of 1905 and, 4:1975
Russian Orthodox Church and,
4:2061
serf emancipation, 4:1975, 2049,
2051, 2149–2155, 2196
Slavophiles and, 4:2194, 2195, 2196
timeline of, 2:1014
See also serfs, emancipation of
Great School (Serbia), 4:2148
‘‘Great Stink’’ of 1858 (London),
1:450
Great Trek, 4:2220
Great Western (paddle steamer),
1:304–305
Great Western Railway, 1:303, 304;
2:760; 4:1936–1937
Greco, El (Doménikos
Theotokópoulos), 2:634; 4:1781,
1782
Greco-Turkish War, 1:2; 2:1021,
1022; 3:1685
Greece, 2:1018–1023
Albania and, 1:32, 33
antiquities and, 2:1018–1019;
3:1562
Balkan League and, 1:32
Balkan wars and, 1:2, 13, 163, 164,
165, 166; 2:704–705, 1022, 1022;
3:1541, 1685, 1691; 4:2149
banditry and, 4:1821
banking and, 1:170–171
Bulgaria and, 1:313; 4:2149
Byron in, 1:333
collective recognition of, 3:1173
Congress of Berlin and, 2:530
education in, 2:720
Frazer in, 2:873
‘‘Great Idea’’ nationalist movement
of, 1:2
independence of, 1:125, 170–171;
2:1018, 1020–1022; 3:1420,
1685; 4:1973, 1986
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Mediterranean and, 3:1482
monetary union and, 3:1538
nationalism and, 1:163, 166; 3:1345;
4:1981
Olympic Games and, 4:2244
Ottoman Empire and, 4:1981;
5:2327
railroads and, 2:764
Revolutions of 1820 and,
4:1981–1982
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1985,
1986
Russia and, 4:1982
seaside resorts in, 4:2124
Serbia and, 4:2146–2147, 2149
sports in, 4:2242, 2244, 2245
territorial gains by, 1:2
tourism in, 5:2327
trade and, 5:2337, 2338
universities in, 5:2380
violent crime and, 2:571
wine and, 5:2475
See also Athens; Greek War of
Independence: Hellenism;
philhellenic movement
Greek Catholic Church. See Uniate
Church
Greek culture. See classicism;
Hellenism; philhellenic movement
Greek Cyclists Union, 4:2245
Greek language
Hölderlin translations from, 2:1078
Humboldt (Wilhelm) translations
from, 2:1097
secondary school syllabus in, 1:286
Greek Orthodox Church,
2:1018–1021; 3:1482, 1612;
4:1982
Bulgarian nationalism and, 3:1687
millet system and, 3:1687
Greek Revival style, 1:185; 4:1762
Greek Union of Associations for
Athletic Sports and Gymnastics,
4:2245
Greek War of Independence
(1821–1829), 1:125, 170; 2:566,
577, 959, 1019–1020; 4:1982
Austrian-Russian rupture over, 3:1561
British support for, 2:1002; 3:1194;
4:1713
Byron and, 1:333; 3:1604–1605
Concert of Europe and, 2:525
Delacroix paintings on, 2:640;
4:1701, 1705
Eastern Question and, 2:703;
3:1682, 1685
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Egypt and, 2:732
factors in, 2:1018, 1019–1020
Great Powers support for, 3:1685,
1686
Metternich and, 3:1494
Navarino and, 2:1020; 3:1420,
1612–1613
philhellenic movement and, 4:1770,
1771
Romania and, 4:2016
Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2391
Green, Charles, 4:1822
Green, John Richard, 2:1074
Green, T. H., 3:1514
Greenaway, Kate, 4:2157
Green Balloon (Kraków cabaret),
1:336
Greenberg, Clement, 4:1784, 2011
Green Lamp (Russian literary group),
4:1919
Greenland, 2:647
Green Stripe (Madame Matisse)
(Matisse), 1:153
Greer, Germaine, 5:2449
Gregorovius, Ferdinand, 4:2036
Gregory, Lady Isabella Augusta,
5:2510
Gregory V, Patriarch, 2:1019
Gregory XVI, Pope, 1:381, 382, 388;
3:1195, 1196, 1330; 4:1719,
1720, 1721, 1985, 2033
Pius IX and, 4:1795, 1796
Revolutions of 1830 and,
4:1718–1719, 1724
Grégpore, Abbé l, 1:498
Grellmann, Heinrich, 4:2022
Grenouillère, La (French dining
establishment), 4:1954–1955
Grenouillière, La, 3:1128; 4:1708
Grenville, William Wyndham, 2:840,
954; 5:2461
‘‘Gretchen am Spinnrade’’ (Schubert),
4:2106
Grétr, André-Ernest-Modeste, 3:1673
Grèvy, Jules, 41; 1:282; 2:929; 3:133
Grey, Charles (Earl Grey), 1:303;
2:1002, 1003; 4:1758, 2277;
5:2461, 2471
Poor Law reform and, 4:1819–1820
Grey, Edward, 2:704
Grey, George, 3:1623
Grey, John, 1:331
Gribeauval, Jean de, 3:1505
Griboyedov, Alexander, 1:208; 2:979
Grieg, Edvard, 3:1571; 4:2287;
5:2307
Griffuelhes, Victor, 4:2298, 2299
Grillparzer, Franz, 4:2107; 5:2418
INDEX
Grimm, Herman (Wilhelm’s son),
2:1023
Grimm, Ludwig (younger brother),
2:1023
Grimm brothers (Jacob and Wilhelm),
2:960, 1023–1025, 1024; 3:1523
Cruikshank illustrations and, 2:586,
1023
Germanic mythology and, 4:1756
Grimm’s Fairy Tales, 2:1023; 3:1523
Grimm’s Law, 2:1024
Grimod de la Reynière, Alexandre-
Balthasar-Laurent, 4:1967
Gris, Juan, 1:156; 2:590, 591, 592
Grmek, Mirko Drazen, 1:27
grocery chains, 1:352, 473;
3:1448–1449
Gros, Antoine-Jean, 2:640, 641;
3:1165
Gross Beeren, Battle of (1813),
3:1320
Gross-Cophta, Der (Goethe), 2:985
Grossdeutsch (Greater Germany)
solution, 2:871, 923
gross domestic product. See GDP
Grosse fuge (Beethoven), 1:197
Grossjährig (Bauernfeld), 5:2418
Grossmann, Marcel, 2:739
Grosvenor Gallery (London), 4:1865
Grosz, George, 1:192
Grotius, Hugo, 2:953
Grouchy, Emmanuel de, 5:2442, 2443
Grouchy, Sophie de, 4:1962, 1963
Grundgesetze der Arithmetik (Frege),
2:883
Grundlagen der Arithmetik, Der
(Frege), 2:883
Grundzüge der physiologischen
Psychologie (Wundt),
5:2506–2507
Grunewald (Berlin suburb), 1:219
Grüngürtel (Cologne), 4:1740
G. S. and L. (architectural firm), 1:113
Guadeloupe, 1:364, 365
Guadet, Marguerite-Elie, 2:973, 975
Guangxi, 3:1679
Guangxu, Emperor of China, 1:435
Guangzhou, 3:1678, 1679
Guangzhou system, 1:433
Guarantees of Harmony and Freedom
(Weitling), 4:2203
Guardia Civil (Spain), 4:1814, 2229
Guardie di Pubblica Sicurezza (Italy),
4:1815
Guchkov, Alexander, 3:1659, 1660;
4:2058
Gudden, Bernhard von, 3:1383
Guéhenno, Jean, 3:1216
Güell, Eusebi, 1:183; 2:936
2653
INDEX
Güell Colony chapel (Barcelona),
2:937
Güell Palace (Barcelona), 2:936
Güell Park (Barcelona), 1:184; 2:936
Guépin, Ange, 1:247, 286
Guérin, Alphonse, 4:1743
Guérin, Camille, 5:2361
Guérin, Jules, 4:1913
Guérin, Pierre-Narcisse, 2:640, 955;
3:1165
Guérin, Robert, 2:834
Guéroult, Adolphe, 4:1998
Guerrazzi, Francesco, 2:930
guerrilla warfare
Boer War and, 1:257; 3:1259
Greek War of Independence and,
2:1019
in Ottoman territories, 1:2
Peninsular War and, 4:1765
Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
and, 2:571
by Spanish traditionalists, 1:367
Sumatra and, 3:1617
Guesde, Jules, 2:540, 1025–1026;
3:1215, 1217; 4:2127, 2205,
2218
Guesdists, 2:1025
Guettard, Jean-Étienne, 3:1311
Guey, Berthe, 1:339
Guibal, Armand, 1:487
Guibert, Hervé, 1:255
Guibert, Jacques de, 3:1505
Guiccioli, Teresa, 1:333
Guichard, Joseph, 3:1543
guidebooks, 4:1967; 5:2326,
2329, 2330
Guide Michelin, 5:2326
Guide to the Lakes (Wordsworth),
4:2029
Guidoboni-Visconti, Countess, 1:168
guildhalls (Brussels), 1:105
Guild of St. George, 4:2047
guilds. See artisans and guilds
Guillamet, Gustave, 1:46
Guillaume Tell (Rossini), 3:1661,
1671; 4:2038, 2288
Guillaumin, Armand, 3:1126, 1128
Guillaumin, Emile, 4:1756
Guillotin, Joseph, 2:888
Guimard, Hector, 1:109; 2:815,
1026–1029; 4:1732
Paris subway and, 4:2273; 5:2503
Guinea. See French Guinea
Guinness Brewery, 2:691
Guinness family, 1:471
Guiraud, Ernest, 3:1662
Guizot, François, 2:540, 847, 849,
1029–1030; 3:1303, 1318, 1389
2654
dismissal of, 5:2311
liberalism and, 3:1343, 1344;
4:1971–1972
as Tocqueville influence, 5:2316
Guizot Law of 1833 (France), 2:721
Gülhane, Edict of (1839),
3:1187–1188
Gumilev, Nikolai, 4:2182, 2183
Gumplowicz, Ludwig, 4:2214
gunpowder, smokeless, 1:356
guns. See armaments; rifles
Gurko, Joseph V., 4:2068
Guro, Elena, 4:2182
Gurrelieder (Schoenberg), 4:2102
Gustave III; ou, Le bal masqué (Auber),
3:1673
Gustav IV Adolph, king of Sweden,
1:226; 4:2283
Gutehoffnungshütte, 1:174
Guth, Jiri, 3:1666
Guthrie, Thomas, 2:722
Guy Mannering (Scott), 4:2123
Guys, Constantin, 2:826; 3:1128,
1578
Gwendoline (Chabrier), 3:1675
GWR. See Great Western Railway
Gymnasium, 2:726, 727, 728, 1053
gymnasiums, 4:2241
gymnastics, 1:116, 118; 4:1989,
2239–2244, 2245
Gypsies. See Romanies
Gypsies, The (Pushkin), 4:1919
Gypsy Baron, The (Strauss), 4:2261
Gyulai von Maros-Nemeth, Ignatius,
3:1321, 1322
n 2409, 2410, 2513
H Jewish emancipation and,
Haas, Willy, 4:1859
habeas corpus, 2:958; 3:1345; 4:1807
Haber, Fritz, 3:1160; 4:2109
Habermas, Jürgen, 1:465–466, 467;
4:1872–1873
on intellectuals, 3:1167
Haber process, 3:1160
Habilitation (Weber), 5:2446
Habsburg Monarchy, 1:137–144;
4:2100; 5:2353, 2510
Austrian German nationalism and,
1:10, 11
Balkans and, 1:32
banking and, 1:170
Belgium and, 1:137, 199
Belgrade and, 1:206
Bohemian Lands and, 1:249,
259–264; 4:1711, 1712
E U R O P E
Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:273,
275, 276
conservatism and, 2:540
constitutionalism and, 5:2510
counterrevolution and, 2:567
Croatia and, 2:925
diminished influence of, 2:533
education and, 2:723
ethnic conflicts and, 3:1605
extent in 1789 of, 1:137
Ferdinand I and, 2:807–808
Francis I and, 2:860–861
Francis Ferdinand and, 2:861
Francis Ferdinand’s assassination and,
1:277
Francis Joseph and, 2:863–865
Franco-Austrian War and, 2:866–867
French Revolutionary Wars and
Napoleonic Wars and, 1:139–140;
2:533
Germany and, 2:871, 957
Greek Catholic Church and, 5:2373
Holy Roman Empire’s collapse and,
1:139–140
Hungary and, 2:627; 3:1268–1269
Italian bureaucrats and, 1:322
Italian thrones of, 1:137; 2:531, 533;
3:1191
Italy and, 1:391, 392, 414; 2:525,
531, 622, 669, 931–932; 3:1191,
1192, 1193–1196, 1196,
1198–1199, 1203, 1254, 1255,
1501–1502; 4:1981, 1985,
1994–1995, 2000, 2000–2003,
2001, 2033, 2034, 2098; 5:2377,
Jelačić and, 3:1219–1220
3:1225–1226, 1229, 1526
Jews in, 3:1227, 1232, 1525–1526
John, archduke of Austria, and,
3:1235–1236
labor movements and, 3:1288
Lueger’s elective position in, 3:1393
maternity hospitals an, 5:2450
Mediterranean and, 3:1481, 1482
Metternich and, 1:117, 139, 140,
141; 3:1236, 1491–1495
migration and, 3:1109–1110
Montenegro and, 3:1541
Napoleon I and, 3:1584, 1586
Ottoman Empire and, 1:137, 206;
3:1690
Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716
political Catholics and, 1:388
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Prague and, 4:1855–1861
Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1712,
1716–1717, 1861–1863
reforms of, 1:137–139, 140, 141,
142–143, 144, 260
Restoration and, 4:1971
Revolutions of 1848 and,
1:141–142, 162; 2:525, 567,
627, 808, 863, 961; 3:1236,
1502, 1605, 1626; 4:1719,
1848–1849, 1987, 1990,
1993–1995, 1994, 1995;
5:2418–2419, 2510
Romania, 4:2018–2020
Rudolf (crown prince) and,
4:2044–2045
Serbian nationalism and, 3:1247,
1683–1684; 4:1994, 2142, 2143,
2147–2148
successor states of, 1:144
Trieste and, 5:2354–2356, 2402,
2403
Venice and, 5:2402–2404
Vienna and, 5:2416–2420
women’s political suppression under,
2:804
Zollverein and, 5:2525–2526
See also Austria-Hungary; Holy
Roman Empire
Hachette, 5:2329, 2522
Hacia otra España (Maetzu), 2:951
Hadji Ali Haseki, 1:125
Hadji Murat (Tolstoy), 5:2319, 2320
Hadži Mustafa, 4:2142
Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich, 2:573, 777,
1031–1033, 1069; 4:1909, 2293
as Suttner influence, 4:2282
Hafez (Persian poet), 2:987
Haffkine, Waldemer, 1:438
Hafsid dynasty, 5:2361
Hagar in the Desert (Corot), 2:561
Haggard, H. Rider, 4:2255
Hagia Sophia (Istanbul), 3:1188
Hague, the, 1:53; 3:1616; 4:1697
Hague conferences (1899, 1907),
2:953, 1033–1035; 3:1173,
1175
Geneva Convention and, 2:952;
4:1950
Nicholas II and, 3:1628
peace procedures and, 4:1697–1698
Permanent Court of Arbitration and,
3:1174
Hague school, 5:2399, 2400
Haig, Douglas, 1:95
Hai Heghapokhakan Dashnaktsutiun,
1:89
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Haileybury College, 2:706
Hainaut (Belgium), 1:202, 203
Hainburg Party Conference
(1888), 1:11
Haine River, 1:486
Haiti, 1:363; 2:1035–1037; 4:2225;
5:2332
as independent nation, 2:1036–1037
slave revolt (1791) in, 1:364, 365,
498, 501; 2:890, 1036
slavery and, 4:2192; 5:2332
Toussaint Louverture and,
5:2332–2333, 2333
world’s fairs and, 5:2500
Halbwachs, Maurice, 2:552
Haldane, Richard Burdon, 2:730;
3:1611
Haldane Mission, 1:49
Halévy, Élie (political scientist),
4:1892–1893
Halévy, Jacques-François-Fromental-
Élie (composer), 3:1672
Halévy, Ludovic, 3:1593
halftone printing, 4:1773, 1867
Halicka, Alice, 2:591
Halifax Town Hall (Britain), 1:186
Hall, Charles, 4:2201
Hall, William Edward, 3:1175
Hallam, Arthur, 5:2309
Hallé, Charles, 1:287–288
Hallé, Jean Noël, 3:1297
Halles, Les (Paris), 2:1049; 3:1449,
1449; 4:1729
Hallische Jahrbücher (Young Hegelian
publication), 5:2512
Halls of Science, 4:2201
Hals, Franz, 3:1353
Halske, Johann Georg, 4:2179
Hamann, Johann Georg, 2:983
Hamard, Caroline, 2:828
Hamburg, 2:1038–1041
bourgeoisie in, 1:472
cholera epidemic in, 1:438, 450;
2:628, 1040; 3:1263
French occupation of, 2:1038
houses along canal in, 2:1039
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
and, 5:2493
labor movements in, 5:2492
Lutheran population of, 4:1892
maternity hospitals in, 5:2450
opera in, 3:1673
park in, 4:1740
population of, 1:446; 2:1041
siege of (1813), 2:1038
subway in, 4:2272
waterway transport in, 5:2348, 2350
INDEX
Zollverein and, 5:2526
Hamburg-American Line, 2:1039,
1040
Hamburger, Joseph, 3:1514
Hamburgische Unpartheyische
Correspondent (newspaper),
4:1867, 1868, 1869
Hamed bin Muhammad (Tippu Tip),
1:16–17
Hamidye cavalry, 1:2
Hamilton, Alexander, 2:515; 4:1887
Hamilton, Anna, 3:1650
Hamilton, Ian, 1:95
Hamilton, Lord (Alexander Douglas),
2:625
Hamilton, William, 1:327;
3:1477–1478
Hamlet (Shakespeare), 1:229
‘‘Hamlet and Don Quixote’’
(Turgenev), 5:2365
Hamlin, Christopher, 1:402
Hammuda Pasha, 5:2362
Ham Nghi, king of Vietnam, 3:1141
Hampden Park stadium (Scotland),
2:833; 4:2243
Hampson, Norman, 2:611
Hampsted Garden (London suburb),
2:1088
Hampton, Wade, 5:2440
Handbook of Physiological Optics
(Helmholtz), 2:1057
Handbook of the History of Painting
from Constantine the Great to the
Present (Burckhardt), 1:316
Handbuch der Geschichte der Malerei
(Kugler), 1:317
Handbuch der Geschichte der Malerei
seit Constantin dem Grossen
(Burckhardt), 1:316
Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte
(Kugler), 1:317
Handel, George Frideric, 3:1568
Hannibal, Abram, 4:1918
Hannibal Crossing the Alps (Goya),
2:996
Hanoi, 2:813; 3:142, 1137, 1141,
1144, 1145
Hanover
Britain and, 2:901
Congress of Vienna and, 2:533
liberal protests in, 2:959–960, 1024
Lutheran population of, 4:1892
Prussian annexation of, 2:964;
4:1900, 1901
Revolution of 1830 and, 1:457
written constitution of, 2:959, 960
Hanover, house of, 2:953, 959;
4:2118; 5:2321
2655
INDEX
Ireland and, 2:1000
Hansard, T. C., 1:489
Hänsel und Gretel (Humperdinck),
3:1675
Hanska, Evelina, 1:166, 168, 169
Hanslick, Eduard, 1:295; 3:1566;
4:2107
‘‘Hap’’ (Hardy), 2:1045
HAPAG (Hamburg-American Line),
2:1039, 1040
happiness, utilitarianism and, 1:211;
3:1510, 1511
Harden, Maximilian, 2:968, 1071
Hardenberg, Charlotte von, 2:545
Hardenberg, Friedrich von. See Novalis
Hardenberg, Karl August von, 1:369,
457; 2:531, 1041–1043
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532
Prussian reforms and, 2:958; 3:1341;
4:1900
Hardie, James Keir, 2:1043–1044;
3:1295; 5:2436
Hardman, John, 4:1918
Hardman, William, 1:287
Hard Times (Dickens), 1:443; 2:657;
3:1511
Hard Times (Ruskin), 1:371
Hardwicke, Lord (Philip Yorke),
4:1925
Hardy, Emma Gifford, 2:1045
Hardy, Thomas, 2:1044–1046; 3:1109;
4:1757, 1844, 2253, 2256
Spencer and, 4:2235
harems, 2:640
Hargreaves, James, 3:1153, 1410
Harmonielehre (Schoenberg), 4:2103
Harmonies poétiques et religieuses
(Lamartine), 3:1303
Harmony in Red (Matisse), 3:1474
Harms, Edith, 4:2090, 2091
Harnack, Adolf von, 3:1533
Harold in Italy (Berlioz), 1:225
Harpe, Frédéric-César de la, 1:37
Harper’s Monthly (magazine), 2:687
Harriman, Averell, 2:770
Harrington, James, 4:1958
Harris, Townsend, 3:1209–1210
Harrison, Birge, 4:1948
Harrison, Frederic, 4:1844; 5:2444
Harrison, Thomas Alexander
(Alexander), 4:1948
Harrison, William Henry, 5:2439,
2440
Hart, Robert, 1:434
Hartford Convention of 1814 (U.S),
5:2440
Hartington, Lord (Spencer Compton),
2:1010
2656
Hartley, David, 1:210; 3:1458,
1511, 1512
Hartmann, Eduard von, 2:1045; 4:2216
Hartmann, Frédéric, 1:270
Hartrocl, A. S., 4:1776
Harvard University, 1:23
Harvest, The (Van Gogh), 5:2401
Harvesters, The (Millet), 3:1515
Harzreise, Die (Heine), 2:1055
Hasheesh Eater, The (Ludlow), 2:687
hashish, 2:687
‘‘Hashish-House in New York, A’’
(Kane), 2:687
Haskalah movement (Jewish
Enlightenment), 3:1229
Hastings, Warren, 1:327; 2:669, 705;
3:1133, 1135; 4:2258
Hata, Sukehachiro, 2:736
Hatt-i Humayun (Ottoman principles),
3:1686
Hatt-i S˛erif of Gülhane (Ottoman
principles), 3:1686
Hatton, Timothy J., 2:710
Hatzfeldt, Sophie von, 3:1310
Haugwitz, Christian von, 1:133;
2:1042; 5:2374
Hauptmann, Gerhart, 1:65, 220;
2:951; 3:1411; 5:2470
Mann and, 3:1437
Hausa, 1:13
Haussmann, Georges-Eugène, 1:3, 53,
54, 306, 452; 2:621, 737,
1046–1051; 5:2485
assessment of, 4:1731
corruption charges and, 2:810,
1049–1050; 4:1731
deficit spending by, 4:1730–1731
dismissal of, 2:853; 4:1731
Ferry exposé of, 2:810, 1050
Parisian park system and, 4:1738,
1739–1740
reconstruction of Paris by, 2:810,
852, 1046, 1047–1050, 1087,
1088; 3:1188, 1404, 1413, 1535;
4:1729–1731, 1732, 1733,
1739–1740, 1794
haute bourgeoisie, 1:471, 472, 476
Hauteville House (Hugo estate),
2:1094
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 2:838
Haydn, Franz Joseph, 1:198; 3:1419,
1568; 4:2102
Hayek, F. A., 3:1514
Hayes, Carlton, J. H., 3:1607
Haymakers, The (Millet), 1:179
Hayn, Hugo, 4:1836
Hay Wain, The (Constable), 2:543,
544; 4:2029
E U R O P E
Hazlitt, William, 3:1426; 5:2482
Head of a Woman (Klimt), 5:2421
health. See disease; public health
health citizenship. See public health
health insurance, 5:2452, 2453, 2473
Bismarck national program and,
1:239, 356; 2:540, 966; 4:1915
Britain and, 2:1012
bureaucracy and, 1:32
Denmark and, 2:648
Health Insurance Law of 1883
(Germany), 4:1915
Healy, Timothy Michael, 4:1741,
1742
Heartbreak House (Shaw), 4:2167
Heart of Darkness (Conrad),
2:535–536, 948; 3:1336; 4:1875,
2256
Heart of Midlothian, The (Scott),
4:2123
heat flow, 3:1249–1250, 1478;
4:1779, 1780
See also thermodynamics
Heavenly Twins, The (Grand), 4:2235
Hebbel, Friedrich, 3:1108
Hebe and the Eagle of Jupiter (Rude),
4:2044
Hébert, Jacques-René, 2:974; 4:1952
Hebräische Balladen (Lasker-Schüler),
3:1309
Heckel, Erich, 1:154
Hecker, Friedrich, 2:961, 962
Heckscher, Eli Filip, 2:752; 5:2334
Hedda Gabler (Ibsen), 3:1108
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich,
2:1051–1055, 1052, 1058;
4:1962, 2195
as Belinsky influence, 1:207
Berlin and, 1:215; 2:1053, 1054
on Chinese autocracy, 1:432
civil society concept of, 1:465
Croce and, 2:584
dialectic and, 3:1252
Dilthey monograph on, 2:660
Engels on, 2:754, 755
Fichte as influence on, 2:814
Heine and, 2:1056
Holderlin friendship with, 2:1051,
1078
Kierkegaard as critic of, 3:1251,
1252, 1253
Marx and, 2:1054; 3:1463, 1464,
1465; 4:2203
on Napoleon, 2:957
philosophical legacy of, 3:1463–1465
philosophy of history of, 1:318;
2:1062
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

on Pinel, 4:1791
psychology and, 4:1907
Ranke and, 4:1940
Renan and, 4:1953
Romanticism and, 4:2031
Schelling and, 4:2087–2088, 2195
Schopenhauer and, 4:2104
sociology and, 4:2212
Young Hegelians and, 2:754;
3:1463, 1464; 4:2203; 5:2511,
2511–2513
Hegel’s Early Theological Writings,
2:1051
Heger, M., 1:301
Heidegger, Martin, 2:661; 4:2089
Hölderlin as influence on, 2:1078
Husserl as influence on, 2:1101
Kierkegaard as influence on, 3:1253
Heiligenstadt Testament of 1802
(Beethoven), 1:197–198
Heimann, Vasily A., 4:2069
Heine, Heinrich, 2:1055–1057, 1056;
5:2513
censorship and, 1:369
on emancipation, 3:1225
as Frazer influence, 2:873
Lassalle’s legal defense of, 3:1310
on ‘‘Lisztomania,’’ 3:1360
Saint-Simonism and, 4:2081
Heine, Salomon, 2:1055
Heine, Thomas Theodor, 4:1846;
5:2469
Heinrich von Ofterdingen (Novalis),
3:1647
Hellas (P. S. Shelley), 4:1769
Hellenism, 1:320; 2:1018–1019,
1085; 4:1770–1771
museum antiquities collections and,
3:1562
Nietzsche and, 3:1632; 4:1770
Pater and, 4:1746, 1770
primitivism and, 4:1875
See also classicism; philhellenic
movement
Helmholtz, Hermann von,
2:1057–1059, 1062–1063;
3:1162; 4:1908, 2012; 5:2507
Helsinki, 5:2308
Helvetic Republic, 3:1597; 4:2188,
2189, 2288
Helvétius, Claude-Adrien, 1:210
Hemaphrodite (antique marble), 2:940
hemophilia, 1:41, 42
Henderson, Andrea, 1:302
Henderson, Arthur, 3:1296
Henle, Friedrich Gustav Jacob, 3:1262
Henle, Richard, 1:292
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Henniker, Florence, 2:1045
Hénon (Lyonnais politician), 3:1404
Henri, Charles, 4:2292
Henrique, Léon, 2:1104
Henry, Émile, 1:57; 4:1943
Henry, Hubert, 2:683, 684
Henry, Joseph, 4:2109, 2111
Henry, Marc, 1:336
Henry, William, 3:1430
Henschel, Georg, 2:960
Henslow, Robert, 2:613
Henson, Matthew, 2:784
Hep, Hep pogroms (1819), 4:1802
Hepworth, Cecil, 1:441
Herakles Finding His Son Telephos
(Ingres), 3:1166
Herald League (Britain), 4:1714
Herbart, Johann Friedrich, 3:1409
Herbert, Robert J., 3:1537
Herbert, Sidney, 3:1637–1638, 1649
Hercules and Lichas (Canova), 1:349
Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 3;
2:566, 1059–1062, 1078;
4:2030, 2212
as Goethe influence, 2:983
linguistic national identity and,
3:1523, 1603, 1604
Hereditary Genius (Galton), 2:769,
927; 4:2248
heredity. See genetics
Heredity in Relation to Eugenics
(Davenport), 2:770
Hereros massacre, 3:1125
Héricourt, Jenny d’, 3:1288
Hering, Ewald, 2:1058; 3:1409
Hermann und Dorothea (Goethe),
2:985
‘‘Hermaphrodite’’ (Swinburne), 2:940
hermaphrodites, 2:1071; 4:2164
hermeneutics, 2:660–661
Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn,
5:2509, 2510
Hermitage Theater (St. Petersburg),
4:2077
Hermits, The (Schiele), 4:2090
Hernani (Hugo), 1:229; 2:1093;
4:2252
Hernani (Verdi), 3:1572
‘‘Hérodias’’ (Flaubert), 2:828
Hero of Our Time, A (Lermontov),
1:208
Herr, Lucien, 3:1215
Herr Bastiat-Schulze von Delitzsch, der
ökonomische Julian, order: Capital
und Arbeit (Lassalle), 3:1311
Herrenchiemsee (Louis II castle),
3:1383
Herriot, Édouard, 3:1405
Hértière de Birague, L’ (Balzac), 1:167
INDEX
Hertz, Heinrich, 2:1058, 1062–1064;
3:1163; 4:1780
Hertz, Heinrich Rudolph, 4:2114
Herz, Cornelius, 3:1338
Herz, Henriette, 1:215
Herzen, Alexander, 1:162;
2:772–773, 989–990,
1064–1066; 3:1170, 1552
as populist influence, 4:1831
as Westernizer, 4:2195–2196;
5:2459, 2460
Herzgewächse (Schoenberg), 4:2103
Herzl, Pauline, 2:1067
Herzl, Theodor, 1:11; 2:1066–1069,
1067
Dreyfus affair as influence on, 2:685,
1068
on Jaurès, 3:1219
Lueger’s anti-Semitism and, 3:1395
Zionism and, 1:76, 77; 2:1066,
1067, 1068–1069; 5:2518,
2520–2521
Herzegovina. See Bosnia-Herzegovina
Hess, Moses, 2:754; 3:1464; 4:2203;
5:2512, 2519
Hess, Sophie, 3:1644, 1645
Hesse, Hermann, 3:1437
Hesse-Kassel, 2:900; 3:1599
Lutheran population of, 4:1892
Prussian annexation of, 2:964;
4:1901
written constitution of, 2:959
See also Westphalia, Kingdom of
Hetaira Philiké (secret society), 1:360
Heterogeneity of Language and Its
Influence on the Intellectual
Development of Mankind, The (W.
Humboldt), 2:1097
Hetherington, Henry, 3:1390
hetmanate, 5:2370
Hetzel, Pierre-Jules, 5:2409
Heure espagnole, L’ (Ravel), 4:1944
Heydt-Kersten und Söhne, von der,
1:174
Heymann, Lida Gustava, 1:129–130
Heyne, Christian Gottlieb, 4:2094
Hibiya Riot (1905), 4:1838
Hickey, Thomas, 3:1134
Hicks, William, 2:734
hieroglyphics, 1:406
Hierta, Lars Johan, 4:2283
Highclere Castle (Hampshire), 1:186
higher criticism, 2:744
higher education. See universities
Highland Shepherd, The (Bonheur),
4:2117
High Renaissance, 4:1863
high-wheel bicycle, 2:600–601
2657
INDEX
Hilendarski, Paisii, 1:312
Hill, J. W., 4:1864
Hill House (Glasgow), 1:112
Hillsides of the Hermitage, Pontoise, The
(Pissarro), 4:1793
Hilmi, Abbas, 2:734; 4:2274
Hilsner, Leopold, 3:1469
Himmelfarb, Gertrude, 3:1509, 1514
Himmler, Heinrich, 4:2024
Hinckeldey, Karl von, 4:1815
Hind, Robert, 3:1637
Hindemith, Paul, 3:1310
Hindenburg (battle cruiser), 3:1610,
1611
Hindenburg, Paul von, 5:2313
Hinduism, 3:1134, 1135, 1136
Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2138, 2140
Hinzpeter, Georg, 5:2468
Hirobumi, Itô, 3:1210, 1212
Hirsch, Maurice de, 1:280
Hirschfeld, Magnus, 2:1069–1072,
1086; 4:2163; 5:2376
Hirschfeld, Max, 3:1450
Hirschman, C. A. W., 2:834
His, Wilhelm, 1:341
His Last Bow (Doyle), 2:680
Hispaniola. See Dominican Republic;
Haiti
Histoire de dix ans (Blanc), 1:247
Histoire de la civilisation en Europe
(Guizot), 2:1029
Histoire de la civilisation en France
(Guizot), 2:1029
Histoire de la grandeur et de la
décadence de César Birotteau
(Balzac), 1:168
Histoire de la littérature française
(Taine), 5:2522
Histoire de la peinture en Italie
(Stendhal), 4:2252
Histoire de la révolution de l’Angleterre
(Guizot), 2:1029
Histoire de ma vie (Sand), 4:2083,
2084
Histoire des Girondins (Lamartine),
3:1303–1304
Histoire des républiques italiennes au
Moyen Age (Sismondi), 4:2185
Histoire naturelle des animaux sans
vertèbres (Lamarck), 3:1302
Histoire parlementaire de la France
(Guizot), 2:1029
Histoires extraordinaires (Baudelaire),
1:188
Histoires grotesques et sérieuses
(Baudelaire), 1:188
Histoires Naturelles (Renard), 4:1944
Histoire socialiste de la Révolution
francaise (Jaurès), 3:1216
2658
histology, 1:340, 340–341
Historical and Moral View of the
Origin and Progress of the French
Revolution and the Effect It Has
Produced in Europe, An
(Wollstonecraft), 5:2480
historical landscape painting,
2:560, 561
historical materialism, 2:1054
historical novels, 3:1441–1442;
4:2123
historical operas, 3:1672
Historical, Political, and Moral Essay
on Revolutions, Ancient and
Modern (Chateaubriand), 1:420
Historical Right (Italy), 3:1200
‘‘Historical Russian Concerts,’’ 2:654
Historical School (philosophy), 2:660
historical school of law, 4:2236
Historical View of the Literature of the
South of Europe (Sismondi),
4:2185
historic fallacy, 1:103
historicism, 1:107, 295; 2:583, 584
Historische Fragmente (Burckhardt),
1:318
Historische Zeitscrhift (journal),
2:1072, 1073
history, 2:1072–1075
Acton and, 1:6–7
body focus of, 1:251–255
Burckhardt’s view of, 1:315,
318–319
Carlyle and, 1:370–371
Croce and, 2:583–584, 585
‘‘great men’’ theory of, 5:2319
Guizot and, 2:1029, 1030
Hegel’s philosophy of, 2:1052,
1054, 1062
Herder’s philosophy of,
2:1061–1062
Herzen’s philosophy of, 2:1064
Humboldt’s (Wilhelm) philosophy
of, 2:1097
industrialization and, 3:1146–1156
Macaulay and, 3:14707–14708
Marxist, 2:755, 1074–1075
Michelet’s view of, 3:1499
Milyukov’s school of, 3:1517, 1518,
1552
Mommsen and, 3:1532–1534
nationalism theories and,
3:1607–1608
Palacký and, 4:1711–1712
Ranke and, 4:1939–1941
Russian historians and, 3:1552
See also art history
E U R O P E
‘‘History’’ (Macaulay), 3:1407
History of a Six Weeks’ Tour (Shelley
and Shelley), 4:2168
History of British India (J. Mill),
3:1510
History of English Thought in the
Eighteenth Century (Stephen),
4:2254
History of France (Michelet), 3:1499
History of India, A (J. Mill),
3:1510–1511, 1512
History of Mr. Polly, The (Wells),
5:2458
History of Painting in Italy (Stendhal),
4:2252
History of Philosophy from Thales to
Comte, The (Lewes), 4:1844
History of Russia from Ancient Times
(Soloviev), 5:2460
History of Russian Social Thought, The
(Ivanov-Razumnik), 3:1170
History of Sexuality, The (Foucault),
3:1270
History of the Commonwealth of
England (Godwin), 2:981
History of the Consulate and Empire
(Thiers), 1:270; 5:2311
History of the Crusades (Michaud),
2:676–677
History of the Czech Nation in Bohemia
and Moravia (Palecký, 4:1711
History of the French Revolution
(Michelet), 3:1499
History of the German Language (J.
Grimm), 2:1024
History of the Latin and Germanic
Peoples (Ranke), 4:1940
History of the Pugachev Rebellion, The
(Pushkin), 4:1920
History of the Revolution (Thiers),
5:2310
History of the Roman Republic
(Michelet), 3:1499
History of the Thirty Years Peace
(Martineau), 3:1459
History of the Ukraine-Rus, A
(Hrushevsky), 5:2372
History of Trade Unionism, The (Webb
and Webb), 5:2445
history painting
Courbet and, 2:568
Daguerre and, 2:605
David and, 2:624
Delacroix and, 2:640–642
Géricault and, 2:955, 956
History of England from the Accession of
James II (Macaulay), 3:1407
Hitler, Adolf, 1:189, 231, 404; 3:1589
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

anti-Semitism and, 3:1393; 5:2421
Center Party and, 2:966
Drumont and, 2:688
LeBon’s theory of crowds and,
3:1317
lower middle-class support for, 1:106
Lueger as influence on, 3:1393, 1395
Mann’s opposition to, 3:1435
Planck and, 4:1799–1800
Romanies and, 4:2021, 2023
Shaw and, 4:2167
Social Darwinism and, 2:619
Wagner and, 5:2431
Hmilton, Emma, 3:1615
Hobbes, Thomas, 1:465; 3:1272;
4:2212
Hobhouse, L. T., 3:1518; 4:2215
Hobrecht, James, 1:218
Hobsbawm, Eric, 3:1147, 1607, 1666;
4:1821, 2130, 2132
Hobson, John A., 2:505, 1012,
1075–1076; 3:1518
on economic imperialism,
3:1121–1122, 1125
on jingoism, 3:1235
socialism and, 4:2205, 2206–2207
Hoche, Louis-Lazare, 2:666
Ho Chi Minh, 1461; 3:1144–1145
Hochschild, Adam, 1:222
Hoch- und Untergrundbahnen (Berlin
subway), 4:2273
hockey, 4:2245
Hoe, Richard, 4:1866
Hoechst Company, 2:736
Hoesch, Leopold, 2:960
Hofbibliothek (Munich), 3:1350
Hofer, Andreas, 3:1235–1236
Hoff, Jacobus, Hendricus. See van’t
Hoff, Jacobus Hendricus
Hoffaktoren, 4:2039
Höffer, Aloı́s, 1:298
Hoffmann, Erich, 4:2303
Hoffmann, E. T. A., 1:197, 198, 295;
2:678
Offenbach Contes d’Hoffmann and,
3:1661–1662
Hoffmann, Josef, 1:107, 112, 153,
336; 3:1381
Hofmann, August Wilhelm von,
1:425, 426; 3:1159, 1160
Hofmann, Josef, 2:654
Hofmannsthal, Hugo von, 2:1067,
1076–1077; 3:1437, 1675,
1676; 5:2405, 2421
Hogarth, Catherine. See Dickens,
Catherine Hogarth
Hogarth, Mary, 2:656
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Hogg, James, 4:2255
Hohenlinden, Battle of (1800), 2:901
Hohenlohe, Friedrich Ludwig,
3:1221, 1222
Hohenlohe-Ohringen, Christian-Kraft
von, 1:84
Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, Chlodwig
zu, 4:1722; 5:2469
Hohenstien, Leo Thun Von, 5:2383
Hohenzollern dynasty, 1:83, 84, 389;
2:961
Austria-Hungary and, 2:865
Franco-Prussian War and, 2:853,
867, 964
Protestants and, 2:870–871
Prussia and, 4:1899, 1901
Holcroft, Thomas, 1:244
Hölderin, Johann Christian Friedrich,
2:1077–1079
Hegel and, 2:1051, 1078
Hellenism and, 4:1769
Schelling and, 4:2088
holidays
as British paid days off, 1:285;
3:1324
Czech national celebrations, 1:262
Dutch national celebration, 3:1619
patriotic and religious, 4:1826
vacations and, 3:1324–1325
Holland. See Netherlands
Hollander, Samuel, 3:1514
Holloway, Thomas, 1:287
Holmes, Frederick Lawrence, 1:227
Holmes, Sherlock (fictional detective),
2:680–681
Holmskjold, Theodor, 2:647
Holocaust, 1:77; 2:639; 3:1395
holograms, 3:1398
Holroyd, Michael, 4:2259
Holstein. See Schleswig-Holstein
Holstein, Friedrich von, 3:1545
Holtzendorff, Franz von, 3:1175
Holy Alliance, 2:1079–1082; 3:1173;
4:1985
Alexander I and, 1:38; 2:565, 959;
4:1718
Congress of Troppau and,
2:531–532
Congress of Vienna and, 2:534, 565
Crimean War breakup of, 2:1079,
1081
Greek War of Independence and,
3:1685
members of, 2:1002, 1079–1080;
4:1970, 1971, 1973, 2228;
5:2392
Metternich and, 2:861, 959
INDEX
Münchengrätz convention and,
3:1561
Restoration and, 4:1970–1971, 1973
Revolutions of 1830 and, 2:566;
3:1561
Spain and, 4:2228
Holy Family (Schiele), 4:2090
Holy Family, The (Marx and Engels),
2:755
Holyoake, G. J., 2:555
Holy Roman Empire
abolishment of, 2:901
anticlericalism and, 1:68
aristocracy and, 1:85
Catholicism and, 1:388
collapse of, 1:139–140; 2:860, 875
France and, 4:2186
Francis II as last emperor of,
2:860, 957
French Revolutionary and
Napoleonic Wars and, 2:899
German Confederation replacing,
1:262; 2:957
Habsburgs and, 2:957
Italian bureaucrats and, 1:322
Switzerland and, 4:2291
Voltaires description of, 2:957
Holy Shroud at Trier, 4:1788
Holy Sinner, The (Mann), 3:1437
Homage to Queen Caterina Cornaro
(Markart), 5:2405
Home, Daniel Dunglas, 4:2237,
2238–2239
Home, Everard, 3:1223
Home and Foreign Review, The
(formerly The Rambler), 1:6
Home Guard (England), 1:117
Home International Championship
(British football), 2:832
Homeland (Blok), 1:250
Homeless Family Sleeping on a Bridge
(Doré), 2:677
Homer, 3:1165, 1675; 5:2319
Homer Deified (Ingres), 3:116
Home Rule. See Irish Home Rule
Home Rule Party (Ireland), 4:1741,
1742
homicide. See crime; murder
Homme qui rit, L’ (Hugo),
2:1094–1095
homosexuality and lesbianism,
2:1082–1086, 1085; 3:1450;
4:2162–2163
Bloomsbury Group and, 4:2258
Byron and, 1:332, 333
Carpenters theory of, 1:372–373
Decadence and, 2:632, 633
2659
INDEX
degeneracy label for, 2:639, 683
Ellis study of, 2:745, 746, 948,
1085; 3:1450
emancipation movement and,
2:1069–1071, 1086
fin de siècle concerns and, 2:816
first use of word homosexual and,
2:1082
Forster and, 2:835, 836
Freuds view of, 2:906, 1085
gay studies and, 4:2297
gender hierarchy and, 2:947
German court (1907) scandal and,
2:968, 1071, 1084
imperialism and, 2:948
Krafft-Ebing and, 2:816, 1085;
3:1270
Pater and, 4:1746, 1747, 1770
Sade and, 4:2074
Scouting and, 1:160
Strachey and, 4:2258, 2259
Symonds and, 4:2296–2297
Tchaikovsky and, 5:2306, 2307
terms for, 2:1082
‘‘third sex’’ theory of, 5:2375–2376
Ulrichs and, 2:1070, 1085–1086;
5:2375–2377
Wilde and, 4:2258, 2297;
5:2465–2466
Wildes conviction and, 2:633, 639,
1070, 1084
Homosexuality of Men and Women, The
(Hirschfeld), 2:1071
Hondschoote, Battle of (1793), 2:900
Hone, William, 2:585, 586
Honegger, Arthur, 4:2087
Hong Kong, 1:292, 434; 3:1680
cession to Britain of, 3:1579, 1679
prostitution and, 4:1886
syphilis control, 4:2302
honor, dueling and, 2:694–695;
3:1472
Honoré Balzac (Rodin), 1:167
Hontheim, Johann Nikolaus von
(Febronius), 4:1721
Hooker, Joseph, 2:616
Hoornik, Sien, 5:2400
Hope & Co., 1:170
Hopkins, Gerard Manley, 5:2310
Hopkins, William, 3:1477
Horen, Die (German literary journal),
4:2095
Horner, Francis, 1:302–303
horseback riding, 3:1305
horse breeding, 2:770
horse racing, 2:730; 4:2240, 2245
2660
horse transportation, 2:766
Horta, Victor, 1:109, 110, 152,
307, 307
Hortense, queen consort of France,
1:481
Hoschedé, Alice, 3:1536
hospices, 3:1664
Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau
(Barcelona), 1:184
hospitals, 1:450; 3:1358, 1637
battlefield, 3:1308
changed function of, 3:1648
geriatrics and, 3:1665
Nightingale reforms and, 3:1638
nursing and, 3:1648–1650
postoperative infections in, 3:1358
Hössli, Heinrich, 2:1085; 4:2297
hot-air balloons. See balloons
Hôtel Crillon (Paris), 4:1727
Hôtel de la Marine (Paris), 4:1727
Hôtel de Ville (Paris), 4:1729, 1734,
1736
Hôtel Dieu (Paris), 4:2300
Hôtel Lambert (Paris), 2:604
hotels
cities and, 1:445
restaurants and, 4:1967
seaside resorts and, 3:1325
Hotel Solvay (Brussels), 1:307
Hötzendorf, Conrad von, 2:862, 865
Houdin, Robert, 3:1483
Hound of the Baskervilles, The (Doyle),
2:680
Hours in a Library (Stephen), 4:2254
Hours of Idleness (Byron), 1:332
Household Words (British periodical),
2:657
Housekeeper, The (Daumier), 1:35
House of Commons (Britain)
antislavery campaign in, 4:1896
Asquith’s rise in, 1:114–115; 2:730
Bagehot’s political theory and, 1:161
Brougham’s seat in, 1:303
Burke’s seat in, 1:326, 327
Castlereagh leadership in, 1:374
Chamberlain’s (Joseph) seat in,
1:404
Chartist platforms and, 417;
1:414–415
Cobbett’s seat in, 1:489–490
Cobden’s seat in, 1:491
Corn Laws repeal and, 2:1005
Disraeli’s career in, 2:672–673, 674
Fox’s career in, 2:839–840, 1001
Gladstone’s career in,
2:976–978, 978
Hardie’s seat in, 2:1043, 1044
E U R O P E
Lloyd George’s career in,
3:1369–1370
Macaulay speeches in, 3:1407
Mill (James) on, 3:1510
Mill’s (John Stuart) seat in, 3:1513
O’Connor’s seat in, 3:1657, 1658
Palmerston’s seat in, 4:1713
Parnell’s seat in, 4:1741–1742
Peel’s seat in, 4:1757–1759
suffrage reforms and, 1:290
Wilberforce’s seat in, 5:2462–2463
See also Parliament, British
House of Lords (Britain), 1:302;
2:560
Anglican bishopric members of,
4:1895
aristocracy as members of, 1:80,
86, 469
Brougham as member of, 1:303
Byron’s Luddite defense speech in,
3:1410
Corn Laws repeal and, 2:1005
Curzon as member of, 2:597–598
diminished power of, 2:730
Disraeli as member of, 2:674
People’s Budget of 1910 and, 3:1369
reforms and, 1:114, 115, 303; 2:730,
1012–1013; 3:1345, 1369–1370
House of Savoy. See Piedmont-Savoy
House of the Hanged Man at Auvers,
The (Cézanne), 1:398
Houses at L’Estaque (Braque), 2:593
Houses of Parliament (Britain), 1:185,
186; 4:1918, 2030
See also House of Commons: House
of Lords; Parliament, British
housing, 2:1086–1092
Amsterdam and, 1:55
art nouveau style of, 1:109–109,
112, 113–114
Barcelona and, 1:182, 183
Berlin and, 1:218–219; 3:1554
Brussels and, 1:306
building codes and, 1:453–454
cities and, 1:452, 453–454;
2:1086–1087; 4:1912
Dublin and, 2:692–693
factory workers and, 1:474; 2:793,
1087, 1088; 3:1275
furniture and, 2:913–914
London and, 3:1373, 1375
Manchester and, 3:1430
middle class and, 2:1088,
1089–1090; 3:1453
middle-class consumerism and,
2:549
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Moscow and, 3:1554
Paris and, 4:1727, 1731, 1733
peasants and, 4:1753
private sphere and, 3:1453
reformers and, 2:1090–1092
St. Petersburg and, 4:2079
sanitary problems and, 4:1912
typhus outbreaks and, 2:670
working class and, 2:550,
1087–1089, 1090–1092; 3:1456
See also apartment buildings; slums;
tenements
Houssaye, Arsène, 1:187
Houten, C. J. van, 1:496
Howard’s End (Forster), 2:835–836
How Is Scientific Socialism Possible
(Bernstein), 4:2205
‘‘How Much Land Does a Man
Need?’’ (Tolstoy), 5:2319
Ho Xuan Huong, 3:1138
Høyen, Niels Lauritz, 2:647
Hroch, Miroslav, 3:1607
Hrushevsky, Mykhailo, 5:2371–2372
Huart, Louis, 2:826
Huddersfield Luddism, 3:1392
Hudsons Bay Company, 1:346
Hué, 3:1138, 1140
Hueppe, Ferdinand, 2:834
Huet, J. B., 2:845
Hufeland, Christoph Wilhelm, 3:491
Hughenden Manor (Disraeli estate),
2:672
Hughes, Arthur, 4:1865
Hughes, Nathan, 2:1004
Hughes, Thomas, 1:428; 3:1162
Hugo, Léopoldine, 2:1093, 1094
Hugo, Victor, 1:169, 229, 270, 411;
2:678, 827, 930, 1092–1095,
1093; 3:1360; 4:1849, 1916,
1963, 2123, 2252; 5:2499, 2524
Baudelaire essay on, 1:188
on childhood, 1:427
Doré illustrations for, 2:676
exile of, 2:1093–1095
funeral of, 2:1094, 1095
Goncourt brothers and, 2:991
as intellectual, 3:1167
Nadar and, 3:1578
peace congress and, 4:1695
as popular writer, 4:1823
Rodin’s monument to, 4:2009
Romanticism and, 4:2027, 2030
spiritualism and, 4:2237
women’s rights and, 1:127
Huguenots, 3:1111; 4:1891
Huguenots, Les (Meyerbeer), 3:1661,
1671
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Hull, William, 5:2439
Hull Anti-Mill Society, 2:555
Hulme, T. E., 1:214
Hülsenbeck Children, The (Runge),
1:428, 429
human body. See body
Human Development Index, 5:2334
human evolution. See evolution
humanism, 4:1843–1844
humanitarianism
Berlin Conference and, 1:221, 222,
223, 308
exploration and, 2:784
Geneva Conventions and,
2:952–953; 3:1175
Hague Law and, 3:1175
imperialism and, 3:1115, 1122
Humanité, L’ (periodical), 3:1217,
1218
Human Pyramid, The (Doré), 2:677
human rights
French declaration of, 1:456
indigenous protection societies and,
2:504–505
Leopold II violation of, 1:205; 2:509
Portuguese cololonial abuses of,
2:509
‘‘Human Vision’’ (Helmholtz), 2:1058
Humboldt, Alexander and Wilhelm
von, 1:22; 2:1095–1098
Schloss Tegel estate of, 4:2092
university systems and,
5:2381–2383, 2383, 2390
Humboldt, Alexander von, 2:774,
1095–1096, 1096, 1097; 3:1658
Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 1:215,
430–431; 2:958, 1097–1098;
3:1341; 4:1900
as Mill (John Stuart) influence,
3:1513
Humboldt University, 2:958; 3:1533;
4:1900
See also Kaiser Wilhelm Institute
Hume, David, 1:210, 326, 465;
3:1514; 4:2120; 5:2394
as Malthus influence, 3:1425
Hume, Joseph, 2:511; 3:1510
Humperdinck, Engelbert, 3:1675
Hunchakian Party (Armenian), 1:89, 92
Hunchback of Notre Dame, The
(Hugo), 2:1093; 4:1916, 2030
Hundred Days, 2:846–847, 903, 958,
1098–1099; 3:1588, 1599
Congress of Vienna and, 2:534;
3:1493
Constant and, 2:545
Fouché and, 2:837
INDEX
Louis XVIII and, 3:1387
Louis-Philippe and, 3:1388
Napoleon defenders and, 1:270, 471;
3:1589
Napoleonic myth and, 3:1589
new Napoleonic regime and, 3:1,
1588
Talleyrand and, 5:2306
Hungarian language, 1:310; 3:1268,
1269, 1605
Hungarian Revolution of 1848, 1:143;
2:627, 808, 961; 3:1344, 1605;
4:1990, 1992, 1995
counterrevolution and, 2:567,
1080–1081; 3:1626
Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:141–142
Jelačić and, 3:1219–1220
Kossuth and, 3:1266, 1267
Hungarian Rhapsodies (Liszt),
3:1361; 4:1825
Hungarian Workers Union, 1:36;
2:864
Hungary
Austria and, 4:1993, 1995; 5:2420,
2498
baths and spas in, 5:2327
Croatian nationalism and, 2:924,
925; 3:1268–1269
Deák and, 2:653–627
Dual Monarchy status of,
1:144–145, 262; 2:627
electrified factories and, 2:741
emigrant returns to, 2:749
emigrants from, 2:748
Francis Ferdinand and, 2:862
Kossuth and, 3:1265–1269
liberalism and, 3:1346
nationalism and, 1:447; 2:627, 705,
865; 3:1265–1269, 1267–1269,
1605; 4:1861, 1993, 2131
papal infallibility and, 4:1723
peasant status in, 4:1754
Protestant minority in, 4:1891
Radetzky and, 3:1219–1220
railroads and, 4:1933
republicanism and, 4:1963
Romanians and, 4:2018, 2019
Semmelweiss and, 4:2135
Serbia and, 4:1993, 1994, 2148
subways in, 4:2272
universities in, 5:2388
wine and, 5:2475, 2477
world’s fairs and, 5:2503
See also Austria-Hungary; Budapest;
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
Hunger (Breton), 4:1947
2661
INDEX
hunger strikes, 2:805; 4:1714
Hunt, Holman, 4:1707, 1863, 1864,
2046
Hunt, Margaret, 2:1023
Hunt, William Holman. See Hunt,
Holman
Hunter, John, 3:1223
hunting, 3:1305, 1306; 4:2240
Huntington, Samuel, 2:536–537
Huntsman, Benjamin, 3:1152
hurling (sport), 3:1182
Hurt, Jakob, 2:820
Hus, Jan
as Czech identity symbol, 1:262, 263
statue of, 4:1858
Husayn ibn Ali, al-, 5:2362
Husaynid dynasty, 5:2362
Huss, Magnus, 1:37
Husserl, Edmund, 2:1099–1101;
4:1907
Brentano’s influence on, 1:298, 299;
2:1099, 1100
Dilthey polemic with, 2:660, 661
Mach critique by, 3:1409
secularization viewed by, 4:2133
Hussites, 3:1469; 4:1711–1712,
1860
Hutcheson, Francis, 1:326; 5:2393
Hutchinson, Mary, 5:2481, 2482
Hutterites, 2:645
Hutton, R. H., 1:160
Huxley, Thomas Henry,
2:1101–1103, 1102; 4:2233;
5:2458
as Darwin’s champion, 2:614, 616,
617, 777, 1101, 1102
Morant Bay uprising and, 1:371
Huysmans, Camille, 1:205
Huysmans, Joris-Karl, 2:1103–1105
on Chéret’s poster art, 4:1846
Decadence and, 2:632, 1104, 1105;
4:2292–2293
degeneration and, 2:638
Gauguin and, 2:939
Zola and, 5:2523
Hvitträsk (Finnish complex), 1:119
Hyatt, John Wesley, 3:1160
hybridization, 3:1484, 1485–1486
Hyde, Douglas, 3:1182
Hyde Park (Derain), 2:796
Hyde Park (London), 4:1738, 1739
women’s suffrage demonstrations in,
4:1761–1762
Hyder Ali, 2:706
Hyderbad, 2:706; 3:1133, 1134
hydrodynamics, 2:1058
hydrogen, 3:1312
hydrotherapy. See baths, therapeutic
2662
hygiene
body and, 1:251, 253
death rates and, 2:644, 645
hospitals and, 3:1638
pollution and, 2:765–766
See also public health; sanitation
hylaens (avant-garde group), 1:157
Hyman, Stanley, 2:872
Hymnen an die Nacht (Novalis), 3:1647
Hymns to the Night (Novalis), 3:1647
Hymn to Satan (Carducci), 1:362
Hyndman, Henry Mayers, 2:787;
4:2205
Hyperion (Hölderlin), 2:1078
hypnosis, 3:1238; 4:1908, 2295
Charcot and, 1:410
Freud and, 4:1904
Mèliès and, 3:1483
mesmerism and, 3:1490–1491
hypodermic syringe, 2:686
Hyspa, Vincent, 4:2086
hysteria, 3:1239, 1325
Charcots theory of, 1:408–410;
4:1904
fin de siècle diagnoses of, 2:816;
3:1472
Freud and Breuer theories of, 2:410,
904–905, 907
n Idiot, The (Dostoyevsky), 2:678, 679
I
Ibn Hazm, 3:1516
Ibrahim Pasha, 2:731, 732, 1020;
3:1421, 1612; 5:2391
Ibsen, Henrik, 1:220; 2:638, 951;
3:1107–1109, 1108
fin de siécle and, 2:815, 816
on gender-role resistance, 2:942
Grieg and, 4:2287
Jarry and, 3:1213
Rank and, 4:1938
scandal created by, 3:1473
Shaw and, 4:2165–2166
Suez Canal opening and, 4:2274
symbolism and, 4:2295
Ibsen, Strindberg and the Intimate
Theatre: Studies in TV
Presentations (Törnqvist), 4:2269
Icarian communities, 1:338, 339
Icarie (Cabet), 1:104
Icarus, 1:29
Ice Age theory, 1:22–23
Iceland, 1:35
ICRC. See Red Cross
Idden (Husserl), 2:1100
E U R O P E
‘‘Idea for a Catechism of Reason for
Noble Ladies’’ (Schleiermacher),
4:2097
Ideal Husband, An (Wilde), 5:2465
idealism, 4:1947, 2104
Croce and, 2:583–584
Fichte and, 2:813
Mach and, 3:1409
Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1514
nationalism and, 3:1604–1605
Novalis and, 3:1647, 1648
Idea of a University, The (Newman),
3:1621
Idearium español (Ganivert), 2:950
Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature
(Schelling), 4:2088
Ideas: Introduction to Pure
Phenomenology (Husserl), 4:2133
Idée de l’état, L (Michel), 4:2081
Idée générale des la révolution
(Proudhon), 1:320
Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie
(Husserl), 4:2133
Ideen zur Philosophie de Geschichte zur
Bildung der Menschheit (Herder),
2:1061
Ideés napoléoniennes, Les (Louis-
Napoleon), 1:271; 3:1590
idéologues, 2:522
Ideology and Utopia (Mannheim),
3:1172
Idyll de mai (caricature), 1:352
Idylls of the King (Tennyson),
5:2309–2310
Doré illustrations, 2:676
Iggers, George, 4:1940
Ignatiev, N. P., 4:2085
Igrok (Dostoyevsky), 2:678–679
‘‘I Have Raised Myself a Monument
Not Made by Hands’’ (Pushkin),
4:1919
Ilbert Bill of 1883 (British India),
3:1135
Ile de la Cité (Paris), 2:1048; 4:1730,
1732
Iliad (Homer), 3:1165, 1675; 5:2319
Flaxman drawings for, 3:1165
Ilinden revolt (1903), 3:1691
illegitimacy, 2:645, 944, 947, 995
English ‘‘baby farming’’ and, 4:1829
factors in, 4:1828
male fear of, 3:1471
illiteracy. See literacy
Illusions du progrès (Sorel), 4:2218
Illusions perdues (Balzac), 1:168
Illustrated London News (magazine),
4:1773
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

illustration
Baudelaire on, 3:1128
Beardsley and, 1:109, 192, 193
Blake and, 1:245, 246
Bonapartism and, 1:270
Burne-Jones and, 4:1865
Cruikshank and, 2:585, 586–587
Daguerre lithographs and, 2:605
Daumierand, 2:620
Doré and, 2:676–678
Menzel and, 3:1489
newspapers and, 4:1867
photography and, 4:1772, 1867
posters and, 4:1845–1846
See also caricature and cartoons
Illustration, L’ (French newspaper),
4:1773, 1867
Illustrations of Political Economy
(Martineau), 3:1459
Illyrian movement, 2:924, 925
Illyrian provinces, 2:902; 3:1193, 1599
ILP. See Independent Labour Party
Images (Debussy), 2:631
Imaginary Portraits (Pater), 4:1746
Imagined Communities (Anderson),
3:1607
IMF. See International Monetary Fund
Imitation of Christ, The (Thomas à
Kempis), 1:385
Im Kampf um Gott (Andreas-
Salomé), 1:64
Imlay, Gilbert, 5:2480
Immaculate Conception, doctrine of,
4:1719, 1790
Pius IX and, 1:385; 4:1788, 1795,
1797, 1798
Protestant rejection of, 4:1891
immanent intentionality, Brentano’s
doctrine of, 1:299
Immanuel Kant (H. Chamberlain),
1:403
immigration and internal migration,
3:1109–1114
Algeria and, 1:45–46, 47
Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:52
Amsterdam laborers and, 1:54
Athens and, 1:125–126
Australia and, 1:134, 135, 353
Belgium and, 1:201
Berlin and, 1:217
Bohemian Lands, 1:261
Britain and, 2:690; 5:2489
Canada and, 1:343, 344, 346;
3:1114
cholera transmission and, 2:669
cities and, 1:444, 446–447; 2:670
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
from colonies, 3:1524–1525
Dublin and, 2:690
ethnic minorities and, 3:1524–1526
Hamburg and, 2:1041
as labor-importing, 3:1113
Lithuania and, 3:1367–1368
London and, 3:1372–1373
marriage and family life and, 3:145,
1457
Milan and, 3:1503–1504
New Zealand and, 3:1622
peasants and, 4:1756
of Poles into France, 4:1808
population growth and, 2:646
railroads and, 4:1936
Rome and, 4:2035, 2036
Russian serfs and, 4:2152, 2153,
2172–2173
Scotland and, 4:2118, 2120, 2121
Sicilians and, 4:2175
single people and, 3:1451
South Africa and, 4:2220–2223
Swedes and, 4:2285, 2287
Trieste and, 5:2356
typhus and, 2:668, 670
United States and, 1:353;
2:503–505, 646, 750, 962;
3:1114, 1367; 4:1804
Vladivostok and, 5:2427
voluntary associations and, 1:119
Wales and, 5:2435
women’s motives for, 3:1114
See also Irish immigrants
‘‘immortal beloved’’ document
(Beethoven), 1:198
immunization. See vaccination
Imperial Academy of Fine Arts
(St. Petersburg), 4:2076, 2077
Repin and, 4:1956, 1957
Imperial Ballet School (Russia),
4:1750
Imperial Court Opera (Vienna),
3:1418
imperialism, 3:1114–1126
Addis Ababa Treaty and, 1:7–8
armed conflict and, 2:1033, 1034
armies and, 1:94, 99; 3:1473
as Austen theme, 1:131–132
Baden-Powell and, 1:159, 160
Berlin Conference and, 1:20,
220–224, 239
Berlin Conference as guise for,
1:223; 3:1118
Boer War and, 1:159, 255–259;
3:1118, 1119
INDEX
Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292–294
Britain and, 1:221–222, 501; 2:597;
3:1668–1669; 4:1997,
2218–2224, 2218–2225, 2275,
2302; 5:2330, 2414
See also India
before the 1870s, 1114–1115;
3:1116
capitalism and, 4:2205
Chamberlain (Joseph) and, 1:405;
3:1118
in China, 1:434–435, 435; 3:1118,
1678–1680, 1679–1684
civilizing mission and, 1:462–464;
3:1120, 1124–1125, 1174
colonization vs., 2:504, 506, 663;
3:115
as Conrad novelistic subject, 2:535,
536, 948
Crystal Palace and, 2:589
Curzon’s dedication to, 2:597, 598
definitions of, 3:1115
diplomacy and, 2:1033; 3:1118
Disraeli and, 2:673, 673, 674, 977,
1009; 3:1122
Doyle and, 2:680
East India Company and, 2:705, 706
in Egypt, 2:733–734
evolutionism and, 2:777
exploration and, 2:783, 784
factors in, 3:1115, 1121–1124
family life and, 3:1457
Fashoda Affair and, 2:794–795;
3:1117–1118; 5:2502
Ferry and, 2:812–813; 3:1118,
1121, 1522
France and, 1:339, 498, 499, 501;
2:504, 505, 507–508, 507, 508,
642, 643, 859, 897; 3:1118,
1497, 1600; 5:2330, 2332–2333,
2362, 2363
French continental. See Napoleonic
Empire
gender and, 2:948
Germany and, 1:20, 222, 240, 256,
339, 403; 2:506, 967, 967–968;
3:1116, 1120, 1121, 1122, 1125,
1545–1546; 5:2353
Great Game and, 1:244
Hobson’s economic theory on,
2:1075–1076; 3:1121–1122,
1125
ideology of, 3:1118–1121
industrialism and, 2:708
Italy and, 1:7–8, 362; 2:527, 582,
582, 583, 609, 794; 3:1116,
2663
INDEX
1118, 1200, 1202, 1546, 1549;
4:2299; 5:2377
Japan and, 3:1208–1212; 4:2171
jingoism and, 2:589; 3:1234–1235
Kipling and, 3:1256, 1257
Kitchener and, 3:1257–1259,
1668–1669
legacy of, 3:1124–1125
Lenin on, 3:1122, 1329
Leopold II and, 3:1336–1337
map of European empires (1815),
3:1116
map of European empires (1914),
3:1123
map of European holdings in Africa
(1880), 3:1117
map of European holdings in Africa
(1914), 3:1119
masculinity and, 2:948;
3:1472–1473
military defeats and, 3:1473
missionaries and, 3:116, 1115,
1528–1529
‘‘modern colonialism’’ and,
1:499–500
Moroccan Crises and, 3:1545–1546
Nanking Treaty and, 3:1578–1579
Napoleon and, 3:1588
See also Napoleonic Empire
Netherlands and, 3:1617–1618,
1619; 4:2218
‘‘new imperialism’’ and, 2:812–813;
3:1115–1118
nonwhite population in Europe and,
3:1524
Portugal and, 3:1114, 1116, 1151;
4:1838–1839, 1840, 1841
primitivism and, 4:1875
race and racism and, 4:1923, 1927
reasons for, 3:1115
Rhodes and, 4:1997
Russia and, 3:1116, 1120; 4:2051,
2172; 5:2370
Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2137–2140
Sinn Féin opposition to, 3:1182
Spain and, 1:499; 2:949,
1035–1036; 3:1114–1115;
4:1979, 2225, 2228, 2229, 2231
Stevenson’s critique of, 4:2256
Suez Canal and, 4:2274, 2275
tourism and, 5:2330
Westernizers and, 2:508, 509;
3:1115, 1120, 1124
world’s fair displays and, 4:1875;
5:2496, 2497, 2500–2501, 2505
See also colonialism; colonies
2664
Imperialism (Hobson), 2:1075–1076;
3:1121–1122; 4:2206
Imperialism: The Highest Stage of
Capitalism (Lenin), 3:1122, 1329
Imperial Palace (Vienna),
3:1381–1382
Imperial State Bank (St. Petersburg),
4:2077
Imperial War Museum (Britain), 2:589
Importance of Being Earnest, The
(Wilde), 5:2465
imports. See trade and economic
growth
impressionism, 2:569; 3:1126–1133;
4:1708–1709, 2156–2157, 2292;
5:2505
avant-garde and, 1:152; 4:1701
Cézanne and, 1:398–399; 3:1530
coining of term, 3:1126–1127
Corot as influence on, 2:562
Daumier prefiguring, 2:622
Debussy’s music and, 2:630–631;
3:1133, 1572
Degas and, 2:634, 636;
4:1708–1709
Delacroix as influence on, 2:641
exhibitions of, 2:634; 4:1955
fauvism and, 2:795
first exhibit, Paris, 1874, 3:1127,
1544, 1578; 4:1793
impact of, 3:1133
Liebermann and, 3:1352, 1353
Manet’s relationship with, 3:1433,
1530
Menzel as precursor of, 3:1489,
1490
modernism and, 3:1128–1132, 1530
Monet and, 3:1126–1127,
1128–1129, 1132, 1133, 1530,
1534, 1535–1537; 4:1708
Morisot and, 3:1543–1545
naturalism vs., 4:1948
Parisian scenes and, 4:1732, 1739
Pissarro and, 3:1126, 1127, 1128,
1130–1131, 1534; 4:1708,
1792–1794
positivism and, 3:1132–1133
precursors of, 2:544, 622
Renoir and, 4:1708, 1709, 1954–1956
Seurat and, 4:2156
two factions within, 3:1128
Van Gogh and, 5:2400, 2401
See also neo-impressionism;
postimpressionism
Impressions of Theophrastus Such
(G. Eliot), 2:745
E U R O P E
Impression: Sunrise (Monet),
3:1126–1127, 1129, 1535
impressment, 3:1339; 5:2439
‘‘Improvisations’’ (Kandinsky series),
3:1245
In a Café, or The Absinthe (Degas), 1:3
incandescent lamps, 2:741, 742
Incest Motif in Literature and Legend,
The (Rank), 4:1938
Inchbold, John William, 4:1864
income
Smith distribution theory of, 2:713
trade inequality and, 5:2334, 2342
income tax. See taxation
In Darkest England, and the Way Out
(Salvation Army manifesto),
4:2083
Independent Labour Party (Britain),
2:1011, 1043, 1044; 3:1295;
5:2488
women’s suffrage and, 4:1714
Independent Musical Society, 4:1944
Independent Theatre (London),
3:1109
Index Librorum Prohibitorum
(pornography bibliography),
4:1836
Index of Prohibited Books
Bergson and, 1:214
Maurras and, 1:5
India, 3:1133–1137; 5:2411, 2414
Armenians in, 1:88
British civilizing mission in, 1:462,
499; 2:507–508; 3:1134
as British Crown colony, 1:499, 501;
2:706; 3:1135
British cultural effects on, 3:1135
British-French clashes in, 3:1115
British rule in, 1:353, 354, 498;
2:506, 507, 508, 705–706, 999;
3:1115, 1116, 1124–1125,
1133–1137
British wars in, 3:1134
bureaucracy of, 2:706; 3:1135
Burke on British policy in,
1:327, 498
Castlereagh and, 1:373
as cholera pandemic origin, 1:436;
2:668, 669
cotton goods and, 3:1151–1152,
1428
Curzon as viceroy of, 2:597, 598;
3:1135, 1136
Disraeli on British policy in, 2:508
Doctrine of Lapse and, 4:2138
East India Company and,
2:705–706; 3:1133
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

famines in, 3:1427
Forster novel on, 2:836
imperial expansion and, 1:244
imperial ideology and, 1:501
international exhibitions and, 5:2499
Kipling and, 3:1256
Kitchener command in, 3:1258
Macaulay’s views on, 3:1407
migrants to Britain from, 3:1524
Mill (James) writings on,
3:1510–1511, 1512
missionaries to, 5:2463
mutinies in. See Sepoy Mutiny
nationalism and, 1:501; 2:597;
3:1135–1136
Protestant missionary societies in,
3:1527
railroads and, 1:353
Romanies’ origins in, 4:2021, 2022
syphilis control in, 4:2302
as tea source, 1:495
trade and, 3:1151–1152; 5:2335
Victoria as empress of, 2:674; 3:1135
Wellington and, 5:2457
world’s fairs and, 5:2496
India Act of 1784 (Britain), 2:794
India House, 3:1510, 1511
India House, Sale Room (Pugin and
Rowlandson), 5:2335
India Mail, 5:2405
Indiana (Sand), 2:802; 4:2083
Indiana Law of 1907, 2:771
Indian Civil Service, 3:1136
Indian Mutiny (1857–1858). See
Sepoy Mutiny
Indian National Congress, 1:501;
2:597; 3:1135–1136
Indian Ocean
Portuguese colonies and, 1:499
slave trade and, 1:14, 16, 308
indigenous peoples, 1:363, 500, 501
Australia and, 1:133–134
Christian missionary approaches to,
3:1527–1528
civilization concept and, 2:504
colonial governments and, 2:508
colonists’ treatment of, 2:504–505
imperial technological power and,
3:1118, 1125
Leopold II’s cruelty and,
3:1336–1337
‘‘native policy’’ and, 2:507–509
New Zealand and, 3:1622, 1623, 1624
primitivism and, 4:1873–1876
South Africa and, 2:604; 3:1118;
4:2219, 2220, 2223
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
indigo, 1:364; 3:1160
Indigo und die vierzig Räuber
(J. Strauss), 4:2261
Indische Bibliothek (Schlegel), 4:2095
individual freedom. See rights
individualism, 4:1968, 2026, 2030,
2213
free markets and, 2:709–710, 712
Protestantism and, 4:1892
Indochina, 1:500; 2:508;
3:1137–1145, 1141, 1142
French colonialism and, 1:434;
2:812, 813; 3:1116, 1600
Indochina Communist Party, 3:1145
Indo-European language family,
3:1134
Indonesia, 1:53; 3:1617, 1619;
4:1772; 5:2336
‘‘Indo-Russian Union, An’’
(Khlebnikov), 2:774
inductor, 4:2108
Indulgents, 4:1952
Industrial Democracy (Webb and
Webb), 5:2445
industrial engineers, 2:759
industrialization. See economic growth
and industrialization
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions,
4:1961; 5:2493–2494
Industrial Revolution, First
(1770–1870), 1:24;
3:1146–1156, 1305
Agricultural Revolution and, 1:27–28
Brunel and, 1:303–305
business firms/economic growth
and, 1:30, 328–329, 331
capitalism and, 1:350–351;
3:1157–1158
Carlyle on, 1:371
Chartism as reaction to, 1:415, 416
child labor and, 1:430; 2:708
coal mining and, 1:485
Cockerill works and, 1:493
cotton factories and, 2:708
diet and nutrition and, 2:658–669
economic growth compared with
Second Industrial Revolution,
1:352
educational opportunity and, 2:721
environment, 2:764–766
epidemics and, 2:667
factories and, 2:788–793
garment-making and, 4:2158
historiographies on, 3:1146–1147,
1149
innovation and, 2:709; 4:2108,
2111, 2115
INDEX
labor protests and, 4:2264, 2265
Luddism and, 3:1391–1392
machine breaking and, 3:1410–1412
Malthus’s economic analysis of,
3:1426
Manchester and, 3:1427–1431
new industries of, 3:1157–1158
Owen reform program and,
3:1692–1693
painting and, 4:1705–1706
pollution and, 2:764
Romantic reaction to, 2:543
rural life idealization and, 4:1757
spread throughout Europe of,
1:349–351
technology and, 2:709; 3:1152–1154;
4:2108, 2111, 2115
towns and, 1:444, 445
workers’ living standards and,
1:350–351
Industrial Revolution, Second
(1870–1914), 1:351–356; 2:711;
3:1156–1164, 1305
business firms/economic growth
and, 1:329–331
capitalism and, 1:351–357; 3:1157
chemical industry and, 1:351, 427;
2:709; 3:1159–1160
coal output and, 1:485–486
consumerism and, 2:550–551
corporations and, 1:355
electricity and, 1:351; 2:709,
741–742; 3:1157, 1161–1162
energy systems and, 3:1160–1162
environment and, 2:764–766, 765
factories and, 2:792
German leadership of, 1:330–331
internal combustion and, 3:1161
labor movements and, 3:1290–1291
labor protests and, 4:2265–2266
London and, 3:1374–1375
nostalgia for rusticity and, 4:1757
photography and, 4:1772
population control and, 4:1830
railroads and, 4:1935–1936
sewing machine and, 4:2159
Siemens and, 4:2179
steel and, 1:351; 2:709; 3:1157,
1158–1159, 1273–1276
systems and, 3:1162–1163
technology and, 4:2112–2113, 2115
white-collar workforce and, 1:352
women workers and, 5:2487
working class and, 1:356–357;
5:2484
2665
INDEX
work-week reduction and, 4:1824
world’s fairs and, 5:2493
industrial sabotage, 3:1412
Industrial System, The (Hobson),
2:1075
industrial unions, 3:1289, 1291
Industrial Workers of the World, 1:61
Industrie, L’ (Saint-Simon), 4:2202
Indy, Vincent d’, 2:631; 3:1675
infant abandonment, 1:431; 4:1829
infant and child mortality, 1:261;
2:628, 644, 659
class differences in, 3:1455
decline in, 2:645; 4:1830
Dublin and, 2:690
London and, 3:1372
peasants and, 4:1753
as population control, 4:1829
in Scotland, 4:2122
urban high-density and, 2:667;
4:1912
as welfare concern, 5:2450, 2451,
2452
Infant Custody Act of 1839 (Britain),
3:1646
infanticide, 4:1827
infantile sexuality theory, 4:1905
infantry, 1:94, 95
infections, antiseptic and, 3:1358;
4:1743
infectious diseases. See disease
inferiority complex, 1:9; 2:907
Inferno (Dante), 2:676
Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique,
2:634; 3:1165–1167, 1166;
4:1706; 5:2496
Delacroix as antagonist to, 2:640;
4:1705
Ingush, 4:2165
inheritance (biological). See genetics
inheritance laws
landed elite and, 3:1306
Napoleonic Code and, 2:942;
3:1595
stem family system and, 3:1450
women and, 1:287
Inkermann Heights attack (1854),
2:579
In Memoriam (Tennyson), 5:2309,
2310
Innocents Abroad, The (Twain), 1:278
Innsbruck, 2:741
Inns of Court (London), 2:726;
4:1879
inoculation. See vaccination
Inquirer, The (Unitarian periodical),
1:160
2666
Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its
Development (Galton), 2:927
Inquiry Concerning the Distribution of
Wealth (Thompson), 4:2201
Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of
the Wealth of Nations (Smith). See
Wealth of Nations, The
Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas
of Beauty and Virtue
(Hutcheson), 5:2393
Inquisition, 1:73; 4:1766
abolition of, 4:2227
Restoration and, 4:1969
In Russian and French Prisons
(Kropotkin), 3:1272
insanity, 1:410; 4:1718
Inspector General, The (Gogol), 2:988
instinctive federalism, 4:2227
Institut de Droit International, 2:952
Institut de France, 2:598, 599
Institut de l’Action Française, 1:5
Institute for Advanced Study
(Princeton), 2:740
Institute for Infectious Diseases
(Prussia), 2:735
Institute for Serum Research and
Testing (Berlin), 2:735
Institute for Sexology (Berlin), 2:1071
Institute of Hygiene (Munich), 4:1914
Institute of Nursing (London), 3:1649
institutionalism, 2:707–708,
709–710, 711
Institution of Civil Engineers (Britain),
2:758–759
Institution Royales des Jeunes
Aveugles (Paris), 1:296, 297
instrumental music, 3:1567–1568,
1572
Romanticism and, 4:2027
Schubert and, 4:2106
insurance companies, 5:2354
intellectual property law, 2:595;
3:1173; 4:2111; 5:2499
music and, 3:1572
intellectuals, 3:1167–1169; 4:1946
Armenian, 1:88, 89, 90
Bergson and, 1:214–215
Bolshevik, 1:264, 266–267
Catholic, 1:385
Czech national revival and, 1:261
Dreyfus defense by, 2:684, 685
Eliot and, 2:743
Fabians and, 2:787
Generation of 1898 and, 2:950–952
German cultural nationalism and,
3:1523
hashish smoking and, 2:687
E U R O P E
Hegel’s celebrity with, 2:1054
Italian, 1:362–363
Kautsky and, 3:1248–1249
in Madrid, 3:1414
Marx and, 3:1462, 1464
Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716
peace activists as, 2:1034; 4:1695
Prague Slav Congress and,
4:1861–1863
Russia and, 2:772
Russian repression of, 3:1626
Stephen and, 4:2253–2254
Wallace and, 5:2437–2438
Westernizers as, 4:2195–2196;
5:2365, 2459–2460
Young Hegelians as, 5:2511–2513
Young Turks as, 5:2514–2516
See also intelligentsia
Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power,
The (Szelenyi), 3:1172
intelligence tests, 2:927
intelligentsia, 3:1168, 1170–1172
anarchist theory and, 3:1424, 1641
Belinsky and, 1:207–208; 3:1170
Berdyayev and, 1:212
Chaadayev and, 1:400; 3:1170
Herzen and, 2:1066; 3:1170
Kandinsky and, 3:1244–1245
Lenin’s view of, 3:1168, 1171,
1327–1328
in Lithuania, 3:1367
nihilism and, 3:1638–1641
in Poland, 4:1811
populists as, 3:1640–1641;
4:1767–1768, 1800, 1831–1832
radicalization of, 4:1879, 1880, 1881
in Russia, 4:1975, 2050, 2052–2053,
2055
See also intellectuals
Intelligent Woman’s Guide to Socialism
and Capitalism, The (Shaw),
4:2167
Intentions (Wilde), 5:2464
interchangeable parts (modularity),
3:1162
intercontinental cable. See telegraph
Interior of Crystal Palace at Sydenham
Opened by Her Majesty, June 10,
1854 (Shepherd), 2:589
Interior View of the Womens Section of
the St. Petersburg Drawing School
(Khilkova), 2:727
Interior, Woman at the Window
(Callebotte), 1:471
Intermediate Sex, The (Carpenter),
1:372–373
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Intermediate Types among Primitive
Folks (Carpenter), 1:372
Intermezzo in Modo Classico
(Mussorgsky), 3:1576
internal combustion engine, 5:2351
airplanes and, 1:30; 3:1161
automobiles and, 1:149; 3:1161
development of, 3:1161
Internal Macedonian Revolutionary
Organization, 1:2
internal medicine, 1:408
International. See First International;
Second International
International Abolitionist Federation,
1:129; 3:1556; 4:1884
International African Association,
1:20, 222
International Alliance for Womens
Suffrage, 2:805
International Anarchist Congress
(1907), 1:60
International Association of the
Congo, 1:222, 223
International Athletic Congress,
3:1667
International Bureau of Weights and
Measures, 1:353
International Committee for Assistance
to Sick and Wounded Soldiers,
4:1948
International Committee of the Red
Cross. See Red Cross
International Committee of Women
for a Permanent Peace (Hague,
1915), 1:189
International Congress of Psychology
(Paris, 1889), 4:1908
International Congress of Women
(The Hague, 1915), 1:129
International Council for the
Exploration of the Sea, 3:1658
International Council of Nurses,
3:1650
International Criminal Court, 4:1697
international expositions. See
Exposition Universelle; Great
Exhibition of 1858; world’s fairs
International Financial Commission,
5:2362
International Football Association,
2:832
international law, 3:1172–1176
African colonization and, 1:221,
222–223
Bosphorus and, 1:278
Geneva Convention and, 2:952–953
Hague Convention and, 2:1035
pacifism and, 4:1695, 1696–1697
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
regulatory organizations and,
1:352–353
slavery ban and, 1:309
International Law Association, 3:1175
International Monetary Fund, 3:1538
International Olympic Committee,
3:1666, 1667
International Postal Union, 5:2499
International Prisoners of War Agency,
4:1949
International Psychoanalytic
Association, 3:1240; 4:1905
International Railway Congress
Association, 1:353
International Scientific Series, 4:2233
International Socialist Bureau, 4:2127
International Socialist Physical
Education Association, 4:2245
International Society against State
Regulated Vice, 4:1896
International Style, 1:109
International Telegraph Bureau,
5:2308
International Telegraph Union, 1:352
International Union for the Protection
of Industrial Property, 1:353
International Union for the
Publication of Customs Tariffs,
1:353
International Women’s Rights
Congress (1878), 3:1556
International Workingmen’s
Association. See First International
Interparliamentary Union, 4:1695,
1699
Interpretation of Dreams (Freud),
2:905, 906; 4:1905, 1938
interpretive sociology, 5:2448
intersubjectivity, 2:1100
Intervention of the Sabine Women,
The (David), 2:624
In the Year of Jubilee (Gissing), 2:975
Intima Theatre (Stockholm), 4:2269
‘‘Intimations of Immortality from
Recollections of Early Childhood’’
(Wordsworth), 5:2482
intonarumori (futurist noise machine),
2:919–920
Introduction à l’étude de la médecine
expérimental (Bernard), 1:228
Introduction aux travaux scientifiques
du XIXe siècle (Saint-Simon),
4:2080
Introduction to the Human Sciences
(Dilthey), 2:660
Introduction to the Principles of Morals
and Legislation (Bentham),
1:210–211; 5:2393
INDEX
Introduction to the Study of
Experimental Medicine, An
(Bernard), 5:2523
intuitionism, 5:2394
Invalides, Les (Paris), 1:270; 4:1726
invalid role, 3:1325
Invention of Tradition, The
(Hobsbawm and Ranger), 3:1607
inventions. See science and technology;
specific inventions by name
‘‘inversion.’’ See homosexuality and
lesbianism
invertebrate classification (Lamarck),
3:1302
Investigation of Dogmatic Theology, An
(Tolstoy), 5:2319
Investigations into the Riddle of Man-
Manly Love (Ulrichs), 2:1070;
5:2375
investment banking, 1:174–176;
2:960
invisible hand of the market, 2:515,
712; 4:1887
Invisible Man, The (Wells), 5:2458
IOC. See International Olympic
Committee
Ion (Euripides), 4:2095
Ionesco, Eugene, 4:2269
Ionian Islands, 2:1018, 1022; 3:1482
Ionian Sea, 3:1482
Iphigenie auf Tauris (Goethe),
2:984, 985
I promessi sposi (Manzoni),
3:1193–1194
Iradier, Eduardo Dato, 4:2232
Iran. See Persia
Ireland, 3:1176–1186; 5:2433
Act of Union (1801) with, 1:373,
415; 2:999; 3:1177
alcohol abstinence crusade in, 1:36
Anglican established church in,
4:1895
army service and, 1:97
banking in, 1:172
Belfast as largest city in, 2:690
Castlereagh and, 1:373–374
Catholic emancipation as cause in,
1:373; 2:693, 1003
Catholicism and, 1:327, 378, 379,
380, 383; 2:693, 1000, 1009,
1010; 3:1176, 1181, 1654–1657
Catholic politicization in, 1:387,
388; 2:673; 3:1654–1657
Celticism and, 3:1178, 1182–1183
Chartism and, 3:1657–1658
Easter Rising (1916) in, 2:693;
3:1185; 5:2510
emigrants from, 2:747, 748, 748
2667
INDEX
emigrants to England from, 5:2489
emigrants to Scotland from, 4:2118,
2121
financial plight of, 2:1005;
3:1178–1179
football (soccer) in, 2:830, 832, 833
French Revolutionary War and,
2:895
Gladstone reforms in, 2:976, 978,
1008, 1009–1010
Home Rule and. See Irish Home Rule
housing in, 2:692–693, 1088, 1089
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
and, 5:2493
landed elite in, 1:83
land tenancy in, 2:1008, 1009,
1010–1011; 3:1181, 1182;
4:1741, 1755
literacy rate in, 4:1868
Marian apparition in, 4:1789–1790
Marx on, 5:2342
O’Connell and, 3:1654–1657
O’Connor and, 3:1657–1658
old-age pensions in, 3:1664
Parnell and, 4:1741–1742
peasant plays and, 4:1756
peasants in, 3:1178, 1179; 4:1753
Peel and, 4:1758, 1759
police system in, 4:1814
population growth in, 3:1178
potato famine in. See Irish Potato
Famine
Protestantism and, 1:373; 2:1009,
1010
rebellion of 1798 and, 2:1000
religious equality in, 2:1008
republicanism and, 2:1000; 4:1964
rural radicalism and, 1:83
secret societies in, 4:2132
Shaw and, 4:2166
single women in, 2:645
sister republics and, 4:2187, 2188
strikers in, 4:2267
suffrage in, 4:2277, 2280–2281
syndicalism and, 1:61
telephone service in, 5:2308
theater in, 2:693; 3:1109, 1182;
4:1756; 5:2510
Tories and, 5:2321
‘‘Troubles’’ and, 4:1755
universities in, 5:2379
Wellington and, 5:2457
Wilde and, 5:2464–2466
William IV and, 5:2471
women’s suffrage and, 4:2280–2281
2668
workhouses in, 5:2454
world’s fair (1907) and, 5:2504
Yeats and, 5:2509–2510
See also Belfast; Dublin
Irish Act of Union (1800).
See Act of Union
Irish Citizen Army, 3:1185
Irish Football Association, 2:832
Irish Home Rule, 1:86; 2:558, 1000;
3:1184–1185, 1345, 1604;
4:1741–1742, 2131
Asquith and, 1:115
Chamberlain (Joseph) and, 1:405;
2:1010
Dublin government and, 2:691, 693
Fenians and, 2:1009; 3:1009, 1185;
4:1815, 2132
Gladstone and, 2:978, 1010, 1011
infighting and, 3:1182
Irish immigrants and, 3:1525
Irish Revival and, 3:1182–1183
Liberal Party split over, 3:1348
Parnell and, 5:2322
Salisbury policy and, 2:1010–1011
Sinn Féin and, 2:691; 3:1182–1184,
1185; 4:1964
Ulster opposition to, 3:1183, 1184
Victoria and, 5:2414
Wilde and, 5:2464
Yeats and, 5:2509, 2510
Irish Home Rule Act of 1912 (Britain),
2:1012–1013
Irish immigrants, 1:346, 351; 2:1005
in Britain, 3:1372, 1373, 1524–1525
Fenians and, 2:1009
stereotypes of, 3:1525
typhus and, 2:670
Irish Insurrection of 1803, 3:1177
Irish Land Act of 1870, 2:1008;
3:1181, 1182
Irish Land Act of 1885, 3:1181
Irish Land Act of 1891, 3:1181
Irish Land Act of 1903, 3:1181
Irish Land Act of 1909, 3:1181
Irish Land League, 2:1009
Irish language, 3:1182, 1183
Irish Literary Revival (1890s), 3:1180,
1183
Irish Literary Theatre. See Abbey
Theatre
Irish nationalism. See Irish
Home Rule
Irish Nationalist Party, 2:691,
978, 1011
Irish Parliament. See Parliament, Irish
Irish Parliamentary Party,
3:1182, 1184
E U R O P E
Irish Potato Famine (1842–1852),
1:325, 351, 379; 2:558, 644,
658; 3:1179–1180, 1179, 1427
British response to, 2:1005; 3:1180;
4:1759
Corn Laws repeal and, 2:1005
cultural impact of, 3:1180–1181
deaths from, 2:644, 1005; 4:1751
factors causing, 2:658, 761, 1005;
3:1164
migrants from, 2:646, 748, 1005;
3:1372, 1524
Irish Rebellion (1798), 1:373
Irish Republican Brotherhood. See
Fenians
Irish Republican Party, 4:1964
Irish Revival, 3:1182–1183
Irish Transport and General Workers’
Union, 2:691
Irish Volunteers, 3:1185
Irish Women’s Franchise League,
4:2281
iron
Belgium and, 1:201, 202
Bohemian Lands and, 1:260
Britain and, 1:329, 492–493; 2:709;
3:1427
coke and, 1:485
Eiffel Tower construction of, 2:736,
738, 760
France and, 1:329
Germany and, 1:329; 2:967
Industrial Revolution (first) and,
2:709
Le Creusot power hammer and,
3:1163
Madrid buildings of, 3:1413
puddling and, 3:1152
steam-powered factories and,
2:791, 792
Wales and, 5:2433
See also steel production
Iron Cross (Germany), 2:958
Iron Law of Wages (Ricardo), 2:714
Iron Rolling Mill (Menzel), 3:1489
irony, 3:1253
Irredentismo adriatico (Vivante),
5:2356–2357
irrigation canals, 2:762
Irrungen, Wirrungen (Fontane), 2:829
Irving, Washington, 2:656
Isaacson, Esther, 4:1794
Isaacson, Joel, 3:1537
Isabella II, queen of Spain, 1:59, 68,
182; 4:2229–2230
Carlists and, 1:367, 368
expulsion of, 2:949
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Isabey, Jean-Baptiste, 4:2247
Isandhlwana, Battle of (1879), 1:99;
3:1118
Ishutin circle, 5:2517
Iskra (socialist journal), 1:265; 3:1327,
1460, 1487; 4:1801; 5:2518
Islam
Albania and, 1:32
Algeria and, 1:45–46, 47
as architectural influence, 2:936
Athens and, 1:125
Balkan Wars and, 3:1691
beards and, 1:190
Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:273, 274,
275, 276, 277; 3:1687–1688
Central Asia and, 1:395, 396–397
charity as tenet of, 4:1847
Chinese rebellions and, 1:434
Christian civilizing mission and,
1:462
Greece and, 4:1982
Greek War of Independence and,
3:1612
India and, 3:136, 1135
Istanbul and, 3:1186
jadidism and, 3:1206–1208
Mahdi and, 1:18–19; 2:734, 783;
3:1259, 1668
millet system and, 3:1516–1517, 1687
Morocco and, 3:1546–1549
Russia and, 1:39; 4:2164–2165
Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2138
Serbia and, 4:2142, 2146, 2147
Shamil and, 4:2164–2165
Sudan and, 1:18–19; 2:794; 3:1668
Turkish nationalism and, 3:1690,
1691
women’s seclusion under, 1:396–397
See also Ottoman Empire
Islamic Red Army, 3:1208
Island of Doctor Moreau, The (Wells),
5:2458
Island of Sakhalin, The (Chekhov),
1:423
Isle-Adam, Villiers de, 2:633
Isle of Wight, 1:288
Isly, Battle of (1844), 3:1548
Ismail Pasha, 1:18; 2:732–733;
3:1338; 4:2274–2275
isomorphism, 1:425
Israel, State of, 1:314; 2:1066
Istanbul, 1:445; 2:704;
3:1186–1191, 1187, 1691
Adrianople and, 1:12
architecture of British embassy in,
1:186
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Armenian residents of, 1:90, 92
Bosphorus division of, 1:278
British fleet sent to, 2:530
European residents of, 3:1190
Galata Bridge, 3:1684
population of, 1:446; 3:1188
Russian expansionist designs on,
1:166, 243, 244; 3:1689
Russo-Turkish War and, 4:2067,
2068, 2069
Is the Parliamentary Labour Party a
Failure? (Tillett pamphlet),
3:1296
Istoriia Rusov, 5:2370
Istria, 2:958; 3:1198, 1199, 1203
Itala Films, 1:442
Italian (Cisalpine) Republic, 3:1192
Italiana in Algeri, L’ (Rossini),
3:1670; 4:2038
Italian Athletics Federation,
4:2244–2245
Italian Cyclists’ Union, 4:2245
Italian Nationalist Association, 2:609
Italian Nationalist Organization,
1:363, 389
Italian National Society, 3:197–198;
4:2003
Italian opera, 3:1670–1671,
1672–1673, 1676–1677
Italian Renaissance, 1:185–186
Italian Renaissance Painting according
to Genres (Burckhardt), 1:318
Italian Socialist Party. See Socialist
Party (Italy)
Italian Syndicalist Union, 1:62; 4:2299
Italian-Turkish War (19111912),
3:1202
Italian unification. See Risorgimento
Italian War of 1859, 4:1937, 2003;
5:2510
Italienische Reise (Goethe),
2:985, 987
Italo-Abyssinian Wars, 1:7–8
Italy, 3:1191–1204
agricultural workers and, 1:24
airplanes and, 1:31
Albanian independence and, 3:1691
alliance system and, 1:47, 48–50;
2:526, 527
anarchism and, 1:57, 58; 3:1201,
1202, 1423–1425; 5:2377, 2378
anticlericalism and, 1:69, 70, 388;
3:1200
aristocracy and, 1:81; 3:1191
army system and, 1:94, 97
artisans and, 1:104
art nouveau in, 1:108, 152
INDEX
Austrian Habsburgs and, 1:137, 391,
392, 414; 2:525, 531, 533, 567,
662, 669, 863, 864; 3:1191,
1193–1196; 4:1981, 1985,
1994–1995, 2000–2003, 2033,
2034, 2098; 5:2377, 2409, 2410,
2513
Balkan wars and, 1:163, 164;
4:2149
banditry in, 2:571, 573; 3:1195,
1199, 1414–1416, 1424
banking and, 9; 1:171, 174
banking scandal and, 2:583,
609, 971
Berlin Conference and, 1:221
Bourbons and, 1:392; 2:932;
3:1191, 1254, 1255; 4:2000,
2003, 2004, 2130, 2175, 2176,
2188
bourgeoisie in, 1:283
British policy and, 2:977; 4:2003
British slave trade prohibition and,
1:308
bureaucracy and, 1:322; 3:1191
business firms and, 1:329, 330
Byron and, 1:333
Canova and, 1:347–349
Carbonari in, 1:360–361; 4:1980,
2130–2131; 5:2513, 2514
Carducci and, 1:362–363
Catholic cooperatives in, 2:556
Catholicism and, 1:377, 380, 383,
385; 5:2388
Catholic nursing care in, 3:1648
Catholic political activity and, 1:389
Cavour’s political influence in,
1:390–393; 3:1200
censorship in, 4:1869, 2001
charities and, 4:1851
chemistry and, 1:424, 426
child abandonment in, 5:2454–2455
Christian Democrats in, 4:2209
cinema and, 1:442–443; 4:1824
commercial policy and, 2:512,
516, 517
Congress of Berlin and, 2:530
Congress of Troppau and,
2:531–532
Congress of Vienna and, 2:533;
3:1193; 4:2001
Corot’s paintings and, 2:560–561
cotton production in, 1:329
counterrevolution and, 2:567
criminology and, 2:572, 573, 637,
638; 3:1371; 4:1816
Crispi and, 2:581–583; 3:1200
2669
INDEX
Croce and, 2:583–585
cycling and, 2:602
D’Annunzio and, 2:609–610
Decadence and, 2:633
Degas’s studies in, 2:634
dueling code in, 2:696; 3:1472
education in, 2:720, 724–726
emigrant returns to, 2:749
emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 747,
748, 748; 3:1195, 1199, 1255
emigrants to settlement colonies
from, 2:505
Ethiopian wars and, 1:7–8, 362;
2:582, 583, 609, 794; 3:1118,
1200
fascism and, 2:921, 972, 973, 1201;
3:1199, 1201, 1203, 1445, 1504;
4:2004, 2037; 5:2364
feminism and, 2:804; 3:1555–1556
football (soccer) and, 2:833
foundling homes/hospitals in,
5:2451
Freemasons and, 2:877, 881
French Revolutionary Wars and
Napoleonic Wars and,
3:1191–1192, 1254; 4:1786,
2000–2001
futurism and, 1:156–157, 214;
2:917–921; 3:1530–1531;
4:1711
Garibaldi and, 2:930–933
German alliance with, 1:239; 4:2098;
5:2377
Giolitti and, 2:971–973;
3:1201–1202, 1203
Goethe’s trip to, 2:984–985, 987
guild survival in, 1:104
Historical Right and, 3:1200
historiography and, 2:1074
imperialism and, 1:7–8, 362; 2:527,
582, 582, 583, 609, 794; 3:1116,
1118, 1200, 1202, 1546, 1549;
4:2299; 5:2377
industrialization and, 1:330
infant mortality rate in, 4:1829
Ingres and, 3:1165
international law textbooks and,
3:1175
Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225,
1227, 1229
Kuliscioff and, 3:1276–1277
labor movements in, 3:1289, 1290,
1291, 1292; 4:2174, 2267, 2299;
5:2485, 2488, 2491
landed elite in, 3:1307
Leopardi and, 3:1333–1334
2670
Leo XIII relations with, 3:1331
liberalism and, 3:1200–1202, 1348,
1349; 4:2025
Libyan annexation by, 2:527; 3:1546,
1549; 4:2299; 5:2361, 2364
Lombroso and, 2:638; 3:1371–1372
Louis-Napoleon and, 1:271; 2:662
Malatesta and, 3:1423–1425
Manzoni and, 3:1441–1442
Marconi and, 3:1444–1445
maternity hospitals in, 5:2450
Mazzini and, 3:1479–1481
Messina earthquake (1908) and,
4:1949
Metternich and, 3:1494
mezzadria sharecropping system and,
4:2186
migration and, 3:1112
monetary systems and, 3:1535–1538
monetary union and, 3:1538
Montessori and, 3:1542–1543
Mozzoni and, 3:1555–1556
Napoleon I and, 1:349, 360; 2:553,
901, 902, 903; 3:1192–1193,
1584; 4:1807
Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1192,
1501, 1587, 1597
See also Kingdom of Italy
nationalism and, 1:362–363, 388, 414;
2:930, 931–932; 3:1193–1196,
1606; 4:1992, 2001–2004,
2033–2034, 2131, 2247
newspapers and, 4:1868, 1870, 1872
opera and, 3:1567, 1572,
1669–1670, 1670–1671,
1672–1673, 1676–1677
Ottoman Empire and, 3:1202;
4:2299
Paganini and, 4:1698–1700
pilgrimages and, 4:1788
police system in, 4:1814, 1815, 1816
political clubs in, 4:1991
press freedom and, 4:1870
professions in, 4:1880
prostitution regulation in, 4:1884
protectionism in, 4:1889
Protestant minority in, 4:1890,
1891, 1891, 1895
Prussia and, 1:234–235; 5:2404
Puccini and, 4:1915–1917
Radicals in, 4:1928
railroads and, 1:390; 2:764; 3:1195,
1200; 4:1933
republicanism and, 3:1197; 4:1963,
1964
E U R O P E
Restoration in, 3:1193–1196;
4:1969, 1970, 1971, 1973,
2001–2002
revolutionary movements and, 1:361;
3:1194–1196
Revolutions of 1820 and, 2:662;
3:1195; 4:1980–1981
Revolutions of 1830 and, 3:1195;
4:1983–1986
Revolutions of 1848 and, 2:961;
3:1196–1197, 1255, 1344;
4:1786, 1987, 1990–1995,
2002–2003
Roman Question and, 4:1795, 2024,
2025
Rossini and, 3:1572, 1670–1671;
4:2038–2039
Rothschilds and, 4:2040
ruling elite in, 1:290
San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2086
seaside resorts in, 4:2125
Second International and, 4:2127,
2128
secret societies in, 4:2001–2002,
2129–2131; 5:2513–2514
Sismondi and, 4:2185
sister republics and, 4:2186–2189
smallpox deaths in, 4:2198
socialism and, 3:1201, 1202, 1203,
1276–1277, 1424; 4:2174;
5:2363–2364, 2377, 2491
Southern Question and, 3:1199,
1256
spiritualism and, 4:2238
sports in, 4:2242, 2243, 2244, 2245
steamships and, 5:2350
strikes in, 3:1288; 4:2174, 2266,
2267–2268; 5:2485, 2488, 2491
syndicalism and, 1:61–62; 3:1292;
4:2266, 2267, 2298, 2299
syphilis and, 4:2300
tea drinking in, 1:495
telephone service in, 5:2308
tobacco and, 5:2313, 2314
trade and, 5:2336, 2337, 2405
Trieste and, 1:145; 4:2004;
5:2356–2357
Triple Alliance and, 1:48, 166, 239;
2:526, 583, 965; 3:1200; 4:2017
Tunisia and, 5:2363
Turati and, 5:2363–2364
Umberto I and, 5:2377–2378
unification of. See Risorgimento
universities and, 5:2379, 2388–2389
Verdi and, 3:1567, 1672–1673;
5:2405–2407
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Verga and, 5:2407–2408
Victor Emmanuel II and, 4:2003,
2004, 2036, 2037; 5:2377,
2409–2411, 2410, 2497
villages in, 4:1752
violent crime and, 2:571
waterway transport in, 5:2348
welfare initiatives in, 5:2451, 2452
wine and, 5:2475–2478
women medical students in, 2:728
women workers in, 5:2488
working class in, 5:2485, 2491
World War I and, 3:1202–1203
Young Italy and, 4:2131;
5:2513–2514
See also Kingdom of the Two Sicilies;
Milan; Naples; Papal State;
Piedmont-Savoy; Rome; Sicily;
Venice
Itinéraire de Paris à Jérusalem, L’
(Chateaubriand), 1:420, 421
Ivan IV, emperor of Russia, 1:377
Ivanhoe (Scott), 4:2123
Ivanov (Chekhov), 1:423
Ivanov, Ivan, 3:1614
Ivanov, Sergei, 4:1757
Ivanov, Vjaček, 2:1024
Ivanov, Vyacheslav, 4:2182, 2183
Ivanov-Razumnik, R. B., 3:1170,
1171
Ivan Susanin (Glinka), 2:979–980;
3:1571, 1673
Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan
(Repin), 4:1957
ivory
art nouveau jewelry of, 1:109, 110
European value of, 3:1336
Leopold II’s interest in, 3:1336
trade in, 1:15, 16–17, 205
Ivory Coast. See Côte d’Ivoire
Izmir, 3:1482
n Jahrbuch für sexuelle Zwischenstufen
J Jaina, siege of (1912), 1:163
J & P Coats, 1:330; 4:2117
J’accuse (Zola), 2:684, 685, 685;
3:1216; 5:2524
Jackson, Andrew, 3:1357; 5:2440,
2441
Jackson, John Hughlings, 1:408
Jack the Ripper, 2:575, 576; 3:1375
Jacob, Max, 2:590
Jacobins, 1:270, 338; 2:518, 519,
664, 890, 897; 3:1205–1206
backlash against, 3:1206
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
David and, 2:624; 4:1702
Directory vs., 2:665
federalist revolt against,
2:799–800, 844
Fouché and, 2:837
Girondins vs., 2:610, 612, 891,
973–974; 3:1205; 4:1700
Gouges and, 2:994, 995, 996
Italian, 3:1192
in Italy, 4:2001
Lafayette’s flight from, 3:1300
Marat and, 3:1443
militant republicanism of, 2:891, 892
military tactics and, 3:1505
Napoleon’s association with, 3:1584
Paris and, 4:1728
Proudhon’s criticism of, 4:1899
radicalism and, 2:844, 892; 3:1192
Reign of Terror and, 2:892–894;
3:1403; 4:1952
republicanism and, 4:1959,
1960, 1962
Robespierre and, 4:2006,
2007–2008
Sieyès and, 4:2180, 2181
sister republics and, 4:2186
Venice and, 5:2402
See also Committee of Public Safety
Jacobs, Jo Ellen, 3:1514
Jacob’s Ladder (Blake), 1:245
Jacquard loom, 3:1153, 1154, 1404
Jacque, Charles-Émile, 1:178
jacqueries, 1:82–83
Jacquon le Croquant (Roy), 4:1756
jadidism, 3:1206–1208
Jaeger, Gustave, 1:485
Jæger, Hans Henrik, 3:1558
Jahn, Friedrich Ludwig, 1:215;
4:2021, 2241
Jahn, Otto, 3:1533
Jahrbuch für psychoanlytische und
psychopathologische Forschungen
(journal), 3:1239
(Hirschfeld, ed.), 2:1071
Jakobson, Carl Robert, 2:820
Jalès counterrevolutionists, 2:563
Jamaica, 1:364, 365, 371; 4:2190
Jamdudum Cernimus (encyclical,
1861), 4:1797, 2024
James II, king of England, 3:1407;
5:2460
James, Henry, 1:299; 2:535; 3:1109;
4:2084, 2253, 2296; 5:2365,
2405
impressionist writing and, 3:1133
INDEX
on London, 3:1372
Wells and, 5:2458
James, William, 1:214; 2:593, 638;
4:1783, 1908
Jung and, 3:1238, 1239
Jameson Raid (1895), 1:256; 4:1997
James Tait Black Memorial Prize,
4:2259
Janáček, Leoś, 2:700
Jandorf, Adolf, 2:551
Jane Eyre (C. Brontë), 1:300, 301;
2:802
Janet, Paul, 4:2081
Janet, Pierre-Marie-Félix, 1:410;
3:1238, 1239; 4:1908, 2238
Janina, 1:164
Janissaries, 3:1683; 4:2141–2142;
5:2362
Algeria and, 1:43
Mahmud II abolishment of, 3:1186,
1420, 1612, 1685
Sarajevo settlement of, 1:273
Jannsen, Johann Voldemar, 2:820
Jansenism, 3:1479
January Uprising of 1863–1864
(Poland), 1:162; 4:1809–1811,
1818, 1831
Japan, 1:402; 3:1208–1212
alliance system and, 1:49
Britain and, 4:2064, 2171
British naval treaty with, 2:526;
3:1624
China and, 1:293–294, 434, 435,
435; 3:1210–1211, 1212; 4:2064
Germany and, 2:968
imperialism of, 3:1116
Korea and, 4:2064, 2065–2066,
2171
as naval power, 3:1624
papal relations with, 4:1720
population of, 3:1208
Portsmouth Treaty and,
4:1837–1838
Red Cross and, 4:1949
Russia and, 4:2063–2064, 2171,
2173
Shimonoseki Treaty, 4:2170–2171
trade and, 5:2336
Triple Intervention and, 1:434
United States and, 4:2063, 2064,
2065, 2066
Vladivostok and, 5:2427
world’s fairs and, 5:2498, 2500,
2505
See also Russo-Japanese War
Japanese art, 2:991; 4:1874
2671
INDEX
as art nouveau influence, 1:109, 111,
192; 2:1026
as impressionist influence, 3:1129,
1130, 1210
woodblock prints and, 1:109, 192
Japan Society of London, 3:1210
Jardin des Buttes-Chaumont, Les,
4:1740
Jardin des Plantes, 4:1782
Jardin du Roi (France), 3:1301
Jaricot, Pauline, 3:1405
Jarrell, Randall, 3:1256
Jarrett, Edward, 1:229
Jarry, Alfred, 1:153, 153; 2:815;
3:1212–1214, 1213
Jaspers, Karl, 3:1253
Jassy, Treaty of (1792), 1:376
Jaurès, Jean, 1:98, 282; 2:1026;
3:1214–1219; 4:1732, 2128
assassination of, 3:1214, 1218–1219,
1218
on cooperatives, 2:556
as Dreyfus partisan, 2:684
Péguy and, 4:1760
Java, 2:507; 3:1617
Jawlensky, Alexei von, 1:155; 2:797;
3:1245
Jay Treaty (1794), 3:1174
Jazz (album), 3:1475
Jealousy (Munch), 3:1559
Jean-Christophe (Rolland), 4:2015
Jeanne d’Arc (Barbier), 1:229
Jeanne d’Arc (film), 3:1483
Jeanne d’Arc (Péguy), 4:1760
Jeanneret, Charles Edouard. See
Courbusier, Le
Jedermann (Hofmannsthal), 2:1077
Jefferson, Thomas, 1:38; 2:1037,
1096; 3:1265, 1300, 1357;
4:2197; 5:2439
Jeffrey, Francis, 1:303
Jelačić, Josip, 2:925; 3:1219–1221;
4:1994
Jellinek, Georg, 3:1174; 5:2446
Jemappes, Battle of (1792), 2:899;
3:1338, 1506
Jena, 1:369, 430; 2:1051–1052
Jena, Battle of (1806), 1:93, 477;
2:846, 875, 901, 957, 1038;
3:1221–1222, 1586; 4:1900,
2225
Jena Allgemeine Literaturzeitung
(German journal), 4:2095
Jena Circle, 3:1647
Jenkin, Fleming, 3:1477
Jenkinson, Robert Banks, 1:374;
5:2457
Jenks, Chris, 1:428
2672
Jenner, Edward, 3:1222–1225, 1224;
4:1745, 2197
Jerichau-Baumann, Anna Maria
Elisabeth, 2:1024
Jerrold, Douglas William, 2:587
Jerrold: London, A Pilgrimage (Doré),
2:677
Jerusalem (Blake), 1:246
Jerusalem
Latin patriarchate in, 4:1797
Napoleon occupation of, 2:900
Orthodox Church and, 1:244
Jervis, John, 3:1615
Jesuits, 1:384; 4:1718
as anticlerical target, 1:68, 70
expulsion from France of, 2:812
expulsion from Prussia of, 3:1278,
1279–1280
missions and, 3:1527
Roman Question and, 4:2026
in Switzerland, 4:2290
universities and, 4:2024; 5:2383
Jesus, 1:385
Aryanization of, 1:403
Renan life of, 2:688; 4:1892,
1953–1954; 5:2399
Strauss (David) life of,
2:743–744, 754
Jeune République (France), 1:389
Jeunesse Royaliste, 1:5
Jeux (ballet), 3:1642
Jeux d’eau (Ravel), 4:1944
Jevons, William Stanley, 2:707
jewelry, art nouveau, 1:109, 111, 111,
112, 113; 2:815
Jewish Bund. See Bund, Jewish
Jewish emancipation, 3:1225–1227,
1228–1230
anti-Semitism and, 1:74; 3:1225,
1233, 1393–1394
Britain and, 3:1225, 1227, 1229,
1345
Denmark and, 2:647–648
France and, 1:73; 3:1225,
1226–1227
Prussia and, 2:958, 1042; 3:1227;
4:1900
Jewish France (Drumont), 2:540, 688,
689, 690
Jewish Ladies Association, 4:1886
Jewish Lobby, 2:683
Jewish National Fund, 5:2521
Jewish Question. See Jews and
Judaism
Jewish State, The (Heral), 2:1068
Jewish Territorial Organization,
5:2521
E U R O P E
Jewish Virtues According to Galls
Method (Courtet illustration), 1:73
Jews and Judaism, 3:1227–1234
Adler (Victor) and, 1:10–11
in Algeria, 1:43, 46
in Alsace, 1:51, 52
assimilation and, 1:73; 2:1066,
1067, 1068, 1069; 3:1232, 1353
in Austria-Hungary, 3:1223, 1524,
1525–1526; 4:1808, 2045; 5:2520
beards and, 1:190
in Berlin, 1:215, 216, 217, 219
Bohemian emancipation of, 1:259
Bolshevism and, 1:264, 265
in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1:275
in Britain, 1:84; 3:1232; 5:2322
Bund and, 1:264, 265, 313–315;
3:1233, 1487
Christian civilizing mission and,
1:462
Christian converts and, 1:71, 72, 74
cities and, 1:447; 3:1231, 1232,
1234
conversion and, 4:2102
Disraeli’s background and, 1:75;
2:672, 674
Dreyfus affair and, 2:683–686
as Dublin immigrants, 2:690
Durkheim’s background and, 2:698
economic activity and, 3:1228,
1230–1232
emancipation of. See Jewish
emancipation
emigration from Russia of, 4:1804
European population of, 3:1225,
1227, 1228
expulsions of, 3:1227
financial markets and, 1:84
in France, 4:1959, 2136, 2279, 2303
French Revolution and, 2:843, 846,
888; 3:1227
Freud and, 2:904, 906, 907
German feminism and, 2:803
German politics and, 2:968
in Germany, 5:2353, 2472–2473
Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:138;
2:862
in Hamburg, 2:1038
Herzl and, 2:1066–1067
in Hungary, 1:144
immigration to United States of,
3:1367–1368
in Istanbul, 3:1186
Kadets and, 3:1241
Lasker-Schüler and, 3:1309, 1310
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Liebermann and, 3:1353
in Lithuania, 3:1366, 1367, 1368
in London, 3:1373
Mahler and, 3:1418
male religious devotion and, 2:945
Marx and, 3:1463
Menshevik members and, 3:1488
millet system and, 3:1516–1517,
1687
in Morocco, 3:1547
nationalism and, 1:314
Nazism and, 4:2041
as Netherlands minority, 3:1618
Palestine and, 2:598
Pius IX restrictions on, 4:1797
pogroms against, 4:1802–1804
in Poland, 4:1808, 1809–1810,
1812, 1812
poverty aid and, 4:1847
in Prague, 3:1525; 4:1856, 1857,
1859
professional barriers for, 4:1881
psychoanalysis and, 4:1906
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1991
in Riga and Courland, 2:818
in Romania, 4:2017
in Rome, 4:2035
Rothschilds and, 4:2039, 2041
Rudolf (crown prince) friendship
with, 4:2045
in Russia, 4:1808, 1978, 2055,
2057, 2257; 5:2519, 2520
Schnitzler’s portrayal of, 4:2101
secular culture of, 3:1232; 4:2134
in Serbia, 4:2146, 2147
Slavophiles and, 4:2196
socialism and. See Bund
in Ukraine, 5:2369, 2370, 2371
universities and, 5:2380, 2382,
2388, 2389, 2390
in Vienna, 5:2421–2422
Viennese cultural scene and, 2:1067
in Vilnius (Vilna), 3:1366, 1368
voluntary associations and, 1:119
in Warsaw, 5:2441
working class and, 5:2489
See also anti-Semitism; Zionism
Jhering, Rudolf von, 3:1315
Jiaozhou Bay, 1:292
Jindřich (Heinrich Fügner), 4:1856
jingoism, 2:1009; 3:1234–1235,
1624
Crystal Palace and, 2:589
newspapers and, 4:1872
popular culture and, 4:1826
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Joanne, Adolphe, 5:2329
Joanneum (library collection), 3:1236
Joan of Arc, 3:1499, 1637; 4:1760
Job, Book of, 1:246
Jocs Florals (Catalan literature), 1:182
Jodl, Friedrich, 5:2449
Joffre, Joseph, 3:1508
Jogiches, Leo, 3:1401
Johannesburg, 1:18
Johannsen, Wilhelm, 2:653
John, archduke of Austria,
3:1235–1236
Metternich’s firing and, 2:808
Napoleonic Wars and, 2:902
John Bull’s Dilemma (cartoon), 1:91
John Paul II, pope, 3:141, 1500;
4:1798
Johnson, Joseph, 5:2480
Johnson, Samuel, 1:327, 497; 4:2027,
2166, 2254
Johnson, Simon, 5:2334
John VI, king of Portugal, 4:1839,
1840
John XXIII, pope, 4:1798
Joie de vivre, La (Matisse), 3:1474
joint-stock banks, 1:171–173, 174,
175–176, 216–217; 2:960;
4:2040
joint-stock corporations, 1:330;
2:705, 960
Jokes and Their Relations to the
Unconscious (Freud), 2:906;
4:1905
Joll, James, 4:2128
Jomini, Antoine-Henri de, 1:94;
3:1236–1237
Jommelli, Niccolò, 3:1673
Jones, Ernest, 1:418; 2:907; 4:1905
Jones, William, 3:1133–1134; 4:2022
Jongkind, Johan-Barthold, 3:1534
Jordan, David Starr, 2:770
Jordan, Dorothy, 5:2470
Joseph II, Holy Roman emperor, 1:68;
3:1384; 5:2393, 2416, 2417
Buda as administrative center and,
1:309–310
Edicts of Toleration and, 1:138, 259;
3:1225, 1225–1226, 1229;
4:1856
Francis I as nephew of, 2:860
Italian bureaucrats and, 1:322;
3:1191
John of Austria as nephew of, 3:1235
Lombardy and, 3:1191
Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1592
political reforms of, 1:137, 138–139,
140, 259, 260
Prague founding and, 4:1855
INDEX
serf emancipation and, 4:1754
Singspiel and, 3:1673
Joseph and His Brothers (Mann),
3:1435, 1436
Josephine (first wife of Napoleon I),
1:481; 2:624; 3:1587, 1590;
4:1729
Josephism, 1:68
Josephson, Ernst, 4:2287
Joubert, Frans, 3:1422
Joubert, Piet, 3:1423
Jouhaux, Léon, 3:1218; 4:2299
Joule, James Prescott, 3:1160, 1249,
1430; 4:1779, 2108
Journal (Goncourt brothers), 2:991
Journal de la société de 1789,
4:1961–1962
Journal de Médecine, 3:1297
Journal de Rome, 3:1331
Journal du Magnetism, 3:1491
journalism. See press and newspapers
Journal of the Working Class (France),
3:1285
Journal pour Rire, Le, 3:1577
Journals and Remarks (Darwin),
2:613–614
Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,
A (Radishchevsky), 2:1014–1015;
3:1552
journeymen, 4:1988; 5:2486, 2487
Journey to Erzurum, A (Pushkin),
4:1919
Journey to the Center of the Earth
(Verne), 5:2408
Jours et les nuits, Les (Jarry), 3:1213
Jouy, Jules, 1:335
Joyce, James, 1:214, 299, 378;
4:1742, 2269; 5:2356, 2449,
2459
Dublin and, 2:691, 694
as Ibsen enthusiast, 3:1109
Matisse illustrations for, 3:1475
modernism and, 4:1905
obscenity battle and, 4:1833
Joy Unhoped For (Blok), 1:250
Judaism. See Jews and Judaism
Judendeutsch, 4:2039
Judengasse (Amsterdam), 3:1353
Judenstaat, Der (Herzl), 5:2520
Judentum in der Musik, Das (Wagner),
5:2430
Jude the Obscure (Hardy), 2:1045
Judgments on History and Historians
(Burckhardt), 1:318
judiciary
British reforms and, 1:303
French revolutionary reform of,
2:888; 3:1313–1314
2673
INDEX
German High Court of Appeals and,
2:965
individual rights and, 1:39; 3:1341
Permanent Court of International
Justice, 3:1174
Russian reforms and, 1:39; 2:1014,
1015–1017
Judson, Whitcomb, 4:2113
Jugend (German weekly), 1:152, 336
Jugend in Wien (Schnitzler), 4:2100,
2101
Jugendstil (art nouveau movement),
1:108, 113, 152, 336; 2:550, 815
Juif errant, Le (Sue), 1:70
Juive, La (Halévy), 3:1672
‘‘Jukes, The’’: A Study in Crime,
Pauperism, Disease, and Heredity
(1877), 2:638
‘‘Julian and Maddalo’’ (Shelley),
4:2170
July Column, 4:1728
July crisis of 1914, 2:968
July Days (Paris, 1830), 4:1982, 1983
July Monarchy (France), 1:269, 481;
2:575, 848–849, 961; 4:2002,
2131; 5:2397
Guizot and, 2:1029–1030
Haussmann and, 2:1046, 1047
Heine and, 2:1056
Hugo and, 2:1092, 1093, 1094
liberalism and, 3:1346, 1347,
1388–1389
machine breaking and, 3:1411
Metternich and, 3:1494
Paris under, 4:1728, 1729
programs of, 3:1388–1389
Thiers and, 5:2311
See also Louis-Philippe
July Ordinances (1830), 1:412;
3:1387, 1388
July Revolution of 1830. See
Revolutions of 1830
June Days (1848), 1:271; 3:1287,
1304; 4:1993
anticlericalism and, 1:381
Proudhons reaction to, 4:1899
repression following, 2:651
Jung, Carl Gustav, 1:8; 2:907, 908,
909; 3:1237–1240; 4:1905
Junge Medardus, Der (Schnitzler),
4:2100
Jungfernheide (Berlin), 4:1740
Jungle Books (Kipling), 3:1256
Jung-Stilling, Johann, 2:1080
Jung Wien circle, 2:1067
Junkers, 1:194; 2:539; 3:1305;
4:1889
2674
Junot, Andoche, 4:2225, 2227
Junta General del Principado de
Asturias, La, 4:2227
Jura Federation, 1:56
Jura Mountains, 1:360; 2:569; 3:1272
jurisprudence. See law, theories of
jury duty, 2:1016
jus ad bellum. See ‘‘just war’’ theories
jus commune, 3:1593–1594
Justice, La (French newspaper),
1:479, 480
Justification of the Good, The
(Soloviev), 4:2216
Justine (Sade), 4:1834, 2074
Justinian, emperor of Rome, 3:1593
Just So Stories (Kipling), 3:1257
‘‘just war’’ theories, 3:1175; 4:1696,
1698
jute, 3:1135
Jutland, 2:607–608, 647
Jutland, Battle of (1916), 2:683;
5:2313
Juvenile Library, The (Godwin and
Clairmont), 2:981
Juvenilia (Carducci), 1:362
Juventus of Milan (football club),
4:1824
n Berdyayev on, 1:212
K Chamberlain’s (Houston)
Kabyles (people), 1:43, 44, 45
Kabylia, 1:44
Kadets, 3:1241–1242, 1349; 4:2057
Berdyayev and, 1:212
Milyukov and, 3:1518–1519, 1552
Moscow and, 3:1555
Octobrists vs., 3:1659
Struve and, 4:2270, 2271
Kaffeelatsch, 1:494
Kafka, Franz, 1:214, 299; 2:679;
3:1242–1243, 1574; 4:1859;
5:2449
Mann’s admiration for, 3:1437
tuberculosis of, 5:2360
Kahn, Gustave, 4:2156, 2294
Kahnweiler, Daniel-Henry, 2:591;
4:1784
Kaiser Franz Josef Jubilee Exhibition,
3:1381
Kaiserjubiläums-Stadttheater (Vienna),
3:1394–1395
Kaiserswerth Hospital, 3:1637, 1649
Kaiser-Walzer (Strauss), 4:2260
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (Berlin),
2:740; 4:1799, 1800, 1826
See also Humboldt University
E U R O P E
Kakas Márton (Hungarian journal),
4:2058
Kalabari, 1:14
Kalevala (Finnish epic), 2:820
Kalevipoeg (Kreutzwald), 2:820
Kalff, J., 1:54
Kali (Hindu goddess), 3:1134
Kálly, Benjamin von, 1:276
Kamarinskaya (Glinka), 3:1571
Kamenny Bridge (Moscow), 3:1553
Kamiesch Bay, 2:578
Kamil, Mustafa, 2:734
Kanak uprising (1878), 3:1497
Kandinsky, Vasily, 1:192; 2:797;
3:1243–1246, 1246; 4:2077,
2102, 2294
avant-garde and, 1:155
Blaue Reiter and, 3:1530; 4:1711
futurism and, 2:920
Kane, H. H., 2:687
Kanenice, Česká, 2:701
Kanghwa, Treaty of (1876), 3:1211
Kang Youwei, 1:435
Kanoldt, Alexander, 1:155
Kanpur, 3:1135
Kant, Immanuel, 1:497; 2:1058;
4:2027
as Adler (Alfred) influence, 1:9
associationist critique by, 3:1511
interpretation of, 1:403
deontology and, 5:2394
as Fichte influence, 2:813
Frege and, 2:883
French Revolution ‘‘idea’’ and,
3:1343
as Hegel influence, 2:1051
Helmholtz and, 5:2507
as Mach influence, 3:1409
natural law indictment by, 2:953
psychology and, 4:1907
relativism and, 4:1843
Schleiermacher and, 4:2096, 2097
Schopenhauer and, 4:2104
Simmel and, 4:2184
Soloviev (Vladimir) and, 4:2216
Kantorowicz, Hermann, 3:1315
Kaoru, Inoue, 3:1211
Kapital, Das (Marx), 2:756; 3:1462,
1466, 1467, 1468; 4:2205
Kaposy, Béla, 4:1963
Kapp, Càcile, 1:66–67
Karadjordje, 3:1247–1248, 1683;
4:2142, 2144, 2145
Karadjordjević, Alexander, 4:2145
Karadjordjević, Peter, 4:2146
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Karadžić, Vuk, 2:925; 4:2143
Karakozov, Dmitri, 5:2517
Karamanli dynasty, 3:1420
Karamzin, Nikolai, 3:1552; 4:2288
Karatheodori, Alexander, 2:530
Karavelov, Liuben, 3:1687
Karl XIV Johan, king of Sweden and
Norway. See Bernadotte,
Jean-Baptiste
Karlowitz, Treaty of (1699), 3:1683
Karlsbad, 1:261
Karolinska Institute, 1:425
Kars, 2:530; 4:2085
Karsavina, Tamara, 2:655; 3:1642
Kasim, Mir, 2:706
Kaskeline, Friedrich, 4:2204
Kassongo, 1:16
katorzhniki (penal laborers), 2:781
Kattowitz Conference of 1884, 5:2520
Katzbach, Battle of (1813), 3:1320
Kaufhaus des Westens (Berlin
department store), 2:551
Kaunitz, Eleonora von, 3:1492
Kaunitz, Wenzel Anton von, 3:1492
Kautsky, Karl, 1:11, 194;
3:1248–1249; 4:2127, 2205
attack on Bernstein by, 1:231
as Bund influence, 1:314
as Marxist popularizer, 3:1248
peasant economy and, 4:1756
Kavelin, Konstantin, 5:2459, 2460
Kawamura, Kageaki, 3:1557
Kay, James Phillips (later Kay-
Shuttleworth), 1:285
Kay, John, 3:1153, 1410
Kayor kingdom, 1:13, 20
Kazakhs, 4:2173
Kazan Muhhiri (newspaper), 3:1207
Kean (Dumas), 1:229
Keats, John, 1:102; 4:2027, 2029;
5:2360
on Wordsworth, 5:2482
Keegan, John, 1:12
Keelman Heaving Coals by Night
(Turner), 5:2368
Keen, John, 2:601
Keiser, Reinhard, 3:1673
Keith-Falconer, Ion, 2:601
Kekulé von Stradonitz, Friedrich
August, 1:426; 3:1159, 1160
Kelly, Aileen M., 2:1065
Kelmscott Press, 3:1550
Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson),
3:1249–1250; 4:1743
age of earth theory of, 2:615; 3:1250
field theory of, 4:1780
Maxwell and, 3:1477, 1478
telegraph and, 4:2109, 2111
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
thermodynamics and, 3:1160–1161
Kelvin Scale (absolute temperature),
3:1249
Kemal, Mustafa. See Atäturk, Kemal
Kemey, Ferenc, 3:1666
Kempis. See Thomas à Kempis
Kendall, Richard, 2:634
Kendall, Willmore, 3:1514
Kennedy, Edmund, 2:781
Kent, James, 3:1175
Kenya, 1:21, 21, 500
Kergomard, Pauline, 2:697, 812
Kertbeny, Karl Maria, 2:1082
Kertch, Straits of, 1:243; 2:579
Kesselschlacht, 3:1507
Ketteler, Clemens von, 1:294
Ketteler, Wilhelm Emmanuel von,
4:1722, 1723, 2208–2209
Keynes, John Maynard, 2:835, 1076;
4:2258
‘‘Khadzhi-Tarkhan’’ (Khlebnikov),
2:774
Khalturin, Stepan, 4:1832
Kharkov University, 5:2370, 2379
Khartoum, 1:18, 19; 2:734
Khatisian, Alexander, 1:88
Khayr al-Din, 5:2363
Khilkova, Ekaterina Nikolaevna, 2:727
Khiva, 1:395
Khlebnikov, Velimir, 1:157; 4:2182
Khmelnytsky, Bohdan, 5:2369
Khmers, 3:142, 1138, 1139, 1141,
1142
Khodasevich, Vladislav, 4:2183
Khoikhoi, 4:2219
Khomiakov, Alexei, 4:2194, 2196
‘‘Khor and Kalinich’’ (Turgenev),
5:2365
Khovanshchina (Mussorgsky), 3:1575;
4:1999
Kiaer, Anders, 4:2249
Kiderlen-Wächter, Alfred von, 3:1546
Kidnapped (Stevenson), 4:2255, 2256
Kiel, Treaty of (1814), 1:227
Kierkegaard, Søren, 2:648;
3:1250–1254, 1251
as Generation of 1898 influence,
2:950
pseudonymous writings of, 3:1251,
1253
Schelling and, 4:2088–2089
Kiev, 3:111; 5:2369, 2371
Kiev Academy, 5:2370
Kievan Rus, 5:2369, 2370, 2371
Kikuyu (people), 1:17
Kilmainham, Treaty of (1882), 4:1741
Kim (Kipling), 3:1257
Kimball, Theodora, 4:1738
INDEX
Kimberley, 1:18; 4:2221, 2222
kindergartens, 2:945; 3:1680
Kindertotenlieder (Mahler), 3:1419
Kinder- und Hausmärchen (Grimm
brothers), 2:1023
kinetic energy, 3:1250
Kinetoscope, 1:441; 3:1396
Kingdom of God Is Within You, The
(Tolstoy), 5:2319
Kingdom of Holland, 4:2188, 2189
Kingdom of Italy, 3:1192–1193,
1197, 1198; 4:2001, 2024, 2033,
2188, 2189; 5:2402, 2404
Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia,
4:1970, 1981, 2000, 2001, 2002;
5:2402–2403
Kingdom of Naples, 3:1192, 1581,
1597, 1599; 4:2001, 2188
Kingdom of Poland. See Poland
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 2:533;
3:1196, 1254–1256; 4:1970,
2175
Carbonari and, 4:2130
Cavour plan for, 1:392
Garibaldi’s conquest of, 2:932;
3:1255
Nelson and, 3:1615
peasant revolt in, 4:1755
Pius IX exile in, 4:1796
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987,
1990, 1993
Spanish Bourbons and, 3:1191
See also Naples
Kingdom of Westphalia, 2:957, 968;
3:1587, 1599; 4:1900
King Kong (film), 2:677
King Lear (Shakespeare), 3:1663
Kings College (Cambridge), 2:835
Kings College (London), 3:1377,
1402, 1477; 5:2385
Kingsley, Charles, 2:618, 681; 4:2208
Kingsley, George Henry, 2:783
Kingsley, Mary, 2:508, 783
Kingstown Regatta, 3:1444
Kinkel, Gottfried, 1:316
Kinnaird House shooting party
(Scotland), 3:1306
Kinsbergen, Isidore van, 4:1772
Kinsey, Alfred, 2:1071
Kipling, John, 3:1256, 1257
Kipling, Rudyard, 1:160; 2:948;
3:1256–1257; 4:2287
on British-Indian cultural mix,
3:1135
Stevenson and, 4:2255, 2256
Kipps (Wells), 5:2458
Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig, 1:154–155,
220, 220; 4:1711
2675
INDEX
Kireyevsky, Ivan, 4:2194, 2195, 2196
Kiril, grand duke of Russia, 1:42
Kirilovsky, Daniil (Novomirsky), 1:60
Kirk Kilise, Battle of (1912), 1:12, 163
Kisch, Ergon Erwin, 4:1859
Kishinev massacre (1903), 4:2055
Kiss, The (Klimt), 3:1261, 1261
Kiss, The (Munch), 3:1559
Kiss, The (postcard), 2:944
Kiss, The (Rodin), 4:2009
Kissingen Dictate (1877), 1:239
Kistyakovsky, Bogdan, 3:1171
Kitaro, Nishida, 1:214
Kitasato, Shibasaburo, 2:735
Kitchener, Horatio Herbert, 1:256,
257; 3:1257–1259, 1258
Curzon feud with, 2:597, 598
Fashoda Affair and, 2:794–795;
3:1668
Omdurman and, 3:1668–1669
Sudan invasion and, 3:1668–1669
Kitchen Table, The (Cézanne), 1:398
Kitty Hawk (North Carolina), 1:30
Kladderadatsch (Berlin magazine),
2:675
Kléber, Jean-Baptise, 2:731
Klee, Paul, 1:155; 2:920; 3:1530
Kleindeutsch (Little Germany)
solution, 2:871, 923, 964
‘‘Kleine Blumen, kleine Blätter’’
(Goethe), 2:983
Kleist, Heinrich von, 2:911; 3:1108
kleptomania, 2:574
Klimt, Ernst, 3:1260
Klimt, Gustav, 1:112; 2:815;
3:1260–1262, 1261, 1530;
5:2421
avant-garde and, 1:152–153
Schiele and, 4:2089, 2091
symbolism and, 4:2293, 2295
Vienna and, 5:2421
Klimt-Kollektive exhibition (1903),
3:1260
Klinger, Max, 3:1260
Kliuchevsky, Vasily, 3:1552
‘‘Klöpplerinnen, Die’’ (L. Otto),
3:1680
Klüber, Johann Ludwig, 3:1173
Kluge, Carl, 3:491
Klyuchevsky, Vasily Osipovich,
3:1518
Klyuev, Nikolai, 4:2183
Knaben Wunderhorn, Des (Brentano
and Arnim), 2:1023
Knapp, Georg Friedrich, 4:2249
knezes, 4:2141, 2142, 2144
Knight Pásmán (R. Strauss), 4:2261
Knights of Labor, 3:1331
2676
Knights of the Hospital of St. John of
Jerusalem (Knights of Malta),
4:1748
Knights Templar, 2:881
Knipper, Olga, 1:423
Knock, Marian shrine at, 4:1789–1790
Knopf, 4:1939
Knox, Archibald, 1:113
Knox, Robert, 4:2023
Kobe, 3:1210
Koch, Robert, 1:438; 2:644;
3:1262–1264, 1358; 4:1744,
1914, 2110, 2113, 2114, 2135
tuberculin discovery and, 3:1263;
5:2359, 2360, 2361
Koch’s postulates, 3:1263
Kochubei, Prince, 4:2236
Kockkock, H. W., 4:1977
Kodak, 3:1396
Kodak camera, 4:1773
Koëlla-Leenhoff, Léon, 3:1433
Kogan, Moissej, 1:155
Kohn, Hans, 3:1607
Kôin, Kido, 3:1210
Kokoschka, Oskar, 1:153, 336; 5:2421
Kokovtsov, Vladimir, 4:2058
Kola Peninsula, 2:820
Kollár, Jan, 2:924; 4:1716, 1717
Kölliker, Rudolf Albert von,
1:340, 341
Kollwitz, Käthe, 1:154; 4:2092
Kolokotronis, Theodore, 2:1020
Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky, Franz Anton,
2:808; 3:1495
Kolping, Adolph, 1:383; 4:2208
Komissarzhevskaya, Vera, 3:1496
Komura, Baron Jutaro, 4:2065
König, Friedrich, 4:1866
Königgrätz, Battle of (1866), 1:237,
262; 2:864, 964; 3:1319; 4:1860,
1902, 2004, 2242; 5:2524–2525
Frederick III and, 2:874
Königsberger, Leo, 2:1099
Konitz (West Prussia), 2:576
Konrád, George, 3:1172
Konrad Wallenrod (Mickiewicz),
3:1500
Konstantin Nikolayevich, grand duke
of Russia, 2:1014, 1016; 4:2154
Konya, Battle of (1832), 3:1421
Koraı̈s, Adamántios, 2:1018–1019;
3:1685
Koran, 3:1516
Körber, Ernst, 2:865
Korea, 1:434; 4:2065
Japan and, 3:1211, 1212; 4:2064,
2065–2066, 2171
Russo-Japanese War and, 4:1837
Kornmann, Guillaume, 3:1490
E U R O P E
Korzeniowski, Apollo, 2:535
Kościuszko, Tadeusz, 3:1264–1265;
4:1807
Kościuszko Foundation (New York),
3:1265
Kosmos (A. Humboldt), 2:1096
Kosovo, 1:32, 163, 166; 4:2149
Kosovo, Battle of (1389), 3:1541
Kossuth, Ferenc, 3:1267
Kossuth, Lajos, 1:141; 2:627, 925,
961; 3:1265–1270, 1268
Croatia and, 4:1994
exile of, 3:1269
Jelačić and, 3:1220
Palmerston and, 4:1713
republicanism and, 4:1963, 1964
speech to parliament (1848) of,
3:1266
Kotěra, Jan, 1:113
Kotzebue, August von, 1:361, 369;
2:531, 875, 959; 4:1901
Koulouglis (people), 1:43
Kovalevskaya, Sofia, 4:2285–2286
Kowloon Peninsula, 3:1680
Kraepelin, Emil, 3:1238
Krafft-Ebing, Richard von, 2:636, 816,
906, 1085; 3:1270–1271;
4:2162, 2163; 5:2376
as Jung influence, 3:1238
Kraków, 4:1808, 1809, 1990
cabaret in, 1:336
insurrection (1794) in, 3:1264
insurrection (1846) in, 4:1818
Kościuszko memorial in, 3:1265
Kramskoy, Ivan, 4:1956–1957
Krasiński, Zygmunt, 4:1818
Kraus, Karl, 3:1309; 5:2421, 2449
Krauss, Rosalind E., 4:2011
Kreditbanken, 1:175
Kreditinstitut, 1:172
Krefeld, 2:791; 3:1411
Kremer, Arkady, 3:1460
Kremlin (Moscow), 3:1552, 1553,
1554; 4:2079
Krenek, Ernst, 3:1310
‘‘Kreutzer Sonata, The’’ (Tolstoy),
5:2319
Kreutzwald, Friedrich Reinhold,
2:820
Kriedte, Peter, 3:1147
Krieger, Leonard, 4:1941
Kriegsakademie (Prussia), 1:96
Kristallseelen (Haeckel), 2:1032
Kritische Wälder (Herder), 2:1061
Kroeber, Alfred Louis, 2:774
Krog, Arnold, 2:647
Kronecker, Leopold, 2:1099
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Kropotkin, Peter, 2:619;
3:1272–1273; 4:1755, 1757,
1941–1942
anarchism and, 1:56, 57, 60
Spanish labor movement and, 4:2299
Kroyer, Peder Severin, 2:647
Kruchenykh, Alexander, 1:157;
4:2182
Krüdener, Barbara Juliane von, 2:1080
Kruger, Paul, 1:256, 257; 4:1997
Kruger telegram, 3:1118
Krupp, 1:330, 471; 2:1088; 3:1159,
1159, 1273–1276
William II and, 5:2470
world’s fair displays of, 5:2498, 2505
Krupp, Alfred (son), 3:1273,
1274–1275
Krupp, Friedrich (father), 2:960;
3:1159, 1273
Krupp, Friedrich Alfred (grandson),
3:793, 1275–1276
Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach,
Gustav, 3:1276
Krupskaya, Nadezhda, 3:1327
Krupsky, Father, 3:1575
Krzhizhanovsky, G. M., 1:266
Kschessinska, Mathilde, 3:1642
Kselman, Thomas, 4:1894
Kubista, Bohumil, 1:154
‘‘Kubla Khan’’ (Coleridge), 1:496;
2:686
Küçük Kaynarca, Treaty of (1774),
1:243, 376
Kugler, Franz, 1:316, 317, 318;
3:1489
Kühn, Sophie von, 3:1647
Kulemann, Richard, 4:2023
Kuliscioff, Anna, 3:1276–1277, 1504,
1556
Turati and, 5:2363, 2364
Kulm, Battle of (1813), 3:1320, 1334
Kulomzin, Anatoly, 4:2173
Kulturgeschichte (unified history), 1:6
Kulturkampf, 3:1277–1280; 4:1903
aftermath and legacy of, 3:1280
anticlericalism and, 1:69–70, 382,
388; 3:1278
Bismarck and, 1:238, 239; 2:966;
3:1277, 1279, 1330
Catholic resistance to, 3:1278–1279;
4:1789, 1903
Center Party as target of, 1:393, 394;
2:966; 3:1278
end to, 3:1279, 1331
Holy Shroud at Trier and, 4:1788
Jewish Haskalah movement and,
3:1229
Leo XIII and, 4:1720
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
as papal infallibility response, 3:1277,
1278; 4:1723, 1896
Pius IX and, 3:1278, 1279, 1329,
1330; 4:1719, 1795, 1798
Polish Catholics and, 4:1812
targets of, 2:966; 3:1277–1278
Treitschke and, 5:2353
Virchow and, 5:2425
Windthorst and, 5:2473
Kumanovo, Battle of (1912), 1:163
Kunstformen der Natur (Haeckel),
2:1031
Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna),
3:1260
Kunstkamera (St. Petersburg), 4:2075
Künstlerhausgenossenschaft (Vienna),
3:1260
Künstlers Erdenwallen (Goethe;
Menzel lithographs), 3:1489
Kunst und die Revolution, Die
(Wagner), 5:2431
Kunstwerk der Zukunft, Das (Wagner),
5:2431
Kunstwerke der belgischen Stäte, Die
(Burckhardt), 1:317
Kupka, František, 1:156; 4:2294
Kurakin, Alexei, 4:2236
Kurds, 1:2, 92
Kurfürstendamm (Berlin), 1:217, 219;
2:551
Kuril Island chain, 3:1209
Kuropatkin, Alexei, 3:1557; 4:2065
Kutahiya, Peace of (1833), 3:1421
Kutuzov, Mikhail, 3:1280–1282;
5:2374
Austerlitz and, 1:132
Borodino and, 1:272, 273
Napoleon’s retreat and, 2:1080
Kuyper, Abraham, 3:1619; 4:2209
Kuzmin, Mikhail, 4:2182
n gender dimorphism and, 2:944–945
L Germany and, 2:966; 5:2484, 2487,
Là-Bas (Huysmans), 2:1104
labor
cooperatives and, 1:247
masculinization of, 3:1470
migrations and, 1:353; 3:1109,
1112, 1113–1114
penal, 2:781
productivity of, 2:712–713
protoindustrialization theory and,
3:1148–1149
Second Industrial Revolution and,
3:1157
INDEX
value and, 1467; 3:1466
in workshops, 2:788–789, 790
See also child labor; factories; farm
labor; outwork; workday/
workweek; working class
labor movements, 1:291;
3:1283–1295
Amsterdam and, 1:54–55
anarchosyndicalists and, 1:56, 59,
60–62
artisans and, 3:1283–1284, 1286;
5:2486–2487
Belgium and, 1:203
Berlin and, 1:219
Bolsheviks and, 1:264, 265, 267;
3:1488
Britain and, 2:1003, 1008, 1009,
1012; 3:1285, 1411; 5:2484,
2486, 2489–2490
British acts banning, 2:510–511
British Labour Party and, 3:1295,
1296, 1297
British unrest and, 2:1011; 3:1284
Bund as, 1:313, 314, 315
Cabet and, 1:337–338
Catholicism and, 1:383–384, 389
Christian Socialism and,
4:2208–2209; 5:2488
cities and, 1:449
cooperative movements and,
2:555–556
craft unions and, 3:1288–1289
Dublin and, 2:691
factories and, 1:474; 2:793; 3:1291
feminism and, 2:805; 3:1293
Finland and, 2:822
First International and, 2:824–825
France and, 3:1217, 1285–1292;
4:2298–2299; 5:2485–2488,
2491, 2492
French feminism and, 2:697
2489–2492
goals of, 1:475
Hardie and, 2:1043–1044
Italy and, 1:61; 3:1202; 4:2174,
2267, 2299; 5:2491
Lassalle and, 3:1310–1311
Leo XIII and, 3:1331–1332
Lovett and, 3:1286, 1390–1391
Luxemburg critique of,
3:1400–1401
Lyonnais silkworkers and, 2:848,
849; 3:1284, 1404
2677
INDEX
male dominance of, 3:1470–1471
Manchester and, 3:1430
Manning and, 3:1441
mass unionization and, 3:1289–1292
Mensheviks and, 3:1488
Milan and, 3:1504
Mill (J. S.) view of, 2:718
Moscow and, 3:1554
Otto and, 3:1680
Owenism and, 5:2396
police surveillance of, 4:1815
police trade unions and, 4:1817
Prague and, 4:1860
reformist vs. revolutionary,
5:2489–2491
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987,
1991
Russia and, 4:1801, 1976, 1978,
2078–2079; 5:2485, 2486, 2489
Second International and, 3:1294;
4:2127, 2128, 2267
secret societies and, 4:2131
Spain and, 3:1289, 1290, 1292;
4:2299–2300; 5:2485,
2488–2489
Sweden and, 4:2284
syndicalism and, 4:2298–2300;
5:2485, 2491
temperance movement and, 1:36
Third French Republic and, 2:856
Tristan and, 5:2357–2358
unionization rights and, 2:812
Wales and, 5:2436
women and, 2:697; 3:1276,
1292–1294, 1293, 1556; 5:2487,
2491
working class and, 5:2484–2492
See also strikes
Labor Party (Belgium), 1:203–204
Labor Party (France), 3:1215,
1216–1217
Labor Rewarded (Thompson), 4:2201
Labouchère Amendment (Britain),
2:1083; 4:2297
Labouré, Catherine, 4:1788
Labour Leader (Scottish weekly),
2:1043
Labour Party (Britain), 1:115; 3:1292,
1295–1297
Carpenter and, 1:373
Christian Socialism and, 4:2208;
5:2488
establishment of, 2:1011–1012
Hardie and, 2:1043, 1044
Hobson and, 2:1076
labor movements and, 5:2490, 2491
2678
precursors to, 3:1559
Ruskin and, 4:2047
trade policies and, 2:517
Webb and, 5:2445
women’s suffrage and, 2:625, 798
Labour Representation Committee
(Britain), 2:1011–1012;
3:1295–1296
Hardie and, 2:1044; 3:1295
See also Labour Party
Labour’s Remedy and Labour’s Wrong
(Bray), 4:2201
Labriola, Arturo, 1:61–62
Lacenaire, Pierre-François, 2:575
Lacerba futurist group, 2:920
Lacoon (Lessing), 4:1769
Lacordaire, Henri, 1:387, 388, 389
Ladies’ Land League (Ireland), 4:1741
Ladies’ National Association for the
Repeal of the Contagious Diseases
Acts (Britain), 1:332; 4:1896
Ladies of Llangollen, 2:1083–1084
Lady from the Sea, The (Ibsen), 3:1108
‘‘Lady of Shalott, The’’ (Tennyson),
5:2309
Lady of the Lake, The (Scott), 4:2123
Lady Windermere’s Fan (Wilde),
5:2465
Laennec, René, 1:408; 3:1297–1298;
5:2359
Lafargue, Paul, 4:2127, 2218
Lafayette, marquis de (Marie Joseph
Paul du Motier), 2:611, 768, 842;
3:1298–1301, 1299, 1385, 1443;
4:2006
American Revolution and, 3:1298,
1299, 1300, 1301
French Revolution and, 2:890;
3:1299–1300
Louis-Philippe endorsed by, 3:1301,
1388
Revolution of 1830 and, 2:848;
3:1298, 1301
Saint-Simon and, 4:2080
Laffitte, Pierre, 4:1844
Lafitte, Jacques, 1:284
La Fontaine, Henri, 4:1697
La Fontaine, Jean, 2:621, 676
Laforgue, Jules, 4:2294
Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in
England, Die (Engels), 2:754;
3:1430
Lagercrantz, Olof, 4:2269
Lagerlöf, Selma, 4:2286, 2287
Laghouat, Algerian Sahara, 1879
(Guillamet), 1:46
Lagos, 1:19
Laguerre, George, 2:696
E U R O P E
Laibach conference (1821), 4:1981
Laisné (French gymnasium), 4:2241
laissez-faire, 4:2120, 2201, 2234
Belgium and, 1:203
classical economists and, 2:712–718
Cobden and, 1:490–491; 2:709
Darwin and, 2:618, 619
institutionalist view of, 2:709
List’s view of, 2:708
monetary policy and, 3:1537
Smith and, 2:707
Lakanal, Joseph, 2:666
‘‘Lake Isle of Innisfree, The’’ (Yeats),
5:2509–2510
Lake Poets, 4:2029
Lake Tanganyika, 1:16; 2:783
Lake Victoria, 2:783
Lalique, René, 1:111, 111
Lalla Rookh (Kelvin’s yacht), 3:1250
Lallement, Pierre, 2:600
Lalo, Édouard, 3:1675
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste,
3:1301–1303, 1562
acquired characteristics theory of,
2:615, 637, 777–778;
3:1302–1303
Agassiz and, 1:23
evolution theory and, 2:599, 928;
3:1302
Spencer and, 4:2234
Lamarckism, 2:777–779;
3:1302–1303
Lamarque, Jean-Maximilien, 1:438
Lamartine, Alphonse, 2:849;
3:1303–1304, 1318, 1360;
4:1963, 2031
Lamb, William. See Melbourne, Lord
Lamberg, Ferenc, 3:1220
Lamennais, Felicité de, 1:269, 381,
387, 388, 389; 3:1298
as Chaadayev influence, 1:400
church-state separation and, 4:1718
Lamiel (Stendhal), 4:2253
Lamm, Martin, 4:2269
Lamothe, Louis, 2:634
Lancashire, 1:82, 445
cotton industry in, 3:1149, 1427,
1428, 1430–1431
Luddite rebellion in, 3:1392, 1410
technology and, 3:1153
See also Manchester
Lancaster Phrenological Society,
4:1775
land
British enclosures of, 1:26–27,
28, 358
Bulgarian reform and, 1:313
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Canadian immigrants and, 1:344
Chartist land communities, 3:1658
freehold movement and, 1:490
French nationalization of church
property and, 2:888, 897
Haitian ownership of, 2:1036
Irish tenancy and, 2:1008, 1009,
1010–1011; 3:1181, 1182;
4:1741, 1755
Madrid ownership of, 3:1412–1413
Naples and Sicily reform and,
3:1414–1415
nationalization movements, 4:2206
newly rich ownership of, 3:1305
Polish ownership of, 4:1809, 1810
Portuguese redistribution of, 4:1840
Russian emancipated serf purchases
of, 2:1015, 1017
Sicilian sales of, 3:1415
Vietnam ownership of, 3:1143
See also landed elites; peasants; rural
areas
Land and Liberty (Russia),
4:1767–1768, 1800, 1831, 2052,
2209; 5:2517
Landarz, Ein (Kafka), 3:1243
landed elites, 3:1304–1307
as aristocracy, 1:78, 80–81, 83,
84–85
bourgeois business men as, 1:472
Britain and, 1:83, 86, 284, 290,
291, 469
British modified power of, 1:457
British Swing riots and, 1:358–359
bureaucratic careers and, 1:324
Chartist reforms and, 1:414
conservatism and, 2:540
Corn Laws repeal and, 2:540,
557–560, 715
decline of nobility and, 1:284
Disraeli as member of, 2:672
education and, 2:728
French Revolution confiscations
from, 3:1305
gentry as, 1:80, 83, 84–85, 86
Ireland and, 2:1011
Malthus’s arguments to, 3:1426
Napoleonic reforms and, 3:1598
Portugal and, 4:1840
Russia and, 1:469; 3:1627;
4:2150–2151, 2153
Scotland and, 3:1306; 4:2116, 2117,
2120
Sicilian Fasci and, 4:2173–2174
Sicily and, 3:1415; 4:2173–2174,
2176
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Spanish Carlists and, 1:367–368
Wales and, 5:2435
Landes, David, 2:709–710, 711;
3:1147, 1153
‘‘Land Ironclads, The’’ (Wells),
5:2459
Landjäger (German police), 4:1814
Land League (Ireland), 3:1180, 1181,
1182; 4:1741, 1790
Landmarks (Russian symposium,
1909), 1:212
Landmarks in French Literature
(Strachey), 4:2258
Land Plan (Chartist), 1:417
landscape design, 3:1600; 4:1738,
1739, 1740
Landscape near Auvers (Cézanne),
1:398
landscape painting, 4:1703–1705
Barbizon painters and, 1:177–178;
3:1126; 4:1954
Cézanne and, 1:398; 3:1530
Constable and, 2:543–544
Corot and, 2:561–562
Courbet and, 2:569
Doré watercolors, 2:677
Friedrich and, 2:910–912; 4:1703
historical, 2:560, 561
impressionism and, 3:1126, 1128,
1534; 4:1708
outdoor, 3:1126; 4:1708, 1864,
1948
Pissarro and, 4:1792–1793
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1864
Romanticism and, 4:2027,
2029–2030
Turner and, 4:2029; 5:2366–2368
Landtag (Prussia), 1:290, 291; 3:1355
Landwehr, 3:1505
Lang, Andrew, 2:873
Lange, Helene, 1:189; 3:1681
Langevin, Paul, 2:596
Langham Place group (Britain), 2:625
Langley, Samuel, 1:30
Langmuir, Irving, 1:427
languages
Albania and, 1:32
Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:51, 52
Armenians and, 1:88, 90
Austria and, 1:145
Baltic provinces and, 2:818–819,
820, 821
Baudelaire literary translations and,
1:187–188
Belgium and, 1:199–200, 201–202,
204, 307
Bismarck ethnic policy and, 1:239
INDEX
Bohemian Lands and, 1:142, 259,
261, 262–263; 2:865; 4:1716,
1856, 1860–1861
Braille system and, 1:298
Brussels and, 1:202, 307
Budapest and, 1:310
Canada, 1:342, 343, 344, 346
Central Asia and, 1:395, 396
city dwellers and, 1:447
education in multiethnic empires and,
2:719, 724–726
Egyptian hieroglyphics and,
1:406–407
Finland and, 2:818–819, 820, 822
Frege philosophy of, 2:884
Grimm’s (Jacob) linguistic studies
and, 2:1024
Habsburg Monarchy and,
1:138–139, 140, 141, 142, 143,
259
Herder theory of, 2:1060–1061;
3:1603
Humboldt’s (Wilhelm) linguistic
theory and, 2:1097
Hungary and, 1:141, 144; 3:1266,
1267, 1605
India and, 3:1134
Indo-European family, 3:1134
Irish Revival and, 3:1182, 1183
Italian unification and, 3:1199
Jews and, 1:314; 4:2039
Manzoni and, 3:1442
national identity and, 2:719; 3:1521,
1523, 1525, 1603, 1604,
1605–1606
Nietzsche and, 3:1630, 1631
Poland and, 4:1812–1813, 1818
Prague and, 4:1856, 1858
Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1862
Romani and, 4:2022
Russian-dominated Poland and,
1:40; 3:1605
secondary school syllabus and, 1:286
Slavs and, 2:924–925; 4:1716
Turkish nationalism and, 3:1690,
1691
Wales and, 5:2435–2436
See also specific languages
Languedoc, 2:762; 4:1893
Lankester, Edwin Ray, 2:238
Lanner, Joseph, 4:2261; 5:2418
Lannes, Jean, 3:1221–1222
Lansdowne, Lord (Henry Petty-
Fitzmaurice), 1:102
Laos, 3:1137, 1139, 1142, 1143,
1145
2679
INDEX
Lapin Agile (Paris cabaret), 1:335
Laplace, Pierre-Simon de, 3:1312,
1443; 4:1779–1780, 2113–2114,
2248, 2249
Large Bathers (Cézanne), 1:399
Larionov, Mikhail, 1:157, 214
Larkin, James, 1:61; 2:691; 4:2267
Larne gunrunning, 3:1185
La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, François
de, 3:1664
La Rochelle Confession, 4:1891
La Roche-sur-Youn (Napoleon-
Vendée), 3:1599
Larrey, Dominique-Jean,
3:1307–1309
La Scala (Milan opera house), 3:1502,
1504, 1672; 5:2406
Las Cases, Emmanuel de, 1:270;
3:1588
Lasker-Schüler, Else, 3:1309–1310
Lassalle, Ferdinand, 1:459; 2:714;
3:1289, 1310–1311
German Social Democrats and,
4:2127, 2205
Schelling and, 4:2088
Lasson, Adolf, 3:1174
Lassus, Jean-Baptiste-Antoine, 5:2422
Last Attack on Rome by the French
(engraving), 2:932
Last Days of a Condemned Man, The
(Hugo), 2:1093
Last Days of Pompeii, The (film), 1:443
‘‘Last Futurist Exhibition, The,’’
1:158
Last Judgment (Leonardo da Vinci),
4:2008
Last Man, The (Shelley), 4:2169
Last of England, The (F. M. Brown),
4:1864
Lateran Treaty (1929), 1:382; 3:119
La Teste-Arcachon, 4:2125
La Thangue, Herbert Henry, 4:1948
latifondi, 4:2173, 2174, 2176
latifundia, 4:2035
Latin America
British interests in, 2:1002
football (soccer) and, 2:834
Humboldt (Alexander) botanical
travel in, 2:1095–1096, 1097
independence movements in, 2:525,
809, 930–931, 1002; 3:1174
Monroe Doctrine on, 3:1174
Portuguese colony in, 4:1838
positivism and, 4:1844
racism in, 4:1927
Spanish colonization of, 2:1036;
4:2228, 2229
See also specific countries by name
2680
Latin language, 1:139, 141
secondary school syllabus in, 1:286
Latin Monetary Union, 3:1537, 1538
Latium, 3:1193
La Touche, Rose, 4:2047
La Tour du Pin, count de, 1:387, 389
Latter-Day Pamphlets (Carlyle), 1:371
Latter-Day Saints, 1:338
Latvia, 1:40, 266, 447; 2:817, 818,
819, 819, 820–821, 822, 823
Latvian language, 2:820
Laubespine, marquise de, 3:1442
Laughlin, Harry H., 2:770, 771, 772
Laumaillé, Albert, 2:600
Laurence, Reginald Vere, 1:7
Laurencin, Marie, 2:590
Laurens, Henri, 2:591
Laurens, Johann Daniel, 4:2093
Laurent, Auguste, 1:425–426
Laurent family, 1:410
Lausanne, Treaty of (1923), 2:705;
3:1517
Laval, Carl Gustaf Patrik de, 3:1161
Lavater, Johann Kaspar, 2:926; 3:491
Laveaux, Étienne, 5:2332
Lavigerie, Charles-Martial-Allemand,
3:1331, 1528
Lavoisier, Antoine, 2:518;
3:1311–1313; 4:2113–2114,
2115
chemistry and, 1:424; 3:1153,
1311–1313
Marat diatribe against, 3:1443
Lavrov, Peter, 3:1170; 4:1767
law, theories of, 3:1313–1316
Bentham and, 1:210
Brougham and, 1:303
codification movement and, 3:1195,
1593–1594
criminal punishments and, 2:574
Fichte and, 2:813
individual rights and, 3:1341
Russia and, 1:39; 4:2236
See also international law; Napoleonic
Code
Law for the Prevention of Cruelty and
Protection of Children of 1889
(Britain), 5:2452
Law Le Chapelier of 1791 (France),
1:106
Lawn Tennis Association (Britain),
4:2242
Law of 22 Prairial of 1794 (France),
2:518–519; 4:1952
Law of Associations of 1884 (France),
2:812; 5:2432, 2433
Law of Associations of 1901 (France),
1:69; 3:1292; 5:2432, 2433
E U R O P E
Law of Dynamic Polarization (Cajal
hypothesis), 1:342
Law of Guarantees of 1871 (Italy),
4:2024, 2025
law of nations. See international law
Law of Papal Guarantees of 13 May
1871 (Italy), 4:1719, 1795
‘‘Law of Segregation in Hybrids, The’’
(de Vries), 2:653
Law of Suspects of 1793 (France),
2:844, 892; 4:1951–1952
Lawrence, Christopher, 3:1358–1359
Lawrence, D. H., 4:2235, 2259
Lawrence, Thomas, 2:954
Law Society of London, 3:1376
laws of thermodynamics. See
thermodynamics
lawyers, 1:285; 4:1881
Brougham as, 1:302, 303
as bureaucrats, 1:322, 324
class and, 1:472
Crispi as, 2:581
education of, 2:726
international law association of,
3:1175
professionalization of, 4:1879, 1880
women’s barriers as, 2:803, 945
See also law, theories of
Laxman, Adam, 4:2064
Lay of the Last Minstrel (Scott), 4:2123
Lazare, Bernard, 2:684; 5:2523
Lazarev, I. D., 1:88
Lazarian family, 1:88
lazzaroni, 4:2187
Lea, Henry Charles, 2:1074
Leader (London weekly), 2:743
League for Protection of Mothers,
5:2451
League for the Promotion of the
Interests of Women, 3:1556
League of American Wheelmen, 2:600
League of Armed Neutrality, 2:901;
3:1615
League of German Women’s
Association, 1:189
League of Nations, 1:50; 2:595, 1076;
3:1125, 1173; 5:2459
League of Private Initiative and
Decentralization, 5:2515
League of the Just, 2:521
League of Women Voters (U.S.), 1:67
learned behavior, 3:1511
Leavis, F. R., 4:2259
Le Bel, Joseph-Achille, 1:426
Leben Jesu, Das (D. F. Strauss),
2:743–744, 754; 5:2512
Le Blond, Alexandre, 4:2076
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

LeBon, Gustave, 2:816;
3:1316–1317; 4:1908, 2214
Young Turks and, 5:2516
Le Bras, Gabriel, 1:378
Le Brun, Charles-François, 4:1726
Le Chapelier Law of 1791 (France),
3:1314
Lechner, Ödön, 1:112
Leclerc, Charles-Victor-Emmanuel,
5:2333
Leclerc, Georges-Louis. See Buffon,
Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de
Lecomte, Claude Martin, 4:1735,
1737
Leçon clinique à la Salpétrière, Une
(Brouillet), 1:409, 410
Le Creps, Arthur, 4:1830
Le Creusot, 4:1736
Le Creusot power hammer, 3:1163
Lecture on Human Happiness, A
(Gray), 4:2201
Lectures on Dramatic Art and
Literature (A. W. Schlegel),
4:1769
Lectures on Godmanhood (Soloviev),
4:2216
Lectures on the Diseases of the Nervous
System (Charcot), 4:1908
‘‘Lectures on the Function of the
Principal Digestive Glands’’
(Pavlov), 4:1748
Lectures on the Method of Academic
Study (Schelling), 4:2088
Lectures on the Philosophy of History
(Hegel), 4:2031
Lectures on the Prophetical Office of the
Church (Newman), 3:1621
Ledebour, Georg, 1:65
Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre-Auguste,
1:338; 2:849; 3:1304,
1317–1319; 4:1963
Lee, Jennette, 3:1109
Lee, Robert E., 1:148
leeching, 1:436
Leeds, 1:288, 454; 3:1392
Leeds (Turner), 5:2368
Leeds Parliamentary Reform
Association, 4:2199
Leeds Times (newspaper), 4:2199
Leenhoff, Suzanne, 3:1433
Le Fanu, Sheridan, 5:2464
Le Fauconnier, Henri, 1:155;
2:590, 591
Lefebvre, Georges, 2:665
Lefranc, Jean-Jacques. See Pompignan,
marquis de
Left Hegelians. See Young Hegelians
Left Octobrists, 3:1660
Left Socialist Revolutionaries, 4:2211
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
INDEX
Legal Marxists, 3:1328; 4:2270 men’s clubs and, 3:1471
Légende des Siècles, La (Hugo), 2:1094 museum attendance and,
Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh 3:1563–1564
and the Maiden Fevronia, The newspaper reading and, 4:1872
(Rimsky-Korsakov), 4:2000 parks and, 4:1738–1741
Léger, Fernand, 2:590
patriotic holidays and, 4:1826
Legion of Honor (France), 4:1944
seaside resorts and, 4:2124–2126;
Delacroix and, 2:640
5:2328
Doré and, 2:676
secularization and, 4:1894
Dreyfus and, 2:685
shopping and, 2:548
establishment of, 3:1586
tourism and, 1:288; 5:2325–2331
Matisse and, 3:1475
vacations and, 3:1324–1325
Napoleon’s initiation of, 2:846
voluntary associations and,
Rodin and, 4:2009 1:115–122
Législation primitive (Bonald), 1:268
working-class activities and, 1:288
Legislative Commission (Russia),
Leiter, Mary Victoria, 2:597
1:376
leitmotifs, 3:1675; 5:2430
Legislative Corps (France), 1:491
Le Keux, J. H., 5:2423
Legislative Paunch, The (Daumier),
Leland, Charles Godfrey, 4:2023
2:622
Lelewel, Joachin, 4:1808
Le Gray, Gustave, 3:1577; 4:1730,
Lélia (Sand), 2:802; 4:2083, 2084
1771, 1772
Lemonnier, Charles, 4:1696
Leguey, Luc, 2:948
Lemonnyer, J., 4:1836
Lehmbruck, Wilhelm, 1:154
Lenard, Philipp, 4:2012
Lehrlinge zu Sais, Die (Novalis),
Lenbach, Franz von, 5:2430
3:1647
lending libraries, 3:1352
Leiden des jungen Werthers, Die
Lenin, Vladimir, 1:249, 266; 2:654,
(Goethe), 2:983; 3:1436
1026, 1068; 3:1208,
Leigh, Augusta, 1:332, 333
1326–1329, 1327; 4:1768,
Leinster House (Dublin), 2:693
1804, 2049, 2054, 2205
Leipzig, Battle of (1813), 2:959;
anarchosyndicalism and, 1:60, 62
3:1319–1322, 1334; 5:2429
Bernstein antipathy toward, 1:231
multinational army and, 2:875, 903,
958; 3:1319 Bolsheviks and, 1:264, 265, 267,
315; 2:993; 3:1327–1328, 1487,
Napoleon’s defeat at, 2:903; 3:1588
1488
Napoleon’s gun/infantry ratio and,
brother’s assassination and, 4:2054
3:1506
Bund opposition by, 1:315
strategic importance of, 3:1319
Leipziger Illustrierte Zeitung exiles of, 2:781; 3:1327–1328, 1329
(newspaper), 4:1867 Hobson’s Imperialism as influence
Leipziger Strasse (Berlin), 1:217 on, 2:1076
leisure, 3:1322–1326; 4:1824 on imperialism, 3:1122, 1329
bourgeois activities and, 1:288; intelligentsia and, 3:1168, 1171,
2:551; 3:1324, 1325 1327–1328
cabarets and, 1:335–337 Kautsky as influence on, 3:1248
commercial entertainments and, Kropotkin and, 3:1273
2:551 Luxemburg conflict with, 3:1401
Mach critique by, 3:1409
crime and, 2:572
Martov’s socialist view vs., 3:1460,
Crystal Palace entertainments and,
1461
2:589
cycling and, 2:599–602; 3:1326 Marx as influence on, 1461
football (soccer) and, 2:830–835; Marxist economics and, 2:707
3:1326 party membership concept of,
holidays and, 1:262, 285; 3:1324 3:1487
landed elite and, 3:1305, 1306 Pavlovs scientific studies and, 4:1749
London attractions for, peasant economy and, 4:1756
3:1377–1378 Plekhanov and, 4:1801
2681
INDEX
‘‘populist’’ as discrediting term of,
4:1832
Revolution of 1905 and,
3:1328–1329; 4:1974, 1976
St. Petersburg and, 4:2077, 2079
on Shaw, 4:2166
Sismondi and, 4:2186
Sorel and, 4:2218
Struve and, 4:2270
Wells and, 5:2459
worker organization and, 2:522
Leningrad. See St. Petersburg
Lenné (landscape designer), 4:1740
Lenoir, Alexandre, 2:621
Lenoir, Étienne, 3:1161
Leo X, pope, 4:2136
Leo XII, pope, 4:1718, 1719, 1721,
1724, 2033, 2035
Leo XIII, pope, 1:421; 2:540, 688,
1068; 3:1329–1333, 1621;
4:1717
Bismarck and, 3:1279; 5:2473
Kulturkampf and, 2:966
labor unions and, 4:2209
Lueger and, 3:1393
reforms of, 4:1720, 1721
Rerum Novarum encyclical of,
1:382, 383, 389; 4:1720, 2209
Roman Question and, 4:2025, 2026
secularization and, 4:2134
Windthorst and, 5:2473, 2474
Leo, Hermann, 1:287–288
Leonard and Gertrude (Pestalozzi),
3:1454–1455
Leonardo da Vinci, 1:29; 2:634;
4:2008
Freud psychobiography of, 2:907;
4:1905
Pater essay on, 4:1746
‘‘Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of
His Childhood’’ (Freud), 2:907
Leoncavallo, Ruggero, 3:1676
Leonidas, 2:1018
Leonora (Paër), 3:1670
Leonore; ou, L’amour conjugale
(Gaveaux), 3:1673
Leontiev, Konstantin, 2:773, 775
Leopardi, Giacomo, 3:1333–1334
Leopold I, king of the Belgians, 1:200;
3:1334–1336; 4:1984; 5:2411
European royal marriages and,
3:1335
Leopold II, king of the Belgians,
1:204–205; 3:1336–1337
Brussels urban plan and, 1:306
Congo Free State and, 1:20–21, 102,
202, 222, 223, 500; 2:507;
2682
3:1116, 1118, 1124–1125,
1336–1338
father Leopold I and, 3:1336
fortune of, 3:1337
greed and cruelty of, 1:500; 2:506,
509; 3:1125, 1336–1337
slave trade and, 1:308–309
Stanley and, 2:783; 3:1336
Leopold II, Holy Roman emperor,
1:139, 322; 2:860; 3:1235;
4:1858
death of, 5:2417
Romania and, 4:2018
son John of Austria and, 3:1235
Leopold I, grand duke of Tuscany. See
Leopold II, Holy Roman emperor
Leopold II, grand duke of Tuscany,
3:1196
Leopold, prince of Hohenzollern-
Sigmaringen, 2:853, 867, 964
Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. See Leopold
I, king of the Belgians
Lepape, Georges, 3:1642
Le Play, Frédéric, 1:387; 3:1450;
4:2213; 5:2497
leprosy, 4:1751
Lermontov, Mikhail, 1:208; 4:2256
Leroux, Pierre, 1:247; 4:2013; 5:2397
Le Roy, Édouard, 1:214
Le Roy, Jacques, 4:1756
Leroy, Louis Hippolyte, 1:481;
3:1126–1127, 1535
lesbianism. See homosexuality and
lesbianism
Le Secq, Henri, 4:1771
Leskien, August, 2:774
Leskov, Nikolai, 3:1641
Lesseps, Charles de, 3:1338
Lesseps, Ferdinand-Marie de, 2:732;
3:1337–1338
Suez Canal and, 4:2274–2275, 2276
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, 3:1108;
4:1769
Lesson in Hysteria by Jean Martin
Charcot, A (Brouillet), 1:409, 410
Les XX (art society), 4:2295
Lethaby, William Richard, 1:152
Letourneur, Louis-Honoré, 2:664
Letter of Advice to Young Americans
(Godwin), 2:981
‘‘Letter of Lord Chandos’’
(Hoffmannsthal), 2:1076
Letters from France and Italy (Herzen),
2:1065
Letters of a Russian Traveler,
1789–1790 (Karamzin), 4:2288
Letters on a Regicide Peace (Burke),
1:328
E U R O P E
Letters on Mesmerism (Martineau),
3:1459
Letters on the Laws of Man’s Nature
and Development (Martineau and
Atkinson), 3:1459
Letters on the Study of Nature
(Herzen), 2:1064
Letters Written During a Short
Residence in Norway, Denmark,
and Sweden (Wollstonecraft),
5:2480
Letter to a Member of the National
Assembly (Burke), 1:328
Letter to Gogol (Belinsky), 1:208;
5:2460
Lettre à M. Dacier relative à l’alphabet
des hieroglyphes phonétiques
employés par les Egyptiens pour
écrive sur leurs monuments les
titres, les nomes, et les surnoms des
souverains grecs et romains
(Champollion), 1:407
Lettre au clergé français (Deraismes),
2:649
Lettres à ses commenttans (Robespierre
newspaper), 4:2006
lettres de cachet, 2:842
Lettres d’un habitant de Genève à ses
contemporains (Saint-Simon),
4:2080
Letuchaya Mysh (Moscow cabaret),
1:336–337
Letwin, Shirley, 3:1514
Levande död (Olsson), 4:2269
Lê Van Khoi, 3:1139, 1141
levée en masse, 3:1338–1341, 1505;
4:1960
Lever, Samuel, 5:2464
Levi, Hermann, 5:2431
Levia gravia (Carducci), 1:362
Leviathan (Hobbes), 3:1272
Levin, Rahel (later Levin-Varnhagen),
1:215
Levine, Philippa, 4:1886
Levinstein, Eduard, 2:686
Levis, F. R., 1:302
Lévrier, Antonin, 1:127, 128
Levski, Vasil, 3:1687
Levy, Richard S., 3:1393
Lévy-Bruhl, Lucien, 4:1875
Lévy-Leboyer, Maurice, 1:104
Lewes, George Henry, 1:301; 2:743;
4:1844
Lewis, Gilbert N., 1:427
Lewis, M. J., 3:1428
Lewis, R. A., 1:402
Lewis, Wyndham, 1:214
Lewis and Allenby, 1:481–482
Lexis, Wilhelm, 4:2248, 2249
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Liang Qichao (Liang Chi Chao),
1:435; 3:1143–1144
Libelt, Karol, 4:1862
liberalism, 3:1341–1350
Adler (Victor) and, 1:10–11
Armenians and, 1:89
Asquith and, 1:114–115; 2:1012
Austro-Hungarian reforms and,
1:143
Bernstein and, 1:231
Bismarck’s approach to, 1:238;
2:966
Britain and, 3:1342, 1343,
1345–1346, 1347, 1348, 1349;
5:2394
Burckhardt’s view of, 1:315, 317
Burke’s early political period and,
1:327
Catholic political parties and,
1:388–389
Cavour and, 1:390, 391
citizenship and, 1:458–459
classical economics and, 2:714, 716,
717
Constant and, 2:545–546; 3:1343
cooperatives and, 2:556
counterrevolution and, 2:566–567
Denmark and, 2:647–660
economic policy and, 1:490–491,
491–492; 3:1341, 1342, 1410,
1348049
See also free trade
emancipatory, 3:1342–1345
European ideals vs. realities of,
3:1343
European split in, 3:1343–1344
failures of, 3:1347–1350
feminist critique of, 1:458
Forster and, 2:835, 836
four spheres of, 3:1341–1342
France and, 4:1971–1972, 2247;
5:2310
Frederick III and, 2:873–874
Freemasons and, 2:878
French Declaration of the Rights of
Man and, 2:887
French feminist movement and,
2:649–650
French July Monarchy and,
3:1388–1389
Gagern and, 2:923–924
German curtailments of, 1:369–370;
2:962
German reformists and, 2:959–962,
965–966; 5:2473
Giolitti and, 2:973; 3:1349
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Gladstone and, 2:976–979, 1008,
1009–1010, 1012; 3:1345, 1347
Herzen critique of, 2:1065
Holy Alliance against, 2:959
individual rights and, 2:717, 812,
871, 958; 3:1341, 1464
intelligentsia and, 3:1170, 1171
Italy and, 3:1200–1202, 1348, 1349;
4:2025
Jewish assimilation and, 1:73
Kadets and, 3:241–242, 1349, 1519
Kulturkampf and, 3:1277
Madrid and, 3:1414
Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1513,
1514; 5:2394
Milyukov and, 3:1518–1519
Moscow and, 3:1551–1552
myth of bourgeoisie and, 1:291
Netherlands and, 3:1617, 1618,
1619, 1620
Nietzsche’s repudiation of, 3:1629
O’Connell and, 3:1655–1657
Ottoman Empire and, 3:1690
papal condemnation of, 1:381–382;
4:1795, 1798
papal infallibility as response to,
4:1722
peace movements and, 4:1695, 1696
Pius IX and, 3:1196
political parties and, 3:1347–1348
Prague Slav Congress and,
4:1861–1863
press freedom and, 4:1870
professionalism and, 4:1881
progress and, 2:714
Prussia and, 2:958, 960;
3:1346–1347; 5:2467
questions raised about, 3:1343
republicanism and, 4:1962
Revolutions of 1830 and, 1:457–458
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1991
Rudolf (crown prince) and, 4:2045
Russia and, 2:1016; 4:2055
Sismondi and, 4:2186
socialism and, 4:2205, 2206–2207
Spain and, 1:366–367, 368; 3:1343,
1347; 4:2230
Sweden and, 4:2283–2284
Thiers and, 4:1932; 5:2310
Tocqueville and, 5:2317
utilitarianism and, 5:2393, 2394
Vienna and, 5:2420
voluntary associations and,
1:118–119, 120, 121, 122
Wales and, 5:2434–2435, 2436
INDEX
Westernizers and, 5:2459
See also conservatism
Liberal Party (Belgium), 1:200, 201,
202, 203, 204, 307
Liberal Party (Britain), 2:1006, 1007,
1011, 1012; 3:1345; 5:2321,
2322, 2394, 2434, 2461, 2490
Acton and, 1:6
aristocracy and, 1:86
Asquith and, 1:114–115; 2:730,
1012
Chamberlain’s (Joseph) break with,
1:405; 3:1348
Corn Laws repeal and, 2:1005
Disraeli’s foreign policy vs., 2:674
Fox and, 2:1001
Gladstone and, 2:976–979, 1007,
1008; 3:1348
House of Lords and, 2:730
Indian (Morley-Minto) reforms and,
3:1136–1137
Irish Home Rule split in, 2:978,
1010, 1011; 3:1181, 1184, 1348
labor movements and, 2:1011;
3:1292
Labour Party and, 2:1012; 3:1295,
1296, 1297
Lloyd George and, 3:1345, 1348,
1349, 1369–1370
naval buildup and, 3:1610
Palmerston and, 2:1007; 4:1713
public health and, 1:325
Russell (John) and, 2:1007
Scotland and, 2:1003
social insurance and, 1:356
welfare reform and, 2:1075
women’s suffrage and, 2:625
working-class representatives in,
2:1009
Liberal Party (Madrid), 3:1413–1414
Liberal Union (Spain), 4:2230
Liberal Uprising in Spain (engraving),
4:2230
libertarianism, 4:1959
libertine tradition, 4:1833
liberty
ancient vs. modern, 2:546
French declaration defining, 2:887
Liberty, Arthur, 1:485
Liberty fabrics, 1:108, 152
Liberty Leading the People (Delacroix),
2:640, 848; 4:2031
libraries, 3:1350–1353; 4:1825
Paris and, 4:1727
scientific/mathematical knowledge
and, 4:2112
2683
INDEX
women librarians and, 2:945
See also museums
Libre parole, La (anti-Semitic daily),
2:683, 684, 689
Libuše (Smetena), 4:1858
Libya, 1:31; 2:527; 4:2299; 5:2361,
2364
Italian colony in, 3:1202, 1546,
1549
Lichnowsky family, 1:195–196
Lichtenstein, Alois von, 2:1068
Lichterfreunde, 2:960
Lichtheim, George, 5:2395
Lictors Bringing Brutus the Bodies of
His Sons (David), 2:624
Lidbetter, Eric J., 2:770
Liebermann, Max, 2:796;
3:1353–1355, 1354; 5:2470
Liebertwolkwitz, Battle of (1813),
3:1320
Liebesverbot, Das (Wagner), 5:2430
Liebich, Richard, 4:2023
Liebig, Justus von, 1:25, 425, 426;
2:762; 3:1159–1160; 4:2109
Liebknecht, Karl, 3:1355–1356
Liebknecht, Wilhelm, 1:194; 3:1289,
1311, 1355; 4:2127
Liechtenstein family, 1:469
lieder, 3:1418, 1419, 1570, 1571;
4:2106
Lied von der Erde, Das (Mahler),
3:1419
Liège, 1:202, 203, 361, 493
textile factory, 2:791
Lieutenant Gustl (Schnitzler), 4:2100
Life and Labour of the People in London
(Booth), 5:2444
Life and Works of Goethe (Lewes),
2:743
life expectancy, 2:628, 643, 719, 766
in London, 3:1372
Life for the Tsar, A (Glinka),
2:979–980; 3:1571, 1673
Life in the Sickroom (Martineau),
3:1459
Life of Charlotte Brontë (Gaskell),
2:934
Life of Chaucer (Godwin), 2:981
Life of Henry Brulard, The (Stendhal),
4:2253
Life of Henry Fawcett (Stephen),
4:2254
Life of James Fitzjames Stephen, The
(Stephen), 4:2254
Life of Jesus (Renan), 2:688; 4:1892,
1953–1954; 5:2399
Life of Jesus, Critically Examined, The
(Strauss), 2:743–744, 754
2684
Life of Jesus, The (Renan),
4:1953–1954; 5:2399
Life of Napoleon (Scott), 4:2123
Life of Napoleon (Stendhal), 4:2252
Life of Rossini (Stendhal), 4:2252
Life of Schiller (Carlyle), 1:370
Life of Schleiermacher (Dilthey), 2:660
Life to Come and Other Stories, The
(Forster), 2:836
Liffey River, 2:691
light
Einstein wave theory of, 2:739, 740
Fresnel wave theory of, 4:1780
Maxwell electromagnetic nature of,
3:1478; 4:1780
Poincaré (Henri) theories of, 4:1805
Light Cavalry Brigade (British), 1:95,
244; 2:578
‘‘Light from the East’’ (Soloviev),
2:774
lighting
art nouveau fixtures, 1:109, 112
coal mining and, 1:487–488
Eiffel Tower and, 2:737
electric, 2:741, 742, 815
street lights, 1:207, 445–446; 2:548,
741
Light of the World, The (Hunt), 4:1707
Light that Failed, The (Kipling),
3:1256
Ligne, Prince de, 5:2418
Ligny, Battle of (1815), 2:903; 4:1900
Ligue Antisémitique, 1:5
Ligue de l’Action Française. See Action
Française
Ligue d’enseignement, 3:1352
Ligue des droits de l’homme, 2:684
Ligue des Patriotes, 1:282; 4:2243
Ligue française pour le droit des
femmes, 4:1998
Ligue internationale de la paix et de la
liberté, 4:1696
Ligue Nationale pour le Vote des
Femmes, 2:697
Liguria, 3:1193, 1599
Ligurian Republic, 3:1584; 4:1785,
1786, 2188
Lilienthal, Otto, 1:30
Lille, 2:1089
limited-commitment system, 2:526
limited liability partnership, 1:354
Limits and Renewals (Kipling), 3:1257
Limoges, 4:1736
limpieza de sangre (blood purity), 1:74
Lincoln, Abraham, 2:932, 962;
3:1269
Lind, Jenny, 3:1566
Linder, Robert, 2:518, 800
E U R O P E
Linderhof (Louis II castle), 3:1383
Lindgren, Armas, 1:113
linen industry, 1:201; 3:1179, 1411
‘‘Lines Written in the Euganean Hills’’
(Shelley), 4:2170
Linevich, Nikolai Petrovich, 3:1557
Ling, Lijalmar, 4:2242
Ling, Per Henrik, 4:2242
linguistics. See languages
Linnaean classification, 2:598
Linneaus, Carl, 4:1924, 2285
Linnell, John, 1:246
linotype, 4:1866
Linton, William James, 4:1964
Linz, 1:261
Lin Zexu, 3:1678, 1679
Linz Program, 1:10
Lipchitz, Jacques, 2:591–592
Lipincott’s Magazine, 5:2464
Lipiner, Siegfried, 1:10
Lipschitz, Jacques, 1:156
Lipton, Thomas, 1:352
liquor. See alcohol and temperance
lira (Italian monetary unit), 3:1538
Lisbon, 4:1766; 5:2308
population of, 1:446
List, Georg Friedrich, 2:515–516;
3:1356–1357
economic views of, 2:708, 960;
4:1888
Zollverein and, 5:2524
Lister, Anne, 2:1084
Lister, Joseph, 3:1358–1359, 1359;
4:1744, 1745, 2113, 2135
Lisy, Alfred Firmin, 1:214
Liszt, Franz, 1:168, 295;
3:1359–1361, 1565, 1566,
1675; 5:2430
Berlioz friendship with, 1:225
Chopin friendship with, 1:439
folk music and, 3:1361; 4:1825
German musical repertoire and,
3:1571
Glinka and, 2:980
Paganini as influence on, 4:1699
Romanticism and, 4:2027, 2030,
2031
Sand and, 4:2084
Schoenberg and, 4:2102
Liszt, Franz von (legal theorist), 3:1315
literacy, 3:1361–1365
Belgium and, 1:202
Bohemian Lands and, 1:260
Braille system and, 1:296–298
Bulgaria and, 1:313
France and, 2:720; 3:1522; 4:1822,
1868
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

gender and, 2:718; 3:1362, 1363
liberalism and, 3:1347
libraries and, 3:1350–1352
Naples and, 3:1581
Paris and, 4:1727
popular culture and, 4:1822
posters and, 4:1845
press mass readership and,
4:1868–1869
primary education and, 1:431
Protestants and, 4:1891
Prussia and, 2:723; 4:1900
racism spread by, 4:1927
Russia and, 1:431; 2:1017
Scotland and, 4:2119, 2120
Serbia and, 4:2148
statistics on, 4:1822
Sweden and, 4:2285
urban regions and, 2:720
Literary and Philosophical Society
(Manchester/Leeds), 1:287
literary criticism. See criticism, literary
literary societies, 1:287; 4:1989
literature
absinthe drinking and, 1:3
Andreas-Salomé and, 1:64–65
anticlerical subjects and, 1:70
Armenian authors and, 1:88, 90, 92
Arnold and, 1:102–103
Austen and, 1:130–132
avant-garde and, 1:151, 153
Balzac and, 1:166–169
Barrès and, 1:184, 185
Baudelaire and, 1:186–188
Belinsky and, 1:207–208
Bely and, 1:208–210; 4:2079
Bergson’s psychological durée theory
and, 1:214
Berlin and, 1:215, 220
Blake and, 1:244–246
Blok and, 1:249–250
Bloomsbury Group and,
4:2258–2259
Bonapartism and, 1:270
Brentano’s modernist influence on,
1:299
Brontë sisters and, 1:300–302
Byron and, 1:332, 333
Carducci and, 1:362–363
Carlyle and, 1:371–372
Catalanism and, 1:182
Chaadayev and, 1:400
Chateaubriand and, 1:419–422
Chekhov and, 1:422–423
on childhood, 1:427
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO
Coleridge and, 1:496–497; 2:543
Conrad and, 2:535–536; 4:1875
on crime, 2:574–575
Cruikshank illustrations and, 2:585,
586–587
Czech nationalism and, 4:1857,
1859
D’Annunzio and, 2:609–610
Decadence and, 2:631–633;
4:2292–2293
degeneration and, 2:638
Delacroix and, 2:641
Denmark and, 2:648
Dickens and, 2:655–657
Disraeli and, 2:672, 673
Dohm and, 2:675–676
domestic novels and, 3:1453
Doré folio engravings and,
2:676–678
Dostoyevsky and, 2:678–679
Doyle and, 2:679–680
Eliot (George) and, 2:743–744
English problem novels and, 3:1430
expressionism, 1:220
feminist works and, 2:802–803
fin de siècle and, 2:815
Finnish epic, 2:820
Flaubert and, 2:827–828
Fontane and, 2:828–830
Forster and, 2:835–836
futurism and, 1:157
Gaskell and, 2:933–934
gender and, 2:945–946, 948
Generation of 1898 and, 2:950–952;
4:2232
German academic nationalism and,
2:960
German censorship of, 1:369–370
German naturalism and, 1:220
German Romanticism and, 2:814
Gissing and, 2:974–975
Godwin and, 2:980–982
Goethe and, 2:982–987
Gogol and, 2:988–989
Goncharov and, 2:989–990
Goncourt brothers and, 2:990–992
Gorky and, 2:992–993
gothic novels and, 4:2030
Gouges and, 2:994
Grimm brothers and, 2:1023–1024
Hardy and, 2:1044–1046
Heine and, 2:1055–1057
Hellenism and, 4:1769
Herder and, 2:1061
Herzen and, 2:1064–1066; 3:1552
1 9 1 4
INDEX
Hofmannsthal and, 2:1076–1077
Hölderlin and, 2:1077–1079
Hugo and, 2:1092–1095
Huysmans and, 2:1103–1105
on imperialism, 4:1875
impressionism and, 3:1133
intelligentsia and, 3:1170
Ireland and, 3:1182–1183
Irish revival in, 3:1180
Italian nationalism and, 2:930
Italian patriotism and, 3:1193–1194
Jarry and, 3:1212–1214
Kafka and, 3:1242–1243
Kiplin and, 3:1256–1257
Lamartine and, 3:1303–1304
Lasker-Schüler and, 3:1309–1310
Leopardi and, 3:1333–1334
libraries and, 3:1350–1352
Mann and, 3:1434–1437
Manzoni and, 3:1441–1442
Martineau and, 3:1458–1459
Michel and, 3:1497
Mickiewicz and, 3:1500–1501
modernism and, 1:299; 3:1529
Moscow and, 3:1552
Musil and, 3:1574
Nadar and, 3:1577
naturalism and, 1:220
Netherlands and, 3:1619
New Women writers of, 4:2235
Norton and, 3:1645–1646
Novalis and, 3:1647–1648
opium users and, 2:686
Otto and, 3:1680, 1681
Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716
Paris and, 4:1728
Pater and, 4:1745–1747
on peasant conditions, 4:1756–1777
Péguy and, 4:1760–1761
phrenology mentioned in, 4:1776
popular culture and, 4:1821, 1822,
1823
pornography and, 4:1833–1834,
1836
as Pre-Raphaelite painting subjects,
4:1864
Pushkin and, 4:1918–1920
racism and, 4:1927
realism and, 4:1946
Rolland and, 4:2014–2016
Romanies’ portrayal in, 4:2022–2023
Romanticism and, 2:543, 640;
4:2027, 2028, 2030
Russian Golden Age and, 4:2181,
2183
2685
INDEX
Russian nihilist portrayals in, 3:1639,
1641
Russian Oriental motifs in,
2:774–775
Russian Silver Age and,
4:2181–2183, 2217
Sade and, 4:2073–2074
Sand and, 4:2083–2085
Schnitzler and, 4:2100–2101;
5:2421
science fiction and, 5:2408, 2458
Scott and, 4:2030, 2122–2123
separate spheres ideology and, 2:943
serialized fiction and, 2:657
Shaw and, 4:2165–2167
Shelley (Mary) and, 4:2168–2169
Shelley (Percy Bysshe) and, 4:2027,
2031, 2169–2170
Staël and, 4:2246–2247, 2247
Stendhal and, 4:2252–2253
Stephen and, 4:2253–2254
Stevenson and, 4:2254–2256
Strachey and, 4:2258–2259
Strindberg and, 4:2268–2269,
2286–2287
Sweden and, 4:2268–2269,
2286–2287
symbolism and, 2:940; 4:2292,
2294, 2295
Tennyson and, 5:2309–2310
Tolstoy and, 5:2318–2320
Turgenev and, 5:2364–2366
Venice and, 5:2403, 2405
Verga and, 5:2407–2408
Verne and, 5:2408–2409
Vienna and, 5:2419, 2421
Vietnam and, 3:1144
Wells and, 5:2458–2459
Wordsworth and, 4:2027, 2029,
2030; 5:2481–2482
Yeats and, 5:2310, 2509–2510
Zola and, 5:2522–2524
See also poetry
Literature and Dogma (Arnold), 1:103
lithography
color posters and, 4:1845
Daugerre and, 2:605
Daumier and, 2:621
Géricault and, 2:956
Goya and, 2:999
Menzel and, 3:1489
Munch and, 3:1559
photography and, 4:1772, 1773
Lithuania, 3:1365–1368
Bund founding in, 1:313
2686
Jewish emigrants from, 3:1113
Mickiewicz and, 3:1500, 1501
Poland and, 5:2369, 2370, 2441
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1808
Ukraine and, 5:2369
See also Poland
Lithuanian Statute (1529), 5:2371
Little Dancer Aged Fourteen, The
(Degas), 2:633, 636
Little Dorrit (Dickens), 2:657
Little Girl in a Blue Armchair
(Cassatt), 3:1131–1132
‘‘Little Hans’’ case (Freud), 2:906
‘‘Little Matchgirl, The’’ (Andersen),
2:648
‘‘Little Mermaid, The’’ (Andersen),
2:648
Littré, Maximilien-Paul-Émile, 2:523;
4:1844, 1953, 1963
Lived Experience and Poetry (Dilthey),
2:660
Liverpool, 3:1430
Irish immigrants in, 3:1524, 1525
as port city, 1:304, 305
Liverpool, Lord ( Robert Banks),
2:954, 1002, 1003, 1004;
4:1758; 5:2461
Liverpool and Manchester Railway,
2:758; 3:1428
Lives of Edward and John Philips, The
(Godwin), 2:981
Lives of Haydn, Mozart, and Metastasio
(Stendhal), 4:2252
Lives of the Necromancers (Godwin),
2:982
livestock, 1:26; 2:766
anthrax and, 4:1744–1745
breeding of, 2:770
German imports of, 2:960
New Zealand and, 3:1623
peasants and, 4:1751
vaccines for, 4:1745
living standards, 1:351, 353
Livingstone, David, 1:221, 222;
2:782–783, 784
masculine image of, 3:1472
missionizing by, 3:1527
primitivism and, 4:1875
Livonia, 2:817, 818, 819, 822–823
Livorno, 3:1195
Liwa, al- (Egyptian newspaper), 2:734
Lloyd, Constance, 5:2464
Lloyd Austriaco, 5:2354
Lloyd George, David, 3:1296,
1368–1370, 1369; 5:2322, 2435
Asquith and, 1:114, 115
Curzon and, 2:597–598
E U R O P E
liberalism and, 3:1345, 1348, 1349,
1368–1369
Mansion House Speech of, 3:1546
People’s Budget and, 1:114;
2:597–598
social reform and, 2:1012;
3:1369–1370
Lloyd-Jones, Roger, 3:1428
Lloyds (bank), 1:175
LMS. See London Missionary Society
LMU. See Latin Monetary Union
Lobachevsky, Nikolai, 4:1749
lobbies, producer, 2:516–517;
4:1888–1889
Lobkowitz family, 1:195–196
local government. See municipal
government
Local Government Act of 1888
(Britain), 3:1379
Local Government and Public Health
Acts of 1871–1872 (Britain), 1:325
Lock, The (Constable), 2:543, 544
Locke, John, 1:326, 465; 3:1514;
4:2212
as Mill (James) influence, 3:1511
mind theory of, 4:1907, 1908
social contract theory and, 3:1272
Lock-Out of 1913 (Dublin), 2:691
‘‘Locksley Hall’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309
‘‘Locksley Hall Sixty Years After’’
(Tennyson), 5:2310
Lockwood, Frank, 5:2466
Lockwood, Lewis, 1:199
locomotor ataxia, 1:408
Lodge, Oliver Joseph, 3:1163; 4:2114
lodgers, 1:453
Lodoı̈ska (Mayr), 3:1670
Loge, La (Renoir), 3:1130; 4:1955,
1955
logic, 2:883–884, 1100
Logica come scienza del concetto puro
(Croce), 2:584
logical positivism, 3:1409; 4:1844
Logic as the Science of the Pure Concept
(Croce), 2:584
Logic of Collective Action, The (Olson),
2:516–517
Logische Untersuchungen (Husserl),
2:1100
Lohengrin (Wagner), 3:1435, 1675
Lois the Witch (Gaskell), 2:934
Loisy, Alfred, 1:385; 4:2133
Lokhvitskaya, Mirra, 4:2183
Lombardi all prima crociata, I (Verdi),
3:1672
Lombard Street (Bagehot), 1:161
Lombardy, 1:392, 414; 2:531, 532,
533, 962; 3:1153
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Austrian Habsburg rule and, 2:866,
958; 3:1191, 1193
Cisalpine Republic and, 3:1584
Franco-Austrian War and, 2:866;
3:1198, 1592
French Revolutionary and
Napoleonic Wars and, 3:1192,
1584
Metternich and, 3:1494
Mozzoni and, 3:1555, 1556
Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1786
Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1196
Venetia and, 3:1193
women’s suffrage and, 3:1556
See also Kingdom of Lombardy-
Venetia; Milan
Lombe, John and Thomas, 2:790
Lombroso, Cesare, 3:1371–1372
criminal class theory of, 2:573, 574;
3:1315
criminal typology and, 2:638, 639,
769; 4:1816
on homosexual imprisonment, 2:1085
on Romanies, 4:2023
Loménie de Brienne, Étienne-Charles,
2:767, 841; 3:1385
London, 3:1372–1381
advertising and, 2:550
architecture and, 1:185–186
artisans and, 1:104; 3:1373–1374,
1378, 1390
automobiles and, 5:2352
bourgeois culture and, 1:287
bourgeois elite and, 1:472
bread riot, 1815, 2:559
chimney sweep, 2:1007
Chinese immigrants in, 3:1524
Chinese opium dens in, 2:687, 687
cholera epidemic in, 1:437; 2:716;
3:1378
consumerism in, 2:548; 3:1378
crime sensation and, 2:575; 3:1375
Crystal Palace and, 2:587–588, 589,
1006; 4:1738
day trippers from, 3:1324
Doré gallery in, 2:677
drainage system in, 1:450
electric lighting in, 2:742
engineering projects in, 2:758, 758
as financial center, 1:170, 175–176
financial elite and, 1:84, 85, 170, 256
First International founding in,
2:824
Fleet Street, 3:1377
fog and pollution in, 2:764
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Freemasons in, 2:878, 880
growth of, 1:443; 2:1087
homosexual subculture in, 2:1083,
1084
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
and, 5:2494
Irish immigrants in, 3:1372, 1373,
1525
jingoism and, 3:1235
joint-stock banking and, 1:172–173
Kropotkin in, 3:1272
London Bridge, 2:758; 3:1379
Marconi in, 3:1444
markets and, 3:1448
Marx as exile in, 3:1466
match-seller, 3:1380
Mazzini in, 3:1480, 1481
migration and, 3:1111, 1113,
1372–1373
museums and, 1:287, 407; 2:598,
999; 3:1375–1376, 1562, 1563,
1564; 4:1825
Nash’s urban planning and,
3:1600–1602
newspapers and, 2:968; 3:1459;
4:1868, 1871
Offenbach operettas in, 3:1661
Olympic Games and, 4:2246
parks in, 3:1373, 1375, 1378,
1600–1601; 4:1738, 1739
Pavlova in, 4:1749, 1750
peace activism in, 4:1697, 1698
police system in, 3:1375;
4:1814–1815, 1815
population growth of, 1:446;
2:1087; 3:1372, 1373;
4:1911–1912
posters and, 4:1845
poverty in, 3:1375; 4:1850, 1853
public health and, 3:1372, 1373,
1378–1379, 1380, 1554;
4:1911–1912
restaurants in, 4:1966, 1967
riots of 1848 in, 1:417
rooftops view, 3:1376
Rothschilds and, 4:2039, 2040, 2041
Salvation Army and, 4:2082
sewer construction in, 2:758; 4:1912
as sports center, 4:2243
streets of, 1:451
strikes in, 4:2266
suburbs of, 2:1088; 3:1373, 1375
subway in, 4:2271–2273, 2272
telephone service in, 5:2308
theater in, 3:1108, 1109, 1377
INDEX
typhus epidemics in, 2:670
unemployed in, 2:1010
West End, 1:85; 2:548, 551
world’s fairs, 5:2412, 2493–2496,
2495, 2496, 2498, 2505
See also Great Exhibition of 1851
London, Jack, 4:2235
London, Treaty of (1827), 2:1020
London, Treaty of (1832), 3:1613
London, Treaty of (1852), 2:963
London, Treaty of (1913), 1:164;
3:1203, 1691; 4:2149
London Ambassadors Conference
(1913), 1:166
London & Westminster Bank, 1:172
London Anti-Corn Law Association,
2:558
London Bridge, 2:758; 3:1379
London Chapter Coffee House,
4:2111
London, City & Midland (bank),
1:175
London Conference (1817–1818),
1:308
London Conference (1840), 2:732
London Conference (1912), 1:33;
2:704
London, County & Westminster
(bank), 1:175
London County Council,
3:1379–1380
London Dock Strike of 1889, 3:1441
London Exhibition of 1851. See Great
Exhibition of 1851
London Exhibition of 1862, 5:2496,
2496
London Exhibition of 1871–1874,
5:2498
London Illustrated News, 4:1867
London Missionary Society, 2:782;
3:1527; 4:1895
London Philharmonic Society, 3:1565
London Protocol (1852), 2:648
London Review (magazine), 3:1513
London School of Economics, 2:788;
3:1377; 4:2215; 5:2445
London Society for Women’s Suffrage,
2:625
London’s Poor Sheltered under a Bridge
(Doré), 4:1850
London Times. See Times of London
London Women’s Suffrage Society,
2:626
London Working Men’s Association,
1:414, 416, 417; 3:1286
Lovett and, 3:1390
Long, Luther, 4:1916
Longest Journey, The (Forster), 2:835
2687
INDEX
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 2:656
Long Island Physicians’ College
(New York), 1:9
Lönnrot, Elias, 2:820
looms. See weaving
Loos, Adolf, 3:1381–1382
López, Vicente, 2:999
Lord Byron (Gericault), 1:333
Lord Chamberlain (London), 3:1377
‘‘Lord Clive’’ (Macaulay), 3:1408
Lord Jim (Conrad), 2:535–536
Loreley Fountain (South Bronx,
New York), 2:1056
Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon, 2:653,
1063; 4:1805
Lorenzaccio (Musset), 1:229
Loreto, Marian shrine at, 4:1797
Loris-Melikov, Mikhail, 1:39, 88, 91;
4:1768
Lorrain, Claude, 2:543
Lorraine, Jean (pseud. of Paul Duval),
2:632
Los Angeles, German exile community
in, 3:1435, 1437
Los von Rom movement (Austria),
1:263; 4:1719
Lothair (Disraeli), 2:673
‘‘Lotos-Eaters, The’’ (Tennyson),
5:2309
Lotte in Weimar (Mann), 3:1436
Loubet, Émile, 2:684, 685, 857
Loudon, John Claudius, 4:1738
Louis I, king of Bavaria, 2:606, 961;
3:1382, 1383; 4:1834
Louis II (‘‘Mad King Ludwig’’), king
of Bavaria, 2:1020;
3:1382–1384
as List’s patron, 3:1357
Neuschwanstein castle and, 4:2030
Prince Rudolf and, 4:2045
Wagner and, 5:2431
Louis IX, (Saint Louis), king of France,
4:1760
Louis XIV, king of France, 1:93, 481;
2:794; 3:1384
move from Paris of, 4:1726, 1728
Louis XV, king of France, 3:1384,
1385, 1445; 4:1726–1727
Louis XVI, king of France,
3:1384–1386
constitutional monarchy and,
1:456
counterrevolutionaries in royal family
of, 2:563
Danton’s scheme to save, 2:611
escape attempt of, 3:1385–1386
Estates-General and, 2:767–768,
801, 842, 885; 3:1385
2688
execution of, 1:471; 2:518, 624,
837, 891, 957, 974; 3:1192,
1386, 1446; 4:1951, 1968
French financial crisis and,
2:840–841; 3:1385
French Revolution and, 1:420;
2:843, 844, 886, 887, 888–891;
3:1385–1386; 4:1728
Girondin-Montagnard split and,
2:973–974
Jacobins and, 3:1205
Jewish emancipation and, 3:1225,
1226
Lafayette and, 3:1300
marriage to Marie-Antoinette of,
3:1384, 1445, 1446
National Convention and, 2:799
Paine on exile for, 4:1700
Parisian memorial to, 4:1729
personal qualities of, 2:887; 3:1384,
1385, 1388, 1446
removal to Paris of, 2:890; 3:1385,
1403, 1443, 1446; 4:1728
republicanism and, 4:1959
Robespierre and, 4:2005, 2006
sons of, 1:411, 412; 2:846; 3:1384,
1385, 1386, 1446
trial of, 3:1386
utilitarianism and, 5:2393
Louis XVII, king of France, 3:1386,
1446, 1447
Louis XVIII, king of France, 3:1303,
1386–1387
assumption of throne by, 2:846,
1098; 3:1387
Bonald’s hostility to, 1:269
Brunswick Manifesto and, 1:412
bureaucracy and, 1:321; 3:1387
Charles X and, 2:566; 3:1386
Charter of 1814 and, 1:270, 457;
3:1387
Chateaubriand and, 1:420, 421
education policy of, 2:723
Fouché and, 2:837
as French Revolution émigré,
3:1386–1387
Guizot and, 2:1029
as Hugo patron, 2:1092
Indochina and, 3:1140
Louis-Philippe and, 3:1388
missionary societies and, 4:1895
Napoleon’s return and, 2:847, 903,
1098, 1099; 3:1387
Restoration and, 2:847–848;
3:1387; 4:1968, 1969
sexual impotence of, 3:1384
E U R O P E
suffrage and, 4:2277
Talleyrand and, 5:2306
ultraroyalist dissatisfaction with,
2:539
See also Restoration
Louis IV, grand duke of Hesse-
Darmstadt, 1:41
Louis, archduke of Austria, 2:807
Louis, Pierre-Charles-Alexandre,
4:2109, 2110
Louise, grand duchess of Baden,
5:2467
Louis-Auguste. See Louis XVI
Louisiana, 3:1596; 4:2225; 5:2333
Louis-Napoleon. See Napoleon III
Louis-Napoléon le grand (Séguin),
3:1593
Louis-Philippe, king of the French,
1:413; 3:1255, 1387–1390;
5:2316, 2397
abdication of, 2:567, 849, 968;
3:1248, 1389
Belgium and, 1:200
Bonald’s hostality to, 1:269
Bonapartism and, 1:270
caricatures of, 3:1389, 1389
Charles X and, 1:413
Chateaubriand and, 1:421
daughter’s marriage to Leopold I
and, 3:1335
Daumier caricature of, 2:621
exile of, 3:1388
father, Philippe Égalité, and, 3:1388,
1389
French Revolution and,
3:1387–1388
Guizot and, 2:1029, 1030
Haussmann and, 2:1046, 1047
Hugo and, 2:1093, 1094
Lafayette and, 3:1301, 1388
Lamartine and, 3:1303
Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1318
program of, 3:1388–1389
Restoration and, 4:1969
Revolution of 1830 and, 2:566, 848;
3:1388; 4:1984, 1985
Revolution of 1848 and, 2:567, 849,
968; 3:1248, 1389; 4:1990
suffrage and, 4:2277
Talleyrand and, 5:2306
Thiers and, 5:2310, 2311
trade and, 5:2339
See also July Monarchy
Louis-Philippe-Joseph. See Philippe
Égalité
Loups, Les (Rolland), 4:2015
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Lourdes, 1:411; 2:1104; 4:1826
Marian shrine at, 4:1788–1789,
1789, 1790
Lourié, Arthur, 4:2262
Louvel, Louis-Pierre, 1:412
Louvet de Couvray, Jean-Baptiste,
2:973, 974
Louvre (Paris), 1:287, 407; 2:737,
1047; 4:1726, 1727, 1729;
5:2327
as high-art cultural museum, 3:1562;
4:1825
Ingres ceiling painting for, 3:1165
photographs of, 4:1772
love, 4:2026, 2028, 2029
Love (Munch), 3:1559; 4:2294
Love and Mr. Lewisham (Wells),
5:2458
Love for Three Oranges (Prokofiev),
3:1496
Lovejoy, Arthur, 4:2031
love letters, 4:2029
love poetry, 1:249
Lovers of Wisdom (Russia), 2:772
Lovers of Zion, 5:2519–2520
Love Ruling the World (Rude), 4:2044
Loves Coming of Age (Carpenter),
1:372
love songs, 4:2029
Lovett, William, 1:414, 416, 418;
3:1286, 1390–1391
Low Countries. See Belgium;
Netherlands
Löwenthal, Elsa Einstein, 2:740
Lower Depths, The (Gorky), 2:993
lower middle class, 1:472–473
conservative leanings of, 1:204
consumerism and, 2:550
Löwith, Karl, 1:320
Luanda Empire, 1:15–16, 19
Luang Prabang, 3:1142
Lubin, Georges, 4:2084, 2085
Lucca, 3:1191; 4:1970
Lucchesi, Police Commissioner,
4:2174
Lucerne, electric lighting and, 2:741
Lucia di Lammermoor (Bellini),
3:1671
Lucien Leuwen (Stendhal), 4:2253
Lucinde (Schlegel), 4:2097
Lucknow, 3:1133, 1135
Lucrèce Borgia (Hugo), 2:1093
Ludd, Ned (‘‘King’’ or ‘‘General’’),
1:358; 3:1391, 1392, 1410;
4:1821
Luddism, 1:358; 2:511;
3:1391–1392
machine breaking and, 3:1410, 1411
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Ludlow, Fitz Hugh, 2:687
Ludlow, John, 4:2208
Ludwig II, king of Bavaria. See Louis II
Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of
Classical German Philosophy
(Engels), 2:756
Lueger, Karl, 2:1068; 3:1392–1396,
1394; 4:2282
anti-Semitism and, 1:73, 75, 77;
2:689, 816; 3:1233, 1393–1395
mass politics and, 3:1395
Vienna and, 5:2420–2421
Lugard, Frederick (Lord Lugard),
1:20; 2:507
Luis I, king of Portugal, 4:1841
Luisa Miller (Verdi), 5:2406
Luis Filipe, prince of Portugal,
4:1841
Lukács, György, 2:830; 3:1253;
4:2186
Lumière, Auguste and Louis, 1:441,
442; 3:1396–1398, 1397, 1414;
4:1774, 1824
Méliès contrasted with, 3:1482
Lumière Company, 3:1396
Lumı́r (Czech journal), 4:1857
Lunacharsky, Anatoly, 1:267
Luna Park Scenic Railway (Paris),
4:1825
Luncheon of the Boating Party (Renoir),
4:1955
Lunda Empire, 1:13
Lundbye, Johan, 2:647
Lunéville, Treaty of (1801), 2:860,
901; 5:2305
Luppe River, 3:1320
lupus, 2:649
Lutezia (Heine), 2:1056
Lûtfullah Bey, 5:2515
Luther, Martin, 2:959; 5:2447
Lutheranism, 1:51; 4:1890, 1891
Baltic provinces and, 2:821
as established church, 4:1895
northern German population of,
4:1892
Sweden and, 1:226
temperance and, 1:36
Luxe, calme, et volupté (Matisse),
2:797; 3:1474; 4:1710
Luxembourg
peasant revolt in, 4:1755
Schlieffen Plan and, 4:2098
slave trade ban and, 1:308
telephone service in, 5:2308
welfare initiatives in, 5:2452
Luxembourg Commission (France),
2:849–850; 3:1287
Luxembourg gardens (Paris), 2:1048
INDEX
Luxembourg Gardens at Twilight
(Sargent), 1:289
Luxemburg, Rosa, 2:707; 3:1248,
1398–1401, 1399; 4:1811, 2205
assassination of, 3:1401
attack on Bernstein by, 1:231;
3:1399–1400
Liebknecht and, 3:1356
luxury goods
Asian trade and, 3:1151–1152, 1153
automobiles as, 1:149–150
Brussels production of, 1:305
consumers of, 2:547, 548, 551
fashion and, 1:481
London production of, 3:1373–1374
Lyon and, 3:1404
Luzán y Martı́nez, José, 2:996
Lüzen, Battle of (1813), 2:903
Luzzatti, Luigi, 2:971; 5:2364
LWMA. See London Working Men’s
Association
Lyell, Charles, 3:1401–1403; 4:2133
as Darwin influence, 2:615; 3:1402
Lyell, Mary Horner, 3:1402
Lyon, 3:1403–1406
Catholicism and, 3:1404–1405
federalist revolt in, 2:799, 800, 844;
3:1403
Lumière brothers in, 3:1396, 1398
miners protests in, 3:1272
nursing school in, 3:1650
Paris Commune and, 4:1736
population of, 3:1404
radical press in, 4:1870
Reign of Terror in, 2:800, 894;
3:1403
silk manufacture in, 3:1153, 1404,
1405
silkworkers’ rebellion in, 2:848, 849;
3:1284, 1404
urban redevelopment ind, 2:1088;
3:1404
waterway transport and, 5:2348
worker housing in, 2:1089
Lyrical Ballads (Coleridge and
Wordsworth), 1:496, 497; 2:543;
5:2482
Lytton, Edward Robert Bulwer-Lytton
(Lord Lytton), 2:674; 4:2237
n
M
Mably, Abbé, 4:1958
Macaire, Robert, 2:621
2689
INDEX
Macartney, George, 1:433
Macartney mission, 1:433
Macaulay, Thomas Babington,
3:1407–1408
colonial policy and, 2:508
historiography and, 2:1072
Mill (James) critique of, 3:1510
Macaulay: The Shaping of the Historian
(Macaulay), 3:1407
Macauley, Eliza, 3:1288
Macbeth (Shakespeare), 1:153
Macbeth (Verdi), 3:1672; 5:2406
Macdonald, Étienne Jacques-Joseph-
Alexandre, 3:1320, 1321
Macdonald, Frances, 1:112
MacDonald, Hector Archibald, 3:1423
MacDonald, James Ramsay, 2:1012;
3:1295, 1296
Macdonald, Margaret, 1:112
Macdonough, Thomas, 5:2440
Macedonia, 3:1482
Balkan Wars and, 2:704–705
Bulgaria and, 1:312, 313
competing claims in, 1:163, 164,
166, 313; 3:1691
Congress of Berlin and, 2:530;
3:1689–1690
Greek possession of, 1:2
Serbia and, 1:242; 4:2146, 2148,
2149
Maceo, Antonio, 1:366
Macerata insurrection (1817), 1:360
Mach, Ernst, 2:739; 3:1408–1410,
1574
Mácha, Karel Hynek, 4:1857
Machado y Ruiz, Antonio, 2:950, 951
Machajski, Jan Waclaw, 3:1171, 1172
Mach Bands, 3:1408
Machiavelli, Niccolò, 3:1193; 4:1958
machine breaking, 3:1287,
1410–1412
agricultural, 1:357, 358–359;
3:1411
Captain Swing riots and, 2:511;
4:1755
cultural support for, 4:1821
as labor protest, 4:2264
Luddites and, 3:1391–1392
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1991
machine gun, portable, 1:20, 95, 99
Machinenzeitalter, Das (Suttner),
4:2282
machinery
trade flow of, 5:2335, 2336, 2342
See also science and technology;
specific types of machinery
Mach One, 3:1408
2690
Mach’s Principle, 3:1409
Maciejowice, Battle of (1794), 3:1265
Mack, Karl von, 5:2374, 2375
Macke, August, 1:155
Mackenzie, Morrell, 2:874
Mackintosh, Charles Rennie, 1:107,
112, 192; 5:2506
Mackintosh, James, 2:981
Maclean, Rutger, 4:2284
MacMahon, Maurice de, 2:855, 856;
3:1664; 4:1737
Macomb, Alexander, 5:2440
Macon’s Bill No. 2 of 1810 (U.S.),
5:2439
Macpherson, Hector, 4:2235
Madagascar, 2:509, 810
Madama Butterfly (Puccini), 3:1677;
4:1916
Madame Bovary (Flaubert), 2:827,
828; 4:1756; 5:2522
Madame Cézanne (Cézanne), 1:398
Madame Charpentier and Her
Children (Renoir), 4:1955
Madame Gervaisais (Goncourt
brothers), 2:991
Madame Moitessier, Seated (Ingres),
3:1166
Maddison, Angus, 5:2338
Madeleine Church (Paris), 4:1729
Madgascar, 1:99
Madison, James, 3:1357; 5:2439
‘‘Mad King Ludwig.’’ See Louis II
Madonna (Munch), 3:1559
Madras, 1:88
Madrid, 3:1412–1414
architecture in, 2:590
Goya and, 2:997, 998–999
migration and, 3:1111
Napoleon’s occupation of, 4:1764
Palacio de Cristal, 3:1413
Madwoman, The (Géricault), 2:956
Maeder, Alphonse, 3:1239
Maeterlinck, Maurice, 2:631; 3:1675;
4:2102, 2295
Jarry and, 3:1213
Maetzu y Whitney, Ramiro,
2:950, 951
Mafeking, siege of (1900), 1:159;
3:1119
Maffei, Clara, 2:803
mafia, 3:1414–1418, 1583; 4:1821
secret societies and, 4:2132
Sicilian Fasci and, 4:2173–2175
Sicily and, 4:2173–2175, 2178
Mafiusi di la Vicaria, I (play), 3:1415
Maganetic Crusade, 3:1658
magazines. See press and newspapers;
specific titles
E U R O P E
Magendie, François, 1:227, 436
magenta, 3:1159
Magenta, Battle of (1859), 1:392;
3:1198, 1592; 4:1726, 2003
Maggi, Luigi, 1:443
Magic Flute, The (Mozart), 3:1673,
1674; 4:2092; 5:2417
magicians, 3:1483
Magic Mountain, The (Mann), 3:1435,
1436, 1437; 5:2360
Magnan, Valentin, 2:637
magnetism. See electromagnetism
Magnificent Cuckold, The
(Crommelynck), Meyerhold
production of, 3:1496
Magyarization, forced, 1:144
Magyar language, 1:141, 143
Magyars, 1:143; 2:862, 864, 865;
4:1860, 1861, 1963, 2018, 2019,
2045
Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 5:2312
Mahayana Buddhism, 3:1138
Mahdi, the, 1:18–19; 2:734, 783
Kitchener campaign against,
3:1258–1259, 1668–1669
Mahler, Gustav, 1:19, 54, 197; 2:654;
3:1418–1419, 1571, 1572;
5:2421
Schoenberg and, 4:2102
Schubert’s influence on, 4:2107
Mahmud Celâleddin Pasha, 5:2515
Mahmud II, Ottoman sultan,
3:1420–1421
Greek War of Independence and,
2:1019, 1020; 3:1612, 1686
Münchengrätz Treaty and, 3:1560
reforms and, 3:1186–1187, 1420,
1685–1686
Russian ships in Bosphorus and,
1:278
Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2391,
2392
Maid of Pskov, The (Rimsky-Korsakov),
2:654; 4:1999, 2000
Maine, Henry, 3:1314; 4:2213
Maiorescu, Titu, 4:2018
Maison des Ducs de Brabant
(Brussels), 1:306
Maison Dorée (Paris restaurant),
4:1966
Maison du Peuple (Brussels), 1:109,
307; 2:556
Maison du Peuple (Paris), 1:109
Maison du Roi (Brussels), 1:306
Maistre, Joseph de, 1:269, 387, 389;
3:1421–1422; 4:1959, 2212
as Chaadayev influence, 1:400
as Comte influence, 2:523
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

conservatism and, 2:539, 542;
3:1421
counterrevolution and, 2:566;
3:1421; 4:1718
Restoration and, 4:1968
Saint-Simon and, 4:2081
ultramontism and, 1:381
Maitland, Frederic William, 2:1073
Maitron, Jean, 4:1897
maize, 1:26; 3:1195
Majeed, Javeed, 3:1511
Major Barbara (Shaw), 4:2167
Majorelle, Louis, 1:111
Máj School (Máchal), 4:1857
Máj School (Prague), 4:1857
Majuba Hill, 3:1422–1423
Makarov, Stepan Osipovich, 4:2064
Makart, Hans, 5:2420
Makitta, Thomas, 3:1484
Maklakov, Vasily, 3:1241
Malachenko, A. L., 1:266
Malakhov bastion, 2:579
malaria, 1:19, 44, 47; 2:782
Malatesta, Errico, 1:58, 60, 62;
3:1423–1425; 4:2299
Malavoglia, I (Verga), 5:2407–2408
Malawi, 4:1841
Malaya (British dreadnaught), 3:1611
mal du siècle, 4:2028
Malebo Pool (Africa), 1:16
Male Nude, Back View (Schiele), 1:254
Malerbi, Giuseppe, 4:2038
Malevich, Kazimir, 1:157–158, 214;
3:1243; 4:2294
Malik, Der. Eine Kaisergeschichte,
(Lasker-Schüler), 3:1309
Malinowski, Bronislaw, 2:873
Mallarmé, Stéphane, 2:631, 939, 940,
1104; 4:1845, 1944, 1955
Jarry and, 3:1213
Matisse illustrations for, 3:1475
Morisot friendship with, 3:1544
symbolism and, 3:1529; 4:2292,
2293, 2294
Mally, Ernst, 1:298
Malmaison (Paris), 4:1729
Malmô, Armistice of (1848),
2:648, 871
Malory, Thomas, 1:109
Malta, 2:901, 958; 3:1481
Malthête-Méliès, Madeleine, 3:1484
Malthus, Thomas Robert, 1:401;
3:1425–1427
as Darwin influence, 2:615, 616,
617; 3:1426
economic theory of, 3:1426
Godwin rebuttal to, 2:981
Mill (James) and, 3:1510
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
neo-Malthusians and, 4:1762, 1830
population theory of, 2:714–715,
717, 777; 3:1425–1427; 4:1827
Spencer and, 4:2234
welfare viewed by, 2:714, 715;
3:1425–1426
Malus, Étienne-Louis, 4:1780
Mamluks, 1:18; 2:731, 900
Man, Paul de, 2:1079
Man and God (H. Chamberlain),
1:404
Man and Superman (Shaw), 4:2166
Manao Tupapau (Gauguin),
2:939–940
Manchester, 3:1427–1431
Anti-Corn Law League and, 2:517,
558; 4:1889
architecture in, 1:185, 186; 2:590
bourgeois culture in, 1:287–288
Butler’s feminist activity in, 1:332
city life and, 1:454–455
Cobden and, 1:490, 491
concerts in, 3:1566
cotton industry and, 3:1427–1429
Engels in, 2:754, 755; 3:1430, 1450,
1466
Irish immigrants in, 3:1525
labor movement and, 3:1284, 1285,
1430
Luddism and, 3:1392
millinery workers in, 3:1429
population of, 1:446; 2:1087;
3:1430
representation and, 2:1003
shirt factory in, 2:789
spiritualist societies in, 4:2237
symbolism of, 3:1429–1430
Manchester Anti-Corn Law
Association, 2:558
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 3:1430
Manchester school (social reform),
1:490
Manchester Ship Canal, 3:1431
Manchester Town Hall (Britain),
4:2030
Manchuria, 4:1837, 1838, 2064,
2065, 2171; 5:2426
railroads and, 4:2064, 2065; 5:2426,
2479
Manchurian War. See Russo-Japanese
War
Mancini, Pasquale Stanislao, 3:1174
Mancomunitat de Cataluña, 4:2231
Mandel, Ernest, 2:707
Mandelstam, Osip, 1:214, 250, 400;
4:2182, 2183
INDEX
Mandeville (Godwin), 2:981
Mandeville, Bernard, 2:551
dueling defended by, 2:694
Mandl, Ignaz, 3:1393, 1394
mandolin chamber orchestra, 3:1569
Manet, Édouard, 2:569, 854, 950;
3:1431–1434, 1432, 1434;
4:1708, 2293; 5:2522, 2523
absinthe and, 1:3
Daumier as influence on, 2:622
Degas’s collection of works of, 2:634
impressionism and, 3:1126, 1128,
1129, 1131
modernism and, 3:1530,
1533–1534; 4:1707–1708
Morisot relationship with, 3:1544
Parisian scenes and, 4:1732
poster art and, 4:1845
Renoir and, 4:1954
Repin and, 4:1956
Manet, Eugène (Morisot’s husband),
3:1433, 1544
Manet, Julie (Morisot’s daughter),
3:1544, 1544
Manette Solomon (Goncourt and
Goncourt), 1:177
Manfred (Byron), 1:333
Mangoni, Giuseppe, 3:1503
Manguin, Henri-Charles, 1:153;
2:795–796
Manhattan Project (atomic bomb),
2:740
Manheim, Ralph, 2:1023
Manhood Suffrage Riots in Hyde Park
(Hughes), 2:1004
Manifesto of the Communist Party
(Marx and Engels), 2:520, 521;
4:2204
Manifesto of the Equals (Maréchal),
2:519, 520
‘‘Manifesto of the Nations of Europe,
The’’ (Pan-Slav Congress),
4:1862
Manin, Daniele, 1:391; 4:2002;
5:2403, 2404
Manin, Ludovico, 5:2402
Mankind as It Is and as It Ought to Be
(Weitling), 4:2203
Mann, Erika (daughter), 3:1435
Mann, Golo (son), 3:1435
Mann, Heinrich (brother), 3:1435,
1437
Mann, Katia Pringsheim (wife), 2:675;
3:1435
Mann, Klaus (son), 3:1435
Mann, Thomas, 2:679; 3:1434–1437,
1574; 4:1905
on sanatorium life, 5:2360
2691
INDEX
Schopenhauer as influence, 4:2104
on seaside resorts, 4:2125
Venice and, 5:2405
Mann, Tom (British labor leader),
1:60; 3:1295, 1297
Männer and Helden (Fontane), 2:828
Mannerheim, Carl Gustaf, 2:819
manners and formality, 1:484;
3:1437–1440; 4:1908
Mannheim, Karl, 2:536; 3:1169,
1172; 4:2215
Manning, Cardinal, 4:2259
Manning, Henry, 3:1440–1441;
4:1722, 1896
Mann ohne Eigenschaften, Der (Musil),
3:1574
Manns, Die (television series), 3:1435
Man of Destiny, The (Shaw), 4:2166
Man of Honor (Fontane), 2:829
Manon (Massenet), 3:1675
Manon Lescaut (Puccini), 3:1677;
4:1916
Manrique, Jorge, 2:950
Mansfield Park (Austen), 1:130, 131
Mansfield Park (film), 1:131–132
Mansion House Speech (Lloyd
George, 1911), 3:1546
Mantashev, Alexander, 1:88
Manteuffel, Otto von, 2:962
Mantua, 3:1669
Manuel II, king of Portugal, 4:1841
Manuel Godoy as Commander in the
War of the Oranges (Goya), 2:997
Manufacture des Gobelins, 4:2115
manufacturing. See economic growth
and industrialization; factories
Man vs. the State, The (Spencer),
4:2234
Man Who Laughs, The (Hugo),
2:1094–1095
Man with a Broken Nose, The (Rodin),
4:2008
Man with a Hoe (Millet), 1:180;
3:1516
Man without Qualities, The (Musil),
3:1574
‘‘Man with the Twisted Lip, The’’
(Doyle), 2:680
Manzanares River, 3:1412
Manzoni, Alessandro, 2:930;
3:1193–1194, 1334,
1441–1442, 1504; 4:2123
Maometto II (Rossini), 3:1670, 1671;
4:2038
Maori (people), 3:1622, 1623, 1624
Mao Tse-tung, 1461
Maracana, 2:833
Maraiana Islands, 2:967
2692
Marat, Jean-Paul, 2:799, 973, 974;
3:1205, 1442–1443; 4:1869,
1960
assassination of, 3:1443
David painting of, 2:624; 4:1702
as Jacobin, 4:1700
Marat at His Last Breath (David),
2:624; 4:1702
Marathas, 2:669, 706; 3:1134, 1136
Marble Palace (St. Petersburg), 4:2077
Marc, Franz, 1:155–156; 3:1309
Marcel; La cité harmonieuse (Péguy),
4:1760
Marchand, Jean-Baptiste, 2:643, 784,
794, 795
masculine image of, 3:1472
Marcks, Gerhard, 1:154
Marconi, Guglielmo, 2:1063; 3:1163,
1444–1445; 4:1780
Marcoussis, Louis, 2:591
Marcus, Steven, 4:1834
Marcuse, Herbert, 2:838
Maré, Rolf de, 4:2087
Maréchal, Sylvain, 2:519, 520
Marengo, Battle of (1800), 2:901;
3:1192
Marey, Étienne-Jules, 1:441; 3:1396,
1398; 4:1772
Margary, Augustus, 1:434
Margate, 4:2124
Margherita, queen consort of Italy,
1:362
marginal utility, theory of, 2:551–552
Maria II, queen of Portugal, 4:1840
Maria, princess of Russia, 3:1627
Marı́a Cristina, queen regent of Spain
(1806–1878), 1:367, 368; 2:809;
4:2229
Marı́a Cristina, queen regent of Spain
(1858–1929), 2:949; 4:2231
Maria Christina of Austria, 1:347
Maria Cristina Albertina of Saxony-
Courland, 1:413
Maria Da Glória, 4:1839
Maria Fyodorovna, empress of Russia,
1:37, 41; 3:1626–1627; 4:1747
Marı́a Luisa, queen of Spain, 2:808,
998, 999; 4:1763, 1764
Marian Column (Prague), 4:1858
Marian devotion, 1:287, 385; 4:1719,
2037
apparitions and shrines,
4:1788–1789, 1789
of Pius IX, 4:1797, 1798
Protestant rejection of, 4:1891
See also Immaculate Conception,
doctrine of
Mariani, Angelo, 2:688
E U R O P E
Maria Teresa of Tuscany, 1:413
Maria Theresa, empress of Austria,
1:138, 140, 260; 5:2354, 2372
daughter Marie-Antoinette and,
2:841; 3:1445, 1446
educational reform and, 2:723
Lombardy and, 3:1191
peasants’ status and, 4:1754
Marič, Mileva, 2:739, 740
Marie, Pierre, 1:410
Marie-Amélie de Bourbon, 3:1388
Marie-Antoinette, queen of France,
3:1445–1447
background of, 3:1384, 1445
Danton’s scheme to save, 2:611
dressmaker for, 1:481
execution of, 2:892; 3:1192, 1447;
4:1952, 1968
extravagances of, 3:1385, 1446
French Revolution and, 2:841, 860;
3:1385, 1386
Gouges’s Rights of Women and,
2:995–996
Jacobin view of, 3:1205
Louis XVI marriage to, 3:1384, 1445
pornographic libels against, 3:1446;
4:1833
Reign of Terror and, 4:1952
unpopularity of, 3:1446
Marie Josephine (wife of Louis XVIII),
3:1386–1387
Marie-Louise, duchess of Parma
(second wife of Napoleon I),
1:270; 2:861; 3:1492, 1587;
5:2306
Marienbad, 1:261
Marie-Thérèse, empress of Austria,
3:1384
Marie-Thérèse of Sardinia, 1:412
Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso,
1:156–157; 3:1214; 5:2405
futurism and, 2:915, 916, 917–918,
920–921; 3:1530–1531
Marino Faliero (Byron), 1:333
Mario and the Magician (Mann),
3:1435
Marischal College, 3:1477
Maritain, Jacques, 1:213, 214; 4:1760
Maritime Customs Bureau (China),
1:434
Maritime Territory, 5:2426
maritime trade. See shipping; trade and
economic activity
maritime warfare. See naval warfare
Mariuccia Shelter (Milan), 4:1886
Marius the Epicurean (Pater), 4:1746
mark (German monetary unit), 1:171;
3:1538
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Markart, Hans, 5:2405
market, the
classical economomists and,
2:712–719
free trade and, 2:515; 4:1887
inherent growth and expansion of,
2:709
institutionalist view of,
2:707–708, 709
invisible hand of, 2:515, 712; 4:1887
Marxist economists on, 2:707
neoclassical economists on,
2:707, 710
See also capitalism; free trade;
laissez-faire
market integration, 5:2334, 2349,
2524, 2525
markets, 3:1447–1450
Barcelona, 1:182
Morocco, 3:1547
Naples, 3:1580, 1582
Paris, 2:1049; 4:1732
Markevitch, Igor, 3:1643
Markov, Andrei, 4:2249
Marković, Svetozar, 4:2145
Marlotte (France), 1:177
Marmara Sea, 1:243, 278; 3:1186,
1188
Marmont, Auguste, 3:1321–1322
Marmont, Marshal, 4:1983
Marne, Battle of the (1914), 1:151;
3:1508
Marocainsi, Les (Matisse), 3:1475
Maroons, 1:364
Maroto, Rafael, 4:2229
Marpingen, Marian apparition at,
4:1789
Marquesas Islands, 2:941
Marquet, Albert, 1:153; 2:795–797;
3:1474
Marr, Wilhelm, 1:71, 72, 74, 75, 76
marriage and family, 3:1450–1458
age of marriage and, 2:645, 667;
3:1451; 4:1827–1828, 1829
Bosnian group portrait, 1:275
bourgeoisie and, 1:284, 287, 472,
482; 3:1452–1455, 1456
Britain and, 2:1001
British civil unions and, 4:1894
British women’s rights act and,
2:946–947, 1008
consumerism and, 2:547, 548
dowry and, 1:472; 3:1453, 1454
Dublin family size and, 2:690
Engels on, 2:946
family size and, 4:1828, 1829,
1830–1831
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
fertility rate decline and, 2:645–646
Fourier’s views on, 4:2202
French civil law and, 3:1595
French revolutionary legislators and,
2:897
furniture and, 2:914
gender norm changes and,
2:947–948
gender roles and, 2:941–943, 942;
3:1471
male financial support of, 3:1470
masculinity and, 3:1470
Napoleonic Code and, 3:1470, 1595
neo-locality and, 3:1451
old age and, 3:1662–1663, 1664;
5:2454, 2455
peasant typology of, 4:1752–1753
Pelletier’s view of, 4:1762
population control and,
4:1827–1828, 1830
poverty and, 4:1853
Prussian civil marriage registration
mandate and, 2:966; 3:1278,
1279
Russian serfs and, 4:2151
Second Industrial Revolution
workforce and, 1:352
separate spheres ideology and, 1:70,
418, 472; 2:943
sexuality and, 4:2161, 2163
utopian socialism and, 2:803
as women’s best option, 1:131
women’s legal restrictions and,
1:129, 303; 2:941–943
women’s legal subjugation and,
1:129, 303; 2:802, 803, 804,
941–943; 3:1645, 1646
women’s rights activism and, 2:801,
804
working class and, 5:2485
See also childhood and children;
divorce; motherhood
Marriage of Heaven and Hell, The
(Blake), 1:246
Marriage with God (Nijinsky recital),
3:1643
Married Love (Stopes), 4:2163
Married Women’s Property Act of
1870 (Britain), 3:1646
Married Women’s Property Act of
1882 (Britain), 2:946–947, 1008
Married Women’s Property
Committee (Manchester), 1:332
Marsaut, Jean-Baptiste, 1:487
Mars Disarmed by Venus and the Three
Graces (David), 2:625
INDEX
‘‘Marseillaise, La’’ (French anthem),
1:457; 2:518, 891; 4:1826
Marseille
federalist revolt in, 2:799, 800, 844
Mediterranean and, 3:1482
Paris Commune and, 4:1736
shoemaker and tanner strikes in,
3:1284
socialism and, 2:859
urban redevelopment and, 2:1088
worker housing in, 2:1089
Marsh, Peter, 2:516; 4:1888
Marshall, Alfred, 2:707
Marshall, Thomas H., 1:460;
4:1851–1852
Marshall Fields (Chicago department
store), 2:551
Martens, Fyodor Fyodorovich von,
3:1175
Martens, Georg Friedrich, 3:1173
Marthe, histoire d’une fille
(Huysmans), 2:1104
Martignac, vicomte de. See Gay, Jean-
Baptiste-Sylvère
Martin, Charles, 4:2087
Martin, Georges, 2:649
Martin, Joseph, 2:941
Martin, Thérèse, 1:385
Martin Chuzzlewit (Dickens), 2:656;
3:1649
Martineau, Harriet, 2:714, 715, 717,
934; 3:1458–1460
Martineau, James, 3:1459
Martı́nez de la Rosa, Francisco, 3:1414
Martı́nez Ruı́z, José (‘‘Azorin’’),
2:950, 951
Martinique, 1:14, 364, 365
Martinu, Bohuslav, 2:700
Martorell, Joan, 2:935
Martov, L. (Yuli Martov), 1:165, 266;
3:1170, 1460–1461, 1487, 1488
Marty, Anton, 1:298; 3:1242
Martyn, Henry, 4:1887
Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian, The
(D’Annunzio), 2:609
Martyrs, Les (Donizetti), 3:1672
Marx, Heinrich, 4:2081
Marx, Karl, 1:66, 455, 458; 2:872;
3:1461–1468, 1477; 5:2448
anarchist opposition to, 1:58,
161–162; 3:1468
on artisans, 1:104
background and early years of,
3:1463–1464
Bakunin rivalry with, 1:161, 162;
3:1289, 1424
on Belgian capitalism, 1:203
Berlin life and, 1:316
2693
INDEX
on Berlin’s growth, 1:217
Blanqui’s view of, 1:248
on bourgeoisie, 1:283, 290–291;
2:707; 3:1306–1307
on Cabet, 1:337
capitalism viewed by, 1:349, 350;
2:707, 708, 755, 1006; 3:1248,
1328, 1400, 1466–1467; 4:2205,
2210, 2213–2214
civil society viewed by, 1:465, 467
class and, 1:474, 475; 3:1306–1307;
4:1893
on commodity fetishism, 2:551–552
communism and, 2:520, 521, 522
Communist Manifesto of, 4:1946,
2081
Crystal Palace and, 2:590
dialectic and, 3:1252
economic determinism and, 3:1371
Engels’s collaboration with,
2:754–756; 3:1430, 1462, 1465,
1466
Engels’s work contrasted with,
3:1462
father’s Lutheran conversion and,
4:1895
First International and, 2:824, 825;
3:1289, 1424, 1467–1468
Fourierism and, 2:838
Guesde and, 2:1025
Hegel and, 2:1054; 3:1463, 1464,
1465
Heine and, 2:1056
on industrialization, 5:2484
on Ireland, 5:2342
Kautsky and, 3:1248
Kierkegaard compared with, 3:1252
Kropotkin critique of, 3:1273
Lassalle and, 3:1311
as Lenin influence, 3:1326
List and, 3:1356, 1357
on Louis-Napoleon, 3:1589–1590
on Malthus, 3:1426
on On the Origin of Species, 2:618
on Paris Commune, 4:1737
peasant politics and, 4:1755, 1832
proletariat definition and, 1:446;
4:1849
property rights and, 3:1314
on republicanism, 4:1963
Saint-Simonism and, 4:2081, 2203,
2204
Second International and, 3:1294;
4:2127
as secret society critic, 4:2131
2694
secularization and, 4:2133
Shaw and, 4:2166
Sismondi and, 4:2186
Social Democratic Party and, 3:1399
socialism and, 4:2200, 2201,
2203–2205, 2214
sociology and, 2:698, 699;
4:2213–2214
on Spain, 4:2227
on terrorism, 4:2210
Turati and, 5:2363
on Ulrichs’s writing, 5:2376
utopianism and, 1:231, 337
utopian socialism and, 5:2395
women’s emancipation and, 1:194;
2:805, 946
working class and, 5:2484, 2485
on world’s fairs, 5:2505
as Young Hegelian, 5:2512, 2513
Marxism, 4:2203–2205
Adler (Victor) and, 1:11
anarchists vs., 3:1424, 1497
anarchosyndicalist rejection of,
1:60, 62
Bebel and, 1:195
Berdyayev and, 1:212
Bernstein and, 1:230–231
Bolshevik wing of, 1:264–267
bourgeoisie and, 1:467
Britain and, 2:1011
Bund and, 1:313, 315
capitalism defined by, 1:349
communism linked with, 2:522
economic theory and, 3:1466–1468
economism and, 3:1328
Engels and, 2:756
First International and, 2:824;
3:1289
Gorky and, 2:992
Guesde and, 2:1025–1026
historiography and, 2:1074–1075
Industrial Revolution and, 2:707,
708–709
intellectual influence of, 3:1462
intelligentsia and, 3:1170
Kautsky as theoretician of, 3:1248
Latvia and, 2:822
Lenin’s view of, 3:1326–1327, 1328,
1329
Luxemburg and, 3:1400, 1401;
4:1811
Martov and, 3:1460–1461
Marx as founder of, 3:1461
Menshevik wing of, 3:1487–1488
Morris and, 3:1551
E U R O P E
peasant economy and, 4:1756
Plekhanov and, 4:1800, 1801
Poland and, 4:1811
political philosophy of, 3:1327
populists and, 4:1832
Russia and, 4:2054
Russian Armenians and, 1:89
Socialist Party of France and, 3:1202
socialist revolutionaries and, 4:2049,
2209, 2210; 5:2518
Sorel’s critique of, 4:2217, 2218
Spanish syndicalism and,
4:2299–2300
Struve and, 4:2270
Zasulich and, 5:2518
See also Marx, Karl
Marxist criticism
on Dilthy, 2:661
on Frankfurt Parliament, 2:871
on Hardy, 2:1046
Marxist economics, 2:707, 708–709,
710–711
Mary, mother of Jesus. See Marian
devotion
Mary, a Fiction (Wollstonecraft),
5:2480
Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life
(Gaskell), 2:934; 3:1430
Maryinsky Theater (St. Petersburg),
2:655; 3:1642; 4:1750
Marylebone Cricket Club (Britain),
4:2242
‘‘Mary Postgate’’ (Kipling), 3:1257
Masaryk, Tomáš Garrigue, 1:264;
2:1099; 3:1468–1469
Mascagni, Pietro, 3:1676; 5:2408
masculinity, 3:1470–1473
aristocratic privileges of, 1:469
beards and, 1:190–191
bourgeoise patriarchy and,
1:287, 458
clothing and, 1:484, 485; 2:943–944
clubs and, 1:116; 3:1471
conflicts of, 3:1470
cycling and, 2:600
dueling and, 2:694–696;
3:1471–1472
fin de siècle tensions and, 2:816;
3:1472–1473
imperialist images of, 2:948;
3:1472–1473
mafia and, 3:1416
manners and, 3:1439
middle-class consumerism and, 2:549
old-age pensions and, 3:1665
Romanticism and, 4:2029
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

sexuality and, 4:2161, 2164
sports and, 4:2245
‘‘Mask of Anarchy, The’’ (Shelley),
4:2170
masochism, 3:1270; 4:2162
Masonic Grand Orient, 2:879; 4:1998
Masonic lodges. See Freemasons
Mass, 1:378, 379
mass armies. See levée en masse
Massau (German battleship), 3:1610
Massawa, 1:7
Masséna, André, 4:2227
Massenet, Jules, 3:1675, 1677
Massenstreik Partei und Gewerkschaften
(Luxemburg), 3:1400
Massimilla Donni (Balzac), 1:168
Massin, Caroline, 2:523
Massine, Léonide, 2:655; 4:2087
Mass in E-flat Major (Schubert),
4:2107
Massis, Henri, 1:214
mass production, 3:1162; 5:2352
Mass Strike, Party, and Unions
(Luxemburg), 3:1400
Mastai-Ferretti, Giovanni Maria. See
Pius IX, Pope
Master and Man (Tolstoy), 5:2319
Master Humphrey’s Clock (London
weekly), 2:656
Master of Ballantrae, The (Stevenson),
4:2255
masters (artisans), 4:1988; 5:2486,
2487
Mastro-don Gesualdo (Verga), 5:2408
masturbation, 3:1471; 4:2161, 2162
Mat (Gorky), 2:993
Matejko, Jan, 3:1265
maternity hospitals, 5:2450
maternity leave, 5:2452
mathematics
Frege and, 2:882–884
Husserl and, 2:1099–1100
Kelvin and, 3:1249
Maxwell and, 3:1478
physics and, 4:1778, 1779, 1780
Poincaré (Henri) and, 4:1804–1805
Quetelet and, 4:1921–1922
St. Petersburg and, 4:2077
Swedish contributions to,
4:2285–2286
Mathieu de Noailles, Anna-Élisabeth,
3:1214
Mathilda (Shelley), 4:2169
Matice Česká (Czech group), 1:261;
4:1711
Matilde de Shabran (Rossini), 4:1699
Matisse, Henri, 3:1167, 1473–1476,
1475
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
fauvism and, 1:153, 214; 2:795–796,
797; 3:1474, 1530; 4:1710
as Kandinsky influence, 3:1244, 1245
Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857
(Britain), 1:303
Matsch, Franz, 3:1260
Matteotti, Giacomo, 2:972
Matter and Memory (Bergson), 1:213
Mattheson, Johann, 3:1673
Matthew, Theobald, 1:36
Matthieux, Johanna, 1:316
Matyushin, Mikhail, 1:157
Maud, W. T., 3:1669
Maud and Other Poems (Tennyson),
5:2309
Maudsley, Henry, 2:638; 4:1909
Maupassant, Guy de, 2:535, 638, 991,
1104; 3:1436; 5:2523
Maura y Montaner, Antonio, 4:2231
Maurepas, Jean-Frédéric Phelypeaux
de, 3:1384, 1385
Mauriac, François, 1:184
Maurice (Forster), 2:836
Maurice, Frederick Denison, 4:2206,
2208
Mauritius, 1:16
Maurois, André, 4:2085
Maurras, Charles, 3:1476–1477
Action Française and, 1:4, 5, 214,
389; 2:542, 684; 3:1476–1477
conservatism and, 2:540, 542;
3:1476
Dreyfus affair and, 2:684; 3:1476
extreme right and, 2:858; 3:1476
as Sand detractor, 4:2084
Maury, Abbé (Jean-Siffren), 3:1226
Maury, Matthew Fontaine, 3:1658
Mausoleum Book, The (Stephen),
4:2254
Mauss, Marcel, 4:2215
Mauve, Anton, 5:2400
mauveine, 3:1159
Max, Peter, 1:192
Maximalists, 4:2211
Maxim gun, 1:20
Maximilian I, elector of Bavaria,
5:2374
Maximilian II, king of Bavaria, 3:1382;
4:1940
Maximilian, archduke of Habsburg,
5:2404
Maximilian, emperor of Mexico, 2:854;
5:2497
Max Planck Society for the
Advancement of Science, 4:1800
Maxwell, James Clerk, 2:739; 3:1162,
1163, 1477–1479
INDEX
electromagnetism and, 3:1249,
1478; 4:1780, 2109, 2114
Helmholtz and, 2:1058
Hertz and, 2:1062, 1063
Poincaré (Henri) and, 4:1804
statistics and, 4:1922
Mayakovsky, Vladimir, 1:157, 250,
337; 4:2182, 2183
Maybach, Wilhelm, 3:1161
May Day, 1869 (Green), 4:1822
May Day celebrations, 2:857,
1025–1026; 5:2502
Mayer, Henri, 4:2023
Mayerling crisis (1889), 2:864; 4:2044
Mayhew, Henry, 2:573, 716; 4:2213
Mayhew’s Great Exhibition of 1851: The
First Shilling Day, Going In
(Cruikshank), 2:586
May Laws of 1873–1875 (Prussia),
3:1278, 1279, 1331; 4:1896
May Night (Rimsky-Korsakov), 4:1999
Maynooth seminary (Ireland), 2:1000
Mayor of Casterbridge, The (Hardy),
2:1045
Mayr, Ernst, 1:23; 2:618
Mayr, Georg von, 2:571
Mayr, Giovanni, 3:1670
Mayreder, Karl, 3:1381
Mazarin, Jules, 1:469
Mazepa (Tchaikovsky), 5:2307
Mazlish, Brcue, 3:1514
Mazzini, Giuseppe, 1:58, 361, 362;
3:1200, 1479–1481, 1480;
4:1986, 2004; 5:2511
Cavour and, 1:391
Charles Albert and, 1:414
as Crispi influence, 2:581
Garibaldi and, 2:930, 931, 932, 933;
3:1197
liberalism and, 3:1343
Milanese uprising and, 3:1502
as Mozzoni influence, 3:1555, 1556
nationalism and, 3:1605
Paris Commune and, 3:1424
republicanism and, 4:1963
Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1197,
1480; 4:1719, 1796
secret societies and, 4:2130, 2131
Sicily and, 4:2175
Young Europe and, 3:1195
Young Italy and, 3:1194–1195,
1480; 4:1989, 2001–2002, 2131;
5:2513–2514
McAdams, John, 2:760
McCloskey, Deirdre, 3:1153
McCormick Harvesting Machine
Company, 5:2503, 2505
2695
INDEX
McGregor, William, 2:831
McKeown, Thomas, 5:2341
McKinley, William, 1:57
Mc-Nab, Maurice, 1:335
McNair, Herbert, 1:112
McNeill, William H., 2:668
Meaning of Creativity, The
(Berdyayev), 1:212
‘‘Meaning of Love, The’’ (Soloviev),
4:2216
measles, 2:667; 3:1372
measurement, 3:1173
Kelvin and, 3:1249
metric system and, 3:132
meat preservation, 2:659; 3:1623
Mecca, 1:396, 436; 3:1420
mechanics, Hertz principles of, 2:1063
Mechanics Institutes and Schools of
Design (Britain), 1:287
Mechanik in ihrer Entwicklung, Die
(Mach), 3:1409
Mechelen Conference (1863), 1:388
Meck, Nadezhda von, 5:2307
Mecklenburg, written constitution of,
2:959
mediate auscultation, 3:1298
Medici, Luigi de, 3:1193
medicine, 4:2109–2110, 2114
addiction treatment and, 2:687
antiseptic procedures and, 2:644
battlefields and, 3:1307–1308
Bernard and, 1:227–228
birth control and, 4:1831
body and, 1:251
bourgeois doctors and, 1:285–286
Charcot and, 1:407–411
cholera treatments and,
1:436–437, 438
degeneration diagnosis and, 2:638
doctors and, 1:285–286, 472
Doyle’s career in, 2:679–680, 681
Ehrlich and, 2:735–736
Freud and, 2:904; 4:1904
gendered barriers in, 2:945
Geneva Convention and, 2:953
germ theory and, 4:1743–1744
Hirschfeld and, 2:1069–1070
homsexuality and, 2:1084–1085
Jenner and, 3:1222–1224
Jung and, 3:123
Koch and, 3:1262–1264
Laennec and, 3:1297–1298
Larrey and, 3:1307–1308
Lister and, 3:1358–1359
Lumière inventions and, 3:1398
Marat and, 3:1442–1443
2696
mesmerism and, 3:1490–1491
nurse professionalization and, 3:1650
old age and, 3:1665
opiate use in, 2:686–687, 688
Pelletier and, 4:1761, 1762
Pinel and, 4:1790–1792
professionalization of, 4:1877, 1878,
1880
radium’s uses in, 2:595
Roentgen and, 4:2012
Semmelweiss and, 4:2134–2135
smallpox prevention and, 4:2197
syphilis and, 4:2301, 2302–2303
tuberculosis and, 5:2359–2361
Virchow and, 5:2425
women’s professional training in,
2:728, 803, 816, 945; 3:1542
x-ray use in, 3:1398
See also disease; hospitals; nurses;
psychiatry; public health;
vaccination
Medick, Hans, 3:1147
Medico-Philosophical Treatise on Mental
Alienation (Pinel), 4:1791
medievalism. See Middle Ages
Medina, 3:1420
Méditations Poétique (Lamartine),
3:1303
Mediterranean, 3:1481–1482; 5:2354
balance of power in, 3:1613
Black Sea and, 1:243; 3:1482
Bosphorus and, 1:278
British control of, 3:1481, 1482,
1615
British tourism along, 1:288, 303
cholera pandemic and, 1:436
Crispi foreign policy and, 2:582, 583
Eastern Question and, 2:703, 705
Napoleon and, 3:1585, 1615
Suez Canal and, 2:794; 3:1337, 1482
trade and, 5:2336–2337, 2342
Mediterranean Agreements (1887),
2:526
Mediterranisme, 4:2232
mediums. See spiritualism
Medjugorje shrine (Bosnia-
Herzegovina), 4:1788
Medusa, art nouveau imagery of,
1:108
Meerveldt, Maximillian, 3:1321
Mehmet V, Ottoman sultan, 1:1;
3:1691
Mehmet Ali Pasha, viceroy of Egypt,
1:18; 2:731; 3:1420–1421, 1482
Münchengrätz treaty and, 3:1560,
1561
E U R O P E
Navarino and, 2:1020; 3:1612, 1613
Ottoman power challenged by,
3:1686
Mehmet S˛ükrü Pas˛a, 1:12
Méhul, Étienne-Nicolas, 3:1673
Meiji era (Japan), 3:1210–1212;
4:2064
Meikle, Andrew, 1:25; 2:757, 758
Meinecke, Friedrich, 4:1940
Mein Kampf (Hitler), 2:688; 3:1393
Meinong, Alexius, 1:298, 299
Meissonier, Ernest, 2:738; 3:1490
Meister, Wilhelm, 2:985
Meistersinger von Nürnberg, Die
(Wagner), 3:1571; 5:2431
Mekhitarist order (Armenian
Catholic), 1:88
Mekong Delta, 3:1138, 1139, 1141,
1142
melancholy, 4:2028–2029, 2294
Melancholy (Munch), 3:1558, 1559
Mélanges (Bergson), 1:213
Melbourne (Australia), 1:134, 135
Melbourne, Lord (William Lamb),
1:303; 3:1646; 4:1758, 1759;
5:2412, 2461, 2462
Melbye, Fritz, 4:1792
Melchers, Gari, 4:1948
Melchor de Jovellanos, Gaspar, 4:2227
Méliès, Georges, 1:441; 2:859;
3:1396, 1397, 1482–1484
Melilla, 3:1548
Méline, Jules, 1:492; 2:857
Méline tariff, 1:355, 492; 2:512, 857
Melingue, G. G., 3:1224
Mella, Ricardo, 1:59
Mélomane, Le (film), 3:1483
Melzi d’Eril, Francesco, 4:2189
Memoire de Mme de Valmont
(Gouges), 2:994
Memoiren einer Frau aus dem
badisch-pfälzischen Feldzuge
(Anneke), 1:66
Mémoires (Berlioz), 1:225
Mémoires (Haussmann), 2:1050;
4:1731
Mémoires d’outre-tombe
(Chateaubriand), 1:421
Mémoires pour serve à l’histoire de mon
temps (Guizot), 2:1030
Mémoires sur Napoléon (Stendhal),
4:2252
Mémoire sur la science de l’homme
(Saint-Simon), 4:2080
Memoir on Heat (Laplace and
Lavoisier), 4:2113–2114
Memoirs (Garibaldi), 2:930, 933
Memoirs (Symonds), 4:2296, 2297
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Memoirs from the House of the Dead
(Dostoyevsky), 2:678
Memoirs of an Egoist (Stendhal), 4:2253
Memoirs of a Revolutionary
(Kropotkin), 3:1272
Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure
(Cleland), 4:1833
Memoirs of Lola Montez (Montez),
4:1834
Memoirs of Mary Wollstonecraft
(Godwin), 2:981
Memoirs of Napoleon (Stendhal),
4:2252
Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes, The
(Doyle), 2:680
Memoirs of the Author of the Rights of
Women (Godwin), 5:2480
Memorandum Movement (Romania,
1892), 4:2019
Memorandum of the Powers (1831),
4:1718
Memorial of St. Helena (Napoleon
memoir), 1:270; 3:1588–1589
Memories and Adventures (Doyle),
2:680
Memories of Childhood and Youth
(Renan), 4:1953
memory, Cajal hypothesis on, 1:342
men. See gender; masculinity
Ménage, Le (Huysmans), 2:1104
Mencken, Wilhelmine Louise, 1:233
Mendel, Gregor, 3:1484–1487;
4:1749
de Vries and, 2:652, 653
heredity law and, 2:652, 769–770,
778
Mendeleyev, Dmitri, 1:426
Mendels, Franklin, 3:1147, 1148
‘‘Mendel’s Law Concerning the
Behavior of Progress of Varietal
Hybrids’’ (Correns), 2:653
Mendelssohn, Felix, 1:197, 225;
2:979; 3:1565, 1568, 1570
as Dvořák influence, 2:701
Gewandhaus Orchestra and, 3:1568
Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia, 1:7,
8; 2:583
Menéndez Pelayo, Marcelino, 4:2227
Menger, Anton, 3:1315
Mennonites, 1:346; 3:111; 4:1803
Menou, Jacques-Franços de, 2:731
Menschenkenntnis (A. Adler), 1:10
men’s clubs, 1:116; 3:1471
Mensheviks, 3:1487–1488; 4:2270;
5:2486
Bolshevik split with, 1:265, 266,
267, 315; 3:1328, 1329, 1460,
1487–1488; 4:1801
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Bund and, 1:315; 3:1487
Martov and, 3:1460–1461, 1487,
1488
nihilist writings and, 3:1641
Plekhanov and, 3:1488; 4:1801
Revolution of 1905 and, 4:1976,
1977
Zasulich and, 5:2518
Menshikov, Prince, 2:578
Menshikov Palace (St. Petersburg),
4:2075
mental chronometry, 5:2507
mental illness
fin de siècle and, 2:816
French studies of, 4:1908
Freud and, 2:904, 909
Géricault portraits of, 2:956, 956
involuntary sterlization and, 2:771
Krafft-Ebing and, 3:1270–1271
Pinel’s theory and treatment of,
4:1790, 1791–1792, 1959
See also psychiatry
Menzel, Adolph von, 3:1488–1490
Méphis (Tristan), 5:2357
Mer, Le (Debussy), 2:628
Mercadante, Saverio, 3:1671
mercantilism, 2:512; 3:1304
gold as basis of, 2:515; 4:1887
liberalism vs., 3:1341
Napoleon and, 2:554
Mercat del Born (Barcelona), 1:182
Mercat de Sant Antoni (Barcelona),
1:182
mercenaries, 1:97
Mercier, Louis-Sébastien, 2:994;
4:1728
Mercure de France (journal), 3:1213
Mercury Attaching His Wings (Rude),
4:2043
Mercy-Argenteau, Florimond Claude,
3:1446
Merelli, Bartolomeo, 5:2406
Merezhkovsky, Dmitri, 1:212; 4:2182,
2183
Mérimée, Prosper, 5:2314, 2422
meritocracy, 2:1008
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 2:1101;
4:1710
Mérode, Frederick Xavier de, 4:2035
Merrill, George, 1:372, 373
Merrill, Stuart, 4:2294
‘‘Merry Men, The’’ (Stevenson),
4:2255
Mertrud, J.-C., 2:598, 599
Mesmer, Franz Anton, 3:1490–1491;
4:1908
mesmerism, 3:1490–1491; 4:1822
INDEX
Messa di Requiem (Verdi), 5:2406
Messaline (Jarry), 3:1213–1214
‘‘Messe de l’athée, La’’ (Balzac), 1:168
Messina, 3:1255; 4:2177
earthquake of 1908 in, 4:1949
Meszlényi, Teréz, 3:1267
metallurgy, 4:2115
Belgium and, 1:201–202, 203;
3:1149
chemistry and, 1:425
Germany and, 2:960
Lyon and, 3:1405
Milan and, 3:1504
railroads and, 4:1935
Second Industrial Revolution and,
1:351, 352; 3:1157, 1158–1160
See also steel production
metalwork, art nouveau, 1:107, 109
Metaphysical Society (Britain), 2:1103
Metchnikoff, Élie, 2:736
meteorology, 2:1096, 1097
Methodenstreit, 4:2214
Methodism, 2:1002; 4:1891,
1892–1893, 1895, 1896, 1897
New Connexion group and, 4:2082
Methodist Missionary Society, 4:1895
Methodius, St., 4:1716
Methods of Ethics (Sidgwick), 5:2394
metric system, 3:132
Métro (Paris), 4:1732, 1733,
2271–2273; 5:2502, 2503
art nouveau entrance design,
1:109–110; 2:815, 1027, 1028;
4:1732
Metro-Land (London), 4:2273
Métropolitain (Paris subway). See
Métro
Metropolitan Board of Works
(London), 3:1378–1379
Metropolitan Council of Public Works
(Budapest), 1:310
Metropolitan Opera Company (New
York), 3:1418
Metropolitan Police Force (London),
3:1375; 4:1814
Metropolitan Railway (London),
4:2271, 2273
Metropolitan Swimming Association
(London), 4:2241, 2242
Metternich, Clemens von, 1:140, 142;
2:606; 3:1491–1495
background and early years of,
3:1491–1492
Carbonari and, 1:361
Carlsbad Decrees and, 1:369;
3:1494; 4:1971
Castlereagh and, 1:374; 3:1493,
1494
2697
INDEX
Congress of Troppau and,
2:531–532; 3:1494
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532, 533,
534, 565, 861, 1080–1081;
3:1493
conservatism and, 1:139; 2:540, 567
counterrevolution and, 2:566, 567,
959; 3:1494
Crown Prince’s Circle critics of,
2:876–877
declining influence of, 3:1494–1495
dilomacy of, 2:861; 3:1492–1494
dismissal of, 2:567, 808; 3:1236,
1495; 5:2418
Ferdinand I and, 2:807, 808
Francis I and, 2:861
German Confederation and, 2:959
gerontocracy and, 3:1164
Habsburg collapse and, 1:141
Holy Alliance and, 2:861, 959,
1081
Italy and, 3:1193, 1196
Kossuth and, 3:1267
military spending and, 2:866
Münchengrätz treaty and, 3:1560,
1561
on Pius IX, 4:1796
Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1980,
1981, 1982
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1990
status quo and, 2:957, 959
Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2260
Switzerland and, 4:2289–2290
Venice and, 5:2403
Vienna and, 5:2417, 2418
on voluntary associations, 1:117
Metternich, Pauline, 1:482
Metz, 1:51
Metz, Battle of (1870), 2:869–870
Metzinger, Jean, 1:156, 214; 2:590,
593
Meunier, Constantin, 1:307
Meurent, Victorine, 3:1432, 1433
Meuse River, 486
Mexico, 5:2336
Humboldt in, 2:1096
Napoleon III and, 1:271; 2:575,
854; 3:1592
papacy and, 4:1720
Spanish penal colony in, 2:779
world’s fairs and, 5:2500, 2505
Meyer, Adolf, 3:1238
Meyer, Henri, 2:582
Meyer, Michael, 3:1108
Meyerbeer, Giacomo, 3:1567, 1661,
1671, 1672, 1674; 5:2430
2698
Meyerhold, Vsevolod, 1:250;
3:1495–1496
Meyerhold Theater (Moscow), 3:1496
Meynert, Theodor, 1:341; 4:1904
Meysengug, Malwida von, 1:63
mezzandria (sharecropping), 3:1195;
4:2186
MFN. See most-favored-nation status
Micah Clarke (Doyle), 2:681
‘‘Michael’’ (Wordsworth), 5:2482
Michallon, Achille-Etna, 2:560
Michaud, 2:676–677
Michaux, Pierre, 5:2351
Michaux of Paris, 2:599, 600
Michel, Henry, 4:2081
Michel, Louise, 3:1496–1498, 1498;
4:1962
Michelangelo, 2:634, 640; 4:2008,
2015, 2296
Delacroix essay on, 2:641
Michelet, Jean, 1:70
Michelet, Jules, 2:723, 996; 3:1385,
1498–1500; 4:1897, 1962
on Mickiewicz, 3:1500–1501
Michelin, 5:2326, 2351
automobile tires and, 1:149
bicycle tires and, 2:551, 601
Michelin, Édouard, 1:148–149
Michetti, Niccolò, 4:2076
Mickiewicz, Adam, 3:1500–1501;
4:1808, 1811, 1818
microbes. See bacteriology; germ
theory of disease
microorganisms, 4:1743–1744
microphotography, 3:1262
microscope, 2:735; 4:2113; 5:2359
microwaves, 3:1445
Middle Ages
Michelet history of, 3:1499
as Morris influence, 3:1550
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1863, 1865
as Pugin influence, 4:1917
Romanticism and, 4:2030
middle class. See bourgeoisie; lower
middle class
Middle East
Chateaubriand travel writing on,
1:420, 421
imperialism and, 1:243
See also specific countries and place
names
Middle German Commercial Union,
5:2525
Middlemarch (G. Eliot), 2:744
Middlesex Wanderers (football team),
2:834
Middleton and Bailey (surveyors),
1:185
E U R O P E
Midhat Pasa, 1:1; 3:1689
Midi rouge, 4:1964
Midlands (England), 3:1153
Midlothian campaigns (Disraeli),
2:978
Midsummer Night’s Dream, A
(cartoon), 4:1722
Mighty Handful group, 4:1999
Mignet, François-Auguste-Marie,
5:2310
migration. See emigration; immigration
and internal migration
Miguel, king of Portugal, 4:1839
Miguel, Dom, 4:1983
Mikhailovsky, Nikolai, 3:1170; 4:2054
Milan, 3:1501–1505
bourgeoisie and, 1:283
Carbonari and, 1:360; 4:2130
child abandonment and, 5:2455
economic activity and, 3:1195, 1503
electric lighting and, 2:741
futurism and, 2:917, 918, 920
Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, 3:1503
insurrection in, 5:2377
as Kingdom of Italy capital, 4:2001
‘‘moral capital’’ myth of, 3:1502
Naples contrasted with, 3:1581
Napoleonic influence in, 3:1501
population of, 3:1501
Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1196,
1502; 4:1990, 2002
sister republics and, 4:2187
Venice and, 5:2403
Verdi and, 5:2406
as walled city, 3:1503
Milan, prince of Serbia, 3:1541
Milan Decree of 1807 (France), 2:553,
902; 3:1586; 5:2438
Milanese Labor Chamber, 3:1276
Milanese Socialist League, 5:2363
Milbanke, Anne Isabella, 1:332
Milhaud, Darius, 4:1944, 2087
Militärische Gesellschaft (Prussia),
3:1222
militarism
armies and, 1:95
Black Hand and, 1:242
colonialism and, 1:356
dueling code and, 2:696
Jaurès’s opposition to, 3:1216,
1217–1218
jingoism and, 3:1235
Kipling and, 3:1257
laissez-faire opponents of, 2:707
Liebknecht’s antimilitarism and,
3:1356
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Prussia and, 1:219, 237, 241
voluntary associations and, 1:117, 118
See also warfare
Militarism and Anti-Militarism
(Liebknecht), 3:1355
military. See armies
military colonies, 4:2050
military schools, 1:96
military tactics, 1:99–101;
3:1505–1508
airplanes and, 1:29, 30–31
Austro-Prussian War and, 1:148
bayonet and, 1:95
Bethmann Hollweg and, 1:232
Boer War and, 1:99, 100, 257; 3:1259
Borodino and, 1:472
cavalry and, 1:95
Clausewitz and, 1:477–479; 2:1033
colonialism and, 1:99
Crimean War and, 2:577–578,
579–580
Danish-German War and, 2:607–609
firearms development and, 1:20
Franco-Austrian War and, 2:867
Franco-Prussian War and,
2:868–869, 870
French shock columns and, 3:1506
Jena and, 3:1221
Jomini and, 3:1236–1237
Kitchener and, 3:1258–1259
Kutuzov and, 3:1281
Leipzig and, 3:1319–1322
Moltke and, 3:1532
Mukden and, 3:1557
Napoleon and, 5:2443
Napoleonic successes and, 1:94,
132–133
Navarino and, 3:1612
Nelson and, 3:1614, 1616
railroads and, 4:1937
Russo-Japanese War and, 4:2066,
2067–2068
Schlieffen Plan and, 4:1937,
2098–2099
strategy vs., 3:1505
submarine warfare and, 1:232
technology and, 2:1034;
3:1507–1508
Trafalgar and, 5:2344–2345
Ulm and, 5:2374–2375
Wellington and, 5:2457
militia, 1:98
milk chocolate, 1:496
Mill, Harriet Taylor, 1:371; 2:804,
946; 3:1508–1509, 1513, 1514
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO
Mill, James, 1:211; 2:515, 717;
3:1510–1512; 5:2392, 2394
free trade and, 4:1887
liberalism and, 3:1343
son John Stuart Mill and, 3:1510,
1511, 1512, 1513
Mill, John Stuart, 2:515, 523; 3:1408,
1512–1515; 4:2214, 2233;
5:2445
Bentham’s influence on, 1:211;
3:1512, 1513
Carlyle’s manuscript loss and, 1:371
Comte as influence on, 4:1844
economic theory of, 2:717–718,
1006
education of, 3:1511, 1512
as Fabian influence, 2:787
father’s influence on, 3:1510, 1511,
1512, 1513
Humboldt (Wilhelm) and, 2:1097
Lewes and, 2:743
liberalism and, 3:1345
Mazzini friendship with, 3:1480
personal crisis of, 3:1513
positivism and, 4:1953
protectionist argument of,
4:1887–1888
relationship with Harriet Taylor of,
3:1508–1509, 1513, 1514
Saint-Simonism and, 4:2081
secularism viewed by, 4:2133
socialism and, 4:2207
Tocqueville and, 5:2317
utilitarianism and, 5:2392, 2394
women’s rights and, 2:804, 805,
946, 1008; 3:1555
on women’s suffrage, 4:2276, 2279
Millais, John Everett, 4:1707, 1863,
1864, 2046, 2047
Millardet, Pierre-Marie-Alexis, 3:1164
millennialism
Berdyayev and, 1:212
Cabet and, 1:338
Millennium Exhibition of 1896
(Budapest), 1:310, 311
Miller, Henry, 4:1939
Miller, John, 2:537
Miller, Pavla, 3:1451–1452
Millerand, Alexandre, 2:858, 1026;
3:1216; 5:2432
Millet (Rolland), 4:2015
Millet, Jean-François, 2:562; 3:1126,
1515–1516, 1515; 4:1705, 1757
as Barbizon painter, 1:178,
179–180, 179
realism and, 4:1948
1 9 1 4
INDEX
Van Gogh and, 5:2400, 2401
millet system, 1:273; 3:1516–1517,
1687; 4:2142
Millgate, Michael, 2:1045
Mill on the Floss, The (G. Eliot), 2:744
mills, silk-throwing, 2:790
Milner, Alfred, 4:2223
Milnes, Richard Monckton, 3:1636
Miltiades, 2:1018
Milton (Blake), 1:246
Milton, John, 1:246, 419, 420, 421;
5:2309
Coleridge lectures on, 1:497
Doré illustrations for, 2:676
Füssli paintings and, 4:1703
Macaulay essay on, 3:1408
Milyukov, Pavel, 3:1170, 1241,
1517–1520, 1552; 4:2055, 2270
Milyukova, Antonia, 5:2307
Milyutin, Dmitri, 2:1016, 1017;
4:2052, 2067
Milyutin, Nikolai, 4:2154
mind. See psychoanalysis; psychology
Mind (journal), 4:1907
Mind at the End of Its Tether (Wells),
5:2459
mind-body dualism, 2:926; 4:1907
Miner, The (Scottish newspaper),
2:1043
Miners Federation of Great Britain,
3:1296
Minh-Mang, 3:1138–1140, 1145
mining. See coal mining; diamonds;
gold
Ministry of Public Health (France),
4:1913
Minoans, 3:1481
minorities, 1520–1526
Albania and, 1:32
Algeria and, 1:43, 46
Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:51
Armenia and, 1:87
armies and, 1:94
Australia and, 1:135
Austria-Hungary and, 1:137,
141–142, 144, 145; 2:862
Balkan conflict and, 1:2; 2:703–705
Baltic provinces and, 2:818–819,
820, 823
Belgium and, 1:202
Belgrade and, 1:206
Bismarck’s policies against, 1:239
Bohemian Lands and, 1:240,
261–263; 2:865; 4:1712
Budapest and, 1:310
Bulgaria and, 1:313
Bulgarian Atrocities and, 2:977
2699
INDEX
Canada and, 1:342, 343
Catholics as, 1:377, 383, 393;
4:1901
Central Asian hostilities and, 1:397
in cities, 1:447
citizenship and, 1:458–459
educational language and, 2:719,
724–726
ethnicity vs. race and, 3:1520
Finland and, 2:818–819, 820
German resettlement program and,
1:239
German unification and, 2:871
Hungary and, 1:144; 2:627; 3:1267,
1268–1269
Istanbul and, 3:1186
Jewish emancipation and,
3:1225–1227, 1228–1230
Kadets and, 3:1241
labor movements and, 3:1294
Macedonia and, 3:1691
migration and, 3:1109–1110, 1112,
1113, 1114
nationalist conflicts among, 3:1605
nationalist movements and, 3:1604
Netherlands and, 3:1618, 1619
Ottoman Empire and, 2:530, 1018;
3:1516–1517
pogroms against, 4:1801–1804
professional barriers for, 4:1881
Protestants as, 4:1890, 1891, 1895
Romanies as, 4:2021–2024, 2146
Russian treatment of, 1:39, 40, 89
Russian uprisings of, 3:1328–1329
urban diversity of, 1:447
Vilnius and, 3:1366
Volksgeist and, 4:1756
World War I treaties and, 2:705
Young Turks support by, 3:1690
Minsk, 1:264
Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (Scott),
4:2123
Minton, Herbert, 4:1918
Minute on Indian Education
(Macaulay), 3:1407
Miquel, Johannes von, 2:967, 968
Mirabeau, comte de (Honoré-Gabriel
Riquetti), 4:1833, 1869, 2006
Miramare (Trieste castle), 5:2355
Mirari Vos (1832), 1:381, 388; 4:1719
Mirbeau, Octave-Henri-Marie, 1:57;
2:633
Mirgorod (Gogol), 2:988
Mirilton (Paris cabaret), 1:335
Miroirs (Ravel), 4:1944
Mirzoev, M. I., 1:88
2700
miscegenation theories, 1:403
Misch, Georg, 2:661
Misérables, Les (Hugo), 2:1094;
4:1849, 1963
misogyny, 2:632, 675
Comédie-Française and, 2:995
‘‘feminine evil’’ fantasies and, 2:816
Missa solemnis (Beethoven), 1:197;
3:1570
Miss Cranston’s tearoom (Glasgow),
1:112
missions, 3:1527–1529; 4:2220;
5:2463
in Africa, 1:501; 2:782, 783
Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292, 293
Catholic, 1:384; 4:1798
in China, 1:433, 434; 3:1679, 1680
as civilizers, 1:463, 499, 500, 501;
2:508; 3:1527
exploration and, 2:783, 784
imperialism and, 3:1115, 1116,
1528–1529
in India, 3:1134; 4:2140
Japanese policy toward, 3:1209
Lyon and, 3:1405
in New Zealand, 3:1622
primitivism and, 4:1875
Protestant awakening and, 4:1895
Restoration France and, 4:1968,
1970
Salvation Army and, 4:2082–2083
shift in aims of, 3:1528
in South Africa, 4:2220
in Vietnam, 3:1140, 1141
Miss Julie (Strindberg), 4:2268, 2269,
2286
‘‘Miss Martineau’s Summary of
Political Economy’’ (J. S. Mill),
2:717
Miss Nightingale in the Hospital at
Scutari (Hind), 3:1637
Mitchell, B. R., 1:486
Mitchell, Joan, 3:1133
Mitelberg, Louis, 2:622
Mitscherlich, Eilhard, 1:425
Mittasch, Alwin, 3:1160
Mitteldeutsche Volkszeitung (Leipzig
newspaper), 3:1681
Mitteleuropa, 2:960
List economic theory and, 3:1357
Mittelstand (class), 1:107, 473; 2:556
Mitterrand, François, 2:596; 4:2041
Mizrahi, 5:2521
Mlada (Rimsky-Korsakov), 4:1999,
2000
Moabit (Berlin district), 1:219
Moberg, Vilhelm, 4:2285
E U R O P E
Moch, Gaston, 4:1697
Modena, 1:392; 2:531, 533; 3:1191;
4:1970, 2131
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 3:1198, 1592
Moderados, 4:2229
moderantismo (Spain), 1:368
Moderate Party (Madrid),
3:1413–1414
modern dance, 1:154
Modern Education (Rank), 4:1939
Modern Ideas on the Constitution of
Matter (Hertz), 2:1063
modernism, 3:1529–1531
architecture and, 1:183–184; 2:738,
936, 938
aristocracy and, 1:81–82
Arnold and, 1:102
art and, 1:156, 192, 219, 397,
398–399; 2:590–593;
3:1243–1246, 1260–1261, 1529,
1530–1531; 4:1701, 1702
artistic reaction against,
4:1705–1706
Baudelaire essay on esthetics of,
1:188; 3:1529; 4:1708
Beardsley and, 1:192
Bergson as influence on, 1:214
Blaue Reiter Almanack and, 3:1245
Brahms and, 1:296
Brentano and, 1:299
cabarets and, 1:336, 337
Carlist opposition to, 1:83
Catalania and, 1:183–184
Catholic rejection of, 1:213, 214,
382–383, 385
conservative opposition to, 2:540
Crystal Palace as symbol of, 2:590
cubism and, 1:156, 157, 214, 398;
2:590–593, 797, 918; 3:1530;
4:1875
as decadence, 2:631–632
degeneration and, 2:638
Diaghilev and, 2:655
Dickens and, 2:657
Eiffel Tower and, 2:736, 737, 738
fin de siècle and, 2:815
futurism and, 3:915–919,
1530–1531
Gissing and, 2:974–975
Hofmannstahl and, 2:1076–1077
impressionism and, 3:1128–1132,
1530, 1543; 4:1708
jadidism and, 3:1207
Japan and, 3:1210, 1211
Jews and, 3:1353
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Kandinsky and, 3:1243–1246
Liebermann and, 3:1353–1355
literature and, 1:299; 3:1529
Loos and, 3:1381–1382
Mahler and, 3:1418–1419
Manet and, 3:1433–1434, 1530;
4:1707–1708
Nietzsche’s rejection of, 3:1633
painting and, 1:397, 398–399;
3:1529, 1530–1531;
4:1709–1711
papal opposition to, 3:1329; 4:1719,
1720, 1721, 1794, 1797
Picasso and, 4:1781–1784
poster art and, 4:1845–1846
primitivism and, 4:1875–1876
psychoanalysis and, 4:1905–1906
Russian Silver Age and, 4:2181, 2217
Salon des Refusés and, 3:1432, 1433,
1530
Schiele and, 4:2089–2091
Schinkel and, 4:2091, 2092–2093
Schnitzler and, 4:2101
Schoenberg and, 4:2102
Stravinsky and, 4:2262
Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring and, 2:655
Strindberg and, 4:2269
symbolism and, 3:1529
See also avant-garde; progress
modernismo, 1:108, 112
Modern Painters (Ruskin), 4:1864,
2046
Modern Stage (Bucharest cabaret),
1:336
Modern Style. See art nouveau
Modern Utopia, A (Wells), 4:2206;
5:2458
modularity (interchangeable parts),
3:1162
moeurs, 4:1959, 1961
Mohammed: His Life and Religious
Teachings (Soloviev), 4:2216
Moheau, Jean-Baptiste, 5:2476
Moisè in Egitto (Rossini), 3:1670,
1671; 4:2038
Moivre, Abraham de, 4:2248
Moke, Camille, 1:25
Mokyr, Joel, 3:1152, 1153
Moldau River, 4:1855
Moldavia, 2:1019; 3:1420, 1689
Greece and, 4:1982
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987,
1990
Romania and, 4:2016, 2019
Romanies and, 4:2021
Russia and, 4:2020
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Moldavian Orthodox Church, 4:2020
Molé, Louis-Mathieu, 2:849
molecular physics, 3:1478
Molière (Jean-Baptiste Polquelin),
2:621; 4:1969
Molina i Casamajo, Francesc-Daniel,
1:181
Moll, Albert, 2:1085
Moltke, Helmuth von, 1:17, 96, 147,
148, 478; 3:1531–1532
Austro-Prussian War and, 2:964
Danish-German War and, 2:607,
608–609
Franco-Prussian War and,
2:868–869, 870
Istanbul plan of, 3:1187
military reform and, 4:1902
military technology and,
3:1506–1507, 1508
Schlieffen Plan and, 4:2099
Treitschke and, 5:2353
Moltke, Helmuth von (the Younger),
World War I and, 2:969; 3:1508
Molucca Islands, 1:16
Mommsen, Theodor, 1:51, 317;
3:1532–1534
Mommsen, Wolfgang J., 4:1940
Mona Lisa (Leonardo da Vinci),
4:1746
monarchism
Action Française and, 1:4–5
anticlericalism and, 1:68–69, 70
aristocratic elite and, 1:80, 86
Bonald and, 1:268–269; 2:566
Boulangists and, 1:279–281
Britain and, 1:86
British Parliament and, 2:1001
Bulgaria and, 1:312–313
Charles X and, 1:412
Chateaubriand and, 1:421–422
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532
conservatism and, 2:539, 958
constitutional, 1:456, 457
counterrevolution and, 2:566,
567, 568
country houses and, 3:1306
divine-right, 2:566; 3:1387; 4:1968,
1970–1971
Edward VII’s public monarchy and,
2:730
French endangerment of, 3:1385
French First Restoration and, 1:270
French overthrow of (1792), 2:887,
891; 3:1176, 1386, 1446; 4:1728
French restoration of. See Restoration
French Third Republic and, 2:855
INDEX
Girondins and, 2:973–974
Holy Alliance and, 1:38; 2:534, 565,
959
Italian Restoration and,
3:1193–1196
Louis-Philippe and, 3:1388–1389
Maurras and, 3:1476
nationalist movements and, 3:1604
Orléanists and, 1:4
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 2:581
utilitarians’ distrust of, 3:1510
voluntary associations and, 1:119
Monastery of Saint Thomas (Brünn),
3:1484
monasticism
anticlericalism and, 1:68, 69, 180,
181
female orders, 1:383, 384
new orders, 1:384
in Russia, 4:2061
Moncey, Bon-Adrien-Jeannot, 2:837
‘‘Mon Coeur mis à nu’’ (Baudelaire),
1:188
Mondrian, Piet, 3:1243; 4:2294
Monet (Gordon and Forge), 3:1537
Monet, Claude, 1:177, 482; 3:1129,
1534–1537, 1536
Corot as influence on, 2:562
impressionism and, 3:1126–1127,
1128–1129, 1132, 1133, 1530,
1535–1537; 4:1708
Impressionist Exhibition and, 4:1955
Japanese art forms as influence on,
3:1210
Parisian scenes as subjects of, 4:1732,
1739
Pissarro and, 4:1792, 1793
Renoir and, 4:1954
Moneta, Ernesto Teodoro, 4:1697
monetary unions, 3:1537–1539
Germany and, 1:171, 487; 2:876
List’s advocacy of, 3:1357
See also Zollverein
money lending. See banks and banking
money market, 1:175–176
Mongols, 5:2369
Moñino y Redondo, José, 4:2227
monism (Haeckel concept), 2:1032,
1069–1070
Monistenbund, 2:1032
Moniteur (French official newspaper),
4:1869, 1870
monitorial schools, 2:720
Moniuszko, Stanislaw, 3:1673
Monk by the Sea (Friedrich), 2:911;
4:1703
2701
INDEX
Monnier, Henry, 2:586
Monod, Gabriel-Jean-Jacques, 2:1073,
1074
monogamy, 1:287
Monologen (Schleiermacher), 4:2097
Monophysites, 3:1687
monopoly, 4:1961
African trade and, 1:221, 222,
223, 303
Monroe Doctrine (1823), 3:1174
Mon Salon (Zola), 1:397
Monstre, Le (film), 3:1483
montage techniques, 2:593
Montagnards, 2:799, 800, 851,
973–974; 4:1960
Montagne Sainte-Victoire, La
(Cézanne), 3:1132–1133
Montagu, Mary Worley, 3:1223
Montalembert, Charles de, 1:387
Mont Blanc, 3:1324–1325
‘‘Mont Blanc’’ (Shelley), 4:2170
Mont des Arts (Brussels), 1:306
Montenegro, 3:1539–1542
Albania and, 1:32, 33
Balkan League and, 1:32
Balkan wars and, 1:34, 163, 164,
165, 166; 2:704–705; 3:1541,
1691; 4:2149
Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:273,
275–276; 3:1541
independence of, 2:530; 3:1173,
1541, 1689
nationalism and, 1:163, 166;
3:1540–1541
Ottoman Empire and, 1:2; 3:1541
population of, 3:1539
San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2069,
2085
Serbia and, 1:242; 3:1539, 1541,
1546; 4:2148, 2149
soldiers, 3:1540
Montesquieu, baron de (Charles-Louis
de Secondat), 1:376, 432; 2:522,
994; 4:2007, 2192, 2212; 5:2448
conservative rationale and,
2:537–538
mechanization concerns of, 3:1411
Montesquiou, Robert de, 2:1082
Montessori, Maria, 2:947;
3:1542–1543
Montez, Lola, 2:961; 3:1382, 1383;
4:1834
Montgolfier, Joseph-Michel and
Jacques-Étienne, 1:30
Montherlant, Henri-Marie-Joseph de,
1:184; 3:1475
Month in the Country, A (Turgenev),
5:2365
2702
Monthly Repository (Unitarian
periodical), 3:1458, 1459, 1509
Monticelli, Adolphe, 5:2400
Montmartre (Parisian quarter), 2:590;
4:1709, 1735, 1737
Picasso and, 4:1782
as Toulouse-Lautrec subject, 4:1846
Montreal, 1:343
Montreuil, Madame de, 4:2073–2074
Montreuil, Renée-Pélagie Cordier de,
4:2073, 2074
Mont Sainte-Victoire, 1:398; 3:1530
Mont Sainte-Victoire, Seen from
Bellevue (Cézanne), 4:1710
Monumenta Germaniae Historica,
2:1072; 3:1533; 4:2252
Moore, George Augustus (Irish
novelist), 3:1109
Moore, George Edward (English
philosopher), 3:1514; 4:2258
Moore, Hannah, 1:36
Moore, James, 2:600, 614
Moore, John, 4:1764, 2227
Moore, Thomas, 5:2403
Moorish ‘‘horseshoe’’ arch, 1:109
Moral Education League (Britain),
2:769
moral improvement associations,
1:115, 119, 120
morality
Nietzsche on, 3:1631–1633, 1634,
1635
positivism and, 4:1844
Protestant political leadership and,
4:1896
Schopenhauers theory of, 4:2105
sexuality and, 4:2161
Soloviev’s (Vladimir) view of, 4:2216
Stephen on, 4:2254
Morand, Paul, 5:2503
Morant Bay uprising (1865),
1:365, 371
British writers debate on, 1:371
Moravia. See Bohemia, Moravia, and
Silesia
Moravian Boys’ School, 2:834
Moravian Brethren, 4:2096
Moravian Compromise of 1905, 1:262
Moravian Duets (Dvořák), 2:701
Moravianism, 3:1527; 4:1895
Mordaunt case (1870), 2:730
More, Thomas, 1:26, 337; 2:520;
4:2200
Moréas, Jean (pseud.), 2:633; 4:2294
Moreau, Gustave, 2:795–796; 3:1474;
4:1865, 2292
Moreau, Victor, 2:901
E U R O P E
Moreau de Tours, Jacques-Joseph,
2:687
Morel, Bénédict Augustin, 1:37;
2:636, 637
Morel, E. D., 1:205
Moret y Prendergast, Sigismundo,
4:2231
Morgan, C. Lloyd, 4:1908
Morgan, Lady Sydney, 3:1300
Morisot, Berthe, 3:1126, 1128, 1433,
1534, 1543–1545; 4:1955, 2156
portraits of daughter Julie by,
3:1544, 1544
Morisot, Edma, 3:1543–1544
Morley, John, 3:1513
Morley-Minto Reforms (1909), 3:1137
Morning Chronicle (London
newspaper), 2:716
Morning Leader Group (Britain),
4:1871
‘‘Morning Mood’’ (Grieg), 4:2287
Mornings on the Seine (Monet), 3:1536
Morning Star of Croatia, Slavonia, and
Dalmatia The (newspaper), 2:925
Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911), 2:527,
663; 3:1545–1546, 1549
Agadir Crisis and, 1:49, 339; 3:1370,
1545–1546, 1549
Bethmann Hollweg and, 5:2312
Entente Cordiale and, 1:49; 2:795;
3:1545; 4:2098
Morocco, 1:18, 49, 339;
3:1546–1549
Delacroix visit to, 2:641
French influence over, 2:795;
3:1545–1546, 1549
Ottoman Empire and, 5:2361
population of, 3:1547
Spain and, 4:2231
Tangier marketplace, 1:19
tourism and, 5:2330
world’s fair displays and, 5:2497
See also Moroccan Crises
Morozov, Savva, 1:287
Morozov family, 1:284
Morpeth, Lord (George Howard),
4:1913
morphine, 2:686, 688
morphological types, 2:1102
Morris, Philip, 5:2314
Morris, William, 3:1549–1551
aesthetic movement and, 5:2464
art nouveau and, 1:109
Arts and Crafts movement and,
1:152; 3:1550
chrysanthemum wallpaper design of,
3:1550
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Deroin and, 2:651
furniture and, 2:914, 915
Pater essay on, 4:1746
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1864–1865
Ruskin and, 4:2047
socialism and, 1:59, 372; 3:1551;
4:1865, 2205
Yeats and, 5:2509
Morris & Company, 3:1550
Morris, Marshall, Faulkner &
Company, 3:1550; 4:1865
Morrison, Frances, 3:1288
Morrison, Jim, 2:873
mortality rates, 1:446, 451; 2:643
decline overall of, 2:644, 646, 762,
1086; 3:1164; 4:1753
Dublin decline of, 2:690
epidemics and, 2:667, 716
hospital infections and, 3:1358
London and, 3:1372, 1375
Madrid and, 3:1412
peasants and, 4:1751, 1753
penal exile and, 2:780
as population control, 4:1829
poverty and, 2:628
tuberculosis and, 2:644
See also infant and child mortality
Mortara, Edgardo Levi, 4:1797
Mort de Socrate, La (Lamartine),
3:1303
Morte d’Arthur (Beardsley
illustrations), 1:109, 192
‘‘Morte d’Arthur’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309
Mosca, Gaspare, 3:1415
Moscow, 3:1551–1555, 1554;
4:2075–2076
advertising and, 2:550
art nouveau and, 1:114
avant-garde and, 157
bourgeoisie in, 1:284, 287
cabaret in, 1:336–337
child abandonment in, 5:2455
cicular layout of, 3:1552–1553
electric lighting and, 2:742
exhibitions in, 5:2498
Great Jew and Tartar Market, 3:1231
industrialization and, 1:40
Kremlin, 4:2079
Kremlin and Kamenny Bridge,
3:1553
maternity hospitals in, 5:2450
Napoleon’s occupation/retreat from,
1:38, 272, 273; 2:902, 1080;
3:1551, 1588
as national capital, 4:2079
population growth in, 1:446
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
population of, 3:1553
public health and, 1:376; 3:1554
Red Square, 4:2080
St. Basil’s Cathedral, 4:2062
telephone service in, 5:2308
theater in, 3:1495, 1496, 1551
Ukraine and, 5:2369
vegetable market, 5:2343
voluntary associations in, 1:117, 119
Moscow Art Theater, 1:287, 423;
3:1495, 1496, 1551
Moscow Pedagogical Institute, 3:1552
Moscow Philharmonic Society, 3:1495
Moscow University, 1:207; 2:1066;
3:1518, 1551, 1552; 5:2379
Mosè in Egitto (Rossini), 3:1670,
1671; 4:2038
Möser, Justus, 2:538
Moser, Kolomann, 1:112, 153
Moskva River, 3:1554
Most Christian Army of the Holy
Faith, 3:1254
most-favored-nation status, 2:512,
516; 3:1210
British-Chinese treaty and, 3:1579,
1679
‘‘Most Prevalent Form of Degradation
in Erotic Life, The’’ (Freud),
3:1472
Mother (Gorky), 2:993
Mother Goose (Ravel), 4:1944
motherhood
bourgeois ideal of, 3:1452, 1454
child custody rights and, 2:943,
9446–9447; 3:1595, 1646
child rearing and, 3:1454–1455
concept of voluntary, 2:805, 947
contraceptives and, 2:947
family size and, 4:1830
feminist socialization and, 4:1762
maternity hospitals and, 5:2450
maternity leave and, 5:2452
out-of-wedlock. See illegitimacy
pensions and, 5:2452
Roussel’s views on, 4:2042
as welfare concern, 5:2451, 2452
as woman’s role, 1:431; 2:801,
942, 944
as women’s equality basis, 2:803
motion pictures. See cinema
Motley Life (Kandinsky), 3:1244
Mottley, Marie, 5:2316
Motz, Friedrich von, 2:960
Moulay Abd al-Hafid, sultan of
Morocco, 3:1549
Moulin, L., 3:1672
INDEX
Moulin de la Galette, Le (Renoir),
4:1709
Moulin Rouge (Paris cabaret), 2:550;
5:2323, 2324
Moulin Rouge poster (Toulouse-
Lautrec), 4:1846
Mountain (French National Assembly
faction), 2:694; 3:1318
mountain climbing, 5:2327
‘‘Mountain King’’ (Grieg), 4:2287
Mountain Wreath, The (Peter II),
3:1540, 1541
Moutardier du pape, Le (Jarry), 3:1214
Mouth of the Seine at Honfleur
(Monet), 3:1535
movie halls, 2:560
Moynier, Gustave, 2:952; 4:1948,
1949
Mozambique, 1:14, 18, 19, 21; 2:509;
4:2223
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 1:195,
198; 3:1419, 1566, 1568;
4:1944, 2092, 2102, 2262;
5:2417
opera and, 3:1673
Mozart and Salieri (Pushkin), 4:1919
Mozzoni, Anna Maria, 3:1555–1556
‘‘Mrs Bathurst’’ (Kipling), 3:1257
Mrs. Warren’s Profession (Shaw),
4:2165
Mucha, Alphonse, 1:113; 4:1846,
1858
Much Wenlock (England),
3:1666–1667
Mudéjar architecture, 2:936
Mudie, George, 4:2201
Mueller, Otto, 1:154
Muenier, Jules-Alexis, 4:1948
Mueseler, Mathieu, 1:487
Muette de Portici, La (Auber), 3:1671,
1672, 1674
Mughul Empire, 2:706; 3:1133, 1135
Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2140
Muhammad Ali, 1:278
Muhammad Said Pasha, 3:1337
Muhammed Ahmed. See Mahdi, the
Muhammed Tawfiq Pasha, 2:733
Muiron, Just, 2:838
Mukden, Battle of (1905), 3:1507,
1556–1558, 1628; 4:2055, 2065
Mulhouse (free city), 1:51
Müller, Frantz Heinrich, 2:647
Muller, Jerry, 2:537
Müller, Johannes, 2:1057; 4:1908;
5:2507
Müller, Max, 3:1239
Müller-Guttenbrunn, Adam,
3:1394–1395
multinational banks, 1:175
2703
INDEX
multiple sclerosis, 1:408
Mummery, A. F., 2:1075
Mun, Albert de, 1:389
Munch, Edvard, 2:816; 3:1558–1560,
1559; 4:1710, 2287
symbolism and, 4:2293–2294
Munch, Jacob, 3:1558
Munch, Peter Andreas, 3:1558
Münchengrätz, Treaty of (1833),
3:1560–1561; 4:1985; 5:2392
Munemitsu, Mutsu, 3:1211
Munich, 4:1990
architecture in, 2:590
art nouveau in, 2:815
cabaret in, 1:336
expressionist art and, 1:156
homosexual subculture in, 2:1083
Kandinsky in, 3:1244, 1245, 1246
Liebermann in, 3:1353
Mann in, 3:1435
public health reforms in, 4:1914
Revolution of 1830 and, 1:457
Revolution of 1848 and, 2:961
Secession style and, 1:112
Wagner as composer-in-residence in,
3:1383
Munich Artist’s Theater, 1:155
Munich Coinage Treaty (1837), 1:171
Munich Secession of 1893, 2:550
Municipal Corporations Act of 1835
(Britain), 2:1003; 5:2462
municipal government, 1:449–451
Britain and, 2:1003, 1009
Chamberlain (Joseph) and,
1:404, 405
Danish town councils and, 2:648
Dublin and, 2:691–693
Hamburg and, 2:1039, 1040, 1041
housing and, 3:1456
London and, 3:1378–1379
Lyon and, 3:1403
markets and, 3:1448
police forces and, 4:1814–1815
Prussia and, 2:958
Russian zemstvos and, 1:39; 2:1014,
1016
Municipal House (Prague), 1:113;
4:1858
Municipal Ordinance of 1808
(Prussia), 4:2251
municipal parks. See parks
Munkácsy, Minhály, 3:1353
Munster, Friederike, 3:1649
Münter, Gabriele, 1:155; 3:1244,
1245
Munzverein, 3:1538
Murad Bey, 2:731; 5:2362
2704
Muradid dynasty, 5:2362
Murat, Joachim, 4:2001, 2188,
2225–2226
as king of Naples, 1:360; 2:533, 902;
3:1192, 1254, 1599
Leipzig battle and, 3:132, 1320
opera and, 3:1670
Papal State and, 4:1724
Muratori, Ludovico Antonio, 2:1072
Muraviev-Amursky, Nikolai, 5:2426
murder
anti-Semitism and, 2:575–576
Caillaux’s (Henriette) acquittal of,
1:339
honor killings and, 2:571
London and, 3:1375
mafia and, 3:1417
memoirs about, 2:575
popular press and, 2:575, 576
See also terrorism
Murger, Henri, 1:177; 3:1577;
4:1916; 5:2360
Murray, James, 3:1160
Murray, John, 3:1402; 5:2329
Murray Gilchrist, R., 2:633
Muscat, 1:16
Muscovy, 2:562; 3:1281; 5:2369
muscular Christianity, 2:832
Musée Berlioz (La Côte-St.-André),
1:225
Musée d’Orsay (Paris), 2:941
Musée Marmottan (Paris), 3:1545
Musée Trocadéro (Paris), 1:156
Museum for Ethnology (Berlin), 5:2425
Museum of Applied Arts (Budapest),
1:112
Museum of Art (Berlin). See Altes
Museum
Museum of Comparative Zoology
(Cambridge, Massachusetts), 1:23
Museum of French Monuments, 2:621
Museum of Mankind (Paris), 4:1782
Museum of Modern Art
(New York City), 1:156
Museum of the Bohemian Kingdom
(Prague), 1:261
museums, 3:1561–1565; 4:1825
art, 1:287; 4:1825
in Berlin, 1:219; 4:2092, 2093;
5:2425
in Bohemian Lands, 1:261
cities and, 1:445
first public, 1:287; 4:1825
in London, 3:1375–1376, 1378
Napoleonic, 1:270
natural history, 1:228; 2:618;
3:1562–1563, 1564
E U R O P E
public admission to, 1:287; 4:1825
in Serbia, 4:2148
tourism and, 5:2327
in Warsaw, 5:2442
Museu Picasso (Barcelona), 4:1781
Mushet, Robert Forester, 3:1158;
4:2115
Mushtara, 5:2362
music, 3:1565–1573
Amsterdam and, 1:54
atonality and, 3:1245, 1437, 1572;
4:2102–2103
ballet and, 1:154
Beethoven and, 1:195–199
Berlin and, 1:219
Berlioz and, 1:224–225
bourgeois associations and,
1:287–288
Brahms and, 1:294–296
cabarets and, 1:335–337
Chopin and, 1:438–440
concert halls, 1:216
Crystal Palace festivals, 2:589
Debussy and, 2:630–631; 3:1133
Dublin and, 2:693
Dvořák and, 2:700–701
Estonian brass band, 2:821
fin de siècle and, 2:815;
3:1572–1573
futurism and, 2:919–920
German nationalism and, 2:960–961
Glinka and, 2:979–980
Grieg and, 4:2287
impressionism and, 2:630–631; 3:1133
Liszt and, 3:1359–1361
Mahler and, 3:1418–1419
Mann and, 3:1435, 1436, 1437
Meyerhold’s theatrical use of, 3:1496
Mussorgsky and, 3:1575–1576
Offenbach and, 3:1660–1662
Paganini and, 4:1698–1700
popular/elite cultural blending and,
4:1825
racism and, 4:1927
Ravel and, 4:1944–1945
Rimsky-Korsakov and, 4:1999–2000
Romanticism and, 3:1360,
1569–1570; 4:2026, 2027, 2029
Rossini and, 4:2038–2039, 2106,
2288
Russia and, 2:654
St. Petersburg and, 4:2077
Satie and, 4:2086–2087
Schoenberg and, 3:1245; 4:1944,
2101–2103; 5:2421
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Schopenhauer on, 4:2105
Schubert and, 4:2026, 2027, 2029,
2106–2107
Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2259–2261;
5:2420
Stravinsky and, 4:1944, 2077,
2261–2263
symbolism and, 4:2292, 2294
Tchaikovsky and, 5:2306–2307
Venice and, 5:2405
Verdi and, 4:2039; 5:2405–2407
Vienna and, 5:2418, 2419, 2420,
2421
Wagner and, 1:403; 4:2027;
5:2429–2431
See also opera
Musical Voyages in Germany and Italy
(Berlioz), 1:225
music criticism. See criticism, music
music halls, 1:288; 3:1377, 1482
Musicians in the Orchestra (Degas),
3:1129–1130, 1130; 4:1709
Musiciens d’aujourd’hui (Rolland),
4:2015
Musiciens d’autrefois (Rolland), 4:2015
Music in the Tuileries Gardens (Manet),
3:1432
Musil, Robert, 1:299; 3:1242,
1573–1575; 4:2101; 5:2449
Musique, La (Matisse), 3:1474
Musket Wars (Maori), 3:1622
Muslim League, 3:1136
Muslim National Organization
(Bosnia), 1:276
Muslims. See Islam
Musset, Alfred de, 1:169, 229, 270;
2:1046; 4:2028, 2084
Mussolini, Benito, 1:62, 382; 2:583,
1026; 4:2037, 2299; 5:2364
D’Annunzio and, 2:610
futurism and, 2:921
Giolitti and, 2:972
Lateran Pact and, 3:1199
LeBon’s theory of crowds and, 3:1317
Milan and, 3:1504
as socialist, 3:1202, 1203
Mussorgsky, Modest, 2:654, 980;
3:1571, 1575–1576; 4:1919,
1944, 1957
opera and, 3:1673–1674
Rimsky-Korsakov and, 4:1999
Mustafa IV, Ottoman sultan, 3:1420,
1686
‘‘Must We Occupy Ourselves with an
Examination of the Ideal of a
Future System?’’ (Kropotkin),
3:1272
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
mutations, 2:653, 778; 3:1302
Mutationstheorie, Die (de Vries), 2:653
Mutiny of 1857 (India). See Sepoy
Mutiny
Mutsuhito, emperor of Japan, 1:435
Mutual Aid (Kropotkin), 3:1272
mutual aid societies, 3:1284,
1331–1332; 5:2454
mutualist anarchism, 4:1898–1899
Muybridge, Eadweard, 1:441; 4:1772
My Apprenticeship (Webb), 5:2444
Mycenae, excavation of, 4:1769
My Communist Credo (Cabet), 2:521
Myers, Frederic William Henry,
3:1238; 4:2238
My Lady Ludlow (Gaskell), 2:934
My Past and Thoughts (Herzen),
2:1064, 1066
My Secret Life (pornographic memoir),
4:1834
Myslbek, Josef Václav, 4:1858
Mysore, 2:706; 3:1134, 1134
Mystère de la charité de Jeanne d’Arc
(Péguy), 4:1760
Mystère des saints innocents (Péguy),
4:1760
Mystères de Paris, Les (Sue), 2:575
Mysteries of London, The (Reynolds),
2:575
Mystery of Edwin Drood, The (Dickens),
2:657
mysticism, 1:385, 400; 2:1080, 1093;
4:2029–2030, 2294
mystic socialism, 1:372
Myth of the Birth of the Hero, The
(Rank), 4:1938
mythology
German cultural nationalism and,
3:1523; 4:1756
Jung and, 3:1239
Nietzsche and, 3:1634, 1635
symbolism of, 4:2030
My Youth in Vienna (Schnitzler),
4:2100, 2101
n
N overcrowding in, 3:1581
nabis, 4:2294
Nabokov, Vladimir (father of author),
3:1241
Nabucco (Verdi), 3:1672; 5:2406
‘‘Nacertanije’’ (Serbian document),
4:2148
Nacht in Venedig, Eine (Strauss),
4:2261
Nachtlicht (Vienna cabaret), 1:336
INDEX
Nadar, Félix, 1:230; 2:939;
3:1577–1578; 4:1772, 1774, 1955
Daumier caricature of, 3:1578
Nadar, Paul, 3:1578
Nadar Elevating Photography to an Art
(Daumier), 3:1578
Nagaravatta (Khmer newspaper),
3:1143
Nagasaki, 3:1209
Nägleli, Carl Wilhelm von, 3:1486
‘‘Naissance du Méthodisme en
Angleterre, La’’ (E. Halévy), 4:1892
Nakaz (Catherine II), 1:376
Naked Maja, The (Goya), 2:997
Nalbandian, Mikayel, 1:88
‘‘Name-Day Party’’ (Chekhov), 1:423
Namibia, 1:20; 2:506, 927; 4:1843
Nana (Zola), 4:1833
Nancy (France), 1:111
Nanking, Treaty of (1842),
3:1578–1580, 1679
Nansen, Fridtjof, 1:341
Nantes, 2:563–565
Nantes Congress of 1894, 4:2298
Naples, 1:445; 3:1580–1583; 4:2035
anarchism and, 3:1424
Austrian intervention in, 2:525, 531;
4:2001
Bourbon government and, 4:2130,
2175, 2188
Carbonari and, 1:360–361; 3:1193;
4:2130
cholera epidemic in, 1:450
Congress of Vienna and, 2:533
corruption and, 3:1582–1583
Croce and, 2:584
French Revolutionary and
Napoleonic Wars and, 2:899, 901;
3:1192, 1193, 1254, 1615
Garibaldi and, 1:392; 2:932; 4:2003
Holy Alliance intervention in, 2:565
mafia and, 3:1414–1417, 1583
men playing cappelletto, 3:1194
Metternich and, 3:1494
Napoleonic Kingdom of, 3:1192,
1581, 1597, 1599; 4:2001, 2188
opera and, 3:1670
papacy and, 4:1719, 1725
as Parthenopean Republic, 3:1192,
1581, 1597; 4:2186–2189
peasant revolt in, 4:1755
population of, 1:446; 3:1254, 1580
railroads and, 3:1195
Revolution of 1820 and, 1:361;
2:565–566, 959; 3:1194,
1254–1255, 1494; 4:1980, 1981
2705
INDEX
Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1196,
1255, 1581; 4:2002
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 2:581; 3:1581
Rome and, 4:2034
Rothschilds and, 4:2040
Royal Terror in (1799), 3:1254
Sicily and, 4:1980
Spanish Bourbons and, 3:1191
tenement houses, 2:1087
Via Santa Lucia, 3:1582
Victor Emmanuel II and, 5:2411
See also Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Napoleon I, emperor of the French,
1:457; 3:1343, 1583–1589;
4:2142; 5:2429
abdication of, 3:1588, 1599; 4:1765
Alexander I and, 1:37, 38
Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:51
anticlericalism and, 1:68; 2:957
aristocracy and, 1:80, 81
army organization and, 1:93, 95
artwork confiscations by, 1:349;
3:1572
Austerlitz victory of, 1:93, 132–133;
2:846, 875, 901, 957; 3:1586
Bank of France and, 1:170
Barrés idealization of, 1:184
Beethoven and, 1:196
Berlin occupation by, 1:215
Bernadotte and, 1:226
Bonald and, 1:268, 269
Bonapartism and, 1:269–271
Borodino and, 1:272–273
Bosphorus as aim of, 1:278
British victories and, 2:1002
as Brontë sisters’ hero, 1:300
Brussels ramparts destruction by,
1:305
bureaucracy and, 1:321, 322; 2:846
Catholicism and, 1:387; 2:846;
3:1598
censorship and, 4:1869, 1870
centralized state of, 1:270; 2:846;
3:1598, 1600
challenge to European order by,
2:524, 957
Champollion and, 1:406–407
Chateaubriand and, 1:420
coffee consumption and, 1:494
colonial policies of, 2:1036
Concordat of 1801 and, 2:527–528,
527–529, 846; 3:1586, 1598;
4:1718, 2136–2137
Congress of Vienna and, 2:533–534
2706
conquest of Europe by, 2:901–902
Constant and, 2:545, 546
Consulate and, 2:845–846;
3:1585–1586
Continental System of, 1:272, 303;
2:553–554
coronation as emperor of, 2:84–476,
860; 3:1586, 1596
counterrevolution and, 2:563
coup and assumption of power by,
2:664, 900–901; 3:1591
Cruikshank caricatures of, 2:586
David paintings of, 2:624
Denmark and, 4:2287
Directory and, 2:664, 666, 895
education policies of, 1:322
Egyptian campaign of, 1:18, 43, 44,
406; 2:731, 895, 900; 3:1134,
1337, 1585
engineering and, 2:738
escape from Elba of. See Hundred
Days
exiles of, 1:270; 2:779, 846, 848,
903, 958, 1098, 1099; 3:1588;
4:1718; 5:2442
Ferdinand VII and, 2:808–809
Fouché and, 2:837
free trade and, 1:106
French Revolutionary Wars and,
2:893, 900
government takeover by, 2:895
Habsburgs and, 1:140; 2:533
Haiti and, 2:1036
Hardenberg and, 2:1042
hereditary titles and, 1:284
Hundred Days and, 1:270, 471;
2:533–534, 545, 837, 846–847,
858, 903, 1098–1099; 3:1387,
1493, 1588, 1599; 5:2306
imperialism and, 3:1114, 1134
See also Napoleonic Empire
invasion of Russia by, 1:272; 2:553,
861, 902–903, 958, 1080;
3:1281–1282, 1308, 1319, 1492,
1551, 1588, 1599; 4:1766
Italy and, 1:349, 360, 390; 3:1192,
1254, 1501, 1584; 4:1786, 1807,
2001
Jena and, 3:1221–1222
Jewish emancipation and, 3:1227,
1229
Kościuszko and, 3:1265
Lafayette and, 3:1300
Larrey and, 3:1308
legacy of, 1:269–271
Leipzig and, 3:1319–1322
E U R O P E
looting of Italy by, 1:349
Louis XVIII and, 3:1387
Louis-Philippe and, 3:1388, 1389
marriage to Marie-Louise of, 2:861;
3:1492, 1587
memoir of, 1:270
Metternich and, 3:1491, 1492–1493
Milan and, 3:1501
military tactics and, 1:94; 3:1237,
1320, 1321–1322, 1506
military training of, 3:1584
Moscow’s destruction and, 3:1551
myth of, 3:1588–1589
nephew Napoleon III and, 3:1198
papacy and, 1:381, 420; 2:527–529,
846; 3:1192, 1584, 1586,
1587–1588; 4:1717, 1724, 2136
Paris and, 1:451; 4:1728, 1729
Paris’s reconstruction and,
4:1729–1731
Paul I of Russia and, 4:1748
penal exile policy of, 2:780
Peninsular War and, 4:1762–1767,
1838
pilgrimages and, 4:1788
Poland and, 4:1808, 1817
police system model of, 2:837;
4:1813–1814, 1815
Polish exiles and, 4:1807
power of, 3:1587
professional certification and, 4:1879
Prussia and, 4:1899, 1900, 2092
Rome and, 4:2033
Russia and, 4:2048, 2051, 2078,
2227; 5:2440
Sade and, 4:2074
same-sex act decriminalization and,
2:1083
secret society opposition to, 4:2129,
2130
Sieyès and, 4:2180, 2181
Sismondi and, 4:2185
slavery and, 1:498; 2:897, 1036
Spanish intervention by, 1:366–367;
4:1763, 2225–2226, 2227
See also Peninsular War
Staël and, 4:2247
Stein’s dismissal and, 4:2251
Stendhal’s works on, 4:2252
suffrage and, 4:2278–2279
sugar-beet factory and, 2:659
Switzerland and, 4:2288
Talleyrand and, 5:2305–2306
Thorvaldsen sculpture of, 2:647
Toussaint Louverture and, 5:2333
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

trade policy and, 5:2334
See also Continental System
Trafalgar defeat of, 2:846;
5:2344–2345
Trieste and, 5:2354
Ulm and, 5:2374–2375
United States and, 5:2439
vaccination technique accepted by,
4:2197
Venetian Republic and, 5:2402
Warsaw and, 5:2441
Waterloo as final defeat of, 1:270;
2:847, 903, 1002, 1099; 3:1387,
1388, 1588; 4:1968;
5:2442–2443, 2457
William IX and, 4:2039
See also Napoleonic Empire
Napoleon II (son of Napoleon),
3:1587; 4:1729
Napoleon III (Louis-Napoleon),
emperor of the French, 1:234;
3:1589–1593, 1591; 4:1743,
1902, 1913; 5:2325, 2422
Algerian colonization and, 1:44–56
assassination attempts on, 4:2003;
5:2410
Austro-Prussian War and, 2:867;
3:1269
Bagehot’s defense of, 1:160
beard popularization by, 1:191
Bernard as protegé of, 1:228
Bonapartism and, 1:269, 270–271
bureaucracy and, 1:322
Cavour and, 1:391–392; 2:662;
3:1198
Cobden-Chevalier Treaty and,
1:491, 492
Comte and, 2:524
Concert of Europe and, 2:525
Concert of Europe break by, 2:662
conservatism and, 2:540, 541, 852,
853; 3:1591, 1593
counterrevolution and, 2:567
coup d’etat of, 2:577, 852; 3:1591,
1592; 4:1706, 1733
Crédit Mobilier and, 1:174
Crimean War and, 2:579, 580;
3:1626
Daumier caricatures and,
2:621, 622
defeat of, 1:271; 2:854, 928; 3:1593
Disraeli foreign policy compared
with, 2:674
engineering projects and, 2:757
Franco-Austrian War and, 2:866;
3:1198
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Franco-Prussian War and, 1:271;
2:569, 853–854, 868, 870, 928,
964; 3:1593; 4:1734
Haussmannization of Paris and,
2:1047, 1049, 1050, 1088;
4:1729–1731, 1739
hereditary empire of. See Second
Empire
Herzen’s critique of, 2:1065
Hugo’s exile by, 2:1093, 1095
indochina and, 3:1140
Italian policy of, 1:362; 2:662, 962;
3:1318; 4:1797, 2003,
2004–2005, 2034; 5:2410
Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1318
liberalization and, 3:1592–1593
Mexican incursion of, 1:271; 2:575,
854; 3:1592
Michelet’s dislike of, 3:1499
Milan and, 3:1501
militarism and, 1:94
monetary unions and, 3:1538
painting and, 4:1707
papacy and, 4:1725, 1795
Parisian resistance to, 4:1733
Parisian street plan and, 1:452
peasant support for, 4:1755
penal exile policy of, 2:780
Pius IX and, 4:1795, 1797
plebiscites for, 3:1591–1592, 1593
political Catholics and, 1:388
press curbs and, 4:1870
Proudhon’s critique of, 4:1899
railroad construction and, 4:1933
repression and, 2:651, 852
Revolutions of 1848 and, 3:1590,
1626; 4:1993, 1995
Salon des Refusés and, 3:1432
Second Republic’s election of, 2:851;
3:1590
secret societies and, 4:2131
Suez Canal and, 3:1338; 4:2274
suffrage and, 4:2278–2279
Thiers and, 5:2311
Tocqueville and, 5:2317
Venice and, 5:2404
William I and, 5:2467
wine and, 5:2476
world’s fairs and, 5:2496, 2497,
2505
See also Second Empire
Napoleon Awakening to Immortality
(Rude), 4:2044
Napoleon Crossing the Alps (David),
2:624
INDEX
Napoleon Crossing the St.Bernard Pass
(David), 2:624
Napoleonic Code (1804), 1:338;
2:957; 3:1254, 1314, 1586,
1593–1596
capitalism and, 1:351
divorce and, 2:897
feminist demonstration against,
1:128; 2:803
masculine scale of rights and, 3:1470
Napoleonic Empire and,
3:1597–1598, 1599, 1600;
4:1786
provisions of, 2:846; 3:1595–1596
women’s legal restraints under,
2:802, 846, 942–943
Napoleonic Concordat. See Concordat
of 1801
Napoleonic Empire, 2:901–903;
3:1586–1587, 1590, 1596–1600
administrative institutions and,
3:1600
banking and, 1:170
Belgium and, 1:199; 3:1587
Carbonari and, 1:360; 3:1193
Caribbean and, 3:1115
Cavour family and, 1:390
censorship and, 4:1869
centralization of, 3:1599
components of, 3:1587
Concordat of 1801 and, 2:527–529
Continental System and, 2:512,
553–554, 846
fall of, 2:902; 3:1588
as First Empire, 2:846–847
French national identity and, 3:1521
Great Empire (18051814) and,
3:1599–1600
Hamburg and, 2:1038
imperialism and, 3:1114, 1115
insurrections and, 4:1767
Italy and, 3:1192–1193, 1254
Jewish emancipation and, 3:1229
Krupp steel and, 3:1273
Leipzig battle marking end of,
3:1319, 1322
Milan and, 3:1501
Napoleonic Code and, 1:351;
3:1597–1598
nationalist resistance to, 3:1604
Netherlands and, 2:553; 3:1587,
1590, 1597, 1616–1617
papacy and, 4:1718
Papal State and, 4:1724
Peninsular Wars impact on,
4:1765–1766
2707
INDEX
Piedmont-Savoy and, 2:899–900,
902; 3:1192, 1193, 1584; 4:1786
Poland and, 4:1808
See also Grand Duchy of Warsaw
police model for, 4:1813
poor relief and, 4:1848
prostitute control and, 4:1883
serf emancipation and, 4:1754
sister republics and, 4:2186–2190
standardization and, 3:1598
university system and, 5:2381
See also Second Empire
Napoleonic Wars. See French
Revolutionary and Napoleonic
Wars
Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne
(Ingres), 3:1165, 1166
Napp, Cyril, 3:1484, 1485
Naquet, Alfred, 4:1998
Naquet Law of 1884 (France), 2:812
Narbonne, Paris Commune and,
4:1736
Narbonne, Louis de, 4:2246, 2247
Narcisse (ballet), 2:654; 3:1642
narcotics. See drugs
Nardinelli, Clark, 2:708
Narodna odbrana, 4:2148–2149
Narodnaya Volya. See People’s Will
Narváez, Ramón Maria, 4:2229, 2230
Naryshkin family, 1:80
Naschauer, Julie, 2:1068
Nash, Beau (Richard Nash), 3:1323
Nash, John, 3:1375, 1600–1602
Nasmyth, James, 3:1430
Nassau (German warship), 3:1611
Nassau
Prussian annexation of, 2:964
written constitution of, 1:457; 2:959
Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 4:2276
Nast, Thomas, 4:1722, 1725
Natal, 1:19, 256; 3:1422
Natal Field Force, 3:1422
Natanson brothes (Thadée, Alexandre,
and Alfred), 3:1213
Nathan, Ernesto, 4:2037
Nathan, Giuseppe, 3:1556
Natio Hungarica, 3:1266
Nation (Irish newspaper), 3:1656
See also Young Ireland
Nation (magazine), 4:2258
National, Le (French newspaper),
2:489; 4:1963; 5:2310
National Academy of Sciences (U.S.),
1:23
National Anti-Semitic League of
France, 2:689
National Archives (France), 3:1499
2708
National Assembly (France), 1:68,
248, 268, 420; 2:897; 3:1338
African-descent delegate in, 2:508
citizenship and, 1:456, 458
Clemenceau and, 1:479
Committee of Public Safety and,
2:518–519
Estates-General and, 2:768, 842
Ferry and, 2:810–812
Freemasons and, 2:881
French Revolution and, 2:842, 843,
844, 886–890; 3:1385, 1386
Hugo and, 2:1095
human rights declaration and, 2:801
Jacobins and, 3:1205
Jaurès and, 3:1215–1216, 1217
Jewish emancipation and, 3:1226
Lafayette and, 3:1299
Lamartine and, 3:1304
Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1318
Louis-Napoleon and, 3:1591
move to Paris of, 4:1728
Parisan-provincial division in,
4:1734–1735
Paris site of, 4:1728
right-wing and, 2:539
Second Republic and, 2:851
Third Republic and, 2:855, 856;
4:1734–1735
See also Constituent Assembly;
National Convention
National Assembly (Germany), 2:923
National Assembly (Prussia), 1:324
National Association for Promoting
the Political and Social
Improvement of the People,
3:1391
National Association for the Care of
the Feeble-Minded (Britain),
2:769, 770
National Bank of Greece, 1:170–171
national banks. See banks and banking;
specific banks by name
National Chamber of Commerce
(Germany), 2:962
National Charter Association (Britain),
1:416, 417, 418; 3:1391
republicanism and, 4:1960, 1962
National Confederation of Labor
(Spain), 1:62
National Convention (France)
Committee on Salubrity of, 4:1909
Danton and, 2:610, 611, 612
David and, 2:624
federalist revolt and, 2:799–800
Fouché and, 2:387
E U R O P E
Girondists and, 2:891, 973, 974
international law and, 3:1172
Jacobins and, 3:1205–1206
Louis XVI execution vote in, 3:1386,
1388
Marat and, 3:1443
Paine and, 4:1700, 1701
Reign of Terror and, 2:844,
892–893; 4:1951, 1952
republic proclaimed by, 2:891
Robespierre and, 4:2006–2007
Robespierre’s overthrow by,
2:893–894
National Council of French Women,
1:128
National Democratic Movement
(Poland). See Endecja
National Eisteddfod (Welsh festival),
5:2434
Nationaler Frauendienst (Germany),
1:189
National Federation of Women
Workers, 3:1293
Nationalgalerie (Berlin), 3:1489
National Gallery (Dublin), 2:693
National Gallery of Art (London),
1:287; 2:598, 999; 3:1376, 1562;
4:1825, 1863
national geographic societies, 2:784
National Guard (Paris), 2:810, 891,
891; 3:1300, 1301, 1339, 1443
Paris Commune and, 4:1734–1736,
1737
National Health Insurance Act of 1911
(Britain), 5:2452
National History Museum (Dublin),
2:693
national identity. See nationalism
National Insurance Act of 1911
(Britain), 1:356; 3:1349, 1369,
1370
national insurance programs,
5:2452–2456, 2473–2474
nationalism, 3:1602–1609; 4:2212
Abdul-Hamid II’s reign and, 1:2
Albania and, 1:32–34; 3:1690–1691
Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:51
anti-Semitism and, 1:74
aristocracy and, 1:470
Armenia and, 1:2, 87, 88–92
armies and, 1:93, 94, 97, 101
artisans and, 1:105
Austria and, 1:10–11, 145
Balkans and, 1:2, 163, 166; 2:663,
704, 705, 1018; 3:1420, 1685,
1690
bank foundings and, 1:170–171
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Bismarck and, 1:84, 237, 241, 291;
2:662
Boulangism and, 1:282–283
Bulgaria and, 1:2, 163, 166, 312,
313; 3:1686–1687, 1688
Burckhardt’s view of, 1:315
capitalism and, 1:355–356
Carducci and, 1:362–363
Catalonia and, 1:182, 183; 2:935
Catholicism and, 1:382, 389; 3:1656
Chopin’s music and, 1:440
citizenship and, 1:456–460
city ethnic groups and, 1:447
conservative expression of, 2:566;
3:1605
Croatia and, 1:144; 2:924–925
Czech movement and, 1:145, 260,
261–262; 3:1469; 4:1711
Eastern Question and, 2:703
educational language and, 2:719,
724–726
Egypt and, 2:734, 794
Estonia and Latvia and, 1:40; 2:820
ethnic minorities and, 3:1524–1526
fin-de-siècle right-wing movements
and, 3:1476–1477
Finland and, 2:820
folklorists and, 4:1756
Francis Ferdinand and, 2:862
French anti-Semitism and, 2:689
French radical right and, 1:5; 2:685
Garibaldi and, 2:930–933
German vs. French concept of, 3:1523
Germany and, 1:84, 368–369, 402;
2:542, 607, 662, 814, 870–871,
923–924, 958, 960–961; 3:1523,
1635, 1675; 4:1992–1993, 2131;
5:2352–2353, 2472
See also German unification
Greece and, 2:1018–1020; 4:1981
See also Greek War of Independence
gymnastics and, 4:2241, 2243, 2245
Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:140,
141, 142
historiography and, 2:1074
Hungary and, 1:143, 144–145; 2:865;
3:1265–1269; 4:1861, 1993, 2131
idealism of, 3:1604–1605
India and, 2:597; 3:1135–1137
Indochina and, 3:1144–1145
international congresses and, 3:1173
international law and, 3:1174
Ireland and, 3:1182–1188, 1185,
1604, 1656–1657; 4:1741–1742,
2131; 5:2464, 2509, 2510
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Italy and, 1:362–363, 388, 414;
2:930, 931–932; 3:1193–1196,
1606; 4:1992, 2001–2004,
2033–2034, 2131, 2247
Jelačić and, 3:1219–1220
Jewish cultural vs. political, 1:314;
2:930–933; 3:1526;
5:2518–2519
jingoism and, 3:1234–1235
Lafayette and, 3:1298, 1300
language and, 2:719; 3:1521, 1523,
1525, 1603, 1604
liberalism and, 3:1344–1345
Lithuania and, 3:1366, 1368
Masaryk and, 3:1469
masculinity and, 3:1473
migration and, 3:1109–1110, 1112,
1113, 1114
Milan and, 3:1501–1502
minorities and, 3:1520–1526
Montenegro and, 1:163, 165;
3:1540–1541
music and, 3:1571
Napoleon III and, 2:662
national identity and, 3:1521,
1521–1526, 1523, 1525, 1603
Netherlands and, 3:1619
opera and, 3:1673
origins of, 3:1602–1604
Ottoman Empire and, 3:1207, 1420,
1682–1691, 1690
pacifism and, 4:1698
Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716–1717
patriotic holidays and, 4:1826
peasants and, 4:1755
Pius IX’s condemnation of, 4:1798
in Poland, 5:2441
Poland and. See Polish national
movement
Prague Slav Congress and,
4:1861–1863
press and, 4:1872
Renan and, 4:1953
Revolutions of 1848 and,
4:1988–1989, 1992–1994, 1995
Romania and, 4:1993, 1994, 2020
Romanticism and, 1:215; 4:2031
Russia and, 1:400; 4:1956, 2048,
2079, 2271; 5:2307
Russian music and, 2:979–980;
3:1571
Russian Official Nationality
repression and, 3:1626
Russian rayonism and, 1:157
Schnitzler and, 4:2100–2101
INDEX
secret societies and, 4:2131
self-determination and, 3:1172
Serbia and, 1:2, 163, 166, 207,
242–243; 2:704–705;
3:1247–1248, 1268; 4:1993,
1994, 2142–2143, 2147
sports competitions and, 4:2246
Stravinsky and, 4:2261
Struve and, 4:2271
Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307
theories of, 3:1607–1608
tourism and, 5:2330
Trieste and, 5:2356–2357
Ukraine and, 5:2371–2372, 2373
universities and, 5:2388
Vienna and, 5:2417, 2420
Vietnam and, 3:1144–1145
Vilnius and, 3:1366
Wagner and, 3:1675
Wales and, 5:2434–2435, 2437
Yeats and, 5:2509
Young Turks and, 5:2516
See also Revolutions of 1820;
Revolutions of 1830; Revolutions
of 1848
Nationalist Party (Russia), 4:2257
National Italian Society, 1:391
National League (Poland), 2:752
National League for the Education of
Retarded Children (Italy), 3:1542
National Liberal Foundation (Britain),
1:404
National Liberal Party (Germany),
1:238; 2:966; 3:1347, 1609;
5:2511
national libraries. See libraries
National Library (Dublin), 2:693
National Library (Serbia), 4:2148
National Militia (Spain),
3:1413–1414
National Movement (Spain), 1:368
National Museum (Dublin), 2:693
National Museum (Finland), 1:113
National Museum (Prague), 4:1858
National Museum (Serbia), 4:2148
National Museum (Warsaw), 5:2442
National Museum of Natural History
(Paris), 2:598, 599; 3:1301–1302
National Party (Croatia), 2:925
National Party (Czech), 4:1712;
5:2510–2511
National Portrait Gallery (London),
3:1376
National Provincial Bank of England,
1:175
National Public Schools Association,
1:490
2709
INDEX
National Review (British periodical),
1:160
National Socialist German Workers
Party. See Nazism
National Society for Women’s Suffrage
(Britain), 1:332
National Swimming Society (Britain),
4:2240
National System of Political Economy,
The (List), 2:516; 3:1357; 4:1888
National Temperance Federation
(Britain), 1:36
National Temperance League (Britain),
4:1897
National Theater Company (Warsaw),
5:2442
National Union (Germany), 2:962
National Union of the Working
Classes, 1:414; 3:1390
National Union of Women’s Suffrage
Societies (Britain), 2:625,
797–799; 4:2279
National University of Ireland, 2:693
National Vaccine Establishment
(Britain), 3:1224
National Woman Suffrage Association
(U.S.), 1:67
National Women’s Service (Germany),
1:189
National Workers’ Union (Poland),
2:753
National Workshops (France), 2:850;
3:1287
Nations, Battle of the (1813). See
Leipzig, Battle of
Nations and Nationalism (Gellner),
3:1607
Native Americans, 2:575; 5:2439,
2440
natural frontiers doctrine, 4:2187
natural history, 2:598–599
Natural History Museum (London),
2:618
Natural History Museum (Paris),
1:228; 3:1562–1563
Natural History of the Animal
Kingdom (G. Schubert), 4:1924
naturalism. See realism and naturalism
natural law, 1:456; 2:953; 3:1173,
1174, 1175; 4:2212
natural philosophy, 4:2108
physics vs, 4:1778–1779
natural rights, 1:465
natural sciences. See science and
technology
Natural Science Society (Brünn),
3:1486
natural selection, 2:613, 616, 617,
618, 631, 771, 776, 779; 3:1250;
2710
4:2071, 2234; 5:2437, 2438,
2458
‘‘degeneration’’ and, 2:636
Lamarckian acquired characteristics
vs., 3:1302
Malthusian theory and, 3:1426
mutation and, 2:653
social Darwinism and, 2:619
nature
Enlightenment view of, 4:2158
environment and, 2:766
Goethe studies of, 2:986
painting from, 3:1126; 4:1708, 1864
parks and, 4:1738–1741
Romanticism and, 4:2026,
2029–2030
Nature (British journal), 5:2458
Nature morte aux livres (Matisse),
3:1474
Nature, The Utility of Religion
(J. S. Mill), 3:1514
nature vs. nurture
criminality theories and, 2:573–574;
3:1371
Galton view of, 2:927, 928
Naturgeschicte des Teirreichs
(G. Schubert), 4:1924
naturopathy, 2:1069–1070
Naturphilosophie, 1:23; 2:615; 4:2088
Naumann, Friedrich, 1:189, 446
Nauru, 2:967
Nauvoo colony (Illinois), 1:338
naval rivalry (Anglo-German), 2:795,
1013; 3:1609–1612
Anglo-French naval agreement
(1913) and, 3:1546
dreadnaught battleships and,
2:681–683, 968; 3:1610
German battle fleet and, 2:967, 968
Lloyd George measures and, 3:1370
Tirpitz and, 5:2312
William II and, 5:2469
naval warfare
British-German buildup for,
2:681, 682
British victories against Napoleon
and, 2:554, 846, 901, 1002;
3:1586
Crimean War and, 1:244;
2:577–578, 579, 580, 1007;
3:1626
dreadnaught battleships and,
2:681–683
Geneva Convention and, 2:953
Greek War of Independence and,
2:1020; 3:1612
Nelson and, 3:1614–1616
E U R O P E
Russo-Japanese War and, 3:1558,
1628
Tirpitz and, 5:2312–2313
War of 1812 and, 5:2438, 2439,
2440
See also Trafalgar, Battle of
Navarino, Battle of (1827), 2:1020;
3:1420, 1612–1613; 4:1982
Navarre, 1:83, 368
navigation, 3:1249, 1250
Marconi and, 3:1445
oceanic exploration and,
3:1653–1654
Navigation Acts (Britain), 3:1155;
4:1925
repeal of, 2:504
Naville, François, 4:1850
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, 4:2138
Naya, Carlo, 2:946
Nazarenes, 4:1707
Nazism
anti-Semitism and, 1:75, 76, 77
artisans and shopkeepers and,
1:106–107
Augspurg as exile from, 1:129–130
Center Party and, 2:966
Chamberlain (Houston) as precursor
of, 1:403, 404
‘‘degenerate art’’ label of, 2:649;
3:1246
Einstein as exile from, 2:740
eugenic genocide and, 2:928
Freud as exile from, 2:909
Grimm fairy tales and, 2:1023
Haeckel and, 2:1032
Hirschfeld as exile from, 2:1071
Kandinsky as exile from, 3:1246
Liebermann and, 3:1354–1355
Mann as critic and exile from,
3:1435–1436, 1437
as Nietzsche’s political heirs, 3:1629,
1635
‘‘racial hygiene’’ policy of, 2:619,
639, 769, 771
Romanies as victims of, 4:2021,
2023, 2024
Rothschild vilification and, 4:2041
Treitschke and, 5:2353
Wagner and, 5:2431
NCA. See National Charter Association
Ndebele, 4:2220
Neale, Edward Vansittart, 4:2208
Neapolitan Fisherboy (Rude), 4:2043
Neapolitan Republic, 4:2001
Necessarianism, 3:1458, 1459
Necessity of Atheism, The (Shelley),
4:2030, 2169
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Nechayev, Sergei, 1:162; 3:1613,
1613–1614; 4:2052; 5:2517
Necker, Jacques, 2:611, 767; 3:1385;
4:2246
Necker, Suzanne, 4:2246
Necker Hospital (Paris), 3:1298
Neerwinder, Battle of (1793), 2:899
Nefftzer, Auguste, 2:810
Neidgart, Olga Borisovna, 4:2256
Neithardt von Gneisenau, August,
2:958
Nekrasov, Nikolai, 2:678
Nelidov, A. I., 4:2085
Nelmes, Sarah, 3:1223
Nelson, Horatia (daughter), 3:1615
Nelson, Horatio, 3:1254, 1614–1616
Egyptian victory of, 2:731; 3:1585
Trafalgar and, 2:901, 1002; 3:1615;
5:2344–2345, 2438
William IV and, 5:2470
Nemirovich-Danchenko, Vladimir,
3:1495
Nenni, Pietro, 3:1202
neo-absolutism, 2:863–864
neoclassical economists, 2:707, 708,
709, 710, 711
neoclassicism
art nouveau vs., 1:107
French Revolution and, 4:1701,
1702
Ingres and, 3:1165–1167
Romantic rejection of, 4:2030
in St. Petersburg, 4:2077, 2078
Stravinsky and, 4:2261, 2262
neoconservatives, 2:536
Neo-Darwinians, 2:618
‘‘Neogothic and Neoclassic’’ (Lourié),
4:2262
neo-Gothic style, 4:2030
neo-Guelph movement, 3:1195, 1480
neo-impressionism, 3:1530; 4:1794
Seurat and, 4:2155–2158, 2292
neo-Kantianism, 4:2270
neo-Malthusians, 4:1762, 1830
Neo-Orthodox Judaism, 3:1227
neopopulists, 4:2210
neoroyalists, 1:5
neo-Scholasticism, 4:1797
Neris River, 3:1367
Neruda, Jan, 4:1857
Nerval, Gérard de, 2:687; 3:1577
nervous system, 1:340–342
Nesselrode, Karl Robert, 3:1560–1561
Nest of the Gentry, A (Turgenev),
5:2365
Nestroy, Johann, 5:2418, 2419
Netherlands, 3:1616–1620
Africa and, 1:17–18, 19
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Agricultural Revolution and, 1:24;
3:1305
balance of power and, 1:374
banking and, 1:170, 173–174
Belgian revolt against, 2:662; 3:1617
Belgium and, 1:199, 200, 201, 202;
2:525, 566; 3:1335; 5:2306
Caribbean colonialism and,
1:363, 364
Catholicism and, 1:377, 383;
3:1618, 1619
Catholic political parties and, 1:388
Christian Democrats and, 4:2209
colonial wars and, 2:505
colonies and, 2:506; 3:1114, 1116,
1151, 1154; 4:2218
commercial policy and, 2:512
Congress of Vienna and, 2:533;
3:1193
De Vries and, 2:652–653
emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 748
engineering projects and, 2:757
feminism and, 2:802
First International in, 2:825
football (soccer) and, 2:833, 834
Freemasons and, 2:877, 881
French Revolutionary Wars and
Napoleonic Wars and, 2:666, 899,
900; 3:1254, 1339
imperialism and, 3:1617–1618,
1619; 4:2218
independence of, 1:199; 3:1616
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
and, 5:2493
Japan and, 3:1209, 1210; 4:2064
Jewish emancipation in, 3:1227
labor movements in, 3:1289, 1290,
1291
liberalism and, 3:1342
as Liebermann setting, 3:1353, 1354
literacy in, 2:720; 4:1868
Louis-Philippe’s war with, 3:1388
migration and, 3:1110, 1111
Napoleonic Empire and, 2:553;
3:1587, 1590, 1597, 1616–1617;
4:2186, 2187–2189
See also Kingdom of Holland
newspapers and, 4:1866, 1867,
1868, 1869
patriot revolt (1787–1788) in,
4:2188
population of, 3:1616
potato blight in, 2:1005
Protestant population of, 1:199;
3:1618, 1619; 4:1890
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1984
INDEX
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987,
1990
Schlieffen Plan and, 4:2098
seaside resorts in, 4:2125
Second International and, 4:2128
sister republics and, 4:2188–2189
slavery abolishment and, 1:18, 19,
365, 458, 499; 2:506
slave trade and, 1:13
sodomy prosecution in, 2:1082,
1083
sports in, 4:2241
strikes in, 4:2265
suffrage in, 4:2278, 2279
tea drinking in, 1:495
temperance societies in, 4:1896
tobacco and, 5:2313
trade and, 1:53; 5:2336, 2338, 2339
universities in, 5:2379
urbanization of, 1:443
Van Gogh and, 5:2399–2401
welfare initiatives in, 5:2452, 2454,
2455
wine and, 5:2475
women university students in, 2:728
world’s fairs and, 5:2499–2500,
2503
See also Amsterdam
Netherlands Missionary Society,
3:1527; 4:1895
Nether World, The (Gissing), 2:589,
975
Neue Bahnen (journal), 3:1681
Neue Freie Presse (Vienna newspaper),
2:685, 1068; 3:1219, 1381;
5:2420, 2520
Neue Gedichte (Heine), 2:1056
Neue Ghetto, Das (Herzl), 2:1068
Neue Kölnische Zeitung (German
newspaper), 1:66
Neue Künstlervereinigung (Munich),
1:155
Neue Preubische Zeitung (Prussian
newspaper), 1:234
Neue Rundschau (Berlin journal),
3:1574
Neues von der Venus (Herzl), 2:1068
Neues Wiener Tagblatt (newspaper),
3:1394; 4:2045
Neue Zeit, Die (Marxist journal),
3:1248
Neue Zeitschrift für Musik (journal),
3:1570
Neufchâteau, François, 5:2493
Neuköllin (Berlin suburb), 1:217
neurasthenia, 2:816; 3:1472; 4:2294
Neurath, Otto, 3:1409
2711
INDEX
neurology, 4:1908
Cajal and, 1:340–342
Charcot and, 1:408–410
Freud and, 2:904–910; 4:1904
Pavlov and, 4:1749
‘‘Neuron Doctrine, Theory and Facts,
The’’ (Golgi), 1:342
neurosis, 2:905, 907; 4:1904, 1906
Neurotic Constitution,
The (A. Adler), 1:9
Neuschwanstein (Louis II castle),
3:1383, 1384; 4:2030
neutrality
Belgium and, 1:199, 205;
2:566–567, 662
Continental System and, 1:52
Hamburg and, 2:1038
international law and, 3:1174, 1175
Italy and, 3:1202–1203
Red Cross and, 3:1175
Switzerland and, 4:2289, 2291
United States and, 5:2438–2439
Neuzil, Valerie (‘‘Wally’’), 4:2089,
2090
Neva River, 4:2076, 2078
Neville-Rolfe, Sybil, 2:770
Nevsky Prospect (St. Petersburg),
4:2078
New Arabian Nights (Stevenson),
4:2255
New Artists’ Association of Munich,
3:1245
New Brunswick, 1:342
New Caledonia, 2:780–781; 3:1497
Newcastle, 1:485
Newcomb, Simon, 4:2114–2115
Newcomen, Thomas, 4:2108
Newcomen steam engine, 3:1152
New Connexion, 4:2082
New Current (Latvia), 2:822
New Departure (Parnell program),
3:1181; 4:1741
Newfoundland, 1:344
New France. See Quebec
New German School (composition),
1:295
New Grub Street (Gissing), 2:975;
4:1871
New Guardhouse (Berlin), 4:2092
New Harmony community (Indiana),
3:1692–1693, 1693;
4:2200–2201; 5:2397
New Héloı̈se (Rousseau), 2:942
‘‘New Journalism,’’ 4:1870–1871,
1872
New Justine, The (Sade), 4:2074
New Kingdom, The (Strindberg),
4:2268
2712
New Lanark, 2:1088; 3:1692;
5:2396–2397
New Liberals (Britain), 2:1075
socialism and, 4:2205, 2206–2207
New Machiavelli, The (Wells), 5:2445,
2458
Newman, John Henry, 1:385;
3:1620–1621; 4:1918
Dublin Catholic institutions and,
2:693; 3:1621
Leo XIII and, 3:1330
Manning and, 3:1440
New Market (Vienna), 5:2417
New Moral World, The (Owenite
journal), 5:2396
New Mosque (Istanbul), 3:1189
‘‘New Museum idea,’’ 3:1564
New Organization of the People, A
(Lovett and Collins), 3:1391
New Orleans, Degas painting of, 2:634
New Path (journal), 4:1864
New Poems (Arnold), 1:102
New Poor Law of 1834 (Britain),
1:211; 4:1819, 1820,
1848–1849, 1853, 1854; 5:2322,
2450, 2454, 2462
Dickens critique of, 4:1820
New Principles of Political Economy
(Sismondi), 4:2186
New Right (France), 1:281, 282;
2:539–540
Action Française and, 1:4–6; 2:542
Dreyfus affair and, 2:685–686, 857,
858
Maurras and, 2:858; 3:1476
Third French Republic and, 2:857,
858, 859
News from Nowhere (Morris), 3:1551;
4:2205
New South Wales, 1:133, 134, 135
convict colony in, 2:505
exploration of, 2:781
New Zealand and, 1622
newspapers. See press and newspapers
New Statesman (Fabian journal),
2:788; 5:2445
New Testament, 4:1770, 2182
New Times (Russian daily), 1:423
Newton, Isaac, 1:212; 2:740, 986;
3:1250, 1312; 4:1800, 1907,
2027
Mach critique of, 3:1408, 1409
Newtonian mechanics, 4:1779
New View of Society, A (Owen),
3:1692; 4:2200
New Woman, 1:485
challenge to gender roles by,
2:947, 948
E U R O P E
fin de siècle and, 1:230
leisure and, 3:1325
psychoanalysis and, 4:1906
Spencer and, 4:2235
New York City, 1:443; 2:589
New York Herald (newspaper), 2:783
New York Philharmonic, 3:1418
New York Tribune (newspaper),
3:1466
New York World’s Fairs (1939, 1964),
2:589
New Zealand, 3:1621–1625; 5:2411,
2504
British settlement colonies in, 3:1115
colonial trade and, 2:505
immigrants in, 1:351; 2:504, 646
indigenous population and, 2:604
New Zealand (British battle cruiser),
3:1611
Ney, Michel, 2:903; 3:1321; 4:2044;
5:2442, 2443
Neyman, Jerzy, 4:2249
Nguni chiefdoms, 1:17
Nguyen Anh, 3:1137
Nian Rebellion (1853–1868), 1:434
Nibelungenlied, Das (German epic),
4:2095
Niboyet, Eugénie, 2:650; 3:1288;
4:2279
Nice, 1:392; 2:534; 3:1198, 1592;
4:1785, 2000, 2125; 5:2328
day-trips to, 4:1824
tourist population of, 1:288
Nicholas I, emperor of Russia, 1:39,
493; 2:606, 819; 3:1625–1626;
4:2050–2051, 2052, 2094, 2152
Alexander II and, 1:38
anti-Semitism and, 3:1233
bureaucracy and, 1:323
counterrevolution and, 2:566, 1081;
3:1625, 1626
Crimean War and, 2:577, 579;
3:1626
cultural nationalism of, 1:400
Czartoryski and, 2:603–604
Decembrists and, 4:2050, 2236
Glinka opera dedicated to,
2:979–980
Greek revolution and, 4:1982
Hungarian nationalism and, 3:1268
Metternich and, 3:1494
Münchengrätz Treaty and, 3:1560
Poland and, 4:1808, 1817–1818
Pushkin and, 4:1919, 1920
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1984
Revolutions of 1848 and, 3:1626
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

St. Petersburg and, 4:2077, 2078
Turkestan colonization and, 1:397
Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and,
5:2391–2392
warfare and, 3:1625–1627
Nicholas II, emperor of Russia,
3:1626–1628, 1627; 4:2049,
2054, 2055
abdication of, 3:1626, 1660
Alexander III and, 1:40
Alexandra as wife of, 1:41, 42;
3:1627, 1627
alliance system and, 1:49
anti-Semitism and, 1:76, 77; 4:1803
Armenian policy of, 1:89
authoritarianism of, 2:862; 3:1627,
1628
caricature of, 4:2058
constitution and, 3:1293
Cossacks and, 2:563
Finland and, 2:821, 822
Hague conference and, 2:1034
imperialism and, 1:435
Moscow and, 3:1555
October Manifesto of, 3:1328, 1554,
1659
Octobrists and, 3:1659, 1660
Polish nationalists and, 4:1812
Revolution of 1905 and, 2:823;
3:1293, 1328, 1627–1628;
4:1975, 1978, 1979, 2055, 2057
Russian Orthodox Church and,
4:2063
St. Petersburg and, 4:2079
Siberia and, 4:2172
Stolypin and, 4:2256
Victoria’s family relationship with,
5:2415, 2415
Witte and, 4:1978, 2055; 5:2479
Nicholas I, king of Montenegro,
3:1540, 1541
Nicholas Nickleby (Dickens), 1:300;
2:656
Nicholas Nikolayevich, grand duke of
Russia, 1:42, 90; 4:2068
Nichols, A. B., 1:302
Nicholson, William, 4:2114
Nicht-Ordinarien, 5:2383
nickelodeons, 2:551
nicotine, 5:2314
Niemann, Albert, 2:687
Niépce, Isidore, 2:606
Niépce, Joseph-Nicéphore, 1:440;
2:605, 606; 4:1770
Nies, Francis Xavier, 1:292
Nietzsche, Elisabeth, 1:64
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 3:1509, 1535,
1628–1636, 1630
as Adler (Alfred) influence, 1:9
as Adler (Victor) influence, 1:10
Andreas-Salomé and, 1:63–64
as avant-garde influence, 1:154
as Berdyayev influence, 1:212
on Bizet vs. Wagner, 3:1675
as Burckhardt disciple, 1:320
as D’Annunzio influence, 2:609
degeneration and, 2:638, 816
fin de siécle pessimism of, 2:815
as futurist influence, 2:921
as Generation of 1898 influence,
2:950
Hellenism and, 3:1632; 4:1770
Hölderlin as precursor of, 2:1079
as Jung influence, 3:1238
as Kafka influence, 3:1243
as Lasker-Schüler influence, 3:1309
legacy of, 3:1635–1636
Leopardi appreciation by, 3:1334
as Mahler influence, 3:1418
as Mann influence, 3:1436
morality system of, 3:1631–1633
as Musil influence, 3:1574
nihilism and, 3:1641
Rank and, 4:1938
Russian symbolists and, 4:2181
Schelling and, 4:2089
Schopenhauer as influence on,
4:2104, 2106
secularism and, 4:2133
Stirner and, 5:2513
superman ideal of, 3:1629,
1633–1635, 1636
as symbolist influence, 3:1529
Wagner viewed by, 3:1635, 1675;
5:2431
Yeats and, 5:2510
Nieuwe Gids (Dutch review), 3:1619
Niftrik, J. G. van, 1:54
Nigeria, 1:223
British control of, 1:20, 21, 22
colonial government in, 2:508
exploration of, 2:782, 783
slave trade and, 1:13
Niger River, 1:14–15, 20, 220, 222;
2:782
internationalized navigation of,
3:1173
Nigger of the Narcissus, The (Conrad),
2:535
Nightingale, Florence, 3:1636–1638,
1637
INDEX
Gaskell friendship with, 2:934
myth of, 2:579
nursing and, 1:278; 2:579;
3:1637–1638, 1649, 1650
Sevastopol and, 1:244
Strachey biography of, 4:2259
‘‘Nightingale, The’’ (Coleridge),
1:496
‘‘Nightingale Garden’’ (Blok), 1:250
Nightingale Training School for
Nurses, 3:1638
Night in Venice, A (J. Strauss), 4:2261;
5:2405
Nightmare, The (Füssli), 4:1703
nihilists, 3:1638–1642, 1641; 5:2365
intelligentsia and, 3:1170
Nijinsky, Kyra, 3:1643
Nijinsky, Vaslav, 2:655; 3:1642,
1642–1644, 1643; 4:1876, 1945
Nijinsky, clown de Dieu (ballet), 3:1643
Nikisch, Arthur, 2:654; 3:1418
Nile, Battle of the (1798), 2:731
Nile Delta, 1:18
Nile River, 1:407
French-British spheres of influence
and, 2:795
Kitchener expedition and, 3:1258,
1668
search for source of, 2:782, 783
Nin, Anaı̈s, 4:1939
1914 (Brooke), 4:1826
Ninety-Three (Hugo), 2:1095
Ningbo, 3:1679
Ninth Symphony (Beethoven), 1:196,
197; 3:1260, 1571; 5:2418
Ninth Symphony (From the New
World) (Dvořák), 2:701
Ninth Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419
nitrates, 3:1160, 1164; 4:2109
nitrogen fertilizers, 3:1160, 1164
Nitroglycerin AB, 3:1644
Nitti, Francesco, 2:972
nizam-i cedid, 3:1683
Nizan, Paul, 3:1169
Nizip, Battle of (1839), 3:1421
N. M. Rothschild & Sons, 4:2041
Noailles, Adrienne de, 3:1299
Noailles Dragoons, 3:1299
Nobel, Alfred, 3:1160, 1644–1645;
4:1697, 2286
Suttner and, 4:2281, 2282
Nobel, Emil, 3:1644
Nobel, Ludwig, 3:1644, 1645
Nobel Foundation, 3:1645
Nobel laureates, 1:54
first (1901), 3:1645
Nobel Peace Prize, 4:1697, 1698,
1950, 2065, 2100
2713
INDEX
Belgian winners of, 1:205
Briand and, 2:643
Buisson and, 2:812
Roosevelt and, 4:1837, 2065
Suttner and, 4:2282
Nobel prize for chemistry, 2:652, 653
Curie and, 2:596
Nobel prize for literature
Benavente and, 2:951
Bergson and, 1:213
Carducci and, 1:362
Kipling and, 3:1257
Mann and, 3:1436
Mommsen and, 3:1533
Reymont and, 4:1756
Rolland and, 4:2016
Strindberg and, 4:2269
Nobel prize for medicine
Cajal and, 1:342
Golgi and, 1:341, 342
Koch and, 3:1264
Pavlov and, 4:1748, 1908
Nobel prize for physics, 2:653;
4:2012, 2113
Curies and Becquerel and, 2:595
Einstein and, 2:740
Marconi and, 3:1445
Planck and, 4:1799
Roentgen and, 4:2012
nobility
aristocracy vs., 1:78, 80
See also aristocracy
‘‘noble savage’’ concept. See
primitivism
Nocturnes (Satie), 4:2087
Nodier, Charles, 2:605
Noe, Amadee Charles Henri de,
3:1127
no-fault divorce, 4:1962
Nogi, Maresuke, 3:1557; 4:2065
Nolde, Emil, 1:154, 155
Nollet, Jean-Antoine, 3:1384
Nolte, Ernst, 2:685–686
noncommissioned officers, 1:97
Nonconformist, The (British radical
newspaper), 4:2233
Nonconformists (British Protestants),
1:418; 2:558, 1002, 1006;
4:1896
Wales and, 1:1006; 5:2433, 2434
Nonell y Monturiol, Isidro, 4:1781
non expedit policy, 4:2024–2025
Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 (U.S),
5:2439
Nordau, Max, 2:632, 769;
5:2464–2465, 2520, 2521
2714
degeneration theory and, 2:638, 639,
816
Nordenholz, Anastasius, 2:770
Norderney, 4:2124
Nord railway company, 5:2349
Norfolk four-course rotation, 1:26
Norma (Bellini), 3:1671
Normandy, 1:288; 2:800
Norodom, king of Cambodia, 3:1141,
1142
Norte Station (Madrid), 3:1413
North, Douglass, 5:2334
North, Frederick (Lord North), 2:839
North Africa, 1:18–19
Anglo-French agreement on, 3:1118,
1549
Britain and, 3:1482
Delacroix and, 2:641
exploration of, 2:784
French imperialism in, 2:812;
3:1115, 1116, 1122, 1482, 1548,
1549
Italian imperialism in, 1:7–8; 2:527;
3:1116, 1200, 1202, 1546
Moroccan Crises and, 1:49; 2:527,
663, 795; 3:1545–1546
Ottoman losses in, 3:1420
slave trade and, 1:15
See also Algeria; Egypt; Morocco;
Tunisia
North America
British-French clashes in, 3:1115
British losses in, 1:498; 2:1000
British penal colonies in, 2:779–780
British settlement colonies in, 2:505,
710; 3:1115
British settler population in,
1:343–344
colonial trade and, 3:1154
immigrants to, 3:1112–1113, 1114,
1119
Napoleonic Law in, 3:1596
women immigrants to, 3:1114
See also Canada; Mexico; United
States
North American College (Rome),
4:1797
Northampton (Turner), 5:2367
North and South (Gaskell), 2:934
Northanger Abbey (Austen), 1:130, 131
Northcliffe, Lord (Alfred Charles
William Harmsworth), 1:30;
4:1871
Northern Ireland. See Ulster
Northern Star (Chartist newspaper),
1:415, 416, 417, 418; 3:1286,
1658
E U R O P E
Northern Union of Russian Workers,
3:1288
North German Confederation, 1:148;
2:965
Bismarck establishment of, 1:236;
2:964; 4:1902
Franco-Prussian War and, 2:868–870
monetary union and, 1:171
Polish territory and, 4:1809
sodomy law and, 2:1083
North of England Council for the
Higher Education of Women,
1:331
North Pole, 2:783
North Sea, 2:553, 648
North Sea Channel, 1:53
North Sea system (migration), 3:1110
North Wales (Turner), 5:2367
Norton, Caroline, 3:1645–1646
Norton, George, 3:1645, 1646
Norway
folk culture of in, 4:1756
Ibsen and, 3:1107–1109
Munch and, 3:1558–1560
peasant enfranchisement in, 4:1755
popular culture in, 4:1821
Protestant temperance society and,
4:1896
See also Sweden and Norway
Norwegian Theatre (Bergen), 3:1107
‘‘Nose, The’’ (Gogol), 2:988
Noske, Gustav, 3:1356
Nostromo (Conrad), 2:536
Notarbartolo, Emanuele, 3:1417
Notes d’un musicien en voyage
(Offenbach), 3:1661
Notes from the Underground
(Dostoyevsky), 2:590, 678
Notes on Nursing (Nightingale),
3:1638, 1649
Notre-Dame Cathedral (Paris), 2:737;
4:1730, 2030; 5:2422, 2423, 2424
Notre-Dame de Paris (Hugo), 2:1093
Notre-Dame-des Champs gallery
(Paris), 2:590
Notre patrie (Péguy), 4:1760
Nottinghamshire Luddite rebellion,
3:1391, 1392, 1410
Noucentisme (Ors), 4:2232
Nouveau christianisme, Le (Saint-
Simon), 4:2081
Nouveau monde industriel et sociétaire,
Le (Fourier), 4:2202
Nouveau Paris, Le (Mercier), 4:1728
Nouveau principes d’économie politique
(Sismondi), 4:2186
Nouvelles histoires extraordinaires
(Baudelaire), 1:188
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Nouvelles méditations poétiques
(Lamartine), 3:1303
Novalis (Friedrich von Hardenberg),
2:912, 1078; 3:1647–1648;
4:2095
Fichte as influence on, 2:814
Restoration and, 4:1968
Schelling and, 4:2088
secularization viewed by, 4:2133
Novara, Battle of (1849), 3:1196;
4:1786; 5:2409
Nova Scotia, 1:343
novels. See literature
November Uprising of 1830–1831
(Poland), 2:604, 959, 1081;
3:1500, 1561, 1605, 1625;
4:1808, 1810
Russian suppression of, 4:1818
Novices of Sais, The (Novalis), 3:1647
Novikov, Nikolai, 1:376–377; 3:1170,
1552
Novine Dalmatinsko-Hervatsko-
Slavonske (Croatian newspaper),
4:1861
Novi Pazar, 2:530, 705
Novoe Vremya (Russian daily), 4:1868
Novomirsky (Daniil Kirilovsky), 1:60
Novosiltsev, Nikolai, 1:38
Novy put (Russian journal), 1:212
Nozo, Michitsura, 3:1557
Nu bleu (Souvenir de Briska) (Matisse),
3:1474
nuclear family, 3:1451
nuclear physics, 4:2071
nuclear weapons, 2:740
nucleus, 1:427
Nu de dos (Matisse), 3:1474
nudes
Degas paintings of, 2:634
Doré paintings of, 2:677
Gauguin paintings of, 2:940, 941
Ingres paintings of, 3:1166–1167
Manet paintings of, 3:1432, 1432,
1433
pornographic images of, 4:1835
Nudes in Landscape (Cézanne), 1:399
Nugent, Jane, 1:327
Nuits d’Été (Berlioz), 1:225
Numantius, Numa (pseud.), 2:1085
nuns, as teachers, 2:721
Nuremberg, 1:260; 2:1053
nurses, 3:1648–1651
Crimean War and, 1:244, 278; 2:579
Nightingale and, 3:1637–1638,
1649, 1650
Red Cross and, 3:1650; 4:1948,
1949
secularization and, 1:411
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
women as, 2:945; 3:1637–1638,
1648–1650; 4:1881
Nussey, Ellen, 1:301
Nutcracker Suite, The (Tchaikovsky),
5:2307
nutrition. See diet and nutrition
NUWC. See National Union of the
Working Classes
Nyamwezi (people), 1:16, 17
Nyasaland, 2:783
Nye, John Vincent, 2:512
n
O 1391, 1657–1658
Oath of the Horatii (David), 2:623,
624; 4:1702
‘‘Obelisk to the Fighters of Freedom’’
(Moscow), 4:2080
Oberdan, Guglielmo, 5:2356
Oberlin, Johann Friedrich, 4:1896
Obermann, Rodolfo, 4:2242
Obersteiner, Heinrich, 2:686
Oberto, conte di San Bonifacio (Verdi),
3:1672; 5:2406
Objective Psychology (Bekhterev),
4:1908
Oblat, L’ (Huysmans), 2:1104
Oblate of Saint Benedict, The
(Huysmans), 2:1104
Oblates of Mary Immaculate, 1:384
Oblates of St. Charles, 3:1440
Oblomov (Goncharov), 2:989, 990
Obradović, Dositej, 4:2143
Obrenović, Alexander, 4:2146
Obrenović, Draga, 4:2146
Obrenović, Michael (Mihailo),
4:2144–2145
Obrenović, Milan, 4:2145, 2146,
2147
Obrenović, Miloš, 3:1247–1248,
1683; 4:2142, 2144, 2145, 2148
Obrenović dynasty, 1:206, 242
obreros conscientes, 5:2488
O’Brien, James, 1:418
O’Brien, William, 4:1741
Obrist, Hermann, 1:112
Obruchev, Nikolai N., 4:2067–2068,
2069
obscenity. See pornography
Observations on Parliamentary Reform
(Ricardo), 2:715
Observations on the Effects of the
Manufacturing System (Owen),
3:1692
‘‘Obsessive Actions and Religious
Practices’’ (Freud), 2:907
INDEX
obstetrics, 2:644
O’Casey, Sean, 2:691
occult, 4:2294, 2295; 5:2509, 2510
See also spiritualism
oceanic exploration, 3:1653–1654
Ochs, Peter, 4:2187, 2188
O’Connell, Daniel, 2:691, 1003;
3:1177, 1654–1657, 1655
O’Connor and, 3:1657
Peel and, 4:1758
Wellington and, 5:2321
William IV and, 5:2471
O’Connor, Arthur, 3:1657
O’Connor, Daniel, 1:388
O’Connor, Feargus, 2:1003; 3:1390,
Chartism and, 1:415, 416–417;
3:1657–1658; 4:2277
republicanism and, 4:1963
O’Connor, Roger, 3:1657
Octet for Strings (Mendelssohn), 3:1578
Octet for Wind Instruments
(Stravinsky), 4:2262
October Diploma (1860), 2:627
October Edict of 1807 (Prussia),
3:1305; 4:2251
October Manifesto of 1905 (Russia),
3:1328, 1554, 1627, 1659;
4:1978, 1979, 2057, 2211
October Revolution of 1917 (Russia).
See Revolution of 1917
Octobrists, 3:1658–1660; 4:2057,
2058
Kadets and, 3:1242, 1555, 1659
Stolypin and, 4:2257
odalise paintings (Matisse),
3:1474–1475
Odalisque au fauteuil turc, L’
(Matisse), 3:1474–1475
Odalisque with Slave (Ingres), 3:1166,
1167; 4:1706
Odd Women, The (Gissing), 2:975
Ode, Intimations of Immortality from
Recollections of Early Childhood
(Wordworth), 1:428
Odéon Métro stop (Paris), 2:610
Odéon theater (Paris), 1:229; 4:1727
Ode on the Death of the Duke of
Wellington (Tennyson), 5:2309
Odes et Ballades (Hugo), 2:1092
Odessa, 1:243, 278
‘‘Ode to Joy’’ (Schiller), 1:197
Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony and,
1:197; 3:1260
‘‘Ode to Liberty’’ (Shelley), 4:2031,
2170
‘‘Ode to the West Wind, The’’
(Shelley), 4:2170
2715
INDEX
Odi barbari (Carducci), 1:362
O’Donnell, Leopoldo, 4:2229, 2230
Odyssey (Homer), 3:1165, 1675
Oedipus at Colonus (Sophocles), 3:1663
Oedipus complex, 4:1770, 1904
Oedipus Tyrannus (Sophocles;
Hölderlin translation), 2:1078
Oeri, Jacob, 1:318
Oersted, Hans, 2:741; 4:2109
Oeuvre, L’ (Zola), 1:398
Oeuvres (Bergson), 1:213
Oeuvres (Gouges), 2:994
Offen, Karen, 2:801, 806
Offenbach, Jacques, 3:1414,
1660–1662, 1672
Manet and, 3:1432
Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2260–2261;
5:2420
officer corps, 1:96, 97, 98, 99–100
Official Nationality (Russian concept),
3:1626; 4:2048
Of Population (Godwin), 2:981
Ogarev, Nikolai, 2:1064; 3:1613
Ohlin, Bertil Gotthard, 2:752; 5:2334
Ohm, Georg Simon, 3:1162
oil industry, 1:88; 3:1161
Oken, Lorenz, 2:615
Okin, S. M., 3:1514
Okinawa, 3:1211
Oku, Yasutaka, 3:1557
Olbrich, Joseph Maria, 1:112, 113,
152; 3:1260, 1381
old age, 1:408; 3:1662–1665
old-age insurance. See pensions
Old Believers, 4:2062, 2257
Old Calabar, 1:15
Old Catholic Church, 4:1723, 1798
Old Church Slavonic, 4:1716
Old Closes and Streets of Glasgow
(Annan), 4:2119
Old Confederation (Switzerland),
4:2288
Old Curiosity Shop, the (Dickens), 2:656
Old Czechs. See Young Czechs and
Old Czechs
Oldenburg, house of, 4:2287
Old Etonians (football team), 2:831
old-folks homes, 5:2455
Old Guitarist, The (Picasso), 4:1781
Old Hegelians, 3:1464
Old Poor Law. See Poor Law
Old Regime and the Revolution, The
(Tocqueville), 3:1342; 5:2316,
2317–2318
Old Serbia. See Serbia
Oldsmobiles (cars), 1:149
Old Town Square (Prague), 4:1858
Old World and the New, The (political
cartoon), 2:749
2716
‘‘Old-World Landowners’’ (Gogol),
2:988
O’Leary, John, 5:2509
Olga, princess of Russia, 3:1627
oligarchy, 1:457
Oliveira de Martins, Joaquim Pedro,
4:1840
Oliver Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches
(Carlyle), 1:371
Oliver Twist (Dickens), 2:573, 575,
656
Cruikshank illustrations, 2:585
as New Poor Law critique, 4:1820,
1848
Olivier, Fernande, 4:1782, 1783–1784
Olivier, Sydney, 5:2444
Ollivier, Émile, 2:853–854
Olmstead, Alan, 5:2337
Olmütz, Battle of (1805), 1:132
Olmütz, Punctuation of (1850),
2:962; 4:1902
Olson, Mancur, 2:516
Olsson, Ulf, 4:2269
Olympia (Manet), 2:940; 3:1432,
1433; 4:1707–1708, 1954
Olympic Games, 3:1665–1668, 1666
Athens and, 1:126; 3:1665, 1667, 1667
football (soccer) and, 2:834
Greece and, 4:2244
masculinity and, 3:1473
sites of, 4:2246; 5:2592
Oman, Charles, 4:1766
Oman, sultan of, 1:16
Omani Empire, 1:16
Omar Pasha, 1:244
Omdurman (1898), 2:734, 794;
3:1125, 1258, 1668–1669, 1669
Ömer Pasha Latas, 1:274; 3:1541
omertà, 4:2174
‘‘On Agitation’’ (Martov and Kremer),
3:1460
Onatario, 1:345
On Crimes and Punishment (Beccaria),
3:1371; 5:2393
‘‘On Diligence in Several Learned
Languages’’ (Herder), 2:1061
On Dramatic Art and Literature
(Schlegel), 4:2095
O’Neill, Eugene, 4:2269
On Germany (Staël), 4:2247
On Heroes, Hero Worship, and the
Heroic in History (Carlyle), 1:371
On Kulikovo Field (Blok), 1:250; 2:774
On Liberty (J. S. Mill), 2:1006;
3:1509, 1513; 5:2394
‘‘On Narcissism’’ (Freud), 2:907–908
On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured
Despisers (Schleiermacher), 4:2097
E U R O P E
On the Basis of Morality
(Schopenhauer), 4:2104
‘‘On the Basis of our Belief in Divine
Governance of the World’’
(Fichte), 2:813
On the Conception of Aphasias (Freud),
2:904
On the Concept of Irony with Continual
Reference to Socrates
(Kierkegaard), 3:1250
On the Conservation of Force
(Helmholtz), 2:1057
On the Constitution of the Church and
State (Coleridge), 1:497
On the Development of the Monistic
Conception of History (Plekhanov),
4:1801
On the Eve (Turgenev), 5:2365
On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of
Sufficient Reason (Schopenhauer),
4:2103
On the Freedom of the Will
(Schopenhauer), 4:2104
‘‘On the Fundamental Laws of the
State’’ (Speransky), 4:2236
On the Genealogy of Morals
(Nietzsche), 3:1631
On the Inequality of Human Races
(Gobineau), 1:403
On the Limits of State Action (W.
Humboldt), 2:1097
‘‘On the Modern Element in
Literature’’ (Arnold), 1:102
‘‘On the Necessity and Possibility of
New Principles in Philosophy’’
(Kireyevsky), 4:2195
On the Origin of Species (Darwin),
2:613, 614, 615, 616–618, 637,
776, 777, 1031, 1102; 3:1302,
1426, 1563; 4:1908, 2234, 2255
On the Penitentiary System in the
United States and Its Application
to France (Tocqueville and
Bonninière), 5:2316
‘‘On the Probable Futurity of the
Working Classes ‘‘ (H. T. Mill),
3:1509
‘‘On the Proper Sphere of
Government’’ (Spencer), 4:2233
On the Sensation of Tone as a
Physiological Basis for the Theory of
Music (Helmholtz), 2:1057
‘‘On the Spiritual in Art’’ (Kandinsky),
3:1244, 1245
On the Turf Bench (Repin), 4:1956
‘‘On the Uses and Disadvantages of
History for Life’’ (Nietzsche),
3:1635
Ontogenie (Jarry), 3:1213
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
(concept), 2:1031
On Translating Homer (Arnold),
1:103
On War (Clausewitz), 1:477, 478;
3:1506
Opel (automobile manufacturer),
5:2352
open science, 4:2110–2111
Open Window (Matisse(, 1:153
opera, 3:1566–1567, 1669–1678
avant-garde and, 1:157–158
Barcelona and, 1:181
Beethoven and, 1:196; 3:1670
bel canto and, 3:1671
Berlin and, 1:219; 3:1673
Berlioz and, 1:225
cities and, 1:445
‘‘code Rossini’’ and, 3:1670, 1673
Debussy and, 2:631; 3:1675
Donizetti’s influence on,
3:1670–1671
Dvořák and, 2:701
Egypt and, 2:732
Eurasian set design and, 2:774
Freemasonry and, 2:881
Glinka and, 2:979–980; 3:1673
grand opera genre and,
3:1671–1672, 1674
Hofmannsthal libretti and, 2:1077
Jarry libretti and, 3:1214
Madrid and, 3:1414
Meyerhold stagings of, 3:1496
Milan’s La Scala and, 3:1502, 1504,
1672; 5:2406
Mussorgsky and, 3:1575–1576,
1673–1674
national operas and, 3:1673
Offenbach and, 3:1660–1662
opéra comique and, 3:1673
public houses for, 3:1565–1566,
1672, 1672
Puccini and, 4:1915–1917
Rimsky-Korsakov and, 4:1999–2000
Rossini innovations and, 3:1572,
1670–1671; 4:2038–2039, 2106,
2288
Schoenberg and, 4:2103
Schubert and, 4:2106
Singspiel and, 3:1673
Smetana and, 4:1858
Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307
types of, 3:1670, 1671, 1673
Verdi and, 3:1572, 1672–1673,
1676; 4:2039; 5:2405–2407
verismo and, 3:1671, 1677
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Wagner and, 1:191; 3:1360,
1382–1383, 1435, 1567, 1571,
1674–1675; 4:2027; 5:2429,
2430–2431
opera buffa, 3:1670
opéra comique, 3:1660–1661
Opéra-Comique (Paris), 3:1660,
1661, 1672, 1675
Opera dei Congressi (Italy), 1:389;
4:2025
Opera House (Budapest), 1:311
Oper am Gänsemarkt (Hamburg),
3:1673
opera seria, 3:1670, 1673
opere semiserie, 3:1670
operetta, 5:2421
Offenbach and, 3:1660–1662
Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2260, 2261;
5:2420
Operette (Leopardi), 3:1333
Ophelia (Millais), 4:1864
opiates. See drugs
Opie, John, 5:2480
Opinion des femmes, L’ (feminist
newspaper), 2:651
Opinion nationale, L’ (French journal),
4:1998
opium, 2:686–687
addiction to, 2:686–687
Beardsley and, 1:194
Berlioz and, 1:25
Chinese ban on, 1:433, 434; 3:1678,
1679
Coleridge addiction to, 1:496; 2:686
Picasso and, 4:1782
tea traded for, 1:495; 3:1678, 1679
Opium Wars, 1:292, 355, 434;
2:1008; 3:1209, 1678–1680;
4:2064
atrocities and, 3:1125
East India Company smuggling and,
2:687; 3:1678
Nanking Treaty and, 3:1578–1579,
1678
Palmerston and, 4:1713
Oppenheim, Lassa Francis Lawrence,
3:1175
optics, 3:1478; 4:1743, 1780
optimism, 1:461
Malthusian rebuttal of, 3:1425, 1426
utilitarianism and, 3:1510–1511
See also progress
Orange, House of, 4:2188, 2189
Orange Free State, 1:17–18, 256, 257;
4:2220, 2221, 2223
See also Boer War
Orange Order (Ireland), 3:1176, 1184
INDEX
Orange Party (Netherlands), 3:1616
Orangists (Belgium), 1:200
oratorios, 3:1568
orchestral works, 1:225; 2:631; 3:1568
See also symphony
orchestras, 3:1568
orchestration, 1:224
Order of Merit (Britain), 3:1638
Orders in Council (Britain), 5:2438,
2439
Orders in Council (Britain, 1807),
1:303
Ordinary Story, An (Goncharov),
2:989, 990
Orel, Vitězslav, 3:1486
Orenburg Cossacks, 2:562
Orfeó Català (Barcelona), 1:181
Organic Articles of 1802, 2:529
organic chemistry, 1:425–427;
3:1159–1160; 4:2109
Organic Chemistry in Its Applications
to Agriculture and Physiology
(Liebig), 3:1159–1160
organic intellectuals, 5:2484
Organic Statute of 1832 (Russia),
4:1808
Organisation du Travail, L’ (Blanc),
1:247; 4:2203
Orianda Castle (Yalta), 4:2094
Oriel College (Oxford), 1:102
Orientales, Les (Hugo), 2:1092
Oriental Institute, 5:2426
Orientalism
British Egyptian policy and, 2:734
Chateaubriand and, 1:421
Delacroix and, 2:640
hashish and, 2:687
India and, 3:1407, 1511
as Matisse influence, 3:1474–1475
opium and, 2:687
Russia and, 2:772, 773, 774–775
Origenes du théâtre lyrique moderne,
Les (Rolland), 4:2014
original sin, 1:428
Original Stories from Real Life
(Wollstonecraft), 5:2479
Origin of Species (Darwin). See On the
Origin of Species
Origin of the Family, Private Property,
and the State, The (Engels), 2:756,
946; 3:1450; 4:2205
Orissa, 2:706
Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele, 2:972
Orlando Furioso (Ariosto), 2:676
Orléanists
Action Française vs., 1:4
Blanc critique of, 1:247
Blanqui critique of, 1:248
2717
INDEX
bureaucracy and, 1:321
Napoleon III and, 2:852, 853
Revolution of 1830 and, 2:566
Revolution of 1848 as end to, 2:567
Third Republic and, 2:855
See also Louis-Philippe
Orléans, duc de. See Louis-Philippe;
Philippe Égalité
Orléans, Louise-Marie d’, 3:1335, 1336
Orléans, Louis-Philippe Albert d’
(1838–1894), 1:280, 407
Orléans, Philippe d’, 2:994; 4:2073
Orlov, A. F., 5:2391
Orlov, Grigory, 1:375
‘‘Ornament and Crime’’ (Loos), 3:1381
O’Rourke, Kevin, 2:514; 3:1151;
5:2336, 2338–2339, 2340, 2342
orphanages, 1:431
Orphée aux enfers (Offenbach), 3:1660
Orphism, 1:156
orreries, 4:2112
Ors, Eugenio d’, 4:2232
Orsini, Felice, 4:2003; 5:2410
Ørsted, Hans Christian, 2:649;
4:1779, 1780
Ortega y Gasset, Ernst Cassirer, 1:320
Ortega y Gasset, José, 4:2232
Orthodox Church
Albania and, 1:32
Austria-Hungary and, 1:138
Balkans and, 3:1684–1685
Belgrade and, 1:206
Bosnia and, 1:273, 275
Bulgaria and, 1:313; 3:1685, 1687
Crimean War origins and, 1:244
Greece and, 2:1018, 1019, 1020,
1021; 3:1494, 1612
migration and, 3:1111
Montenegro and, 3:1541
Ottoman Empire and, 3:1482, 1685,
1687
Poland and, 4:1807
Serbia and, 3:1541
See also Greek Orthodox Church;
Russian Orthodox Church
Ortiz, Fernando, 1:363
Osborne, W. V., 3:1296
Osbourne, Fanny, 4:2255
Osbourne, Lloyd, 4:2255
Oscar II, king of Sweden and Norway,
4:2287
O’Shea, Kitty (Katharine),
3:1181–1182; 4:1741, 1742
O’Shea, William Henry, 4:1741, 1742
Oslo. See Christiana
Osman Nuri Pasha, 4:2068
Osman Pasha Topal, 1:274–275
2718
Osman Pasvan-Oglu, 4:2142
osmotic pressure, 2:652
Ospovat, Dov, 2:617
Osservatore Romano (journal), 3:1331
Ostend, 4:2125
osteology, 2:986
Ostrau-Karwina coal mines, 1:260
Ostwald, Friedrich Wilhelm, 1:426;
2:595; 3:1409
Osuna, duke and duchess of, 2:997
Osvobozhdenie (Russian journal),
3:1518; 4:1976, 2055, 2270
Otechestvennye zapieskı́ (Russian
journal), 1:208
Otello (Rossini), 3:1670, 1671; 4:2038
Otello (Verdi), 3:1676; 5:2406
Otto I, king of Greece, 1:125;
2:1020–1021; 5:2380
Otto, Louise, 1:66; 2:803, 804;
3:1680–1681
Otto, Nicolaus August, 3:1161
Ottolenghi, Salvatore, 4:1816
Ottoman Committee of Union and
Progress, 5:2515, 2516
Ottoman Empire, 3:1681–1692
Abdul-Hamid II and, 1:1–2
Adrianople (Edirne) and, 1:12–13
Agadir Crisis and, 3:1546
Albanian nationalism and, 1:32–34;
3:1690–1691
Algeria and, 1:42–43
alliance system and, 1:146
Armenia and, 1:87, 89–92
Armenian genocide and, 1:2, 90, 92
Athens and, 1:125–126
Austrian-Russian treaty on,
3:1560–1561
Austrian war with, 3:1247; 4:2142
Balkan control by. See Eastern
Question
Balkan League and, 1:32; 3:1546
Balkans as core of, 3:1682
See also Balkan Wars
Belgrade and, 1:206
as Berlin Conference participant, 1:221
Black Sea and, 1:243–244; 3:1683
Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:2,
273–277; 2:703–704;
3:1687–1688
Bosphorus and, 1:278
British slave-trade ban, 1:308
Bulgaria and, 1:312, 313
Bulgarian Atrocities and, 2:977, 1009
Congress of Berlin and, 1:12; 2:529,
530–531, 705
constitutional movement in, 3:1188,
1688–1690; 5:2514–2515
E U R O P E
Crimean War and, 1:243–244, 278;
2:577–580, 1007; 3:1686
disintegration of, 2:598; 3:1691
Disraeli policy and, 2:674
Eastern Crisis (1875–1878) and,
2:674, 703; 3:1687–1690
Eastern Question and, 1:278; 2:526,
527, 1009; 3:1681, 1682,
1687–1688; 4:2067; 5:2391
Egypt and, 1:18; 2:525, 731–733;
3:1420–1421, 1613, 1686
Ethiopia and, 1:8
European colonial encroachment on,
3:1174
Greco-Turkish War and, 1:2; 2:1021,
1022; 3:1685
Greece and, 1:170; 2:525, 566, 577,
640, 732, 1002, 1018–1022;
3:1194, 1612–1613, 1685;
4:1981; 5:2327
Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:137,
206; 3:1690
Istanbul and, 3:1186–1190
Italy and, 3:1202; 4:2299
jadidism and, 3:1207
Jaurès’s view of, 3:1217
Jews and, 5:2519
Kossuth residence in, 3:1269
Mahmud II and, 3:1420–1421,
1685–1686
map of (1816–1878), 3:1688
Mediterranean and, 3:1481–1482
millet system and, 3:1516–1517, 1687
Montenegro and, 1:2; 3:1539, 1540,
1541
Morocco and, 3:1546
Münchengrätz convention on,
3:1560–1561
multiethnic languages and, 2:725
Navarino and, 3:1612–1613
North Africa and, 1:18–19
Orthodox Church and, 3:1685,
1687
penal exile and, 2:779
reforms and, 1:90, 274;
3:1187–1188, 1190, 1420, 1517,
1683, 1685–1686, 1688–1690
revolts against, 2:525; 3:1683
Romania and, 4:2016, 2017
Romanies and, 4:2021
Russia and, 5:2391–2392
See also Russo-Turkish War
Russian expansionism and, 1:243,
278, 376; 2:662; 3:1494, 1560,
1561, 1625; 4:2086, 2164;
5:2391–2392
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Russian wars with. See Russo-
Turkish War
San Stefano Treaty, 4:2068, 2069,
2085–2086
Selim III and, 3:1683
Serbia and, 1:242; 2:703; 3:1247,
1541; 4:2141–2146, 2148, 2149
Spain and, 5:2361
Suez Canal and, 4:2274–2275, 2276
Tanzimat reforms of, 1:90, 274;
3:1188, 1190, 1517, 1686
tobacco and, 5:2313
trade and, 5:2337
Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi and,
5:2391
Tunisia and, 5:2361–2362
universities and, 5:2380
Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and,
5:2391–2392
world’s fairs and, 5:2500
World War I and, 1:278; 2:705;
4:2276
Young Turks and, 1:92, 163, 164,
278; 3:1207, 1690–1691;
5:2514–2516
Zionists and, 5:2521
Ottoman Freedom Society, 5:2515
Ottomanism, 3:1690
Ottoman Society, 4:1949
Ottoman Union Committee, 5:2515
Otto of Wittelsbach. See Otto I
Ouad Ras, Treaty of (1860),
3:1548–1549
Oudinot, Charles, 4:2034
Oudinot, Nicolas, 3:1320
Ourcq canal (Paris), 4:1729
Our Differences (Plekhanov), 4:1801
Our Lady of Czestochowa, 4:1790
Our Lady of Fatima (Portugal),
4:1788
Our Lady of Kazan Cathedral (St.
Petersburg), 4:2077, 2078
Our Motion Is Carried! (lithograph),
4:1992
Our Mutual Friend (Dickens), 2:657
Oust-Eclair (French Catholic
newspaper), 1:389
Outcast of the Islands, An (Conrad),
2:535
outdoor relief, 4:2119; 5:2454, 2462
Outlaw Period (Germany,
1878–1890), 1:194
Outline of Distinctive Character of the
Wissenschaftslehre with Respect to
the Theorectical Faculty (Fichte),
2:813
Outline of History, The (Wells), 5:2459
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Outline of Psychoanalysis, An (Freud),
2:909
Outlines of a Critique of Political
Economy (Engels), 2:754
Outlines of a Critique of Previous
Ethical Theory (Schleiermacher),
4:2097
Outlines of American Political Economy
(List), 3:1357
outwork
clothing manufacturing and,
4:2159–2160
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1988,
1990, 1991
Silesian weaver uprising and, 4:1990
See also factories
Overbeck, Johann Frederich, 1:317
‘‘Overcoat, The’’ (Gogol), 2:988
Ovid, 2:873
Owen, Richard, 2:618, 1102
Owen, Robert, 1:337; 2:555, 803;
3:1692–1693
cooperative factory village of,
2:1088; 3:1390
socialism and, 4:2200–2201
Tristan and, 5:2357
utopian socialism and, 2:650;
3:1284, 1286, 1692–1693, 1693;
4:2081; 5:2395, 2396–2397
Owenites, 2:650; 3:1284;
4:2200–2201; 5:2396–2397
gender equality and, 3:1288
Oxford Book of English Verse (Yeats,
ed.), 4:1746
Oxford Movement. See Tractarianism
Oxford Street (London), 3:1378
Oxford University, 3:1377; 4:2240,
2241; 5:2379, 2385, 2387
Anglican Church and, 4:1895;
5:2384
Arnold and, 1:102
class and, 2:728; 3:1512
Curzon as chancellor of, 2:597
Gladstone and, 2:976
history teaching at, 2:1073, 1074
law education and, 2:726
liberalized admissions to, 2:1008
Lyell and, 3:1401
Methodism and, 4:1895
Morris and, 3:1550
Newman and, 3:1620
Pater and, 4:1745–1746
Peel and, 4:1757
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1707,
1865
Rhodes Scholarships and, 4:1997
Ruskin and, 4:2047
INDEX
Wilde and, 5:2464
women students and, 2:945
Oxford University Museum, 4:2030,
2046
oxygen, 3:1312
Oyama, Iwao, 3:1557; 4:2065
Ozanam, Frédéric, 1:383, 388
n
P
Pacific islanders, 4:1874–1875
Pacific Ocean, 2:577; 3:1116, 1338
See also South Pacific
pacifism, 4:1695–1698, 1696
Augspurg and, 1:129
feminism and, 1:129, 189
First International and, 2:825
Hague conferences and,
2:1034–1035
international law and, 3:1175
Jaurès and, 3:1214, 1217–1219
Liebknecht and, 3:1356
Malatesta and, 3:1425
Martov and, 3:1461
Milyukov and, 3:1519
Rolland and, 4:2015
Shaw and, 4:2167
Suttner and, 4:2282
Tolstoy and, 5:2319, 2320
Pacifisme, Le (Faguet), 4:1697
Pacini, Giovanni, 3:1671
Packe, Michael St. John, 3:1514
Paddington railway station (London),
2:590
Paer, Ferdinando, 3:1670; 4:2038
Paganini, Achille, 4:1699
Paganini, Niccolò, 3:1360, 1566;
4:1698–1700, 1699
Berlioz friendship with, 1:225
Romanticism and, 4:2031
Pagliacci, I (Leoncavallo), 3:1676
Pagon, Georgios, 4:2242
Pahlen, Konstantin von, 2:819
Pahlen, Peter von, 4:1748
Paine, Thomas, 1:244, 415, 489;
2:1000; 4:1700–1701
on Athenian democracy, 4:1770
sister republics and, 4:2187
virtue concept and, 4:1958
Wollstonecraft and, 5:2480
Painter of Modern Life, The
(Baudelaire), 1:188; 3:1128,
1529, 1543; 4:1708
2719
INDEX
Painter’s Studio, The (Courbet),
4:1706–1707
painting, 4:1701–1711
abstract art and, 1:155, 398, 399;
3:1132, 1243–1246, 1261
abstract expressionism and, 3:1133
art historians and, 1:315
art nouveau and, 1:107, 152–153;
3:1530
avant-garde and, 1:153, 154–158;
4:1701, 1706–1711
Barbizon school and, 1:176–180;
3:1126
Beardsley’s influence on, 1:192
Berlin museum collections and,
1:219
Blake and, 1:246
body and, 1:252, 254
bourgeois collectors of, 1:287
Brussels and, 1:307
Cézanne and, 1:397–399
of children, 1:428, 429
Constable and, 2:543–544;
4:1704–1705
Corot and, 2:560–562
Courbet and, 2:568–569;
4:1946–1947, 1956, 2133;
5:2496
cubism and, 1:156; 2:590–593;
3:1530
Daguerre and, 2:605, 607
Daumier and, 2:621, 622, 623
David and, 2:623–625
Decadence and, 2:632–633, 940
Degas and, 2:633–636; 4:1708,
1709
degeneration and, 2:638
Delacroix and, 2:640–642
Denmark and, 2:647
Doré and, 2:676, 677–678
expressionism and, 1:220, 220;
4:2089, 2102, 2269; 5:2421
fauvism and, 1:153, 154; 2:795–797
‘‘feminine evil’’ fantasies in, 2:816
fin de siècle and, 2:815
Friedrich and, 2:910–912
futurism and, 2:918–919, 919
Gauguin and, 2:939
Géricault and, 2:955–956; 4:1705
Goya and, 2:996–999; 4:2225, 2226
idealism and, 4:1947, 2104
impressionism and, 3:1126–1133;
4:1708–1709, 1732
Ingres and, 3:1165–1167
Japanese art influences on, 2:991;
3:1210
2720
Kandinsky and, 3:1243–1246;
4:2077
Klimt and, 3:1260–1262
of landscapes. See landscape painting
Liebermann and, 3:1353–1355
Manet and, 3:1431–1434;
4:1707–1708
Matisse, 3:1473–1475
Menzel and, 3:1488–1490
Millet and, 3:1515–1516; 4:1757
modernism and, 1:397, 398–399;
3:1529, 1530–1531; 4:1709–1711
Monet and, 3:1534–1537
Morisot and, 3:1543–1545
Munch and, 3:1558–1560
museums and, 3:1562
naturalism, 4:1946
outdoor, 3:1126; 4:1708, 1864,
1948
Paris and, 4:1732
peasant subjects of, 4:1757
photography and, 4:1772, 1773
Picasso and, 4:1781–1784, 1875,
2232
Pissarro and, 4:1792–1794
plein-air, 4:1948
pointillism and, 3:1132, 1133, 1244,
1474; 4:1794, 2156; 5:2401
portraiture, 4:1710, 2028
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1863–1864
primitivism and, 4:1874–1875, 1874
realism and, 4:1946–1947
Renoir and, 4:1708, 1709,
1954–1956
Repin and, 1956–1958
Rodin and, 4:2008–2011
Romanticism and, 2:640–642;
4:2027–2030
Rude and, 4:2031, 2043–2044
Ruskin and, 4:2046
Russian Silver Age of, 4:2181
St. Petersburg and, 4:2076, 2077
Schelling’s view of, 4:2031, 2088
Schiele and, 4:2089–2091; 5:2421
Schinkel and, 4:2091–2092
of seascapes, 4:2027, 2029
Secession movement and, 5:2421
Seurat and, 4:2155–2158, 2292
socialist realism and, 4:1958
Sweden and, 4:2286–2287
symbolism and, 2:939–941;
3:1261–1262; 4:2292,
2292–2295, 2293–2294
Tolstoy on, 5:2319
Toulouse-Lautrec and, 5:2323–2325
E U R O P E
Turner and, 4:1703–1705, 2027,
2029, 2046; 5:2366–2368
Van Gogh and, 5:2399–2401
Venice and, 5:2403, 2404, 2405
Vienna and, 5:2420, 2421
Wanderers and, 4:1956–1957
World of Art group and, 4:2181
world’s fairs and, 5:2496, 2505
Paisley, 4:2119
Pakenham, Edward, 5:2441
Pakistan, 3:1134
Pakozd, Battle of (1848), 3:1220
Palace of Industry (Paris), 5:2496,
2499
Palace of Industry (Vienna), 5:2498
Palace of Justice (Brussels), 1:306
Palace of Justice (Rome), 4:2037
Palace of Westminster (London),
1:186
Palacio de Cristal (Madrid), 3:1413,
1413
Palacký, František, 1:142, 261;
4:1711–1712, 1716, 1860;
5:2510, 2511
Frankfurt Parliament and, 4:1860
Prague monument to, 4:1858
Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861,
1862
Palais Garnier (Paris), 3:1567
Palais Stoclet (Brussels), 1:112
Palau, 2:967
Palau de la Música Catalana
(Barcelona), 1:112, 181
Pale of Settlement (Russia), 3:1230,
1232, 1366
Bund and, 1:314
paleontology, 2:599, 1102
Palermo, 3:1255; 4:2002, 2003,
2035, 2174–2178
mafia and, 3:1415–1417
revolts in, 3:1196, 1255
size of, 3:1254
street vendor, 3:1196
Palestine, 2:577; 5:2330
Jewish-Arab claims to, 2:598
Kitchener in, 3:1257
Napoleon invasion of, 2:900
Zionism and, 5:2518–2521
Palffy, Aloys, 5:2403
Palizzi, Filippo, 4:1757
Palizzolo, Raffaele, 3:1417
Palladino, Eusapia, 4:2239
Pallas Athene (Klimt), 1:112
Pall Mall (London), 1:185
Pall Mall Gazette, 1:332; 4:2253;
5:2464
Palm, Etta, 4:1962
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Palmer, Samuel, 1:246
Palmerston, Lord (Henry John
Temple), 4:1712–1714
Cobden’s critique of, 1:491
Egyptian policy and, 2:732
government of, 2:1007–1008
Italian policy and, 2:977
Münchengrätz Treaty and, 3:1561
Opium Wars and, 2:1008
on Schleswig-Holstein, 2:607
Sepoy Mutiny and, 2:1008
Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2392
Victoria and, 5:2413
palm oil, 1:14–15, 21
Palmyre, Mme., 1:481
Palua Islands, 3:1279
Pamir mountains, 1:395
Pan-African conferences, 1:501
Panama Canal, 3:1173; 4:2080, 2274
Lesseps and, 3:1337, 1338
Panama Canal Company, 3:1338;
4:1872
pandemics. See cholera
Pan-Germanism, 1:457
Pan-German League, 1:404; 2:967
Panhard et Levassor, 1:148; 5:2352
Pankhurst, Emmeline, Christabel, and
Sylvia, 2:798, 805, 1044;
4:1714–1716, 1715, 2162, 2280
Pankhurst, Richard, 4:1714, 1715
panlogism, 4:2195
‘‘Panmongolism’’ (Soloviev), 4:2216,
2217
Panopticon (Bentham prison
blueprint), 1:211; 5:2393
Pan-Slav Congress (1848). See Prague
Slav Congress
Pan-Slavism, 4:1716–1717, 2067;
5:2460, 2478, 2520
Abdul-Hamid II and, 1:2
Bakunin and, 1:162
Balkan Wars and, 2:704
Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 2:773
Ottoman Empires and, 3:1688
Slavophiles and, 4:2196
See also Prague Slav Congress
Pan Tadeuz (Mickiewicz), 3:1500
Pantagruel (Rabelais), 3:1214
pantheism, 2:1032
Panthéon (Paris), 2:596, 1095
Panthéon Nadar, 3:1577
Panther (German gunboat), 3:1546,
1549
Paoli, Pasquale, 3:1583–1584
Paolo & Francesca (Doré), 2:677
Papa, D., 3:1502
papacy, 1:380–381; 4:1717–1721
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Action Française condemned by,
3:1477
anticlericalism and, 1:68
Carbonari banned by, 1:361
Chateaubriand and, 1:421
Concordat of 1801 and, 2:527–529;
4:1718
conservatism and, 4:1718, 1719,
1720, 1721, 1724
first radio broadcast of, 3:1445
Francis Joseph and, 2:863
Freemasonry banned by, 2:881
Index of Prohibited Books and, 1:5,
214
Italian politics and, 2:972; 3:1199
as Kulturkampf target, 3:1277, 1278,
1279; 4:1720
Leo XIII and, 3:1329–1333
Maistre on, 3:1422
Napoleon and, 1:381, 420;
2:527–529, 846; 3:1192, 1584,
1586, 1587–1588, 1597, 1598;
4:1718
Pius IX and, 4:1794–1798
political Catholicism and, 1:389
Restoration and, 1:387; 4:1968
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 1:380, 382, 392, 393;
3:1195–1196, 1199, 1480, 1604;
4:1725
Roman Question and, 4:2024–2026
Rome and, 4:2033–2035, 2037
state alliances with, 1:380–381, 387
ultramontanism and, 1:381–384,
388; 4:1721, 1722
See also papal infallibility; Papal State;
specific popes by name
Papadiamantopoulos, Yannis. See
Moréas, Jean
papal infallibility, 1:387, 388;
4:1721–1723
Acton’s opposition to, 1:6; 4:1722
Bismarck’s reaction to, 2:966
Brentano’s opposition to, 1:298
Döllinger’s opposition to, 4:1722
Francis Joseph and, 2:864
Kulturkampf as reaction to, 3:1277,
1278; 4:1723
Maistre’s defense of, 3:1422
Manning’s defense of, 3:1441
opponents of, 4:1722–1723
Pius IX and, 1:382; 4:1719, 1723,
1795, 1798
Protestant concerns about,
4:1895–1896
secularization and, 4:2134; 5:21
INDEX
ultramontanism and, 1:382
Papal State, 2:539; 3:119;
4:1723–1726
Austria and, 4:2000, 2001
Carbonari and, 1:360, 361; 4:2131
France and, 4:2001
Garibaldi invasion of, 4:2004;
5:2411
Napoleonic Empire and, 2:895;
3:1192, 1597, 1599; 4:1718,
1724
Pius IX and, 4:1794, 1795, 1796,
1797, 1990
Restoration period and, 3:1195;
4:1718, 1724, 1970
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1718,
1724, 1985
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987,
1994, 2002
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 1:382, 392; 3:1198, 1592,
1604; 4:1717, 1719
Roman Question, 4:2024–2026
Roman Republic and, 4:2188
Rome and, 4:2033–2034
See also papacy
Papal University of the Sapienza,
4:2024
papermaking, 2:792
Pappe, H. O., 3:1514
Pappenheim, Bertha (‘‘Anna O.’’),
2:904, 905; 4:1904
Pappenheim, Marie, 4:2102
Parade (Satie), 4:2087
Parade, La (Seurat), 4:2157
Paradis artificiels, Les (Baudelaire
translation), 1:188; 2:687
Paradise Gate (Ghiberti), 4:2008
Paradise Lost (Milton), 1:246
Chateaubriand translation of, 1:419,
420, 421
Doré illustrations of, 2:676
Füssli paintings and, 4:1703
Parasha (Turgenev), 5:2365
Parc de Montsouris (Paris), 4:1739
Parc des Buttes-Chaumont (Paris),
4:1739
Parc Monceau (Paris), 4:1732, 1739
Pardo Bazán, Emilia, 2:952; 4:2229
Parent-Duchâtelet, Alexandre-Jean-
Baptiste, 4:1884, 2301
parents. See childhood and children;
marriage and family; motherhood
Parents pauvres, Les (Balzac), 1:169
Parerga and Paralipomena
(Schopenhauer), 4:2104
Pareto, Vilfredo, 4:2215
2721
INDEX
Paria, Le (Vietnamese newspaper),
3:1144
Parieu, Esqioropi de, 3:1539
Bloody Week (1871) in, See also Paris
Commune
Paris, 4:1726–1733
absinthe and, 1:2–4
advertising and, 2:550
aerial photograph of, 4:1773
Algerian immigrants in, 1:45–46
amusement park, 4:1825
anti-Semitism and, 2:816, 1068
Arc de Triomphe, 2:737; 4:1729,
2043, 2044
as art center, 4:1701
artisans in, 1:103, 104
art nouveau in, 1:109–110; 2:815
Atget’s photographs of, 1:123–125,
124
avant-garde and, 1:153–154
Avenue de l’Opera, 2:1048, 1050
barricades in, 2:1047, 1048; 4:1731,
1735, 1736
Bastille site and, 4:1728, 1729
Bloody Week (1871) in, 3:1289;
4:1736
See also Paris Commune
bohemian life in, 3:1577–1578
bourgeois culture and, 1:287, 445
bourgeois elite in, 1:472
bourgeoisie in, 1:283, 287, 445,
472; 4:1728, 1739
bridges in, 4:1729, 1730
cabarets in, 1:335
canals in, 5:2348
Catholicism in, 1:380
Cézanne in, 1:397, 398
child abandonment in, 5:2455
cholera epidemic in, 1:437, 438;
2:765; 4:1729
cholera riots in, 2:669
Chopins circle in, 1:439
church building in, 4:1826
consumerism in, 2:548
crime sensation and, 2:575
cubist group in, 2:590–591
Czartoryski as emigré in, 2:604
Daumier caricatures and, 2:621
Degas and, 2:633–636
demography and, 4:1727–1728
department stores in, 1:288–289,
445, 484; 2:548, 550
Doré’s Dumas monument in, 2:677
Eiffel Tower, 2:736–738; 4:1731;
5:2500, 2501, 2503, 2505
2722
electric power in, 2:742
as fashion center, 1:481–483
Ferry as mayor of, 2:810
as financial center, 1:170, 174,
175, 176
fin de siècle mood of, 2:815
flâneur and, 2:825–827
football (soccer) in, 2:834
fortification of, 4:1734
foundling homes, 5:2453
Franco-Prussian War and,
4:1734–1735
See also subhead siege of
French Revolution and, 2:842,
843–844, 886, 887, 890, 891;
4:1727–1729
French Revolution mob violence in,
2:799, 845; 4:1728
Goncourt descriptive Journal on,
2:991
growth of, 1:443
hashish smoking in, 2:687
hatters strike in, 3:1284
Haussmann-amassed debt of, 4:1731
Haussmann’s reconstruction of. See
under Haussmann, Georges
Eugène
Heine in, 2:1055–1056
Herzl as correspondent in, 2:1068
homosexual subculture in, 2:1083
impressionist paintings of, 4:1732,
1739, 1792, 1793, 1794
insurrection of 1793 and, 2:974
insurrection of 1871 and. See Paris
Commune
international expositions in, 1:108,
110, 111, 113, 282, 351
Jewish quarter, 3:1228
July Days (1830), 4:1982, 1983
June Days (1848), 4:1993
Kandinsky in, 3:1246
Kropotkin in, 3:1272
Left Bank of, 4:1731
lesbian subculture in, 2:1084
Loos architectural projects in, 1382
Louis-Napoleon’s coup and, 3:1591
Manet and, 3:1431–1433
markets in, 2:1049; 3:1449
Menzel in, 3:1489–1490
Métro entrance design, 1:109–110;
2:815, 1027, 1028; 4:1732
migration and, 3:1111, 1113
monarchy and, 4:1726–1727
Monet’s paintings of, 3:1535
movie halls in, 2:560
E U R O P E
museums in, 1:228; 3:1562–1563;
4:1825
music in, 3:1566, 1567
Napoleon I and, 4:1729
Napoleonic memorials in, 1:270
Napoleonic Wars and, 2:903
Napoleon’s return and, 2:1098
Notre-Dame Cathedral, 2:737;
4:1730, 2030; 5:2422, 2423,
2424
Offenbach in, 3:1660–1662
Olympic Games and, 3:1667;
4:2246; 5:2502
opera in, 3:1567, 1572, 1670,
1671–1672, 1673
parks in, 2:1049; 4:1731, 1738,
1739–1740
photography and, 4:1772
Picasso in, 4:1781, 1782–1784
Pissarro in, 4:1792–1793
police system in, 2:837; 4:1813,
1814, 1816, 1817
population of, 1:446; 2:1087;
4:1727, 1728, 1729, 1732, 1733
posters and, 4:1845
primitivism and, 4:1875–1876
prostitution in, 4:1884, 1885
Prussian takeover of, 2:869
public health and, 4:1729, 1731,
1732–1733, 1910
radical press in, 4:1870
railroads and, 4:1932, 1936
Reign of Terror and, 4:1728, 1951
restaurants in, 4:1964–1967
revolutionary tradition of, 4:1733
Revolution of 1830 and, 1:413;
4:1733
Revolution of 1848 and, 2:849;
4:1733, 1899, 1946, 1990, 1993,
1995
Rothschilds and, 4:2040, 2041
Russian émigrés in, 3:1518, 1519
Russian opera in, 2:654–655
September Massacres of 1792 and,
2:563, 799, 891, 973; 4:2006
sewer system of, 2:1049; 4:1731,
1774
siege of (1870–1871), 2:810, 855,
868, 870; 4:1734
slum demolition in, 2:1088; 4:1733
sports in, 4:2244
street plan of, 1:451–452;
2:1047–1049, 1047, 1050, 1087;
4:1728, 1729, 1729–1730,
1731–1732, 1739
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

subway in. See Métro
syndicalism origins and, 4:2298
syphilis fears in, 4:2300
telephone service in, 5:2308
theater in, 1:229; 3:1109
universities and, 5:2381, 2386
See also University of Paris
uprising of 1839 and, 4:1963
wine consumption in, 5:2475–2476
women medical students in, 2:728
worker housing in, 2:1089, 1090,
1091
working class and, 5:2485, 2486,
2486, 2487
world’s fairs in. See Exposition
Universelle
Paris, Congress of (1856), 2:525;
3:1592
Paris, Second Treaty of (1815), 1:52;
2:524; 5:2306
Paris, Treaty of (1763), 1:343
Paris, Treaty of (1814), 2:532
Paris, Treaty of (1856), 1:39, 244;
2:579; 3:1173; 4:2067, 2085
Ottoman Empire and, 3:1174
Paris Anthropological Society, 4:1761
Paris Commune (1871), 1:248, 279,
291; 3:1216; 4:1733–1738,
1964
anarchism and, 1:56, 162
anticlericalism and, 1:68, 381;
4:1736; 5:2488
artisans and, 1:104
barricades and, 2:1048
character of, 4:1736
Clemenceau and, 1:479
Courbet and, 2:569; 3:1128
executions and, 4:1735, 1736, 1737
feminist movement and, 4:1998
Ferry’s absence from, 2:810
First International and, 2:825; 3:1289
Goncourt’s description of, 2:991
Guesde and, 2:1025
Hugo and, 2:1095
impressionists linked with, 3:1127,
1128
as Malatesta influence, 3:1424
Marx and, 4:2204–2205; 5:2486
Mazzini’s condemnation of, 3:1481
Michel’s participation in, 3:1497
origins of, 4:1733–1736
overview of, 2:855
proclamation of, 4:1736
repression following, 2:856–857, 858
secret societies and, 4:2132
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
significance of, 4:1736–1737
survivors’ Jura Mountains
community and, 3:1272
Thiers and, 5:2311
violent suppression of, 3:1289
working class and, 5:2485, 2486,
2491
Zola and, 5:2523
Paris Conservatoire, 2:630; 4:2086
Paris Declaration of 1856, 3:1173
Paris Evangelical Mission, 3:1527
Paris Expositions. See Exposition
Universelle
Paris Health Council, 4:1910
Paris in the Twentieth Century (Verne),
5:2409
‘‘Paris Manuscripts’’ (Marx), 4:2203
Paris Medical Faculty, 4:1914
Paris Observatory, 4:1921
Paris Olympic Games (1900), 3:1667;
4:2246; 5:2502
Paris Opéra, 2:1049; 3:1672; 4:1708,
1732, 1770
completion/opening of, 4:1731
exterior, 3:1672
interior, 3:1572
Rossini operas for, 3:1671
Verdi operas for, 3:1673
Wagner and, 3:1675
Paris Peace Conference (1918), 2:610
Paris Salons. See Salon (Paris)
Paris Universal Exposition. See
Exposition Universelle
Park, Frederick, 2:1084
Park, Mungo, 2:782
Parker, Barbara, 2:946
Parker, Hyde, 3:1615
Park Güell (Barcelona). See Güell Park
Parkinson’s disease, 1:408
Park of Château-Noir, The (Cézanne),
1:399
parks, 1:289; 4:1738–1741
London, 3:1373, 1375, 1378,
1600–1601; 4:1738, 1739
Paris, 2:1049; 4:1731, 1738,
1739–1740
Park Voyer d’Argenson (Van Gogh),
5:2401
Par la taille (Jarry), 3:1214
Parlement of Paris, 2:842
Parliament, British
aristocrats and, 1:80, 86
Bagehot on, 1:161
bourgeoisie vs. elite representation in,
1:290
building design for, 1:185, 186;
4:1918, 2030
INDEX
Catholic emancipation and, 1:373
Corn Law repeal and, 2:558
Corrupt Practices Act and, 2:1009
Disraeli and, 2:672–673, 674
Fox and, 2:839–840
Gladstone and, 1:2976–2978; 2:978
House of Lords’ diminished power
and, 2:730
Indian government and, 3:1135
Irish Home Rule and, 3:1181, 1184
Irish representation in, 1:373; 2:999;
3:1177, 1184
Irish withdrawal from, 3:1185
Labour Party and, 3:1295–1297
liberalism and, 3:1345
Macaulay’s speeches in, 3:1407
monarchs’ relationship with, 2:1001
Peel and, 4:1758–1759
reform advocates and, 2:1002, 1004,
1008
See also Reform Act of 1832;
Reform Act of 1867; Reform Act
of 1884
religious test for, 2:1003
representation and, 2:1001, 1003
Wellington and, 2:1003, 1005;
4:1758
Parliament, Irish
Castlereagh and, 1:373
independence war and, 3:1185
merger with British Parliament of,
2:999
Parnell’s policy and, 2:1009
Pitt and, 3:1177
Parliament, Scottish. See Parliament,
British
Parliament Act of 1911 (Britain),
3:1369
Parliament Building (Budapest),
1:310, 311
Parliament Building (London). See
Houses of Parliament
Parliament Building (Ottawa), 1:345
Parliament of Frankfurt. See Frankfurt
Parliament
Parma, 1:392; 2:531, 533; 3:1193;
4:1970, 1985, 2001, 2131
Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1193,
1599
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 3:1198, 1592
Spanish Bourbons and, 3:1191
Parnell, Anna, 4:1741
Parnell, Charles Stewart,
4:1741–1742; 5:2322
aims of, 2:1009–1010
2723
INDEX
divorce scandal and, 2:978, 1011;
3:1181–1182; 4:1742
Parnok, Sofia, 4:2183
Parr, Samuel, 2:981
Parricide, A (cartoon), 4:1870
Parsifal (Wagner), 3:1571, 1674,
1675; 5:2431
Parsons, Charles Algernon, 3:1161
Parthenon (Athens), 1:125; 3:1376,
1562
Parthenopean Republic (Naples),
3:1192, 1581, 1597;
4:2186–2189
Parthe River, 3:1320
Parti Ouvrier (France), 1:127; 2:1025;
4:2205
Parti Socialiste Unifie (France), 2:859
Partitions of Poland. See Poland,
partitions of
Partito Populare Italiano, 1:389
Partridge, Ralph, 4:2259
Party of Order (France), 1:271
Party of People’s Freedom (Russia). See
Kadets
Party of the People’s Will (Russia). See
People’s Will
Pascendi Dominici Gregis (encyclical,
1907), 4:1721
Pas d’acier (Prokofiev), 2:655
Paseo de Gracia (Barcelona), 1:181
Pashalik of Belgrade. See Serbia
pashas, 5:2362
Pašić, Nikola, 1:242, 243; 4:2145
Passage to India, A (Forster), 2:836
Passanante, Giovanni, 5:2377
Passant, Le (Coppée), 1:229
Passeig de Colom (Barcelona), 1:183
Passy, Frédéric, 4:1695, 1697
Past and Present (Carlyle), 1:373;
4:2206
Pasternak, Boris, 4:2182, 2183
Pasteur, Louis, 2:659; 4:1742–1745,
1744, 2110, 2113
anthrax and, 4:1744–1745
as cultural hero, 2:738; 4:1882
disease decline and, 2:628, 644
fermentation and, 4:1743; 5:2477
germ theory and, 3:1358; 4:1743,
1744, 2135
Koch’s critique of, 3:1263
public health and, 4:1914
Pasteur Institutes, 1:438; 4:1745
pasteurization, 2:628, 645, 659;
3:1164; 4:1742, 1743; 5:2361,
2477
Pastor Aeternus (papal bull, 1870),
4:1895–1896
See also papal infallibility
2724
‘‘Pastoral’’ (Sixth) Symphony
(Beethoven), 1:197
pastoral poetry, 4:1756
Pastrone, Giovanni, 1:443
Pastry Cooks’ revolt (1843), 1:181
pataphysics (absurdist idea), 3:1213
patent medicines, 2:686
patents, 4:2111
bicycle, 2:600
scientific discoveries, 2:595
Siemens and, 4:2179
wireless telegraphy, 3:1444
Patents and Designs Act of 1907
(Britain), 3:1369
Pater, Walter, 2:632; 4:1745–1747,
1770
paternalism
industrial, 1:446; 2:793, 1087,
1088; 3:1275
private poor relief and, 4:1851, 1854
paternity suits, 4:1886
Pathé, 3:1483
Pathé, Charles and Emile, 2:551;
3:1397
Pathé Frères, 1:442
Pathetique (Tchaikovsky), 5:2307
pathological anatomy, 3:1297, 1298;
4:2135
Pathological Institute (Berlin), 5:2425
pathology, 5:2425
Patience (Gilbert and Sullivan), 5:2464
Patkanian, Raphael, 1:88
Patmore, Coventry, 2:943
patriarchy
bourgeois family as, 1:287
Dohm feminist writings against,
2:675
fin de siècle challenges to, 2:816
French Revolutionary ideals and,
2:941; 3:1595
masculinity and, 3:1470
Napoleonic Code and, 3:1595
Russian autocratic system and,
2:1017
Patrie, La (Parisian newspaper),
4:1866
Patrimonium Petri, 4:1723, 1724,
1725, 1726
Patriotica (Struve), 4:2271
patriotism
conservatism and, 2:540
jingoism and, 3:1234–1235
nationalism and, 4:1826
Patriot League (France), 1:282;
4:2243
Patriots (Netherlands), 3:1616
patrolman. See police and policing
E U R O P E
Patten, Simon Nelson, 4:2235
Patterson, Julia (Jenny), 4:2166
Pauk, Fritz, 1:427
Paul, Jean (Jean Paul Friedrich
Richter), 1:296; 2:873
Paul I, emperor of Russia, 1:375;
3:1265; 4:1747–1748, 2049
assassination of, 4:1748
Czartoryski and, 2:603
Napoleonic Wars and, 2:901
parentage of, 1:375; 4:1747, 1748
son Alexander I and, 1:37; 4:1748
Paul Sacher Foundation, 4:2263
Paulze, Marie Anne, 3:1312
paupers. See poverty
Pausanias Description of Greece
(Frazer), 2:872
‘‘Pauvre Belgique!’’ (Baudelaire),
1:188
Pavane pour une infante défunte
(Ravel), 4:1944
Pavı́a y Lacy, Manuel, 4:2231
Pavillon d’Armide (ballet), 3:1642
Pavlov, Ivan, 4:1748–1749, 1908
Pavlova, Anna, 2:655; 3:1642;
4:1749–1751, 1750
pawnshops, 2:550, 571; 3:1582
Pax Britannica, 5:2321
Paxton, Joseph, 2:587, 589; 4:1738
Paxton, Robert, 5:2494
Payne-Townshend, Charlotte, 4:2166
Paysage aux arbre rouge (Vlaminck),
2:796
Paysans au XIXe siècke, Les
(Bonnemère), 4:1753
Peace—Burial at Sea (Turner), 4:1704
Peace Law of 1886 (Prussia), 3:1279
peace movements. See pacifism
Peace of Paris. See Paris, Treaty of
Peacock Skirt, The (Beardsley), 1:193
peanut oil, 1:15
peanuts, 1:20, 21
Pearse, Patrick, 3:1181, 1185; 5:2510
Pearson, Cyril, 1:159
Pearson, Karl, 2:770, 927; 3:1409;
4:2248, 2249
Peary, Robert, 2:783
peasant art, 1:112
Peasant Land Bank (Russia), 4:2257
peasant revolts, 1:376; 2:669;
4:1754–1755, 2067
Poland and, 4:1755
populist incitement of, 4:1831–1832
Russia and, 1:376; 2:669; 3:1328;
4:1755, 1831–1832
Sicilian Fasci and, 4:2173–2175
Sicily and, 3:1414, 1415
peasants, 1:475–476; 4:1751–1757
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Agricultural Revolution and, 1:26, 28
Alexandra and, 1:42
army enlistment and, 1:96
Baltic provinces and, 2:818, 819,
821, 822
Bohemian Lands and, 1:260
Bosnia-Herzegovina and,
1:273–274, 275–276; 4:2067
Bulgaria and, 1:313; 4:2067
children and, 1:431
consumerism and, 2:549, 550
Denmark and, 2:647
education and, 1:431; 2:719, 726
food riots and, 4:1754–1755
French counterrevolutionary
movement and, 2:563, 844
French protests and, 1:359; 2:858
French Revolution and, 2:842–843,
886, 886, 897; 4:1755
German Center Party and, 1:394
Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:138,
139, 142, 145, 260
Herzen’s view of, 2:1065
Indochina and, 3:1143
Ireland and, 3:1178, 1179, 1181
Irish famine deaths of, 2:1005; 4:1751
Japan and, 3:1208
landholders and, 3:1305
Lithuanian culture and, 3:1366, 1367
marriage and family life and,
3:1455–1456
migration and, 3:1110; 4:1753, 1756
military conscription of, 1:94; 3:1506
as Millet painting subject,
3:1515–1516; 4:1757
Napoleon’s popularity with, 2:1098
national consciousness lack in, 3:1606
naturalist portrayal of, 4:1947
nobility and, 1:82–83
People’s Will and, 4:1767
pogroms by, 1:73
Poland and, 4:1809
popular culture and, 4:1821–1822
populists’ view of, 4:1831–1832
realist portrayal of, 4:1946–1947
Restoration and, 2:1098
Revolutions of 1848 and, 2:961;
4:1754, 1988, 1991
Romania and, 4:2017–2018
romanticized view of, 4:1756, 1757
Russian communes and, 4:2052,
2151, 2153, 2195, 2196, 2257;
5:2460
Russian emancipation of. See serfs,
emancipation of
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Russian Great Reforms and,
2:1014–1016
Russian military colonies and, 4:2050
Russian repression of, 1:376, 377
Russian Revolution of 1905 and,
3:1328; 4:1976, 1978, 2056;
5:2485
Scotland and, 4:2120
Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2138, 2140
Serbia and, 3:1247; 4:2141, 2144,
2147
sexuality and, 4:2161–2162
Sicilian Fasci and, 4:2173–2175, 2178
Sicily and, 3:1414, 1415;
4:2173–2175, 2176, 2178
Slavophile view of, 4:2195, 2196
socialism and, 4:2210
Sweden and, 4:2284
Switzerland and, 4:2288
Turgenev on, 5:2365, 2460
Turkish Armenia and, 1:88, 89–90
Ukraine and, 5:2369–2373, 2372
Vietnam and, 3:1137
zemstvo statistical findings on, 4:1832
See also feudalism; serfs,
emancipation of
Peasants into Frenchmen (Weber),
3:1522
Pease, Edward Reynolds, 2:787; 5:2444
peat house (Ireland), 4:1753
Peau de chagrin, La (Balzac), 1:168
Peccatrice, Una (Verga), 5:2407
Pecci, Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffael
Luigi. See Leo XIII
Pechstein, Max, 1:154
peddlers, Jewish, 3:1230, 1231
pedophilia, 3:1270
Pedro I, emperor of Brazil (Dom
Pedro), 4:1839, 1840, 1985
Pedro V, king of Portugal, 4:1841
Peel, Robert, 4:1757–1760
Catholic emancipation and, 1:381;
4:1758
conservatism and, 2:540
Corn Laws repeal and, 2:540, 559,
672, 1004–1005; 4:1759
Disraeli and, 2:672
Gladstone and, 2:976, 977, 1004
Irish Potato Famine and, 2:1005;
4:1759
liberalism and, 3:1345
police system and, 4:1758, 1814
policies of, 2:1004–1005;
4:1757–1759
popularity of, 4:1759
as prime minister, 4:1758–1759
INDEX
Scotland and, 2:1006
Tennyson and, 5:2309
Tories and, 5:2322, 2462
Victoria and, 5:2412, 2413
Wellington and, 5:2457
William IV and, 5:2471
Peer Gynt (Ibsen), 3:1107
Grieg’s score for, 4:2287
Péguy, Charles, 1:213; 3:1218;
4:1760–1761, 2015
Peintre de la vie moderne, Le
(Baudelaire), 1:188; 3:1128,
1529, 1543
Peking Convention (1869), 3:1579
Péladan, Joséphin, 2:633; 4:2086,
2295
Pelican, The (Strindberg), 4:2269
Pélissier, Aimable-Jean-Jacques, 2:579
Pélissier, Olympe, 4:2038
Pelléas et Mélisande (Debussy), 2:631;
3:1675
Pelleas und Melisande (Schoenberg),
4:2102
Pelletier, Madeleine, 4:1761–1762,
2281
Pellico, Silvio, 2:930
Pellizza da Volpedo, Giuseppe, 4:1757
Pelloutier, Fernand, 1:59, 60; 4:2298
Pelloux, Luigi, 5:2377–2378
Peloponnesian War, 3:1612
penal colonies. See exile, penal
penance, 1:378
Pencil of Nature, The (Talbot), 4:1771
penicillin, 4:2303
Penikese Island (Mass.), 1:23
Peninsular War, 1:180; 2:846, 891,
895, 899, 900, 901; 3:1339,
1587, 1599; 4:1762–1767,
1838, 1839, 2225, 2226–2228
background of, 4:1763–1764
Britain and, 2:1002; 4:1764–1766,
1839
Ferdinand VII and, 2:808–809;
4:1764
impact of, 4:1765–1767
Spanish ideological divide and, 1:366
tobacco smoking and, 5:2314
Penjdeh (1887), 2:1033
Pennsylvania Magazine, 4:1700
Penny Magazine, 4:1867, 1868
Pensieri (Leopardi), 3:1333
pensions, 1:320, 357; 2:648, 1012;
3:1663; 4:1915; 5:2452–2455,
2454, 2455
Bismarck and, 1:239, 291, 321, 356,
459; 2:540, 966; 3:1664; 4:1854,
1915; 5:2450, 2453
2725
INDEX
Britain and, 3:1369, 1370, 1664
for mothers, 5:2452
Siemens’s innovations and, 4:2179
for widows, 5:2455
See also old age insurance; pensions
Pentarchy (Italy), 2:582
People, The (French journal), 3:1285
People, The (Michelet), 3:1499
People of Hemsö, The (Strindberg),
4:2269
People’s Association for Catholic
Germany, 1:383; 5:2474
People’s Budget of 1909 (Britain),
1:114; 2:597–598, 1012
Lloyd George and, 3:1369
People’s Charter. See Chartism
People’s Commissariat of Internal
Affairs, 4:2165
People’s International League, 3:1605
People’s Socialists, 4:2211
People’s Vengeance, The, 3:1614
People’s Will, 3:1326, 1614;
4:1767–1769, 1800, 1832,
1975, 2052, 2210
Pepel (Bely), 1:209
Perceval, Spencer, 3:1391
Percher, Jean-Hippolyte, 2:695
Percier, Charles, 3:1602
Percy Bysshe Shelley (Severn), 4:2028
Père Goriot, Le (Balzac), 1:168, 472
Peregrinations of a Pariah (Tristan),
5:2357
Pereire family, 4:2080
Père Lachaise cemetery (Paris),
2:1050; 4:1736, 1737, 1794
perestroika, 4:2196
Perevodchik/Tercüman (Russian
Muslim newspaper), 3:1207
Perfect Sublime Masters (secret
society), 1:360
Pergamon, 1:219
Périchole, La (Offenbach), 3:1660
Pericles, 2:1018
Périer, Casimir-Pierre, 1:284, 438
periodic table, 1:426, 427
Perkin, William Henry, 3:1159
Permanent Court of Arbitration,
2:952; 3:1174
Permanent Court of International
Justice, 3:1174
Permoti Nos (encyclical, 1895), 3:1332
Pernerstorfer, Engelbert, 1:10
Pérouse, comte de, 2:782
Perovskaya, Sofya, 4:1832
Perrault, Claude, 4:1726
Perrin, Jean-Baptiste, 3:1409
Perry, Matthew Calbraith, 3:1209
Perry, Oliver Hazard, 5:2440
2726
Persia, 1:49; 5:2500
Armenians in, 1:87
Russia and, 4:2164
Russian–British competition in,
1:395
Russian war with, 3:1625
slave trade ban and, 1:308
Persian Gulf, 1:16
personal fallacy, 1:103
perspectivism, 3:1630, 1631, 1635
Persuasion (Austen), 1:130
Perth, 4:2117
Peru, 2:687, 939; 4:1795, 1949
perversion, Krafft-Ebing definition of,
3:1270, 1271
Pesaro festival, 3:1670
Pescadores, 1:424
Peschka, Anton, 4:2090
Pest
as administrative center, 1:309–310
Revolution of 1848 and, 1:141
voluntary associations and, 1:117
See also Budapest
Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich,
3:1454–1455
Pétain, Philippe, 1:269, 271; 3:1477
Peter I (the Great), emperor of Russia,
1:208; 2:1014; 4:1918, 2048
army reform and, 3:1280–1281
beards and, 1:190
bureaucracy of, 1:322–323
Catherine II and, 1:374, 375
expansionism and, 1:278
Orthodox Church reform and,
4:2059, 2060; 5:2369
as Paul I’s model, 4:1747
penal exile and, 2:780–781
St. Petersburg and, 4:2048,
2075–2076
Slavophile view of, 4:2194, 2195
Table of Ranks and, 1:286, 323
Westernization and, 5:2365, 2460
Peter III, emperor of Russia, 1:375;
4:1747
Peter I, bishop of Montenegro,
3:1539, 1541
Peter II, bishop of Montenegro,
3:1540, 1541
Peter and Paul Fortress (Russia),
3:1272
Peter I, king of Serbia, 1:207
Peter Leopold, ruler of Tuscany,
3:1191
Peterloo massacre (1819), 3:1285
Peter Porcupine (pseud.). See Cobbett,
William
Peters, August, 3:1680, 1681
E U R O P E
Peters, Carl, 5:2353
Petersburg (Bely), 1:209; 2:774;
4:2079
Pétion, Alexandre, 2:1037
Pétion de Villeneuve, Jérome, 2:973,
974; 4:2006
Petipa, Marius, 2:655; 4:1750
Petit-Breton, Lucien, 2:602
petite bourgeoisie. See lower middle
class
Petite république socialiste, La (journal),
3:1216, 1217
petitioning, 2:511
‘‘Petition of a Girl’’ (Otto), 3:1680
Petit Journal (Parisian daily), 4:1868
Petit messe solennelle (Rossini), 4:2038
Petit Palais (Paris), 5:2502, 2505
Petit Parisien, Le (newspaper), 2:575,
859
Petrashevsky Circle, 2:678; 3:1626
Petrograd. See St. Petersburg
Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and
Soldiers’ Deputies, 3:1519
petroleum. See oil industry
Petroushka (Stravinsky), 2:654, 655
Petrović, Djordje. See Karadjordje
Petrović family, 3:1539, 1540
Petrunkevich, Ivan, 3:1241; 4:2055
Petrushka (Stravinsky), 2:654; 3:1642;
4:2262
pets, 2:766
Pettenkofer, Max Josef von, 4:1914
Petty, William. See Shelburne, earl of
Petty-Fitzmaurice, Henry. See
Lansdowne, Lord
Peugeot (automobile manufacturer),
1:148; 5:2352
Pezza, Michele (Fra Diavolo), 2:571
Pfeffer, Wilhelm, 2:652
Pfennigmagazine (German
newspaper), 4:1868
Pflanze, Otto, 2:964
Phalanx (Fourierist utopian
community), 2:838
Phalanx (Kandinsky art group), 3:1244
phalanxes, 4:2202; 5:2397
Phanariot Greeks, 2:1018
Phan Boi Chau, 3:1143–1144
Phan Dinh Phung, 3:1141, 1144
Phan Thanh Gian, 3:1141
Pharmacists Pension Fund (Russia),
4:2256–2257
Phèdre (Racine), 1:229
phénakistoscope, 1:441
phenomenology
Brentano and, 1:299
Dilthey and, 2:660, 661
Goethe and, 2:986
Hegel and, 2:1052, 1053, 1054
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Husserl and, 2:1099, 1100, 1101;
4:1907
Phenomenology of Spirit, The (Hegel),
2:1052, 1053, 1054
Pheraios, Rigas. See Velestinlis, Rigas
Phidias, 3:1166
Philadelphia Academy, 3:1131
Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition
(1876), 2:589; 3:1661; 5:2499
Philanthropist (periodical), 3:1510
philanthropy. See charity; welfare
philhellenic movement, 3:1685;
4:1769–1770
Byron and, 1:333; 3:1604–1605;
4:1770
Greek War of Independence and,
3:1685
Olympic Games and, 3:1665, 1666,
1668
Pater and, 4:1746
Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1982
Philike Hetairia, 4:1981–1982
Philiki Etairia, 2:1019
Philip III, king of Spain, 3:1414
Philip IV, king of Spain, 3:1414
Philipon, Charles, 2:621, 676; 3:1577
Philippe Égalité (Louis-Philippe-
Joseph), 3:1387, 1388
Philippines, 2:949; 3:1414; 4:2231;
5:2313
Phillimore, George, 3:1175
Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of
Our Ideas of the Sublime and the
Beautiful (Burke), 1:326
Philosophical Essay on Man, A (Marat),
3:1442
Philosophical Fragments (Kierkegaard),
3:1251
Philosophical Letters (Chaadayev),
1:399, 400; 2:772
Philosophical Principles of Integral
Knowledge, The (Soloviev), 2:773
Philosophical Society, 4:2233
‘‘Philosophical Truth and the Moral
Truth of the Intelligentsia’’
(Berdyayev), 1:212
‘‘Philosophical View of Reform, A’’ (P.
B. Shelley), 4:2170
Philosophic Nosography (Pinel), 4:1791
philosophic radicalism. See
utilitarianism
Philosophic Radicals (Britain), 1512;
3:1513
Philosophie der neuen Musik (Adorno),
4:2262
Philosophie pénale, La (Tarde), 2:574
Philosophie zoologique (Lamarck),
3:1302
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Philosophische Studien (journal),
4:1908; 5:2507
philosophy
Bentham and, 1:210–211
Berdyayev and, 1:211–213
Berlin as center of, 1:215
Brentano and, 1:298–299
Coleridge and, 1:497
Comte and, 2:522–524
Croce and, 2:583–585
Dilthey and, 2:660–661
Durkheim and, 2:698
evolution theories and,
2:615–616, 618
Fichte and, 2:813–814; 3:1604
fin de siècle and, 2:815
Frege and, 2:883–884
Godwin and, 2:980–982
Goethe and, 2:982–987
Hegel and, 2:1051–1054;
3:1463–1464
Helmholtz and, 2:1058
Herder and, 2:1059–1062
Hölderlin and, 2:1078, 1079
Husserl and, 2:1099–1101
Jaurès and, 3:1214, 1215
Kierkegaard and, 3:1250–1254
libertine pornography and,
4:1833–1884
Mach and, 3:1409–1410
Marx and, 3:1463–1464
Maxwell and, 3:1477–1478
Mill (James), 3:1510–1512
Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1512–1515
nationalism and, 3:1604–1605
Naturphilosophie and, 2:615
Nietzsche and, 3:1628–1636
Novalis and, 3:1647–1648
Ortega y Gasset and, 4:2232
Poland and, 4:1808, 1811
positivism and, 4:1843–1844
psychology and, 4:1907–1908
Romanticism and, 4:2030–2031
Schelling and, 4:2031, 2087–2089
Schopenhauer and, 4:2030,
2103–2106
Soloviev (Vladimir) and,
4:2215–2217
Spencer and, 4:2233–2235
utilitarianism, 5:2392–2394
Young Hegelians and,
5:2512–2513
Philosophy in the Bedroom (Sade),
4:2074
Philosophy of Art (Schelling), 4:2088
INDEX
Philosophy of Money, The (Simmel),
4:2184, 2215
Philosophy of Revelation (Schelling
lecture series), 4:2088
Philosophy of Right, The (Hegel),
2:1053
Philosophy of the Practical (Croce),
2:584
Philosphie der Arithmetik: Psychologische
und logische Untersuchungen
(Husserl), 2:1100
Phipps, James, 3:1223
phlogiston theory, 1:424; 3:1312
Phoenicians, 3:1481
Phoenix Park murders (Ireland),
4:1741, 1742
phonograph, 3:1398
photoelectric effect, 2:740
photography, 4:1770–1774
amateur, 4:1773, 1774
Atget and, 1:123–125
color, 3:1397–1398, 1578; 4:1774
crime detection and, 2:576; 4:1816
Daguerre and, 2:605–607; 4:1770
impressionist painting and, 3:1128
Lumière brothers and, 3:1396–1398
montage and, 2:593
Nadar and, 3:1577, 1578; 4:1772
naturalism and, 4:1708
naturalists’ use of, 4:1948
newspapers and, 4:1773–1774,
1823, 1867
pornography and, 4:1834, 1835
spirit manifestations and, 4:2238
wartime uses of, 2:580
See also cinema
photons, 2:740
Photorama, 3:1397
Phrenological Association, 4:1775
phrenology, 2:523, 925–926;
4:1774–1776, 1775, 1776, 1822
positivism and, 4:1844
phylloxera, 1:47; 4:1776–1778;
5:2337, 2477
phylogenetic tree (Haeckel concept),
2:1031
physical chemistry, 1:426, 427
physical fitness, 1:215
Physical Society (Germany), 2:1057
physics, 4:1778–1781
chemistry and, 1:424, 427
Einstein and, 2:739–740;
4:1780–1781
Helmholtz and, 2:1057–1058
Hertz and, 2:1062–1063; 4:1780
Kelvin and, 3:1249–1250; 4:1780
Laplace and, 4:1780
2727
INDEX
Mach and, 3:1408–1410
Marconi and, 3:1444–1445; 4:1780
Maxwell and, 3:1477–1478; 4:1780
natural philosophy vs., 4:1778–1779
oceanic exploration and, 3:1658
Planck and, 4:1798–1800
quantum mechanics and, 1:427;
4:1781
Roentgen and, 4:2012
Rutherford and, 4:2070–2071
Swedish contributions to, 4:2285
Physics and Politics (Bagehot), 1:161
Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt
(Berlin), 2:1057
physiocrats, 1:269; 2:515; 3:1304;
4:1887
Physiognomical System of Drs. Gall and
Spurzheim, The (Spurzheim),
2:926
physiognomy, 2:926
physiology, 5:2507
Bernard and, 1:227–228
biochemistry and, 1:426
body and, 1:251
child development and, 1:428
Helmholtz and, 2:1057, 1058
Pavlov and, 4:1748–1749, 1908
psychology and, 4:1908
Physiology of Industry, The (Hobson
and Mummery), 2:1075, 1076
Physiology of Taste (Brillat-Savarin),
4:1965
Piacenza, 3:1193
piano
amateur players of, 3:1566
Beethoven and, 1:195, 196; 3:1577
chamber music and, 3:1568
Chopin and, 1:439–440; 3:1571
Debussy and, 2:631
home owners of, 3:1566
Liszt and, 3:1359–1360, 1566, 1571
Mussorgsky and, 3:1575
Piano Concerto in G (Ravel), 4:1944
Piano Trio in A Minor (Ravel), 4:1944
Piazza Cordusio (Milan), 3:1503
Picabia, Francis, 2:591
Pica Law of 1863 (Italy), 2:571
Picasso, Pablo, 3:1167;
4:1781–1784, 1783, 1865, 2232
absinthe depiction by, 1:3
Beardsley drawings and, 1:192
Blue Period of, 4:1781–1792
cabaret exhibitions of, 1:335
collage and, 2:591, 592; 4:1784
cubism and, 1:156; 2:590, 591, 592,
593; 3:1530; 4:1710, 1783–1784
2728
Daumier as influence on, 2:622
Diaghilev and, 2:655
Doré folio engravings and, 2:677
futurism and, 2:920
photography and, 4:1773
primitivism and, 4:1782, 1783,
1875, 1876
Rose Period and, 4:1782
Satie and, 4:2087
Seurat and, 4:2158
Picken, T., 2:588
Pickhanov, Georgy, 3:1487
pickpockets, 2:573, 575, 576; 3:1375
Pickwick Papers, The (Dickens), 2:656,
657
Picquart, Georges, 2:684, 685
pictorialism (photographic),
4:1772–1773
Picture of Dorian Gray, The (Wilde),
2:687; 4:2255; 5:2464–2465
Pictures at an Exhibition
(Mussorgsky), 3:1575
Pictures from Italy (Dickens), 2:656;
5:2403
picturesque ideal, 3:1600–1601;
4:1738, 1756
Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast
of England (Turner), 5:2367
Picture with a Circle (Kandinsky),
3:1244
piecework, 1:474
Piedmont-Savoy, 1:143, 244; 2:533,
534, 662, 962; 3:1267;
4:1784–1787, 1970, 1981
administration of unified Italy by,
3:1199
Austria and, 4:2001, 2002
Cavour and, 1:390, 390–393, 391;
2:662, 866; 3:1198; 4:1786
Charles Albert and, 1:413–414;
3:1195
Congress of Vienna and, 3:1193;
4:1785
Crimean War and, 2:1007; 3:1198;
4:1787
education in, 2:724
France and, 3:1198, 1592; 4:2001;
5:2306
Franco-Austrian War and,
2:866–867; 3:1592
liberalism and, 3:1346
Maistre and, 3:1421–1422
monetary system and, 3:1538
Napoleonic occupation of,
2:899–900, 902; 3:1192, 1193,
1584; 4:1786
Papal State and, 4:1726, 1797
E U R O P E
Pius IX and, 4:1797
press freedom and, 4:1870
reform and, 3:1191, 1195, 1197
Restoration and, 4:1967, 1969
Revolution of 1820 and, 2:959;
3:1194, 1494
Revolution of 1848 and, 4:1987,
1993, 1994, 2002, 2003
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 3:1195, 1197–1199, 1255;
4:1785, 1787, 1902, 2000
Roman Question and, 4:2024
sister republics and, 4:2187
territorial ambitions of, 3:1191,
1193, 1198
Venice and, 5:2403, 2403–2404,
2404
Victor Emmanuel I and, 4:1969
Victor Emmanuel II and, 4:2004;
5:2409–2411
Piège de Méduse, Le (Satie), 4:2087
Pieroni Bortolotti, Franca, 3:1556
Pierre Joseph Proudhon and His Children
in 1853 (Courbet), 4:1898
Pierrot Lunaire, (Schoenberg), 4:2103
Pieta (Kollwitz), 4:2092
Pietism, 3:1527; 4:1894–1895
Pignatelli family, 1:322
Pignier, Alexandre-René, 1:296–297
Pigott, Richard, 4:1742
Pig War, 4:2147, 2148
Pilcher, Percy, 1:30
pilgrimages, 3:1324; 4:1787–1790,
1826
Catholic women and, 1:383
Germany and, 2:950
Muslims and, 1:396, 436
women’s travel and, 5:2329–2330
Pilipon, Charles, 3:1389
Pillars of Society (Ibsen), 3:1107
Pilo, Rosolino, 4:2034
Pilsen, 1:261, 263
Pilsudski, Józef, 4:1811, 1812
Pimlico (London neighborhood),
3:1373
Pinard, Adolphe, 2:771
Pindar, 2:1078
Pineda, Mariana, 4:2229
Pinel, Philippe, 4:1790–1792, 1959
Pineles, Friedrich, 1:65
pin factory (A. Smith example),
2:712–713
Pinsker, Leo, 5:2520
Pioneers of Civilization: John Bull
Bringing Peace and Civilization
to the World (cover illustration),
1:463
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Piou, Jacques, 1:389
Pipes, Richard, 4:2270
pipe smoking, 5:2314
piracy. See privateering and piracy
Piraeus, 1:125
Pirata, Il (Bellini), 3:1671
Pirelli rubber products, 3:1502, 1504
Pisarev, Dmitri, 3:1639–1640, 1641
Pisarevshchina. See nihilists
Piscine, La (Matisse), 3:1475
Pisemsky, Alexei, 3:1641
Pissarro, Camille, 2:939; 3:1131;
4:1757, 1792–1794
Corot as influence on, 2:562
Degas’s friendship with, 2:634
impressionism and, 3:1126, 1127,
1128, 1130–1131, 1534; 4:1708,
1710
Impressionist Exhibition and, 4:1955
Parisian scenes and, 4:1732, 1792,
1793, 1794
Seurat and, 4:2156–2157
Pissarro, Lucien, 4:2156–2157
pitchblende, 2:594, 595
Pitt, William (the Elder) (Lord
Chatham), 4:2277
Pitt, William (the Younger), 1:373;
2:510, 840, 1000–1004; 4:1896,
2277; 5:2321
accomplishments of, 2:1002
Fox’s views vs., 2:840, 1001
Godwin response to, 2:981
Irish union and, 2:1000–1001;
3:1176, 1177
Napoleonic Wars and, 2:901
Whigs and, 5:2460–2461
Wilberforce and, 5:2462
Pius VI, pope, 3:1192; 4:1717, 1718,
2033, 2134
Pius VII, pope, 1:68; 4:1717, 1718,
1724, 2001, 2033
Italian reform and, 3:1193; 4:1718
Napoleon I and, 1:381, 420;
2:527–529, 846; 3:1586,
1587–1588; 4:1718, 1724
Pius IX and, 4:1795, 1796
Pius IX, pope, 4:1717–1720, 1720,
1721, 1724–1725, 1794–1798,
1795, 1990
assessment of, 4:1797–1798
beatification of, 4:1798
conservatism of, 1:388; 3:1278;
4:1719–1720, 1795–1796, 1797,
1798
early life and career of, 4:1795–1796
First Vatican Council and, 4:1722,
1795
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Freemasonry ban and, 2:881
Immaculate Conception doctrine of,
1:385; 4:1788, 1795, 1797,
1798, 1891
Kulturkampf and, 3:1278, 1279,
1329; 4:1719, 1795, 1798
Leo XIII policies and, 3:1329,
1330–1331, 1332
long reign of, 4:1794, 1795
Manning and, 3:1440
Marian devotion of, 4:1797
Mickiewicz’s audience with, 3:1500
mistaken liberal label for, 1:388;
3:1196; 4:1719, 1725, 1796
papal infallibility and, 1:382; 4:1719,
1723, 1795, 1798
Papal State and, 4:1724–1725, 1726,
1794, 1795, 1796
on Protestantism, 4:1890
Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1196,
1197, 1480; 4:1719, 1796
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 1:380, 388; 3:1196, 1199;
4:1719, 1795, 1797, 1798, 2002,
2003, 2004
Roman Question and, 4:1795, 1798,
2024
Rome and, 4:2034, 2035, 2037
secularization and, 4:2134
Syllabus of Errors of, 1:6, 381–382,
388; 3:1199; 4:1722,
1797–1798, 1890
Pius VIII, pope, 1:421; 4:1718, 1724
Pius X, pope, 1:5, 385; 2:688;
4:1720–1721
Giolitti and, 2:972
modernity condemned by, 4:1893
Roman Question and, 4:2025–2026
secularization and, 4:2134
Pius XII, pope, 4:1798
Pi y Margall, Francisco, 4:2230, 2231
Plaça Reial (Barcelona), 1:181
Plaça Sant Jaume (Barcelona),
1:180–181
Place, Francis, 2:511; 3:1286, 1390
Place de la Concorde (Paris), 3:1386;
4:1727
Place del Portal de la Pau (Barcelona),
1:182
Place Louis-le-Grand (Paris). See Place
Vendôme
Place Louis XV (Paris), 4:1727
Place Vendôme (Paris), 4:1726
plague, 1:43, 376; 3:1412; 4:1751
Plain Tales from the Hills (Kipling),
3:1256
Planchon, Jules-Emile, 4:1777, 1778
INDEX
Planck, Erwin, 4:1800
Planck, Max, 2:740; 3:1409, 1535;
4:1798–1800
Planck’s constant, 4:1799
Plan des Artistes (map of Paris),
4:1728–1729
Plan of 1809 (Speransky reform
program), 4:2236
Plan of Parliamentary Reform
(Bentham), 5:2394
plants. See botany
Plassey, Battle of (1757), 2:706
Plastic Dynamism: Horse and Houses
(Boccioni), 2:919
plastics, 3:1160
Plateau, Joseph, 1:441
Plato, 1:326; 2:519–520; 4:2096,
2097, 2297; 5:2376
Plato and Platonism (Pater), 4:1746
Platonic Idea, 4:2105
Playfellow (Martineau), 3:1459
Playground of Europe, The (Stephen),
4:2253
Plaza Mayor (Madrid), 3:1414
Plea for the Citizenship of Women
(Condorcet), 2:802
Plea for Women, A (Reid), 2:802
pleasure gardens (London),
3:1377–1378
pleasure parks, 4:1738
Plebe, La (socialist newspaper), 5:2363
Plehve, Vyacheslav, 3:1627; 4:1978,
2054–2055, 2210
plein-air painting. See painting,
outdoor
Pleisse Rivr, 3:1320, 1321
Plekhanov, Georgy, 3:1170;
4:1800–1801, 2054, 2127
Bolsheviks and, 1:264, 265, 267
as Lenin influence, 3:1326–1327
Mensheviks and, 3:1488; 4:1801
Pleyel (piano maker), 1:225
Plint, Thomas, 4:1864
Pliny, 4:2124
Plmouth, Lord, 2:589
PLM Railway Company, 4:1777
Plochl, Anna, 3:1236
Ploetz, Wilhelm, 2:769
Plombières, secret agreement of
(1858), 1:392; 3:1198
Plowman (Pissarro), 4:1757
Plume, La (journal), 4:1845
plural voting, 4:2278
pneumatic boring machines, 1:487
pneumatic tires, 1:149; 2:601
Poale Zion, 5:2521
Pobedonostsev, Konstantin, 3:1627;
4:2063
pocket watch, 3:1323
2729
INDEX
Poclaert, Joseph, 1:306
Podmore, Frank, 2:787; 3:1693
Poe, Edgar Allan, 2:656; 4:1776, 2293
Baudelaire translations of, 1:187–188
Doré illustrations for, 2:676
opium use by, 2:686
Poems (Arnold), 1:102
Poems (Tennyson), 5:2309
Poems (Wordsworth), 5:2482
Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell
(Brontë family), 1:301
Poems in Prose (Turgenev), 4:2265
Poems in Two Volumes (Wordsworth),
5:2482
Poems of the Past and Present (Hardy),
2:1045
Poems on Various Subjects (Coleridge),
1:496–497
Poesia (Italian magazine), 2:917
poetry
acmeism and, 4:2182
Armenia and, 1:88, 90
Arnold and, 1:102
ballads and, 4:2123
Baudelaire and, 1:186, 187; 3:1529
Bely and, 1:208–210
Blake and, 1:244–246
Blok and, 1:249–250
Byron and, 1:332, 333
cabarets and, 1:337
Carducci and, 1:362–363
Catalonia and, 1:182
on children, 1:428
Coleridge and, 1:496, 497; 2:543
D’Annunzio and, 2:609, 610
Decadence and, 2:631, 940
Finnish and Latvian epics and, 2:820
futurism and, 4:2182–2183
Goethe and, 2:985, 987
Hardy and, 2:1045, 1046
Heine and, 2:1055, 1056
Hölderlin and, 2:1077–1079, 1078,
1079
Hugo and, 2:1092, 1093, 1095
Huysmans and, 2:1103–1104
Jarry and, 3:1213
Lake Poets an, 4:2029
Lamartine and, 3:1303
Lasker-Schüler and, 3:1309–1310
Leopardi and, 3:1333–1334
Manzoni and, 3:1441
Mickiewicz and, 3:1500–1501;
4:1818
modernism and, 3:1529
Morris and, 3:1549, 1550–1551
Norton and, 3:1645
2730
Novalis and, 3:1647–1648
pastoralism and, 4:1756
Péguy and, 4:1760–1761
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1864
Pushkin and, 4:1918–1920, 2075
Romanticism and, 2:543; 4:2027,
2029, 2030
Russia and, 1:337
Russian Silver Age and, 4:2181–2183
Russian symbolism and, 4:2181–2182
Schlegel and, 4:2095
Scott and, 4:2123
Shelley (Percy Bysshe) and, 4:2027,
2031, 2169–2170
Silver Age and, 2:774
Soloviev (Vladimir) and, 4:2216
sonnet form and, 4:2095
Strindberg and, 4:2268
symbolism and, 2:940; 3:1529;
4:2292, 2294
Symonds and, 4:2296
Tennyson and, 5:2309–2310
Turgenev and, 5:2365
Wordsworth and, 2:543; 4:2027,
2029, 2030; 5:2481–2482
Yeats and, 5:2310, 2509–2510
Poetry (Mickiewicz), 3:1500
pogroms, 1:40, 72, 76; 3:1234;
4:1801–1804
Lueger’s threats of, 3:1395
migrants from, 3:1113
Russia and, 1:76; 3:1395;
4:1802–1804, 1803, 1978, 2055,
2057; 5:2520
Russian cities and, 1:449
victims of, 1:76; 4:1803
Poincaré, Henri, 1:214; 2:593, 857,
858, 859; 4:1804–1805
Poincaré, Raymond, 1:339; 3:1218,
1317; 4:1805–1806
Action Française and, 1:5
cousin Henri and, 4:1804
Pointe de la Hève at Low Tide (Monet),
3:1535
pointillism, 3:1132, 1133, 1244,
1474; 4:1794, 2156; 5:2401
Point of View for My Activity as an
Author, The (Kierkegaard),
3:1253
Poires, Les (Pilipon engraving), 3:1389
Poiret, Paul, 1:483
Poisson, Siméon-Denis, 4:1779, 1780
Polak, Milena, 3:1243
Poland, 2:562; 4:1806–1813
anti-Semitism and, 2:753
army service and, 1:98; 4:1809
E U R O P E
Austria-Hungary and, 1:137, 140,
141, 142, 145; 4:1900, 1989
Bolsheviks and, 1:266
Bund in, 1:313, 315
cabarets in, 1:336
Catholicism in, 1:379, 380, 381,
383, 387, 388; 4:1809, 1811
Catholic nationalism and, 3:1657
cholera epidemic in, 1:436, 438
Chopin and, 1:438–439, 440;
4:1818
Congress Kingdom of, 1:38; 4:1808
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–533;
4:1808, 1817–1818
Conrad and, 2:535
Cossacks and, 2:562
Curie (Marie) and, 2:594; 4:1811
Czartoryski and, 2:602–604; 4:1807,
1808
dueling code in, 2:696
educational language and, 2:726
emigrant returns to, 2:749
emigrants from, 2:748
Endecja and, 2:752–753;
4:1811–1812, 1818
Germanization measures in, 1:239;
4:1812–1813, 1818
German unification and, 4:1809,
1812–1813, 1818, 1993
independence of (1918), 2:753;
4:1813, 1819
Jewish emigrants from, 3:1113
Jewish population of, 4:1808,
1809–1810, 1812, 1812
Kościuszko and, 3:1264–1265;
4:1807
labor movements in, 5:2489
Lithuania and, 3:1365, 1366, 1368;
5:2369, 2370, 2441
Luxemburg and, 3:1398–1399,
1400; 4:1811
Marian shrine in, 4:1790
Mickiewicz and, 3:1500–1501;
4:1808, 1811
Napoleon and, 2:553, 603, 698,
902; 3:1322, 1493, 1588;
4:1807–1808
nationalism and. See Polish national
movement
nobility in, 1:78; 4:1806, 1808,
1809, 1810, 1811
Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716
partitions of (1772, 1793, 1795),
1:137, 376, 377; 2:602–604,
661, 817, 957; 3:1603;
4:1806–1807, 1817, 1900
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

peasant uprising in, 4:1755
pogroms and, 4:1802, 1803
Prussia and, 1:239, 376; 2:957;
4:1806–1807, 1808–1809, 1900,
1937
railroads and, 4:1933
Revolution of 1830 and, 1:381;
2:604, 959, 1081; 3:1500, 1561,
1605, 1625; 4:1808, 1810, 1818,
1983–1986
Romanticism and, 4:1808
Russia and, 1:38, 39; 2:567; 4:1933,
1976, 1984, 1985, 2050; 5:2370,
2371, 2441–2442, 2511
Russian repression in, 1:42; 4:1810
Russian war against (1831), 2:669
Russification campaign in, 4:1810,
1818
serf conditions in, 4:1754
Slavophiles and, 4:2196
socialism and, 1:314; 2:753;
4:1811–1812, 1818
Soviet-German partition of, 1:315
Stolypin and, 4:2257
Ukraine and, 5:2369, 2370, 2371,
2373
universities in, 5:2380
Young Czechs and Old Czechs and,
5:2511
See also Grand Duchy of Warsaw;
Warsaw
Polaniec Manifesto, 3:1265
Polanyi, Karl, 2:707, 709, 710
polar exploration, 2:783–784
Polar Star, The (newspaper), 2:1066
Polgar, Alfred, 1:336
police and policing, 4:1813–1817
British model of, 4:1814–1815,
1817
city life and, 1:449
French model of, 2:837;
4:1813–1814, 1815
London and, 3:1375; 4:1814–1815,
1815
Peel and, 4:1758, 1814
Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1786
political surveillance and, 4:1815
prostitute regulation and, 4:1815,
1884
sensational crime books by, 2:575
Spanish paramilitary, 1:368
Police Ordinance of 1782 (Russia),
1:376
Polignac, Auguste-Jules-Armand-
Marie de, 1:43, 412, 421; 2:847;
3:1303; 4:1870, 1983; 5:2310
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Polish Foreign Legion, 3:1577
Polish Library (Paris), 2:604
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,
4:1806–1807, 1808, 1812;
5:2369, 2370, 2371
See also Lithuania; Poland; Polish
national movement
Polish National Committee, 4:1993
Polish national movement, 2:933;
3:1603–1604, 1605;
4:1817–1819; 5:2441
Chopin and, 1:440; 4:1818
Czartoryski and, 2:604; 4:1807,
1808, 1810–1811
Endecja and, 2:752–753;
4:1811–1812, 1818
Great Emigration and, 2:748;
4:1808, 1818
independence (1918) and, 2:753;
4:1813, 1819
January Uprising (1863–1864) and,
1:162; 4:1809–1811, 1818, 1831
Kościuszko and, 3:1264–1265;
4:1807
November Uprising (1830–1831)
and, 4:1808, 1810
peasants and, 4:1755
Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861,
1862
Polish Patriotic Society, 1:360
Polish Republican Society, 3:1265
Polish Uprising (1830). See November
Uprising
Polish Uprising (1864). See January
Uprising
Politecnico (Milan), 3:1502
political Catholicism. See Catholicism,
political
political clubs, 4:1991, 1992
political economy. See economics;
economists, classical
Political Economy Club (London),
3:1510
political funerals, 4:1963
political parties. See specific parties
political police, 4:1815
political posters, 4:1846
Political Register (British weekly),
1:489
political Romanticism, 4:2031
political satire, 1:336
Daumier caricatures and, 2:621–622
Dohm’s feminist writings and, 2:675
political Zionism, 5:2520–2521
Politics, The (Aristotle), 2:520
Politics and the Press, c. 1780–1850
(Aspinall), 4:1872
INDEX
‘‘Politics as a Vocation’’ (Weber),
5:2446
politique de la brèche strategy, 4:1998
politique de l’assaut strategy, 4:1998
Politique des femmes (newspaper),
2:651
polkas, 4:2260
Pollard, Albert Frederick, 2:1073
Pollock, Jackson, 3:1133
pollution, 2:764–766, 765, 1009;
3:1148; 4:1212, 1911
London and, 3:1373
public health inspectors and, 4:1910
St. Petersburg and, 4:2079
Sicily and, 4:2176
See also public health; sanitation
Polo, Marco, 4:2260
Polonceau, Antoine-Rémy, 4:1730
polonium, 2:595, 596
Polonsky, Yakov, 1:249
polygenism, 4:1924
Polynesia, 4:1875
polytechnic training, 1:260
polytheism, 2:545; 3:1632
Pomerania, 4:1900
Pomeranz, Kenneth, 2:710; 3:1150
Pomeroy-Colley, George, 3:1422,
1423
Pompignan, marquis de (Jean-Jacques
Lefranc), 2:994
Poniatowski, Stanislaw. See Stanislaw II
August Poniatowski
Ponsonby, Sarah, 2:1083–1084
Pont de Charing Cross, Le (Derain),
2:796
Pont de Chatou, Le (Vlaminck), 2:796
Pont de Westminster (Derain), 2:796
Pont du Carrousel, 4:1730
Pont-Neuf au soleil, Le (Marquet),
2:796
Pont Royal (Paris), 4:1730
Poor and Money, The (Van Gogh),
5:2400
Poor and the Police on a London Street
at Night (Doré), 4:1815
Poor Folk (Dostoyevsky), 2:678
Poor Law (Britain), 1:211; 2:714,
1003; 4:1819–1820,
1848–1849, 1850, 1852–1853,
1854; 5:2322, 2450, 2454, 2455,
2462
bureaucracy and, 1:325
Chadwick and, 1:401–402
Chartism and, 1:415
child labor and, 1:351
classical economists and, 2:716
Dicken’s critique of, 4:1820
Lovett and, 3:1390
2731
INDEX
Malthusianism and, 2:715; 3:1425,
1426
Mill (J.S.) view of, 2:718
Scotland and, 4:2119; 5:2452
Speenhamland System and, 1:358,
359, 1425; 2:709; 4:1819
Swing riots and, 1:359
Poor Law Act of 1845 (Scotland),
4:2119
Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834
(Britain). See New Poor Law of
1834
poor relief. See poverty; welfare
Poovey, Mary, 5:2481
pop art, 2:593
Pope, Alexander, 4:2027, 2254
popes. See papacy; papal infallibility;
names of specific popes
Popkin, Jeremy, 4:1869
Poplars on the Epte (Monet), 3:1536
Poplawski, Jan Ludwik, 2:752
Popolo d’Italia, Il (Mussolini
newspaper), 3:1504
Popova, Lyubov, 3:1496
Popp, Adelheid, 1:431; 3:1456
Populaire, Le (French weekly),
1:337, 338
popular and elite culture,
4:1820–1827
artisans and, 1:104
avant-garde and, 1:151–158
Berlin and, 1:215, 219–220; 3:1412
Bernhardt and, 1:229–230
blending of, 4:1824–1825
body and, 1:252–254
Bohemian Lands and, 1:261–262
Bonapartism and, 1:270
bourgeoisie and, 1:287–288
British aristocracy and, 1:86
Brussels and, 1:307
Catalanism and, 1:182
cinema and, 1:440–443; 4:1824
cities and, 1:445, 447–448, 455;
3:1412
consumerism and, 2:549–550, 551
cycling and, 2:599–602; 4:1824
death and, 2:628–629
diversity of, 4:1821–1822
Doré and, 2:277–278, 676
Dublin and, 2:693
fin de siècle and, 2:815–817
furniture and, 2:912–915
German nationalism and, 2:960–961
landowning elite and, 1:469
leisure and, 3:1322–1325; 4:1824
libraries and, 3:1350–1352
2732
London and, 3:1376–1378
Madrid and, 3:1414
mesmerism and, 3:1490–1491;
4:1822
Milan and, 3:1504
Moscow and, 3:1551–1552
museums and, 3:1561–1564
music and, 3:1565–1573
national thinking and, 3:1608
‘‘New Journalism’’ and,
4:1870–1871
old age representations and,
3:1663–1664
opera and, 3:1669–1677
Paris and, 4:1727, 1732–1733
photography and, 4:1772
phrenology and, 4:1774–1776, 1822
piano and, 1:439; 3:1566
pleasure parks and, 4:1738
pornography and, 4:1833–1836
racism and, 4:1927
regionalism and, 4:1821
restaurants and, 4:1964–1967
St. Petersburg and, 3:1552; 4:2079
seaside resorts and, 4:2125
secularization and, 4:1893–1894
Serbia and, 5:2147–2148
spiritualism and, 3:491;
4:2237–2239, 14901
sports and, 4:1824, 2240–2241,
2244, 2245
tobacco use and, 5:2314
tourism and, 5:2325–2331
voluntary associations and,
1:115–122
wine and, 5:2475
See also folk culture
Popular Front (Spain), 1:62
popular journalism, 4:1870–1871
popular sovereignty, 1:456, 457
Guizot’s denunciation of,
4:1971–1972
republicanism and, 4:1962
Popular Union. See Catholic Action
population. See birthrate; demography;
fertility rate; population, control
of; specific cities and countries
population, control of, 4:1827–1831
abortion and, 4:1762, 1827, 1829
abstinence and, 4:1827, 1829
contraceptives and, 2:645–646, 805,
947; 4:1827, 1829–1830, 1836
degeneracy theme and, 2:639
emigration and, 2:503, 960, 1005
eugenics and, 2:239, 769
E U R O P E
fertility decline and, 4:1829–1831
Godwin on, 2:981
Malthusian theory and, 2:615, 616,
714–715, 777; 3:1425–1427;
4:1827
marital age and, 4:1827–1828
migration and, 2:646
mortality and, 4:1829
neo-Malthusians and, 4:1762
peasants and, 4:1753
Pelletier and, 4:1762
Philosophic Radicals and, 3:1512
population growth (1750–1850)
and, 4:1827–1829
population growth in selected
countries (1800–1913) and,
2:644
women’s changed role and, 2:947
populism
Bonapartism and, 1:269, 271
French anti-Semitic socialists and,
1:184
German anti-Semitism and, 1:82;
2:542
See also Chartism
populists (Russian intelligentsia),
4:1831–1833, 2052, 2053, 2132
anarchist theory and, 1:62
nihilists and, 3:1640–1641
People’s Will and, 4:1767–1768,
1800
Plekhanov’s view of, 4:1800, 1801
revolutionary right and, 2:542
as socialist revolutionaries,
4:2209–2210
Struve and, 4:2270
in Ukraine, 5:2371, 2373
Zasulich and, 5:2517
porcelain
China and, 3:1151, 1152, 1678
Denmark and, 2:647
Rosenthal, 1:192
Wedgwood, 2:547; 3:1153
Porche du mystère de la deuxième vertu
(Péguy), 4:1760
pornography, 2:941; 3:1471;
4:1833–1837
bibliography of, 4:1836
origins of, 4:2029
Sade and, 4:2074
Schiele’s jailing related to, 4:2090
sex manuals seen as, 4:2163
porphyria, 5:2470
Porta, Giambattista della, 3:1580
Port Arthur (China), 1:292; 3:1212,
1507, 1628; 4:1837
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Port Arthur (Tasmania), 2:780
Porte. See Ottoman Empire
Porte Dauphine Métro station (Paris),
2:1028
Porte de Saint Ouen (Paris), 4:1735
Porte Saint-Martin (theatrical troupe),
1:229
Portland, duke of (William Henry
Cavendish Bentick), 2:839–840
Porto Novo (Dahomey), 1:15, 20
Portrait au Derain (Matisse), 3:1474
Portrait of a Roman (Rodin), 4:2008
Portrait of Gertrude Stein (Picasso),
4:1782
Portrait of Julie Manet (Morisot),
3:1544
Portrait of Kahnweiler (Picasso),
4:1784
Portrait of Louis-Auguste Cézanne, the
Artist’s Father (Cézanne), 1:398
Portrait of Millicent, Duchess of
Sutherland (Sargent), 1:85
Portrait of Père Tanguy (Van Gogh),
5:2401
Poscolo, Ugo, 3:1193–1194
Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man,
Posen. See Poznán
A (Joyce), 1:378
Poseuses, Les (Seurat), 4:2157
Portraits in Miniature (Strachey),
Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte,
4:2259
portraiture
positivism, 4:1843–1845, 2133,
painting, 4:1710, 2028
photography, 4:1772
Portsmouth, Treaty of (1905),
3:1212, 1628; 4:1837–1838,
1977, 2065
Portugal, 4:1838–1843
African colonization and, 1:19, 20,
21, 49, 499; 2:509; 4:1840,
1841, 1843
Berlin Conference and, 1:221
Brazilian independence and, 4:1838
Britain and, 2:1002; 4:1764–1766,
1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842,
1843
Catholic majority in, 1:377; 4:1842
child abandonment in, 5:2455
cholera epidemic in, 2:669
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532, 534
emigrant returns to, 2:749
emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 748
Fontainebleau Treaty and, 4:2225
foundling homes/hospitals in,
5:2451
Generation of 1870 and, 4:1840
imperialism and, 3:1114, 1116,
1151; 4:1838–1839, 1840, 1841
Marian shrine in, 4:1788
maternity hospitals in, 5:2450
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
papacy and, 4:1721
Peninsular War and, 2:901, 902;
4:1762, 1764–1766, 1838, 1839,
2227
Protestant minority in, 4:1890
railroads and, 4:1933
Revolution of 1820 and, 4:1839
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1983,
1985, 1986
seaside resorts in, 4:2124
settlement colonies and, 2:503
slavery and, 4:2190
slave trade and, 1:13, 14
smallpox deaths in, 4:2198
sports in, 4:2243
suffrage in, 4:2279
telephone service in, 5:2308
tobacco and, 5:2313
trade and, 5:2338, 2339
welfare initiatives in, 5:2451, 2452
wine and, 5:2475
world’s fairs and, 5:2503
The (Martineau), 3:1459
2195, 2249
anarchosyndicalist rejection of, 1:61
anticlericalism and, 1:388
Bergson and revolt against, 1:214
Bernard and, 1:228, 408
Charcot and, 1:408
Comte and, 2:522, 523, 743;
3:1132; 4:1843–1844, 2133,
2202, 2213, 2214, 2238
criminology and, 2:638
as Croce target, 2:584–585
Endecja and, 2:753
French Radicals and, 4:1929
fundamental axiom of, 4:1843
Gall and, 2:926
impressionism and, 3:1132–1133
Lewes and, 2:743
Mach and, 3:1409
Maurras’s neoroyalism and, 1:5
Mill’s (John Stuart) view of, 3:1513
Milyukov and, 3:1518
Poland and, 4:1811
progress and, 2:815
Renan and, 4:1953–1954
Saint-Simon and, 4:2081
Soloviev (Vladimir) and, 4:2216
spiritualism and, 4:2238
INDEX
Warsaw and, 5:2442
on women’s inferiority, 2:802
Young Turks and, 5:2516
Positivist Society, 4:1844
Positivist Thought in France during the
Second Empire (Charlton), 1:228
Poslednie novosti (Russian émigré
newspaper), 3:1518
Possessed, The (Dostoyevsky), 2:679
postal services, 1:473; 2:965; 3:1686;
4:1937
postcolonial theory, 3:1407, 1511
posters, 4:1845–1847
as advertising, 4:1823, 1845–1846,
1846, 1847
art nouveau, 1:109; 2:815; 4:1846
Beardsley and, 1:192
cabaret, 1:335
charity fundraiser, 4:1853
French absinthe drinking, 1:3
London Underground, 4:2273
reaction against, 4:1847
syphilis sanatoriums, 4:2302
Toulouse-Lautrec and, 5:2323,
2324, 2324
Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club,
The (Dickens), 2:656, 657
Posthumous Poems (Shelley), 4:2170
postimpressionism, 1:152, 398–399;
3:1530, 1536; 4:1709–1711
Delacroix as influence on, 2:641
Pissarro and, 4:1792
Seurat and, 4:1709
See also cubism; expressionism
postmodernism
Gaudı́ and, 2:938
Kierkegaard and, 3:1253
Mahler and, 3:1419
Nietzsche and, 3:1630, 1635
Novalis and, 3:1648
postsymbolism, 1:214
Postulates of Political Economy
(Bagehot), 1:161
Potato Eaters, The (Van Gogh), 5:2400
potatoes, 1:26; 2:762, 960
Belgian famine (1840), 1:201
blight (1845), 4:1989
blight fungicide, 3:1164
blight source, 4:1777
Irish dependence on, 3:1178
See also Irish Potato Famine
Potemkin (Russian warship), 4:1976
Potemkin, Grigory, 1:376; 4:2079
potential energy, 3:1250
Potin, Félix, 1:352
Potresov, Alexander, 1:265
2733
INDEX
Potsdam, 1:219
architecture in, 4:2094
armaments factory in, 2:790
Frederick William IV projects and,
2:876, 877
Schinkel and, 4:2094
Potsdamer Platz (Berlin), 1:217, 219
Pottecher, Maurice, 4:2015
Potter, Richard, 5:2443
pottery, 2:547, 548; 3:1153
See also porcelain
Pottinger, Henry, 3:1578
Pouget, Émile, 1:60–61; 4:2298
Pou Kmbo, 3:1141
Poulenc, Francis, 4:1944, 2087
Poulsen, Valdemar, 2:649
Pound, Ezra, 4:2182
Pounds, Norman J. G., 5:2349
Poupées électriques (Marinetti), 2:917
Pourquoi-Pas? (ship), 1:411
Poussin, Nicolas, 2:641; 3:1165
Po Valley, 1:392; 3:1195
poverty, 4:1847–1855
and, 3:1179–1180
British attitude toward. See Poor Law;
workhouses
British economic theories on,
2:714–715, 716
British Swing riots and, 1:358–359
capitalism and, 2:718
Catholic charity and, 1:383
cholera and, 1:437, 438; 2:669
city dwellers and, 1:449, 453, 455
consumerism and, 2:547
crime linked with, 2:571, 572
death rates and, 2:628
degeneracy label and, 2:636
‘‘deserving poor’’ label and,
5:2450–2451
as Dickens subject, 2:657
Dublin epidemics and, 2:690
education and, 2:719–720, 721, 722
eugenics theory of, 2:770
Fourier’s views on, 4:2201–2202
hospital care and, 3:1648, 1649
ignorance policy and,
2:719–720, 721
infant mortality and, 2:667
Irish Potato Famine’s effects and,
3:1179–1180
Leo XIII and, 3:1331
liberalism and, 3:1349
London and, 3:1375; 4:1850, 1853
Malthusian view of, 2:715;
3:1425–1426
material goods and, 2:547
2734
Milan and, 3:1504
old-age care and, 3:1664
Owen’s views on, 3:1692; 4:2200
Paris and, 4:1727, 1728
peasants and, 4:1752, 1753
population control and, 4:1830
Sicily and, 4:2176
social Darwinist view of, 2:619
typhus and, 2:668
‘‘undeserving poor’’ label and,
4:1849
widened gap between wealthy elite
and, 1:291
See also welfare
Poverty of Philosophy, The (Marx),
3:1465
Powderly, Terrence Vincent, 3:1331
Powder Tower (Prague), 4:1858
Powell, Baden, 1:159
power looms. See weaving,
mechanization of
Poznán, 2:961; 4:1808, 1809, 1812,
1900, 1903
Pozzo, Vittorio, 2:833
Practical View of the Prevailing
Religious System of Professed
Christians in the Higher and
Middle Classes of this Country
Contrasted with Real Christianity,
A (Wilberforce), 5:2463
Practice in Christianity (Kierkegaard),
3:1251
Pradier (sculptor), 4:2043
Praeterita (Ruskin), 4:2047
Pragmatic Sanction (1713), 1:138
Prague, 4:1855–1861, 1857; 5:2510
anti-German, anti-Semitic protests in,
1:262–263; 4:1860–1861, 1862
art nouveau and, 1:113; 2:815;
4:1858
child abandonment in, 5:2455
as Czech national revival center,
1:261, 447; 4:1856–1861
department store, 5:2341
electric power plant in, 2:741
football (soccer) in, 2:834
industrialization and, 1:260, 261
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
and, 5:2493
Jewish community in, 3:1525;
4:1856, 1857, 1859
Kafka and, 3:1242, 1243
machine breaking in, 3:1411
national monuments in, 4:1858
population of, 4:1856
Prussian occupation of, 4:1860
E U R O P E
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1994
street vendor, 4:1859
universities and, 1:261; 2:728;
3:1469; 4:1858
voluntary associations and, 1:117
women’s associations and, 4:1992
Prague, Peace of (1866), 4:1902
Prague Gymnastics Association,
4:1856
Prague Slav Congress (1848), 1:141,
142; 3:1605; 4:1712,
1716–1717, 1748, 1860,
1861–1863
Manifesto of, 4:1862
Palacký and, 4:1712, 1861
Prairial martyrs, 4:1960
Prandtl, Ludwig, 4:2115
Pratella, Francesco Balilla, 2:919
Pratt, Hodgson, 4:1697
Pravda (Marxist journal), 3:1487
Prayer (Lasker-Schüler), 3:1309
PRB. See Pre-Raphaelite Movement
prečani, 4:2142, 2144, 2145
Precipice, The (Goncharov), 2:989
Précis de l’art de la guerre (Jomini),
3:1236
Précy, comte de, 3:1403
Preece, William H., 3:1444
prefabrication, 2:1027
Preface of Cromwell, The (Hugo),
2:1092–1093
Preiswerk, Hélène, 3:1238
Prelude, The (Wordsworth), 1:497;
5:2482
Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun
(Prélude à l’après-midi d’un
faune; Debussy), 2:631
Prendergast, Maurice Brazil, 5:2405
Preobrajenska, Olga, 3:1642
Preobrazhensky Guards, 3:1575
Pre-Raphaelite Movement,
4:1863–1865
Beardsley and, 1:191–192
Blake as influence on, 1:246
Decadence and, 2:633
Pater and, 4:1746
patrons of, 4:1864
Ruskin and, 4:1707, 1864, 1865,
2046
world’s fair (1855) and, 5:2496
Pre-Raphaelites, The (Tate 1984
exhibition), 4:1865
Pre-Raphaelitism and the Pre-
Raphaelite Brotherhood (Hunt),
4:1865
Pré-Saint-Gervais meeting (1913),
3:1218
Presbyterianism, 4:1890
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

as English Nonconformists, 2:1002
northern Ireland and, 2:1000;
3:1176
as Scottish established church,
2:1002, 1006
prescriptive knowledge, 4:2111, 2113,
2115
press and newspapers, 4:1866–1873
Action Française and, 1:5; 2:685
advertising and, 4:1867–1868
Armenians and, 1:88, 89, 90
Austrian socialism and, 1:11
Berlin and, 1:216
Bolsheviks and, 1:265
Britain and, 1:302–303
caricatures and, 2:620–622; 4:1823
Carlsbad Decree curbs on, 1:368,
377; 4:1869
Catalan-language, 1:182
Catholic, 1:388, 389
Cobbett and, 1:489–490
corrupt practices and, 4:1872
crime sensation and, 2:575, 576, 576
Dickens and, 2:656, 657
Dreyfus affair and, 2:684, 685
Durand and, 2:696
French anti-Semitism and, 2:683,
684, 689
French feminism and, 1:127;
2:650–651, 696–697
French Second Empire revitalization
of, 2:853
French socialism and, 1:247
German feminism and, 1:129, 189;
3:1680–1681
headline innovation and, 4:1867
Herzen and, 2:1065–1066
Herzl and, 2:1068
homosexual/lesbian stereotypes in,
2:1084
illustrations and, 4:1867
Kossuth and, 3:1266–1267
Lithuania and, 3:1366
Marx and, 3:1463, 1464, 1466
mass readership of, 4:1868–1869
Milan and, 3:1504
music criticism and, 3:1566, 1570
Ottoman Empire and, 3:1686
photography and, 4:1773–1774,
1823, 1867
politics and, 4:1872–1873
popular culture and, 4:1822–1823,
1870–1871, 1872
pornography and, 4:1835
prices of, 4:1867
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
professionalization of, 4:1871–1872
republican France and, 4:1963
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1989,
1991
Russian expansion of, 2:1016
Serbia and, 4:2148
sports coverage in, 4:2243
Sweden and, 4:2283
underseas cables and, 1:353
workers journals and, 3:1285
See also censorship; freedom of the
press
Pressburg, Treaty of (1805), 1:133;
2:901; 5:2402
Presse, La (Parisian newspaper), 1:187,
421; 2:696
Pressensé, Edmond Dehault de,
4:1895, 2136
Pressensé, Francis de, 4:1895, 2137
Press Law of 1819 (Germany), 1:369;
2:959
Press Law of 1881 (France), 4:1870;
5:2432
Prestupleniye i nakazaniye
(Dostoyevsky), 2:678
Prétre, la femme, et la famille, Le
(Michelet), 1:70
Preuves, Les (Jaurès articles), 3:1216
Prévost, Abbé, 4:1916
Prevost, George, 5:2440
Preyer, Wilhelm, 4:1909
Price, Richard, 5:2433, 2480
Pride and Prejudice (Austen), 1:130,
131
Priestley, Joseph, 1:210; 3:1312,
1458; 4:2111; 5:2393
Prieto, Garcı́a, 4:2232
Prim, Juan, 4:2230
Prima Exposizione d’arte Decorativa of
1902 (Turin), 1:108
primary schooling. See education
primitivism, 4:1873–1876
avant-garde and, 1:15; 4:18746
Frazer and, 2:872–873
Gauguin and, 2:939–940, 941;
4:1710, 1757, 1874, 1875
Hellenism and, 4:1769
Picasso and, 4:1782, 1783, 1875
Stravinsky and, 4:2261, 2262
primogeniture, 1:287; 2:843, 897;
3:1306; 4:1747
Primo vere (DAnnuncio), 2:609
Prina, Giuseppe, 4:2190
Prince Igor (Borodin), 2:774; 4:1999
Prince philosophe, conte orientale, Le
(Gouges), 2:995
Princess, The (Tennyson), 5:2309
INDEX
Princeteau, René, 5:2323
Princeton University, 2:645, 740;
3:1435
Princip, Gavrilo, 1:242; 2:862
Principes de politiques (Constant),
2:545
Principia (Newton), 3:1312
Principia Ethica (Moore), 4:2258
Principle of Mechanics (Hertz), 2:1063
Principles of Geology (Lyell), 2:615;
3:1402
Principles of Physiological Psychology
(Wundt), 4:1908; 5:2507
Principles of Political Economy (J. S.
Mill), 2:718, 1006; 3:1509,
1513, 1514
Principles of Political Economy
(Malthus), 3:1426
Principles of Political Economy and
Taxation (Ricardo), 2:515;
4:1887
Principles of Psychology (W. James),
4:1783
Principles of Psychology, The (Spencer),
4:2234–2235
Printemps (Paris department store),
2:548
printing, 5:2486, 2487–2488
newspapers and, 4:1866
photography and, 4:1773
printmaking, 1:154
Japanese woodblock, 1:109, 192
Munch and, 3:159, 1558, 1599
Prinzipien der physikalischen Optik, Die
(Mach), 3:1409
Prisoner of Chillon, The (Byron), 1:333
Prisoner of the Caucasus, The
(Pushkin), 4:1919
prisoners of war, 2:953; 4:1949
prisons, 2:573
Beccaria reforms and, 2:637
Bentham reforms and, 1:211
Kropotkin writing on, 3:1272
Lombroso theory of, 3:1371
typhus and, 2:668, 669
See also exile, penal
privatdocenten, 5:2382, 2384, 2390
private clubs, 3:1471
privateering and piracy, 1:43, 308;
2:1008; 3:1612; 5:2362
Private Memoirs and Confessions of a
Justified Sinner, The (Hogg),
4:2255
Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft, The
(Gissing), 2:975
private sphere. See separate spheres
Prix de Rome, 1:224; 2:630; 3:1167;
4:1944
2735
INDEX
Prix Goncourt, 2:991
prizefights. See boxing
probability theory, 4:2248, 2249
Problem in Greek Ethics, A (Symonds),
4:2296
Problem in Modern Ethics, A
(Symonds), 4:2296; 5:2376
‘‘Problems of Heredity as a Subject for
Horticultural Investigation’’
(Bateson), 2:653
Problems of Idealism (Russian
symposium, 1902), 1:212
Proclamation of Moncalieri (1849),
5:2409
Procter, Henry, 5:2440
Prodaná Nevěsta (Smetana), 3:1673
productivity, 2:712–713
consumerism-trade relationship and,
3:1152
factories and, 2:788, 791
First Industrial Revolution and,
3:1147
Professional Swimming Association
(Britain), 4:2242
professions, 4:1876–1882
aristocracy and, 1:83, 84
artisans and, 1:104–107
bourgeoisie and, 1:107, 283,
284–285, 472, 473; 4:1879, 1881
bureaucrats and, 1:321–322, 324
cities and, 1:445, 452
Daumier caricatures of, 2:621
education for, 2:726–727;
4:1876–1877
engineering as, 2:757–761
established churches and, 4:1895
gendering of, 2:945
hierarchies of, 1:291
historiography, 2:1073–1074
intellectuals and, 3:1168
intelligentsia and, 3:1171; 4:1879,
1880
journalism as, 4:1871–1872
nursing as, 3:1648, 1649–1651
psychoanalysis and, 4:1906
restricted entrances into, 4:1881
university training and, 5:2382–2383
women’s admittance to, 2:728, 816,
945; 4:1881
See also lawyers; medicine
Professor, The (C. Brontë), 1:301
Professor Bernhardi (Schnitzler),
4:2100, 2101
Professor Theodor Billroth Lectures at the
General Hospital, Vienna, 1880
(Seligmann), 4:1877
Progrès Médical, Le (journal), 1:411
2736
progress
conservative view of, 2:538, 540
Darwinian evolution as, 2:617, 815
fin de siécle and, 2:814–815
as imperialist rationale, 3:1120
Jewish emancipation and, 3:1225
liberal belief in, 2:631, 714
Malthusian polemic against, 3:1425
Mazzini and, 3:1479
Nietzsche’s repudiation of, 3:1629,
1633
Polish positivist belief in, 4:1811
Second Law of Thermodynamics vs.,
2:631
women’s emancipation and, 2:803
See also modernism
Progressive Association (Britain),
1:372
Progressive Bloc (Duma coalition),
3:1242, 1518, 1519
Progressive Liberal Party (Germany),
2:966, 967
Progressive People’s Party (Germany),
1:189
Prokofiev, Sergei, 1:154; 2:655;
3:1496; 4:2000
proletariat
Marx’s use of word, 1:62; 3:1465;
4:1849
See also labor; labor movements;
working class
Promenades dans Rome (Stendhal),
4:2252
Promessi sposi, I (Manzoni),
3:1441–1442
‘‘Prometheus Unbound’’ (Shelley),
4:2170
pronatalism, 2:771
‘‘Proofs, The’’ (Jaurès articles), 2:684
‘‘Propaganda by the Deed’’ strategy,
4:1942, 1943
property crime
child thieves and, 2:573
cities and, 2:572, 575
incidence of, 2:570, 571
pickpocketing and shoplifting as,
2:573, 575, 576; 3:1375
psychoanalytic theory and, 2:574
property rights
anticlericalism and, 4:1717
bourgeoisie and, 1:470
citizenship based on, 1:458
civil society and, 1:465, 467
class and, 1:469
Engels on, 2:946
Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:871
E U R O P E
gender inequality and, 1:303;
2:942, 946
legal theory and, 3:1314
liberal belief in, 2:717, 718
married women’s denial of, 1:303;
2:801, 802, 804, 942, 946;
3:1595, 1645
Napoleonic Code and, 1:351
Paris Commune and, 4:1736
Proudhon’s view of, 3:1314;
4:1897–1898
suffrage based on, 2:797
women granted, 2:816, 946, 948, 1008
See also land
Prophète, Le (Meyerbeer), 3:1671
proportional representation, 4:2279
propositional knowledge, 4:2111,
2113, 2115
propriety. See manners and formality
Proshian, Perj, 1:88
Prosopographia Imperii Romani
(Mommsen), 3:1533
prostitution, 4:1882–1887
abolishment advocates, 1:129;
4:1883–1884, 1886, 1896
anti-legalizing crusade and, 2:650
bourgeoisie men and, 1:251, 287
British punitive legislation and,
1:332; 2:802, 804; 4:1815, 1884,
1886, 1896, 2162, 2301–2302
cities and, 1:455; 2:816
contraceptives and, 4:1827
crime and, 2:572–573, 575
as Decadent subject, 2:632
fin de siècle tensions and, 2:816
French brothels, 4:1885, 2301
historiography of, 4:1886
London and, 3:1375
male homosexuals and, 2:1084
reform societies and, 1:119, 129;
3:1556; 4:1886, 1896
regulation of, 4:1815, 1883, 1884,
1885–1886
sexuality and, 4:2161, 2162
social profile of prostitute and,
4:1884–1886
syphilis transmission and, 4:2162,
2293, 2301–2303
in Vladivostok, 5:2427
protectionism, 1:354–355, 357;
2:512–517; 4:1887–1890
agricultural products and, 1:476;
2:512
arguments for, 4:1887–1888
Bismarck and, 1:239; 2:966
Britain and, 5:2334, 2339, 2343
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Corn Laws and, 2:557–559, 672
Disraeli argument for, 2:672, 1005
economic growth and, 2:513–514
European adoption of, 3:1348–1349
France and, 1:492; 2:857
free trade arguments vs., 515–516,
1887
geopolitical argument for, 2:515–516
Germany and, 1:239; 2:966, 967
Hamburg and, 2:1040
historical debates on, 2:514–515
imperialism and, 3:1120
List and, 3:1357; 4:1888
Naples and, 3:1255
Napoleon and, 2:553–554; 3:1599
See also Continental System
Peel and, 4:1759
practice of, 4:1888–1889
revenues from, 4:1888
as trade policy, 5:2337, 2339, 2340,
2342
United States and, 5:2337, 2340
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism, The (Protestantische
Ethik und der Geist der
Kapitalismus, Die; Weber),
4:1892; 5:2446–2447
Protestantism, 4:1890–1897
Alsace and, 1:51
anticlericalism and, 1:67
anti-Corn Law campaign and, 2:558
Austria-Hungary and, 1:138, 263
awakenings and, 4:1894–1895,
1896, 2136
Berlin and, 1:216, 217
British Act of Union and, 3:1177
British Nonconformists and, 1:418;
2:558, 1002, 1006; 4:1896;
5:2433, 2434
Chartist culture and, 1:418
Christian Democratic parties and,
4:2209
Christian Socialism and, 4:2208
Czech nationalism and, 3:1469;
4:1711–1712
Darwinian evolution and, 2:618
Dublin and, 2:691, 692, 693
education and, 2:723
free churches and, 4:2136
as French minority, 4:1793, 1890,
1891, 1895, 1970, 2136–2137,
2279
French nationalist Right vs., 1:5
French Revolution and, 2:843,
846, 888
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
French school system and, 2:812
gender dimorphism and, 2:945
German unification and, 2:870–871
Gothic architecture and, 4:2046
Ireland and, 1:373; 2:1009, 1010;
3:1177
labor movements and, 3:1291
Macaulay and, 3:1407
as minority population,
4:1890–1891, 1890, 1891
missionary societies and,
3:1527–1529; 4:1895, 2220
Netherlands and, 1:199; 3:1618, 1619
nursing and, 3:1648–1649, 1650
prostitution and, 4:1884, 1886, 1896
Reformation tercentenary and, 2:959
Salvation Army and, 4:2082–2083
Schleiermacher and, 4:2096–2098
Scotland and, 4:2118–2119
secularization and, 4:2134
Sweden and, 4:2283
Switzerland and, 4:2288, 2290
temperance movements and, 1:36;
4:1896
Ulster and, 3:1184
Wales and, 5:2433, 2434
Weber on, 4:1892; 5:2447
See also evangelicalism;
Nonconformists; specific
denominations
Protestant League (Germany), 5:2474
Protestant League (Prussia), 1:70
Protestant Sisters of Charity, 3:1649
Protocols of the Elders of Zion
(anti-Semitic tract), 4:1803
protoindustrialization, 3:1147–1149,
1152
Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph, 1:459;
4:1706, 1897–1899, 1898, 2131,
2203
anarchism and, 1:56, 57, 60, 62;
4:1897
Bakunin and, 1:162
Blanqui’s view of, 1:248
bureaucracy defined by, 1:320, 321,
325
First International and, 2:824
Kropotkin as successor to, 3:1272
Marx’s critique of, 3:1465
property rights and, 3:1314;
4:1897–1898
socialism and, 3:1287, 1288;
4:1898–1899
Proust, Marcel, 1:166, 169, 184; 2:989;
4:1906, 2047, 2084; 5:2423
Bergson and, 1:214
INDEX
Dreyfus defense by, 3:1168
Paris and, 4:1732
Provence, comte de. See Louis XVIII
Provincial Jubilee Exhibition (Prague),
4:1858–1859
Provincial Reform of 1775 (Russia),
1:376
Provisional Execution Order of 1819
(Germany), 1:369
Provisional Government (Russia,
1917), 3:1519
Provisional National Theater (Prague),
2:700
Prozess, Der (Kafka), 3:1242, 1243
Prudhomme, Sully, 2:738
Prussia, 4:1899–1904
anticlericalism and, 1:70
anti-Semitism in, 2:576
architecture in, 4:2091, 2092–2094
aristocracy/core elite in, 1:81, 83,
84, 85
army system of, 1:94, 96, 98, 99;
2:958, 962, 963, 964; 3:1222,
1274, 1531–1532, 1685; 4:1900,
1903
Austria and, 1:234, 237–238;
4:1899–1900, 1901, 2045;
5:2353, 2420, 2467, 2526
Austrian War with. See Austro-
Prussian War
Berlin as capital of, 1:215–216, 219;
4:1901
Bismarck’s policies and, 1:233–241;
2:662
bourgeoisie in, 1:184, 290; 4:2251
bureaucracy in, 1:217, 323–324;
2:726; 3:1278; 4:1900
Carlsbad Decrees and, 1:361,
368–370; 3:1494
Catholic minority in, 1:381; 4:1901,
1972
Catholic political parties in, 1:388
censorship and, 1:215, 216; 4:1869;
5:2512
Center Party and, 1:394
child labor and, 1:429, 430;
2:793, 967
cholera epidemic unrest in, 2:669
Clausewitz and, 1:477–479
coal production and, 1:487
commercial policy of, 2:512
common coinage and, 1:171
Concert of Europe and, 2:524–527,
565
Congress of Troppau and, 2:531
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–534,
565, 958; 4:1900, 1901
2737
INDEX
Congress System and, 1:374
conservatism and, 2:539, 540;
4:1901, 1903
See also Carlsbad Decrees
constitutional movements and, 1:457
Crimean War as benefit to, 2:580
Danish War and, 2:607–609, 648
Denmark and, 4:1993–1994;
5:2353
drinking culture of, 1:34
education reform in, 1:431;
2:723–724, 728, 966; 3:1277,
1278; 4:1900, 1972
elected assemblies in, 1:290
elimination of (1947), 4:1899
engineering projects in, 2:758
established church in, 4:1895
factory iinspectors in, 2:793
female teachers in, 2:724
Fontane novels about, 2:829, 830
France and, 4:2004, 2092, 2225,
2251–2252; 5:2306, 2311,
2374–2375, 2442, 2467, 2526
Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:871
Frederick William III and,
2:875–876
Frederick William IV and, 2:876–877
French Revolutionary Wars and
Napoleonic Wars and. See under
French Revolutionary Wars and
Napoleonic Wars
German Confederation and,
2:958, 962
German unification and, 2:871, 924,
962–967; 4:1899, 1901,
1902–1903, 1992–1993, 2242;
5:2352–2353, 2467
Greek War of Independence and,
2:1020
Hamburg and, 2:1038
Hardenberg and, 2:1041–1043
Hegel and, 2:1053–1054
Holy Alliance and, 2:531, 565, 1002,
1079–1081; 4:1970, 1971, 1973,
1985, 2228
homosexuality law in, 2:1083
Humboldt brothers and,
2:1095–1098
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
and, 5:2493
Italy and, 1:234–235; 5:2404
Jena battle defeat of, 2:1038;
3:1221–1222
Jewish emancipation in, 2:958, 1042;
3:1227; 4:1900
Jewish population of, 3:1227
2738
Koch and, 3:1263, 1264
Kulturkampf and, 3:1277–1280,
1329; 4:1723
labor movements and, 3:1287
landed elite in, 3:1305
Leipzig battle and, 3:1319
liberalism and, 2:958, 960;
3:1346–1347; 5:2467
Liebermann and, 3:1353–1355
Lithuania and, 3:1365
Marx and, 3:1463–1464
Metternich and, 3:1493
military academy of, 1:96
military tactics and, 3:1506–1507,
1508
Moltke and, 3:1531–1532
multiethnic languages in, 2:724–725
Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1599
papal concordat with, 1:381
peasant enfranchisement in, 4:1755
pilgrimage and, 4:1789
Poland and, 4:1937
Polish partition and, 1:239, 376;
2:957; 4:1806–1807, 1808–1809,
1812–1813, 1817, 1900
poor relief and, 4:1849
professional certification in, 1:285
professional training in, 2:276
public health measures in,
4:1913–1914
Quadruple Alliance and, 1:374; 2:662
Ranke and, 4:1940
reforms in, 2:958, 960, 1042–1043;
3:1341; 4:1900, 1901–1902
religious toleration in, 4:1895
representation in, 1:290
repressive crackdown in (1820),
2:1053
Restoration and, 4:1967, 1972, 1973
Revolutions of 1848 and, 2:567,
877, 961; 4:1901, 1987, 1990,
1993–1994, 1995
Roentgen and, 4:2011–2012
Rothschilds and, 4:2040
Schleswig-Holstein annexation by,
1:147; 2:964; 4:1902
secularization in, 4:2133
serf emancipation and, 4:2.958, 1754
slave trade and, 1:13, 308
smallpox epidemic in, 4:2198
social insurance and, 4:1854
Stein (Heinrich) and, 4:2250–2252
suffrage in, 4:2278
territories of, 4:1900
Tirpitz and, 5:2312–2313
E U R O P E
tobacco and, 5:2314
university entrance in, 2:728
utilitarianism and, 5:2393
vaccination requirement in, 4:2197
Warsaw and, 5:2441
Waterloo and, 5:2442–2443, 2457
William I and, 5:2467
William II and, 5:2312, 2382, 2415,
2467, 2468–2470
Windthorst and, 5:2472
women’s political suppression in,
2:804
women university students in, 2:728
Zollverein and, 3:1357; 4:1901;
5:2525, 2526
See also Franco-Prussian War;
Germany
Prussian Academy of Arts, 3:1354
Prussian Academy of Sciences, 5:2426
Prussian Central Press Agency, 2:828
Prussian Telegraph Administration,
4:2179
PSI. See Socialist Party (Italy)
PSR. See Socialist Revolutionary Party
Psyche’s Task (Frazer), 2:872
psychiatry
degeneration and, 2:637, 638–639;
3:1472
Hirschfeld and, 2:1070
homosexual/lesbian personality
theories of, 2:1085
Jung and, 3:1238
Krafft-Ebing and, 3:1270–1271
Pinel and, 4:1791–1792
See also psychoanalysis
psychoanalysis, 4:1904–1907; 5:2421
Andreas-Salomé and, 1:65
Beethoven study based on, 1:199
Brentanos influence on, 1:299
criminality theory and, 2:574
Freud and, 1:8–9; 2:638–639, 904,
905–909; 3:1240; 4:1904–1905,
1908
Freudian rules for, 2:907
Freud’s definition of, 4:1904
Jung and, 3:1238–1239, 1240
Rank and, 4:1938–1939
psychobiography, 1:199; 4:2259
Psychologie de l’éducation, La (LeBon),
3:1317
Psychologie des foules, La (LeBon),
2:816; 3:1317
Psychologie des peuples, La (LeBon),
3:1317
Psychologie du socialisme, La (LeBon),
3:1317
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt
(Brentano), 1:299
psychology, 4:1907–1909, 1961
Adler (Alfred) and, 1:8–10
behaviorism and, 4:1748–1749,
1908
Bergson durée theory and, 1:214
Brentano and, 1:298–299
child development and, 1:428
child rearing and, 3:1454
criminology and, 3:1371
experimental, 5:2506–2508
fin de siècle and, 2:816
Freud and, 4:1904
Gall and, 2:926
hysteria and, 1:410
Jung and, 1:8; 3:1238, 1239–1240
Mach and, 3:1408, 1409
Mill (James) and, 3:1511
Pavlov and, 4:1748–1749, 1908
Pelletier and, 4:1761, 1762
positivism and, 4:1844
Rank and, 4:1938–1939
sociology and, 4:2214
Spencer and, 4:2235
spiritualism and, 4:2238
Wundt and, 5:2506–2508
See also psychiatry
Psychology from an Empirical
Standpoint (Brentano), 1:299
Psychology of Jingoism, The (Hobson),
3:1235
Psychopathia Sexualis (Krafft-Ebing),
2:636, 816; 3:1270, 1271;
4:2163
Psychopathology of Everyday Life, The
(Freud), 2:906
psychophysics, 5:2507
Public Assistance Committees
(Britain), 4:1820
public education. See education
public hangings, 1:288
public health, 4:1909–1915
absinthe and, 1:3, 4
Berlin and, 1:217–218, 219
body and, 1:251
as British bureaucratic function,
1:324, 325
Brussels and, 1:306
burial grounds and, 2:628
Chadwick reforms and, 1:401–402
cholera and, 1:436, 437, 438; 2:628,
688, 765
death rates and, 2:628, 644–645
demographic change and, 2:667,
670–671
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
disease epidemics and, 2:667–668
Ehrlich ‘‘magic bullet’’ and,
2:735–736
French bourgeois doctors and,
1:285–286
hospital infections and, 3:1358
hospitals and, 3:1638, 1648–1649
Koch epidemiology and,
3:1263–1264
London and, 3:1372, 1373,
1378–1379, 1380, 1554;
4:1911–1912
Madrid and, 3:1412
Moscow and, 1:376; 3:1554
municipal government and, 1:450
nutrition and, 5:2340–2342
Paris and, 4:1729, 1731,
1732–1733, 1910
Pasteur and, 4:1742, 1745
pollution and, 2:765–766, 1009
prostitution and, 1:332; 2:804, 816;
4:1815, 1883, 1884, 1885–1886
protective intervention and, 2:667
sexuality and, 4:2161, 2162
slum housing and, 1:453, 454;
2:1091
smallpox prevention and,
4:2197–2198
syphilis and, 4:2300–2303
temperance movement and, 1:37
tuberculosis initiatives and, 1:450;
2:628; 5:2361
Virchow and, 5:2425
welfare initiatives and, 5:2450, 2451,
2452
See also vaccination
Public Health Act of 1848 (Britain),
1:325, 402; 4:1738, 1912
Public Health Act of 1872 (Britain),
4:1912
Public Health Act of 1875 (Britain),
2:766; 4:1915
public libraries. See libraries
public parks. See parks
Public Safety Committee (France).
See Committee of Public Safety
public schools (England), 1:428;
2:726, 728
public sphere. See civil society
pubs, 1:36
Puccini, Giacomo, 3:1677;
4:1915–1917; 5:2360
La Scala and, 3:1504
list of operas of, 4:1916
Puck of Pooks Hill (Kipling), 3:1257
Puerto Rico, 2:949
INDEX
Pufendorf, Samuel von, 2:953
Pugachev, Yemelyan, 1:376; 4:1755
Pugachev rebellion, 4:2048
Pugin, Augustus-Charles (father),
4:1917
Pugin, Augustus Welby, 1:186;
4:1917–1918, 2030
Pugin and Rowlandson, 5:2335
Puig i Cadafalch, Josep, 1:184
Pujo, Maurice, 1:4
Pulcinella (Stravinsky), 4:2262
Pulszky, Romola de, 3:1643
Pumpurs, Andrejs, 2:820
Punch (British magazine), 2:587, 618
punctuated equilibrium, theory of,
2:618
punishment. See crime
Puniya, 3:1134
Puniya, Chief Minister of Mysore
(Hickey), 3:1134
Punjab, 2:706; 3:1134
Puppet Show, a (Blok), 1:250
puppet shows, 1:335
purgatory, 1:378
Puritani, I (Bellini), 3:1671
Puritanism, 1:308
Pusey, Edward Bouverie, 4:2046
Pushkin, Alexander, 1:208, 249;
4:1918–1920, 2165
Bely writings on, 1:210
Chaadayev friendship and, 1:400
as Dostoyevsky influence, 2:678, 679
Glinka and, 2:979, 980
Golden Age and, 4:2181, 2183
Mickiewicz friendship with, 3:1500
Moscow and, 3:1552
on Peter the Great, 4:2075
Pushkin, Vasily Lvovich (uncle), 4:1918
Puskas brothers, 5:2308
Putilov metalworks (St. Petersburg),
4:2079
Puttkamer, Johanna von, 1:233–234
Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, 1:192;
3:1431; 4:1865
Puy, Jean, 2:796
Puysegur, marquis de, 3:1491
Pygmalion (Shaw), 4:2166
Pyramids, Battle of the (1798),
2:731, 900
Pyrenees, 4:1765
n
Q
Qadiriya, 2:784
Qianlong, emperor of China, 1:432,
433
2739
INDEX
Qing dynasty, 1:292, 293–294,
432–435; 3:1578–1579,
1678–1680
opium ban by, 3:1678, 1679
Quarterly Review (English journal),
2:537
Quadruple Alliance, 1:374; 2:662;
3:1173
Quadruple Alliance, Treaty of the
(1815), 4:1970–1971
Quakers, 1:308; 2:1002, 1007;
4:1695, 1893, 2192
Quanta Cura (encyclical, 1864),
1:381–382; 4:1719, 1797–1798
quantum mechanics, 1:427; 4:1781
quantum theory, 2:739; 4:1799
Quarenghi, Giacomo, 4:2077
Quarterly Review, 3:1334, 1402
quartermaster unit, 1:96
Quartier Leopold (Brussels), 1:305,
396
Quatorze juillet, Le (Rolland), 4:2015
Quatre Bras, Battle of (1815), 2:903
Quatres Évangiles, Les (Zola), 5:2524
Quatre Vents de l’esprit, Les (Hugo),
2:1095
Quatre-Vingt-Neuf (Hugo), 2:1095
Quatro Gats, El (Barcelona café),
4:1781
Quebec, 1:343, 344, 345
French-Canadian culture of, 1:343,
344
Napoleonic Code in, 3:1596
Queen Elizabeth (British dreadnaught),
3:1611
Queen Isabel II Canal, 3:1413
‘‘Queen Mab’’ (Shelley), 4:2169
Queen of Sheba (Gounod), 2:881
Queen of Spades, The (Tchaikovsky),
4:1919; 5:2307
Queensbury, marquess of. See Douglas,
John Sholto
Queen’s Day (Netherlands), 3:1619
Queensland, 1:134; 2:781
Queen’s Matrimonial Ladder, The
(Cruikshank caricature), 2:586
Queens Park (football club), 2:833
Queen Victoria (Strachey), 4:2259
Queen Victoria, Prince Albert and the
Prince of Wales at Windsor Park
with Their Herd of Llamas
(anonymous), 5:2413
Queer theory, 4:2259
Quelmane (Mozambique), 1:19
Quentin Durward (Scott), 4:2123
Quesnay, François, 3:1304
Qu’est-ce que la propriété? (Proudhon),
4:1897–1898
2740
Quest-ce qu’une nation? (Renan),
4:1953
Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques,
4:1921–1922
criminality analysis and, 2:570
statistics and, 4:2248
Quevedo y Villegas, Francisco Gómez
de, 2:951
Quidde, Ludwig, 4:1697
Quinet, Edgar, 3:1500
quinine, 1:19; 2:782
Quintessence of Ibsenism, The (Shaw),
3:1109
Quintuple Alliance, 2:531; 3:1173
revolutions of 1820 and,
4:1979–1982
Quirinale (papal palace), 4:2024
n Races of Men (Knox), 4:2023
R Rachilde (pseud. of Marguerite Eymery
Rabelais, François, 1:169; 3:1214
Doré illustrations for, 2:676
rabies vaccine, 3:1263; 4:1744
race and racism, 4:1923–1928
Action Française and, 2:542
anti-Semitism and, 1:71–77; 2:816;
3:1393
beard growth theory and, 1:190
Celticism and, 3:1178
Chamberlain (Houston) theories of,
1:402, 403, 404
as citizenship disqualification,
1:458–459
civilization concept and, 1:461;
2:507
class and, 5:2489
colonialism and, 1:499–500, 501;
2:508; 3:1120
criminality theory and, 2:572, 573,
574, 575; 3:1372
debates concerning, 4:1923–1924
degeneracy label and, 2:636, 638,
639, 683
ethnicity vs., 3:1520
eugenics and, 2:619, 637, 639,
769–770, 928; 4:1914
evolution and, 2:945
German political rhetoric and, 2:968
gymnastics and, 4:2241
Haiti and, 2:1037
humankind classification and,
4:1924–1926, 1928
as imperialist rationale, 3:1120
India and, 3:1135
E U R O P E
minorities and, 3:1520
phrenology and, 4:1776
popular journalism and,
4:1870–1871
primitivism and, 4:1874, 1875, 1876
racist dissemination and,
4:1926–1928
Romanies and, 4:2021–2024
slavery and, 4:1924–1926, 1928,
2194
social Darwinism and, 2:619, 968
South Africa and, 1:500; 4:1997,
2219–2220, 2222, 2224; 5:2489
stereotypes and, 2:507
tourism and, 5:2330
Wagner and, 2:638
Weininger and, 5:2449
world’s fair displays and, 5:2503
See also slavery; social Darwinism
Vallette), 2:633; 3:1213
Rachmaninov, Sergei, 2:654; 4:1699
‘‘racial hygiene’’ concept, 2:619, 639,
769, 771
Racine, 1:229
Racine et Shakespeare (Stendhal),
4:2252
Raclawice, Battle of (1794), 3:1265
Radetsky, Fedor F., 4:2068
Radetzky, Joseph, 2:961; 3:1502;
4:1993, 1994; 5:2403, 2404
Jelačić and, 3:1219–1220
Radetzkymarsch (Strauss), 5:2419
radiation, 2:594–595
radiation sickness, 2:595
Radical and Radical-Socialist Party
(France), 4:1929
radicalism, 4:1928–1930
anarchism and, 1:57–59, 161–162;
3:1424–1425, 1497–1498
as anti-aristocracy, 1:82–83
artisans and, 1:111, 459; 3:1390;
5:2486–2487
Blanc and, 1:247–248
Caillaux and, 1:339
Cobbett and, 1:489–490
direct democracy and, 1:458–459
Fabians and, 2:787
France and, 1:279; 4:1928–1930,
1964
French Revolution and, 2:844, 892,
973, 974; 3:1192
German student nationalists and,
1:369
intelligentsia and, 4:1879, 1881
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Ireland and, 3:1180
Italy and, 3:1192
Jacobins and, 3:1205–1206
liberalism and, 3:1343, 1344
Lovett and, 3:1390–1391
Lyon and, 3:1405
Marx and, 3:1464
Marxism and, 1:264–265
Nechayev and, 3:1613–1614
nihilists and, 3:1638–1641
Paine and, 4:1700
Paris Commune and, 4:1735–1737
peace movements and, 2:1034
People’s Will and, 4:1767–1768
police surveillance of, 4:1815
populists and, 4:1831–1832
pornography and, 4:1834
revolutionary right and, 2:542
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1986
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1988,
1995
Robespierre and, 2:610
Russia and, 4:1975–1978, 2053
Switzerland and, 4:1990, 2289, 2291
Westernizers and, 2:1064
women’s movements and,
1:127–128, 129; 2:805
See also socialism
Radical Manifesto of 1885, 4:2136
Radical Party (Britain), 5:2444
Radical Party (France), 1:339, 480;
2:540, 642, 858, 859
Radical Party (Serbia), 4:2145–2146
Radical Republican Party (France),
2:698
radical right (France). See New Right
Radical-Socialist Party (France), 1:279;
2:697, 698
radioactivity, 2:595; 4:2070–2071
radio speaker, 3:1398
radio waves, 3:1163, 1444, 1445;
4:1780
Radishchev, Alexander, 1:376;
2:1014–1015; 3:1170,
1551–1552
radium, 2:595, 596
Radium Institute (France), 2:596
Radium Institute (Warsaw), 2:596
Radonjić family, 3:1539, 1540
Radowitz, Joseph Maria von,
2:876, 877
Radziwill, Elise, 5:2467
Raeder, Linda, 3:1514
Raeff, Marc, 2:540
Raevsky Redoubt, 1:273
Raffalovich, Marc-André, 2:1082
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Raffi, 1:88
Raft of the Medusa (Géricault),
2:955–956; 4:1705
‘‘ragged schools,’’ 2:722
Raglan, Lord, 2:577, 579
ragtime, 4:2087
Raiffeisen, Friedrich Wilhelm, 1:111;
2:960
Railroad, The (Manet), 3:1433
railroads, 4:1930–1938, 1935;
5:2349–2350
African colonization and, 1:18, 20,
21, 21
Amsterdam and, 1:53
army use of, 1:96; 2:580; 3:1506
Austria-Hungary and, 1:142, 144
bank financing of, 1:170, 174
Belgium and, 1:201, 305; 2:764;
3:1335
Belgrade and, 1:206
Berlin and, 1:217
Bohemian Lands and, 1:261
bridge design, 2:759, 760
Britain and, 1:303, 304
broad gauge and, 1:304
Brunel and and, 1:303, 304
Brussels and, 1:305, 306
capitalist bourgeosie and, 1:284
Central Asia and, 1:395, 396
cities and, 1:452
coal production and, 1:486
construction of, 4:1931–1934
crime and, 2:576
Denmark and, 2:647
Dublin and, 2:691
Egypt and, 2:732
engineers and, 2:757, 758, 760
environment and, 2:764
France and, 4:1932, 1933, 1934;
5:2349
German nationalization of, 2:965
Hamburg and, 2:1039
impact of, 4:1934–1937
as impressionist subject, 3:1128
India and, 3:1135
Industrial Revolution (second) and,
1:329–330; 3:1305
Istanbul and, 3:1188
Italy and, 1:390; 2:764; 3:1195,
1200
Japan and, 3:1210, 1212
leisure travel and, 1:288; 4:1824
List’s lobbying for, 3:1357
London and, 3:1372, 1373, 1374
Madrid and, 3:1413
INDEX
Manchester and, 3:1428
migration and, 2:646
Milan and, 3:1502
militarization of, 2:580; 3:1506
Netherlands and, 1:201, 305;
3:1335, 1617; 4:1933, 1934,
1936, 1937
newspaper delivery by, 4:1866
New Zealand and, 3:1624
Paris and, 4:1729
passenger traffic (1913), 4:1937
pilgrimages and, 4:1789
Portugal and, 4:1840
Prussia and, 1:147; 2:876
refrigeration wagons and,
5:2340–2341
as revolution in travel time, 1:353
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1988
Rothschilds and, 4:1933, 2040
Russia and, 4:1933, 1936, 1937,
1975, 2064, 2172–2173; 5:2426,
2427, 2478, 2479, 2503
seaside resorts and, 4:2124, 2125
Serbia and, 4:2147
social benefits of, 4:1930, 1931
steam locomotive, 4:1932
steel and, 3:1158, 1159, 1274
suburbanization and, 2:1087
Sweden and, 4:2285
tourism and, 5:2328–2329, 2330
track length and use (1913), 4:1934
trade and, 5:2340–2342
Trieste and, 5:2355
vacations and, 3:1324
Vienna and, 4:1933; 5:2418
Wales and, 5:2434, 2437
warfare and, 2:580
wine and, 5:2476
worker typhus epidemics and, 2:670
workforce for, 1:473
Railroads and American Economic
Growth (Fogel), 4:1930
Raimund, Ferdinand, 5:2418
Raj (India), 3:1135–1137
Rakes Progress, The (Stravinsky),
4:2262
Rakovski, Georgi, 3:1687
Raleigh Cycle Company, 2:602
Rama III, king of Siam, 3:1139
Rambler, The (periodical), 1:6
Rambles in Germany and Italy in 1840,
1842, and 1843 (Shelley), 4:2169
Ramdohr, Basilius von, 2:910–911
Ramey (sculptor), 4:2043
Rampolla del Tindaro, Mariano,
3:1331
2741
INDEX
Rancé, Armand-Jean, 1:421
Rancière, Jacques, 1:338
Rand, the, 4:2223
Ranger, Terence, 3:1607, 1666
Rangers (football club), 2:833
Rank, Otto, 4:1938–1939
Ranke, Leopold von, 4:1939–1941
Burckhardt as student of, 1:316, 317
history methodology and, 2:1072,
1073, 1074
Schelling and, 4:2088
secularization and, 4:2133
Rankine, William, 3:1160, 1249–1250
rape, 2:571
Raphael
Delacroix essay on, 2:641
as Ingres influence, 3:1166; 4:1705
Matisse copy of, 3:1474
Rappard, Anthon van, 5:2400
Rappites, 3:1692
Rapport sur les principes de morale
politique qui doivent guider la
Convention nationale . . .
(Robespierre), 4:2007
Rapport sur les progrès et la marche de
la physiologie générale en France
(Bernard), 1:228
Rapsodie espagnole (Ravel), 4:1944
Rask, Rasmus, 2:1024
Raspail, Tissot, 1:247, 286
Rasputin, Grigory, 1:41–42; 3:1628
Rastrelli, Bartolomeo, 4:2077
Ratapoil (Daumier), 2:621
Rathbone, Eleanor, 4:2281
rationalism
Renan and, 4:1953
Romantics and, 4:2026–2027
science and, 4:2115
Slavophile view of, 4:2195
sociology and, 4:2214
Weber on, 5:2447
Young Hegelians and, 5:2512
Rational Psychology (Wolff), 4:1907
‘‘Rat Man’’ case (Freud), 2:906
Ratzel, Friedrich, 2:774
Ratzenhofer, Gustav, 4:2214
Rauch, Christian, 1:216
Ravachol (François Claudius
Koenigstein-Ravachol), 1:57;
4:1941–1944, 1942, 1943
‘‘Ravachole, La’’ (song), 4:1943
Ravel, Maurice, 1:154; 3:1575;
4:1944–1946, 1945, 2087
Raven, The (Poe; Doré illustrations),
2:676
Ravenna (Wilde), 5:2464
Rayevsky, Alexander, 4:1919
Rayevsky, Nikolai, 4:1919
2742
rayonism, 1:157
Rayons et les Ombres, Les (Hugo),
2:1093
‘‘Reaction in Germany, The’’
(Bakunin), 1:162; 5:2460
reading. See literacy
Realism (Courbet pavilion), 4:1707
realism and naturalism, 4:1946–1948
avant-garde and, 1:152
Balzac and, 2:830
Barbison painters and, 1:178–180
Brontë (Charlotte) and, 1:301
Courbet and, 2:568–569; 3:1126,
1128; 4:1702, 1706–1707, 1708,
1946–1947, 1956
Danish painting and, 2:647
definition of, 4:1701–1702
Degas and, 2:634
Dickens and, 2:657, 658
Eliot (George) and, 2:744
Flaubert and, 2:827–828, 830
Fontane and, 2:829, 830
German literature and, 1:220
Gissing and, 2:974–975
Goncharov and, 2:989–990
Goncourt brothers and, 2:991
Huysmans and, 2:1104, 1105
impressionism and, 3:1126, 1128,
1133
Menzel and, 3:1489–1490
Millet and, 3:1515–1516
Netherlands and, 3:1619
painting and, 4:1701
photography and, 4:1708, 1772
Pius IX’s condemnation of, 4:1795
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1864
Repin and, 1956–1958
Rodin and, 4:2008–2009
Shaw and, 4:2165
Stendhal and, 2:830; 4:1946, 2252,
2253
symbolism and, 4:2292
Verga and, 5:2407–2408
verismo and, 3:1671, 1677;
5:2407–2408
Zola and, 4:2292; 5:2522–2524
Realist Manifesto (Courbet), 4:1707
Realists (Czech political party), 3:1469
Real Madrid, 3:1414; 4:1824
realpolitik, definition of, 3:1198
reapers, mechanical, 1:25, 27
Rebecca riots (1839–1844), 5:2434
Rebellion of 1798 (Ireland),
3:1176–1177
Rebellion of 1837–1838 (Lower
Canada), 1:345
E U R O P E
Rech (Kadet newspaper), 3:1519
Recherche de l’absolu, La (Balzac),
1:168
Recherches sur les constitutions des
peuples libres (Sismondi), 4:2185
Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles
(Cuvier), 2:599
Recio, Marie, 1:225
Reclus, Jean-Jacques-Élisée, 1:56,
57–58
Recoletos y Castellana area (Madrid),
3:1413
Recollections (Tocqueville), 5:2317
recreation. See leisure
Recuerdos de mi Vida (Cajal), 1:340
Recurrence Theorem (Poincaré),
4:1804
Red and the Black, The (ballet), 3:1475
Red and the Black, The (Stendhal),
4:2252–2253
Red Army, 4:1803, 1804
Red Crescent, 4:1949
Red Cross, 4:1948–1950, 1950
founding of, 2:867
Geneva Convention and, 2:953
neutrality of, 3:1175
nurses and, 3:1650
red dye (alizarin), 3:1157, 1159
Redfield, Robert, 4:1756
Red Guide (Michelin), 1:149
Red House (Morris home), 3:1550
Red Lanterns, 1:292
Redmond, John, 3:1182, 1183, 1184,
1185
‘‘Red Notebook’’ (Darwin), 2:614
Redon, Odilon, 4:2293
Red Room, The (Strindberg), 4:2268,
2286
‘‘Red Room, The’’ (Wells), 5:2458
Reds (Polish radicals), 4:1809
Red Sea, 1:18; 2:583, 794
Redshirts, 2:931–932; 3:1255; 5:2410
Red Shoes, The (film), 2:655
Red Square (Moscow), 4:2080
Red Studio, The (Matisse), 3:1530
‘‘Red Vienna,’’ 1:9–10
Red Virgin, The: Memoirs of Louise
Michel (Lowry and Gunter, ed.),
3:1497
Red Week, 3:1504; 4:2299
Rée, Paul, 1:63–64
Re-establishment of a Cult, The: A Te
deum at Notre-Dame de Paris, 18
April 1802 (Adam), 2:528
Reflections of a Nonpolitical Man
(Mann), 3:1435, 1437
Reflections on History (Burckhardt),
1:320
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Reflections on the Revolution in France
(Burke), 1:327–328; 2:538, 566;
4:1700; 5:2321, 2480
Godwin critique of, 2:980
Maistre’s agreement with, 3:1422
‘‘Reflexes of the Brain’’ (Sechenov),
4:1749
Réflexions politiques, Les (Louis-
Napoleon), 3:1590
Réflexions sur la violence (Sorel),
4:2218
Reform Act of 1832 (Britain), 1:68,
211, 290, 414; 4:1985, 2002;
5:2394, 2412, 2461, 2471
Brougham and, 1:303
Chartist response to, 1:415, 418
Corn Laws repeal and, 2:558
French Revolution as influence on,
1:457
liberal implications of, 3:1345
Lovett and, 3:1390
Macaulay defense of, 3:1407
Mill (James) and, 3:1510
provisions of, 2:1003
Scotland and, 4:2118
suffrage expansion and, 4:2277,
2278, 2279
working class and, 3:1285; 5:2483
Reform Act of 1867 (Britain), 1:203;
2:1008; 5:2434
Carlyle debate on, 1:371
Disraeli and, 2:673
suffrage expansion and, 2:540;
3:1510; 4:2277, 2279
women’s suffrage and, 2:1008
Reform Act of 1884 (Britain), 2:1009;
3:1510; 4:2277
Reform Act of 1918 (Britain), 2:798
Reformation. See Protestantism
Réforme, La (French radical daily),
1:247; 2:849; 3:1318; 4:1963
Reformed Church. See Calvinism
Reform Edict of 1807 (Prussia), 2:958
Reform Judaism, 3:1227, 1232
Reform Movement (Prussia),
2:1042–1043
reform societies. See associations,
voluntary
refrigeration, 2:659; 5:2340–2341
electric, 2:741
Rega Memorandum of 1807
(Hardenberg), 2:1042
Regent Circus (engraving), 3:1601
Regent’s Park (London), 3:1378,
1600–1601
Regent Street (London), 1:451;
3:1600, 1602
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Reger, Max, 2:654
regiment (military unit), 1:94
Règne animal, Le (Cuvier), 2:599
Régnier, Henri de, 4:2294
Regulating Act of 1773 (Britain),
2:794
Reichsbank, 1:171
Reichstadt, duc de. See Napoleon II
Reichstadt Agreement (1876), 2:703
Reichstag
Bebel and, 1:194
Berlin building for, 1:217
Berlin elections and, 1:219
Bernstein as member of, 1:231
Center Party seats in, 1:393;
3:1278–1279
enfeeblement of, 2:968
founding and powers of, 2:964
Liebknecht and, 3:1355
limited powers of, 1:459
representation in, 1:290
Reid, Marion Kirkland, 2:802
Reign of Terror, 1:81, 116, 328, 412;
2:892–893, 957, 1030;
4:1950–1952, 1950–1952,
1962, 2007, 2080
anticlericalism and, 1:68
Catholic suppression and, 1:387
central purpose of, 2:892
Committee of Public Safety and,
2:518–519; 4:1951, 1962
counterrevolutionary movements
and, 2:563–565
Danton and, 2:610, 612, 893;
4:1952
fears about liberalism and, 3:1343
federalist revolt and, 2:799–800,
974; 3:1403
football played in prisons of, 2:831
Fox’s reaction to, 2:840
Girondists executed by, 2:974
Gouges as victim of, 2:996
Jacobins and, 3:1205–1206
Lavoisier’s guillotining and, 3:1313
Law of Suspects and, 4:1951–1952
Lyonnais victims of, 2:800, 894;
3:1403
Marat and, 3:1443
mass executions of, 2:628, 892, 893,
893, 894; 3:1192, 1403
memorires of, 2:896–897
overview of, 2:844, 892–894;
4:1950–1952
Paine imprisonment by, 4:1701
Paris and, 4:1728, 1951
press censorship and, 4:1869
INDEX
Robespierre and, 4:1951, 1952,
2007
Saint-Simon and, 4:2080
September Massacres and, 2:799
show trials and, 4:1951, 1952
sister republics and, 4:2187
victims of, 2:518
Reik, Theodore, 4:2100
Reimer, Marie, 3:1533
reincarnation, 4:2238
Reinhard, Hans, 4:2188, 2189
Reinhardt, Max, 1:336
Reinhart Fuchs (J. Grimm), 2:1023
Reinsurance Treaty (1887), 1:48, 240;
2:526, 969
William II cancellation of, 2:967
Reisebilder (Heine), 2:1055
reism, Brentano philosophy of, 1:299
Reitern, Mikhail, 2:819, 1016
Relâche (Satie), 4:2087
relative motion, principle of,
4:1804–1805
relativism, positivism and, 4:1843
relativity theory, 2:739–740, 1063;
3:1409; 4:1780–1781, 1799,
1805
relief. See welfare
relief etching, 1:244
Relief Law of 1880 (Prussia), 3:1279
religion
Alexander I and, 2:1080
and, 3:1180
Berdyayev and, 1:212
Bonald and, 1:268–269
Carlyle and, 1:370
Carpenter and, 1:372
charities and, 4:1851
church attendance and, 4:1824,
1893, 1894
church-state separation and,
4:1929–1930, 2136–2137;
5:2432–2433
city life and, 1:448
Comte and, 4:1843–1844
Constant and, 2:545
evangelicalism and, 4:2082–2083,
2136; 5:2463
evolution and, 2:614, 615, 618, 631,
776, 777
Freud’s view of, 2:907, 908–909
gendered observance of, 2:945
German Confederation and, 2:960
Haeckel’s monism and, 2:1032
Hegel’s writings on, 2:1051–1052
Heine’s view of, 2:1056
Hirschfeld’s view of, 2:1069
2743
INDEX
humankind origins and,
4:1923–1924
Huxley’s agnosticism and, 2:1103
intellectuals and, 3:1168
Irish Potato Famine and, 3:1180
Jung and, 3:1239
Kulturkampf and, 3:1277–1280
Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1514
missions and, 3:1527–1529
Netherlands and, 3:1618–1619
Nietzsche and, 3:132, 1629–1631
nursing and, 3:1648–1650
Paine critique of, 4:1701
Pater and, 4:1746
peace activists and, 4:1695
popular culture and, 4:1826–1827
refugee migrants and, 3:1111
Renan and, 4:1952–1954
Restoration and, 4:1968–1970
revivalism, 4:1968, 2079; 5:2434
Romanticism and, 4:2030–2031
Salvation Army and, 4:2082–2083
science vs., 2:614, 615, 776, 1103;
3:1401–1402; 4:2110–2111
Scotland and, 2:1002, 1006;
5:2118–2119
secularization and, 4:2132–2134
Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2140
Soloviev’s (Vladimir) view of, 4:2216
spiritualism and, 4:2239
symbolists and, 4:2294
Weber’s theory of, 5:2447
Young Hegelians and, 5:2512, 2513
See also evangelism; specific religions
Religion of China, The (Weber),
5:2447
Religion of Humanity, 2:523
Religion of India, The (Weber), 5:2447
religious orders
French Revolution and, 2:843
nursing and, 3:1648, 1649
Prussian abolishment of, 3:1278
teaching and, 2:721
Religious Procession in Kursk Province
(Repin), 4:1957
religious toleration
Belgium and, 1:200, 383
Berlin and, 1:216
Berlin Conference guarantees of,
1:220
Catherine II and, 1:376
Central Asia and, 1:396
Constant on, 2:545
established churches vs., 4:1895
Francis Joseph and, 1:145
2744
Hungary and, 1:144
Joseph II and, 1:138, 259; 3:1229;
4:1856
Pius IX opposition to, 1:381–382
See also Catholic emancipation;
Jewish emancipation
Religous-Philosophical Society (St.
Petersburg), 1:212
Rembrandt, 2:543; 3:1131, 1353,
1354
‘‘Remembrances’’ (Clare), 1:359
Reminiscences of Carl Schurz, The
(Schurz), 4:1987
Remizov, Alexei, 4:2183
Renaissance (theatrical troupe), 1:229
Renaissance art, 4:1863
Renaissance in Italy (Symonds),
4:2296
Renaissance Revival style, 1:185–186
Renaixença (Catanonian movement),
1:182
Renan, Ernest, 1:51, 74–75, 228;
2:873; 3:1207, 1500;
4:1952–1954, 2133, 2218;
5:2399
life of Jesus by, 2:688; 4:1892
on national identity, 3:1522
Renard, Jules, 4:1944
Renault (automobile manufacturer),
5:2352
Renault taxis, 1:151
René Mauperin (Goncourt brothers),
2:991
Renner, Karl, 1:11
Rennie, John, 2:758
Renoir, Jean, 4:1956
Renoir, Pierre-Auguste,
4:1954–1956, 1955
Degas friendship with, 2:634
impressionism and, 3:128, 1126,
1130, 1534; 4:1708, 1709
Morisot friendship with, 3:1544
Parisian scenes and, 4:1732
Pissarro and, 4:1793
Repin, Ilya, 3:1575; 4:1956–1958,
1957
Report of the Royal Commission on a
Rural Constabulary (Britain),
2:572
Report on the Sanitary Condition of the
Labouring Population, The
(Chadwick), 1:401–402; 3:1358
Report to the County of Lanark
(Owen), 3:1692
Représentant du Peuple, Le (Proudhon
newspaper), 4:1899
Representation of the People Act. See
Reform Act of 1867
E U R O P E
Representation of the People Act of
1918 (Britain), 2:798
Repton, Humphrey (Humphry),
3:1453, 1600; 4:1738
Republic, The (Plato), 2:519–520
Républicain de Seine-et-Oise, Le
(journal), 2:649
republicanism, 4:1958–1964
ancient and modern views of,
4:1958–1959
Austria and, 1:10, 11
Barbizon painters and, 1:178, 180
Boulanger and, 1:279–280, 281–283
Cabet and, 1:337
Carducci and, 1:362
Clemenceau and, 1:479–480
Comte and, 2:522
Constant and, 2:545–546
Deraismes and, 2:649–654
Directory and, 2:665
Ferry and, 2:810–812
France and, 1:457; 2:810,
957; 3:1389
French nationalist Right vs., 1:5
French Radicals and, 4:1928–1930
as French Revolution legacy, 2:891,
896; 4:1962–1964
Gambetta and, 2:928–929
German reaction to, 2:957
ideals of, 2:812, 958
Ireland and, 2:1000
Italy and, 3:1197; 4:1963, 1964
Jacobins and, 3:1205, 1206
Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1318–1319
liberal ideals and, 3:1342–1345
Louis-Napoleon’s election and,
1:271
Mazzini and, 3:1479, 1480
Paine and, 4:1700–1701
Paris Commune and, 4:1736
Portugal and, 4:1841–1842, 1842
rights and, 4:1959–1960
secret societies and, 4:2129
Spain and, 4:1964, 2231, 2300
Third French Republic and,
2:856–857
Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432
women’s exclusions and, 2:721, 723;
4:1961–1962
Republican Party (U.S.), 2:962;
5:2439
Republicans (Spain), 4:2231, 2300
République française, La (newspaper),
2:642, 929
Requiem (Verdi), 3:1572
Requiem Canticles (Stravinsky), 4:2263
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Requirement of Oxygen for the
Organism, The (Ehrlich), 2:735
Rerum Italicarum Scriptores
(Muratori), 2:1072
Rerum Novarum (encyclical, 1891),
1:382, 383, 389; 4:1720, 2209
Rescued by Rover (film), 1:441
rescue operas, 3:1670
‘‘Resignation’’ (Arnold), 1:102
restaurants, 1:445; 4:1964–1967,
1965, 1966, 2035
Restaurant Véry (Paris restaurant),
4:1966
Restoration, 1:68, 248, 270;
2:847–848; 4:1967, 1967–1974,
1968, 1968–1973; 5:2306
abandonment of, 4:1972–1973
artisan guilds and, 1:106
Boulanger affair and, 1:279–280
bourgeoisie and, 1:471
bureaucracy and, 1:321
Catholicism and, 1:387
Catholic missions and, 3:1528
Charles X and, 1:412; 2:847–848
Chateaubriand and, 1:420–423
Concert of Europe and, 2:525
Congress of Vienna on, 2:532
conservatism and, 2:539
conservative alternatives to,
4:1971–1972
Constant and, 2:545
constitutional limits and, 1:457
emigré compensation and, 2:847
Fouché and, 2:837
Freemasons and, 2:881
Guizot and, 2:1029
Ingres and, 3:1165
in international arena, 4:1970–1971
Laennec and, 3:1298
Lafayette and, 3:1300–1301
liberalism and, 3:1343
Louis-Philippe’s position during,
3:1388
Louis XVI burial and, 3:1386
Louis XVIII and, 2:846, 1098;
3:1387
Metternich and, 3:1493–1494
Napoleon’s Elba exile and, 2:1098
national identity and, 3:1522
papacy and, 3:1195; 4:1718, 1724
Paris under, 4:1729
republicanism and, 2:896
secret societies and, 1:360–361
student radicalism and, 1:369
Talleyrand and, 5:2306
theory and practice of, 4:1967–1970
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
women’s legal subjugation under,
2:802
See also Revolutions of 1830
Restoration, Italian, 3:1193–1196;
4:1969, 1970, 1971, 1973,
2001–2002
Restoration, Spanish, 1:59; 2:540,
949–951; 4:1967, 1969, 1970,
1970–1973, 1971, 1973,
2231–2232
Ferdinand VII and, 1:420;
2:998–999; 4:1969, 1970
Generation of 1898 and, 2:950, 951
Madrid and, 3:1413, 1414
Resurrection (Schiele), 4:2090
Resurrection (Tolstoy), 5:2319
retail trade
anti-Semitism and, 2:552
cities and, 1:445, 446
class and, 1:472–473
clothing and, 1:48, 4834
conservatism and, 1:106
consumerism and, 2:547, 548–549;
3:1453
cooperatives and, 2:555–557
France and, 1:106
Jews and, 3:1231
London and, 3:1378
markets and, 3:1447–1449
white-collar women workers and,
1:352
working-class credit and, 2:550
See also department stores
Rethel, Alfred, 2:629
reticular hypothesis, 1:341
Retiro Park (Madrid), 3:1413
Retribution (Blok), 1:250
Return of Sherlock Holmes, The
(Doyle), 2:680
Return of the Native, The (Hardy),
2:1045
Reubell, Jean-François, 2:664
Reunion, 1:16
Reutern, Mikhail, 4:2067
Revelation, Book of, 4:2182
Révellière-Lépeaux , Louis-Marie de,
2:664
Revett, Nicholas, 4:1762
revivalism. See evangelicalism
Révoil, Pierre, 2:605
Révolté, La (newspaper), 3:1272;
4:1794
‘‘Revolt of Islam, The’’ (Shelley),
4:2170
revolutionary right. See New Right
Revolutionary Russia (Moscow
newspaper), 4:2210
INDEX
revolutionary socialists. See socialist
revolutionaries
revolutionary syndicalism, 4:2298,
2300
Revolutionary Tribunal (France),
2:612, 892; 4:1951–1952
Revolutionary War. See American
Revolution
Revolutionary Wars. See French
Revolutionary Wars and
Napoleonic Wars
Revolution Betrayed, The (Trotsky),
3:1172
Revolution of 1789. See French
Revolution
revolution of 1798 (Ireland), 2:1000
Revolution of 1804–1813 (Serbia),
3:1247
Revolution of 1854 (Spain), 1:368
Revolution of 1863 (Poland), 4:1809
Revolution of 1868 (Spain), 1:182,
368
Revolution of 1871. See Paris
Commune
Revolution of 1905 (Russia), 1:62, 81;
3:1293; 4:1697, 1974–1979,
1977, 2055–2056, 2079, 2182
aftermath of, 4:1978–1979
Armenians and, 1:89
avant-garde and, 1:157
ballet dancers and, 4:1750
Bely and, 1:209
Berdyayev and, 1:212
Bolsheviks and, 1:265–267; 3:1487
Bund and, 1:315
Endecja and, 2:753
escalated unrest and, 4:1976–1977,
2055–2057
failure of liberalism and, 3:1349
Finland and the Baltic Provinces and,
2:822–823
general strikes and, 4:1974,
1977–1978, 2055–2056
Gorky and, 2:993
Great Reforms and, 4:1975
intelligentsia and, 3:1171
Lenin and, 3:1328–1329
Luxemburg and, 3:1400, 1401
as Masaryk influence, 3:1469
Mensheviks and, 3:1487
Moscow and, 3:1553–1555
Nicholas and Alexandra and, 1:42;
3:1627–1628
October Manifesto and, 3:1328,
1554, 1627, 1659; 4:1978, 1979,
2057, 2211
Octobrists and, 3:1659, 1660
2745
INDEX
peasants and, 4:1976, 1978, 2056;
5:2485
Plekhanov and, 4:1801
pogroms and, 1:76, 76; 3:1395;
4:1803, 1803
Polish patriots and, 4:1812, 1818
Russian Orthodox Church and,
4:2063
Russo-Japanese War and, 3:1557,
1627, 1628
Stolypin and, 4:1978–1979, 2256
student movements and, 4:1975,
1976, 2055, 2056; 5:2390
Vladivostok and, 5:2427
Zasulich and, 5:2518
Revolutions of 1830, 1:291;
Revolution of 1908 (Young Turks),
3:1691
Revolution of 1916 (Turkestan), 1:397
Revolution of 1917 (Russia), 4:2079,
2183, 2211; 5:2518
Bely and, 1:209
Berdyayev and, 1:213
Bolshevik lead up to, 1:267
civil war and, 3:1242, 1518, 1519,
1660
Diaghilev as emigré from, 2:655
Eurasianism and, 2:771–772, 775
Guchkov and, 3:1660
Guesde’s view of, 2:1026
intelligentsia and, 3:1171–1172
Kuliscioff ’s support for, 3:1277
Lenin and, 2:522
Luxemburg critique of, 3:1401
Mensheviks and, 3:1488
Meyerhold and, 3:1495, 1496
Milyukov and, 3:1518, 1519–1520
Nicholas and Alexandra and, 1:42;
3:1626
Pankhursts and, 4:1714, 1715
Plekhanov and, 4:1801
political prisoners amnesty and,
3:1273
Russian Orthodox Church and,
4:2063
St. Petersburg and, 3:1555
Revolutions of 1820, 4:1979–1982,
1980
Carbonari and, 1:361; 4:1979, 2130;
5:2513
Carlism and, 1:366, 367
Concert of Europe and, 2:525, 662
conference diplomacy and, 2:662
Congress of Troppau and,
2:531–532; 3:1494
counterrevolutionaries and,
2:565–566, 959
2746
France and, 4:1980, 1981, 1982
Great Powers clashes of interest and,
2:662
Greece and, 4:1981–1982
Italy and, 2:662; 3:1195;
4:1980–1981
liberal-national movements and,
3:1344
as Metternich challenge, 3:1494
Naples and, 1:361; 2:565–566, 959;
3:1194, 1254–1255, 1494;
4:1980, 1981
Portugal and, 4:1839
Spain and, 1:361; 2:566, 959;
4:1979–1980, 1980, 1981
4:1982–1986
achievements and failures of, 4:1986
aftermath of, 4:1985–1986
anticlericalism and, 1:68, 381;
4:1718
armies and, 1:96
Barbizon painters and, 1:178
Belgium and, 1:200; 2:566, 662;
3:1335, 1561, 1617; 4:1983,
1984, 1985–1986
Blanc and, 1:248
Bonapartism and, 1:270
bourgeosie and, 1:284,
457–458, 471
bureaucracy and, 1:321
Cabet and, 1:337
Carbonari and, 1:361; 4:1979, 2130,
2131; 5:2513
Catholicism and, 1:387
Charles X and, 1:412, 413; 3:1387,
1388; 4:1984; 5:2512
cholera riots and, 2:669
Concert of Europe and, 2:525
conference diplomacy and, 2:662
consolidation of, 4:1984–1985
counterrevolution and, 2:566–567,
959, 1081; 3:1561
decline of, 4:1985
Delacroix paintings and, 2:640
development of, 4:1984
dynamics of, 4:1983
English Swing riots and, 1:358
France and, 1:270, 361, 457; 2:566,
848, 848; 3:1288; 4:1982–1986,
2081, 2277; 5:2306, 2310–2311,
2316, 2483
French Charbonnerie and, 1:361
Gagern and, 2:923
German demonstrations and, 1:370;
2:959
E U R O P E
Haussmann and, 2:1046
Heine and, 2:1055–1056
Italy and, 3:1195; 4:1983–1986
journalists’ roles in, 4:1869, 1872
July Monarchy and, 1:269
Lafayette and, 3:1298, 1301
liberalism and, 1:457–458; 3:1344
Metternich and, 3:1494
Mickiewicz and, 3:1500
origins of, 4:1983
outbreak of, 4:1983–1984
papal reaction to, 4:1718–1719,
1724
Paris and, 1:413; 4:1728, 1733
Poland and, 1:381; 2:604, 959,
1081; 3:1500, 1561, 1605, 1625;
4:1808, 1810, 1818, 1983–1986
political impact of, 4:1986
preludes to, 4:1983
Rothschilds and, 4:2040
Saint-Simonism and, 4:2081
suffrage and, 4:2277
Talleyrand and, 5:2306
Thiers and, 5:2310–2311
Tocqueville and, 5:2316
working class and, 5:2483
Revolutions of 1848, 1:291; 2:567;
4:1987–1996, 1989, 1992
academic unemployment and,
4:1879
Annekes and, 1:66
anticlericalism and, 1:381; 4:1718,
1719
aristocracy and, 1:81
armies and, 1:96
artisans and, 1:104
Austria and, 1:141–143, 143, 262;
2:807, 808, 863; 4:1987, 1990,
1993–1995, 1994, 1995;
5:2418–2419, 2510
Austrian Jews and, 3:1525
Austrian students and, 5:2383
avant-garde and, 4:1706
Bakunin and, 1:162; 2:961
Barbizon painters and, 1:178
Berlin and, 1:215–216; 2:877, 961;
4:1901–1902, 1990, 1993
Bismarck and, 1:234
Blanc and, 1:247
Blanqui and, 1:248
bourgeoisie and, 1:471; 4:1989
Britain and, 1:417
Budapest and, 1:143, 310; 2:808;
4:1990, 1994
Burckhardt’s reaction to, 1:317, 318
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

bureaucrats and, 1:324
Cabet and, 1:338
Carlsbad Decrees repeal and, 1:370
cholera pandemic and, 2:669
citzens rights and, 1:459–460
classical economics and, 2:716
Comte and, 2:523
conference diplomacy and, 2:662
conflicts of, 4:1993–1995
counterrevolutionary measures and,
2:567; 3:1681
Courbet and, 2:568
Czech national revival and, 1:261;
4:1712, 1856
emigrés and, 3:1112
Engels and, 2:755
failures and accomplishments of,
4:1995
feminism and, 2:803–804
Fourierism and, 5:2397
France and, 2:567, 849, 961, 968;
3:1248, 1389; 4:1933, 1948,
1963, 1964, 1987, 1990–1995;
5:2311, 2317, 2397
Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:870–872
Frederick William III and, 2:877
French feminists and, 2:658
French penal exile and, 2:780
Gagern and, 2:923, 924
German machine breaking and,
3:1412
Germany and, 2:567, 870, 923, 924,
961–962; 3:1412; 4:1987,
1990–1994, 1995
Guizot and, 2:1030
Haussmann and, 2:1047
Herzen’s view of, 2:1065
Hugo and, 2:1093
Hungary and. See Hungarian
Revolution of 1848
Italy and, 2:961; 3:1196–1197,
1255, 1344; 4:1786, 1987,
1990–1995, 2002–2003
Jelačić and, 3:1219–1220
John of Austria and, 3:1236
journalists roles in, 4:1869
labor movements and, 3:1287
Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1318
Leopold I and, 3:1335–1336
liberal-national movements and,
3:1344
Louis I of Bavaria and, 4:1834
Louis-Napoleon and, 1:271; 3:1590,
1626; 4:1993, 1995
lower middle class and, 1:478
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Marx and, 3:1461, 1466
Mazzini and, 3:1197, 1480; 4:1719,
1796
Mediterranean and, 3:1482
Metternich and, 3:1495
Michelet and, 3:1499
Milan and, 3:1196, 1502; 4:1990,
2002
Millet and, 3:1515
Naples and, 3:1196, 1255, 1581;
4:2002
nationalism and, 1:142
nationalist conflicts and, 3:1605
origins of, 4:1988–1990
outbreak and spread of,
4:1990–1991
Paris and, 4:1728, 1733
Paris barricades and, 2:1047
peasants and, 4:1754, 1757
Pius IX and, 4:1719, 1796
Poland and, 4:1809, 1818
political Catholicism and, 1:388;
4:1995
potato blight and, 2:1005
Prague and, 4:1856, 1859–1860
Proudhon and, 4:1899
Prussia and, 2:567, 877, 961;
4:1901–1902, 1987, 1990,
1993–1994, 1995
Prussian lawyers and, 1:285
public health reforms and,
4:1913–1914
realism and, 4:1946
Rothschilds and, 4:2040
Russian repression and, 3:1626
Russian universities and, 5:2386
serf emancipation and, 4:1754
Sicily and, 2:581; 3:1196, 1255
Thiers and, 5:2311
Tocqueville and, 5:2317
urban poor and, 4:1848
Venice and, 5:2403–2404
Vienna and, 1:141, 142; 2:808, 961;
3:1220, 1236, 1267;
5:2418–2419
voluntary associations and,
1:117, 118
Wagner and, 5:2430
William I and, 5:2467
women socialists and, 3:1288
Revolutions of 1917 (Russia). See
Revolution of 1917
Revue blanche (journal), 3:1213, 1214
Revue critique d’histoire et de littérature
(journal), 2:1073
INDEX
Revue de droit international et de
législation comparée (journal),
3:1175
Revue de l’enseignement primaire et
primaire supérieur (journal),
3:1215
Revue des Deux Mondes (journal),
2:687; 3:1334
Revue du Progès politique, social et
littéraire, La (journal), 1:247
Revue Historique (journal), 2:1073,
1074
Revue indépendante (journal), 4:2013
Revue Novelle (journal), 1:390
Revue sociale (socialist journal),
4:2013
Revue Wagnérienne, La (journal),
1:403; 4:2294
Rewa, maharaja of, 3:1136
Rewards and Fairies (Kipling), 3:1257
Reyer, Ernest, 3:1675
Reymont, Wladyslaw, 3:1265; 4:1756
Reynard the Fox (J. Grimm), 2:1023
Reynaud, Émile, 1:441; 3:1396, 1398
Reynier, Jean Louis-Ebenezer, 3:1321
Reynolds, G. W. M., 2:575
Rezanov, Nikolai, 4:2064
Rheims, archbishop of, 4:1719–1720
Rheingold, Das (Wagner), 3:1571,
1674
Rheinische Zeitung (newspaper),
2:754; 3:1464
Rhineland
Prussia and, 4:1900, 1901, 1902
See also Confederation of the Rhine
Rhineland capitalism, 1:330
Rhine River, 2:957, 958; 3:1320
Alsace and Lorraine and, 1:50, 51
alteration of, 2:762
canal system and, 2:757
French Revolutionary Wars and,
3:1596
international navigation of, 3:1173
Leipzig battle and, 3:1320, 1322
Rhode, Paul W., 5:2337
Rhodes, Cecil, 4:1996–1997
imperialist rationale of, 3:1121,
1122
South Africa and, 4:1996, 2222
Rhodesia, 1:500; 4:1997
Rhodes Scholarships, 4:1997
Rhône River, 2:757
Rhur region, 3:1273–1274, 1294
Ribot, Alexandre-Félix-Joseph, 3:1216
Ricardo, David, 2:515; 3:1426
classical economics and, 2:714,
716, 717
as Marx target, 3:1466
2747
INDEX
Mill (James) and, 3:1510, 1511, 1512
trade policy and, 4:1887; 5:2334,
2338, 2339, 23333
Ricasoli, Baron, 5:2476
rice, 4:2190, 2191; 5:2335
Richard, Fleury-François, 2:605
Richard, Henry, 5:2435
Richards, I. A., 1:497; 4:2259
Richards, William Trost, 4:1864
Richardson, Dorothy, 1:214
Richardson, John, 2:1088
Richepin, Jean, 2:1104
Richer, Léon, 1:127; 2:649, 651, 804;
4:1998–1999
Richmond, George, 1:246
Richter. See Paul, Jean
Richter, Eugene, 3:1347
Ricord, Philippe, 4:2301
Ricordi, Giulio, 3:1677; 4:1915
Riddle of the Universe, The (Haeckel),
2:1032
Riding Couple (Kandinsky), 3:1244
Rieger, František L., 5:2510, 2511
Riego y Nuñez, Rafael del, 4:2228,
2229
Riehl, Wilhelm Heinrich von, 4:1755
Rienzi (Wagner), 3:1571, 1674;
5:2430
Riezler, Kurt, 2:957, 967
rifles, 1:95, 99
breechloader, 1:355; 3:1507
British mass-produced, 2:580
military tactics and, 3:1506
repeating, 1:20, 356
Rif Mountains, 3:1547
Riforma, La (newspaper), 2:581
Riga, 2:817, 819
population makeup of, 1:447; 2:818
Riga Latvian Association, 2:820, 821
Rigas Velestinlis (Rigas Pheraios),
2:1019
Rigault, Raoul, 1:68
Right Leg in the Boot at Last (cartoon),
5:2410
rights
Britain and, 2:1001; 3:1345
British Catholics and, 3:1176
citizenship and, 1:456, 457, 458
civil society and, 1:466–467, 468
Committee of Public Safetys denial
of, 2:518
Constants defense of, 2:545, 546
cultural minimun for, 1:498
French Revolution and, 2:801–802,
844, 887, 888, 941
Godwin on, 2:981
Gouges and, 2:995
2748
homosexuals and, 2:1069–1071,
1086
Jewish emancipation and,
3:1225–1227, 1228–1230
Kadets program and, 3:1241
Lafayette and, 3:1298, 1299–1300,
1301
liberal agenda of, 2:717, 812, 871,
958; 3:1341, 1345, 1464
masculinity and, 3:1470
monarch as source of, 2:566
natural law and, 1:456
Reign of Terror’s suspension of,
2:844, 892
serf emancipation and, 4:1754
women and. See feminism; women’s
suffrage
See also human rights; suffragism
Rights of Man, The (Paine), 1:415;
2:1000; 4:1700, 2187
‘‘Right to Work’’ campaign
(1907–1908, Britain), 3:1296
right-wing movements. See
conservatism; New Right; specific
movements
Rigny, de (French admiral), 3:1612
Rigoletto (Verdi), 3:1572, 1673;
5:2406
Rigsdag (Danish parliament), 2:648
Riklin, Franz, 3:1238
Riksdag (Swedish parliament),
1:226, 227
Riley, Jonathan, 3:1514
Rilke, Rainer Maria, 1:65; 2:1079;
3:1529–1530; 4:2089
Rimbaud, Arthur, 2:939; 4:2089, 2292
Decadence and, 2:632
symbolism and, 3:1529
‘‘Rime of the Ancient Mariner, The’’
(Coleridge), 1:496, 497
Doré illustrations, 2:676
Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai, 2:774,
980; 3:1571; 4:1999–2000
Diaghilev and, 2:654; 4:2000
Stravinsky and, 4:2000, 2261
Ring des Nibelungen, Der (Wagner),
3:1436, 1571, 1635, 1674;
4:1999; 5:2431
Ring of the Niebelung (Wagner),
3:1436, 1571, 1635, 1674;
4:1999; 5:2431
Ringstrasse (Vienna), 5:2419, 2420
Riquetti, Honoré-Gabriel. See
Mirabeau, comte de
Risler, Eugénie, 2:811
Risorgimento (Italian unification),
1:234, 362; 3:1193, 1195–1199,
E U R O P E
1201; 4:2000–2004, 2034,
2185, 2247
Carbonari and, 1:360–363; 3:1193
Cavour and, 1:390, 391, 392–393;
3:1197–1198, 1481
Charles Alberts constitution and,
1:414; 3:1196, 1197
Crispi and, 2:581, 583
education and, 2:724
Expedition of the Thousand and,
2:581
Franco-Austrian War and,
2:866–867; 3:1198–1200, 1592
Freemasonry and, 2:881
Garibaldi and, 2:931–932; 3:1195,
1197–1198, 1255
German unification and, 4:1902
Giolitti and, 2:971–973
Gladstone and, 2:977
international law and, 3:1174
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and,
3:1254, 1255–1256
languages and, 2:729
liberalism and, 3:1343
Manzoni and, 3:1441
Marinetti and, 2:921
Mazzini and, 3:1194–1195, 1197,
1479–1481
monetary union and, 3:1537, 1538
Mozzoni and, 3:1555
Naples and, 2:581; 3:1581
Napoleonic groundwork for, 3:1193
papal opposition to, 1:380, 382, 388,
393; 3:1197, 1329, 1604;
4:1717, 1719, 1725, 1795, 1798
Papal State and, 4:1726
Piedmont-Savoy and, 3:1195,
1197–1199, 1255; 4:1785, 1787,
1902, 2000
press freedom and, 4:1870
problems following, 3:1199–1202
proclamation of Kingdom of Italy
(1861) and, 1:392; 3:1197, 1198
Revolution of 1848 failure and,
2:567; 3:1197; 4:1992, 1995
Sicilian banditry and, 3:1415–1416
Sicily and, 4:2175, 2176–2177;
5:2411
Trieste and, 4:2004; 5:2356–2357
Venice and, 5:2404–2405
Verdi and, 3:1572, 1672, 1767;
5:2406–2407
Victor Emmanuel II and,
5:2410–2411
women’s political influence and,
2:803, 804
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

See also Kingdom of Italy
Risorgimento, Il (journal), 1:390
Ristić, Jovan, 4:2145
Rite of Spring, The (Stravinsky), 2:654,
774, 775; 3:1573, 1642, 1643;
4:2262
primitivism and, 4:1876
Ritter, Gerhard, 4:2099
Ritter Pásmán (R. Strauss), 4:2261
Ritz, César, 4:1967
Riunione Adriatica di Sicurtà, 5:2354
Rivas, duke de (Ángel Saavedra),
3:1414
Rivera, Primo de, 2:949
rivers, 2:762, 764, 765, 766
waterway transport and,
5:2346–2350
Riviera, 5:2328
Rivière, Georges, 4:1955
Rivière, Henri, 1:335
Rixdorf (Berlin suburb), 1:217
Riza, Ahmed, 3:1690; 5:2515
Rizzotto, Giuseppe, 3:1415
Road Bridge at Argenteuil, The
(Monet), 3:1535
road racing, 2:602
roads, 4:1936; 5:2346, 2348, 2349,
2350–2352
automobiles and, 1:149
engineers and, 2:757
Road to Calvary, The (Tolstoy),
4:2076, 2079
Road to Power, The (Kautsky), 3:1248
robbery. See property crime
Robergh, Otto, 1:482
Robert, Hubert, 2:831
Robert-Koch-Institute (Berlin),
3:1263
Robert le diable (Meyerbeer), 3:1671
Roberts, Frederick Sleigh, 1:257;
3:1258, 1259
Roberts, H. F., 2:653
Roberts, Morley, 2:975
Roberts, Richard, 3:1430
Robespierre, Maximilien, 1:337;
2:888; 4:1869, 2005–2008,
2006
assassination attempt on, 4:1952
Committee of Public Safety and,
3:1206
Danton and, 2:610, 611, 612, 893
David and, 2:624
execution of, 2:518, 519, 565,
844–845, 894; 3:1206; 4:1952,
2007–2008
Fouché and, 2:836, 837, 894
Gouges’s dislike of, 2:996
as Jacobin, 3:1205; 4:1700
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO
Lamartine history of, 3:1304
as Napoleon’s protector, 3:1584
overthrow of, 2:893–894; 4:1701
Reign of Terror and, 2:844, 892;
4:1951, 1952, 2007
republicanism and, 4:1960
Sade and, 4:2074
September Massacres and, 2:973
sister republics and, 4:2187
Robin Hood, 4:1821
Robinson, James, 5:2334
Robinson, Michael, 4:2269
Robinson, Ronald, 1:498
Robinson Crusoe (Defoe), 3:1384
Robison, John, 4:1779
Rob Roy (Scott), 4:2123
Rob Roy overture (Berlioz), 1:225
Robson, John, 3:1514
Rocca, John, 4:2247
Rochdale Society of Equitable
Pioneers, 2:555–556
Roche, Daniel, 2:548
Rocher de Cancale (Paris restaurant),
4:1966
Rochlitz, Friedrich, 3:1566
Rocket (steam locomotive), 2:760;
4:1932
Rockingham, marquis of (Charles
Watson Wentworth), 2:839;
5:2461
Roda, Roda, 1:336
Rodenbach, Albrecht, 4:2295
Rodin, Auguste, 3:1133, 1471;
4:2008–2011, 2010
Rilke’s ‘‘object poems’’ and, 3:1530
Rodrigues, Olinde, 1:151; 4:2081,
2202
Rodzianko, Mikhail, 3:1659
Roentgen, Wilhelm, 2:594;
4:2011–2013, 2070
Roerich, Nikolai, 2:655, 774, 775
Rogent i Amat, Elias, 1:182
Roger, Peter Mark, 1:440
Rogers, William Barton, 1:23
Roi Arthur, Le (Chausson), 3:1675
Roi Bombance, Le (Marinetti), 2:917
Roi d’Ys, Le (Lalo), 3:1675
Roi Lear, Le (Berlioz), 1:225
Roi samuse, Le (Hugo), 2:1093
Rokumeikan (Deer Cry Pavilion),
3:1210
Roland, Manon, 2:973; 4:1700
Roland, Pauline, 2:650, 651;
4:2013–2014, 2279; 5:2397
Roland de la Platière, Jean-Marie,
2:973; 4:1700
Rolfe, Frederick, 5:2405
Rolla, Alessandro, 4:1698
1 9 1 4
INDEX
Rolland, Romain, 4:1760,
2014–2016
Roman antiquities, 3:1533
Roman Campagna, The (Corot),
2:561
Roman Carnival Overture (Berlioz),
1:225
Roman Catholic Church. See
Catholicism; papacy
Roman de l’énergie nationale, Le
(Barrés), 1:185
Romanes, George, 4:1908
Roman history, 3:1533
Romania, 4:2016–2021, 2018, 2019
alliance system and, 1:48
Balkan Wars and, 1:13, 165, 313;
4:2149
Bulgaria and, 1:313
Crimean War and, 2:577
Eastern Question and, 2:705
electric lighting and, 2:741, 742
Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:137;
4:2018–2020
independence of, 2:530, 706, 1018;
3:1173, 1689
Mehadia women’s traditional dress,
1:139
monetary system of, 3:1538
nationalism and, 4:1993, 1994, 2020
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1990,
1994
Romanies and, 4:2021
Russia and, 4:2016, 2017, 2020,
2067
Russo-Turkish War and, 4:2067,
2068
San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2069,
2085
serf emancipation in, 4:1754, 2149
trade and, 5:2335
Triple Alliance and, 2:965
universities in, 5:2380–2381
Romanian National Party, 4:2019
Romanian Orthodox Church, 4:2018,
2019, 2020
Romanies (Gypsies), 2:572; 4:2021,
2021–2024, 2023
in Serbia, 4:2146
Roman law, 3:1533, 1593, 1595, 1596
Romanones, Conde de, 4:2231–2232
Romanov dynasty, 1:41, 42, 80;
4:2047, 2049, 2063
amnesty and, 2:993
Baltic nobility and, 2:817, 822
Bolshevik overthrow of, 1:264;
3:1273
See also specific rulers
2749
INDEX
Roman Question, 4:1719, 1722,
2024–2026
Leo XIII and, 3:1329, 1330, 1331
Pius IX and, 4:1795, 1798
Roman Republic, 3:1192, 1197, 1318,
1597; 4:1718, 2034, 2188
creation of, 4:2001
Mazzini and, 3:1480–1481
overturning of, 4:1796
proclamation of, 4:1724, 1725, 1796
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1995,
2002–2003
romans rustiques, 4:1756
Romanticism, 4:2026–2033
architecture and, 4:2026, 2030
Arnold on, 1:102
avant-garde and, 1:142
Barbizon painters and, 1:176, 178;
4:1702, 1705
Beethoven and, 1:198
Belinsky and, 1:207
Berlin and, 1:215
Berlioz and, 1:224, 225
Brahms and, 1:295, 296
Brontë sisters and, 1:301–302
Byron and, 1:333
Carducci’s rejection of, 1:362
Catholics and, 1:385
Cézanne’s early period and, 1:397
Chateaubriand and, 1:421; 4:2028,
2030, 2031
childhood in context of, 1:428, 429
Chopin and, 1:440
civilizaton concept and, 1:461
Coleridge and, 1:496–497; 2:543;
4:2027, 2029, 2031
Comte and, 2:523
Constable and, 2:543–544; 4:1703,
1704–1705, 2029
Croce and, 2:584
death fascination of, 2:629
Decadence compared with, 2:632;
3:1476
definition of, 4:1701, 1702
Delacroix and, 2:640–642, 910;
4:1705, 2027, 2030
Disraeli and, 2:672, 674
Doré and, 2:676–678
emotion and, 4:2027–2029
Enlightenment vs., 4:2026–2027,
2028, 2029
Eurasianism and, 2:774
Fichte as influence on, 2:814
folklore and, 4:1756
Frederick William IV and, 2:876–877
2750
French, 4:2252
Friedrich and, 2:910–912; 4:1703,
2027, 2029–2030
German national culture and,
3:1523
Goethe and, 2:985; 4:2027, 2028,
2030
Hegel and, 4:2031
Heine and, 2:1055–1057
Italian nationalism and, 2:930;
3:1193–1194
Kierkegaard critique of,
3:1251–1252
Lamartine and, 3:1303
landscape design and, 4:1738, 1739,
1740, 1741
legal theory and, 3:1314
leisure activities and, 3:1325
liberalism and, 3:1344
Liszt and, 3:1360
Manzoni and, 3:1441–1442
medievalism and, 4:2030
melancholics and, 4:2294
Michelet and, 3:1499
Mickiewicz and, 3:1500–1501
Mill’s (John Stuart) contacts with,
3:1513
music and, 3:1360, 1569–1570;
4:2026, 2027, 2029
nationalism and, 3:1604–1605, 1673
nature idealization and, 2:766
nature mysticism and, 4:2029–2030
Novalis and, 3:1647–1648
opera and, 3:1671, 1673
Paganini and, 4:1699
painting and, 4:1701, 1702–1705
Poland and, 4:1808
political, 4:2031
primitivism and, 4:1874
Pushkin and, 4:1919–1920
realism and, 4:1946
Rossini and, 3:1572
rural life idealization and, 4:1756,
1757
Sand and, 4:2083, 2084
Schelling and, 4:2031, 2088
Schinkel and, 4:2091, 2094
Schlegel and, 4:2094, 2095
Schleiermacher and, 4:2030, 2097
Schubert and, 4:2026, 2027, 2029,
2106, 2107
Scott and, 4:2123
sea portrayals and, 4:2124
secularization in context of, 4:2133
Shelley (Mary) and, 4:2168
E U R O P E
Shelley (Percy Bysshe) and, 4:2027,
2030, 2031, 2170
Slavophiles and, 4:2194, 2195
spirituality and, 4:2030–2031
Staël and, 4:2247
Stendhal and, 4:1946, 2252
Switzerland, 4:2288
symbolism and, 4:2292
Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307
Tennyson and, 5:2309
Turner and, 2:910; 4:1703–1704
Ukraine and, 5:2370
on women’s superior sensibility,
2:945–946
Wordsworth and, 2:543; 4:2027,
2029–2031; 5:2481–2482
Romantic Socialism, 4:2031
Romantische Schule, Die (Heine),
2:1056
Romanzero (Heine), 2:1056
Rome, 4:2033–2038, 2034, 2036
as artistic and literary center, 3:1191
as capital of Italy, 3:1199; 4:1798
Corot’s art studies in, 2:560–561
economy and society of, 4:2035
France and, 4:2003, 2004, 2033,
2034–2035
futurism and, 2:920
Garibaldi and, 2:931, 932; 4:2003,
2004, 2034–2035, 2037
homosexual subculture in, 2:1083
Ingres in, 3:1165
migration and, 3:1111
Milan contrasted with, 3:1502
papal loss of, 3:1199, 1329, 1330,
1331; 4:1719, 1726, 1797, 1798
See also Roman Question
political change in, 4:2033–2035
pre–World War I status of, 4:2037
as republic, 3:1192, 1197
Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1196,
1480–1481; 4:2002–2003
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 3:1198, 1676
St. Peter’s Square, 4:1720
sculpture and, 4:1702
urbanization of, 4:2035–2037
Victor Emmanuel II and, 4:2036,
2037; 5:2411
See also Papal State
Rome and Jerusalem (Hess), 5:2519
Rome, Naples, et Florence (Stendhal),
4:2252
Romeo and Juliet (Berliot), 1:225
‘‘Romeo and Juliet’’ (Tchaikovsky),
5:2307
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Roméo et Juliette (Gounod), 3:1672
Römische Elegien (Goethe), 2:985
Römisches Staatsrecht (Mommsen),
3:1533
Römisches Strafrecht (Mommsen),
3:1533
Romola (G. Eliot), 2:744
Romulus, Conqueror of Acron (Ingres),
3:1166
Rondine, La (Puccini), 4:1916
Ronen, Omry, 4:2181
Rood, Ogden, 4:2156
Room with a View, A (Forster), 2:835
Roon, Albrecht von, 1:235; 2:962,
963, 964; 4:1902
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 2:740;
3:1436; 5:2459
Roosevelt, Theodore, 3:1212, 1628;
5:2459
Kipling friendship with, 3:1256
Nobel Peace Prize and, 4:1837, 2065
Portsmouth Treaty and, 4:1837
Rops, Felicien, 4:2293
Rorty, Richard, 3:1634–1635
Rosa, Giovanni, 3:1503
Rosa, Vincenzo, 3:1444
Rosanvallon, Pierre, 4:2081–2082
Rose, The (Yeats), 5:2509
Rose and the Cross, The (Blok), 1:250
Rosebery, Lord (Archibald Philip
Primrose), 5:2466
Rosellini, Ippolito, 1:407
Rosen, Charles, 1:198; 3:1360
Rosenberg, Alfred, 1:404
Rosenberg, Léonce, 2:593
Rosenblum, Nancy, 3:1514
Rosenkavalier, Der (R. Strauss and
Hoffmannsthal), 2:1077; 3:1676
Rosenthal porcelain, 1:192
Rosetta Stone, 1:406, 407
Rosicrucians, 4:2086
Roslin, Alexander, 1:375
Rosmersholm (Ibsen), 3:1108
Ross, Herbert, 3:1643
Ross, Robert, 5:2440
Rossetti, Christina, 4:1864
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 4:1707,
1863–1864, 1865, 1865, 2046,
2047, 2292
Rossetti, William Michael, 4:1863,
1864, 1865
Rossi, Alessandro, 4:1851
Rossi, Pellegrino, 3:1196; 4:1725,
1796
Rossini, Gioachino, 3:1565, 1572,
1661; 4:2038–2039, 2106, 2288
operatic influence of, 3:1670–1671,
1673
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Paganini association with,
4:1698–1699
Ross Island, 2:784
Rostow, W. W., 4:1930
rotary press, 4:1866
Rothschild, Alphonse de, 1:280
Rothschild, Edmond de, 5:2520
Rothschild, James de, 4:2040
Rothschild, Lionel de, 2:733
Rothschild, Mayer Amschel, 4:2039
Rothschild, Nathan Mayer, 3:1374;
4:1997, 2039–2040
Rothschilds, 1:75; 2:833, 867;
3:1231; 4:2039–2041; 5:2418
Neapolitan debts and, 3:1195, 1255
railroad construction and, 4:1933,
2040
Rothschilds, Die (film), 4:2041
Rothwell, Richard, 4:2168
Rotterdam, 3:1616
Rouault, Georges, 1:153; 2:622, 796
Roubaix (France), 1:201
Roubille, Auguste, 5:2414
Rouchon, Jean-Alexis, 4:1845
Rouelle, Guillaume-François, 3:1311
Rouen, 3:1153, 1411; 4:1794
Rouen Cathedral, Monet paintings of,
3:1535–1536
Rouge et le Noir, Le (Stendhal),
4:2252–2253
Rouget de Lisle, Claude-Joseph,
2:518, 891; 4:1826
Rougon-Macquart, Les (Zola),
5:2522–2523
Round Dance (Schnitzler), 4:2100
Rousseau, Henri, 2:738; 3:1213;
4:1782
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 1:169, 327;
2:838, 994; 4:1968, 2212;
5:2318
gender ideology of, 2:942, 943,
945, 948
as Malthus influence, 3:1425
mechanization concerns of, 3:1411
Reign of Terror and, 4:1952
as Robespierre influence, 4:2006
Romanticism and, 4:2026, 2029
social contract theory and, 3:1272,
1603
Rousseau, Théodore, 1:178–179, 180;
2:562; 3:1126; 4:1705
Roussel, Nelly, 2:805; 4:2041–2043,
2162
Rouvier, Maurice, 1:279
Rouvroy, Claude-Henri de. See Saint-
Simon, Henri de
Roux, Émile, 4:1745
Rover, The (Conrad), 2:536
INDEX
Rover bicycle, 2:601
rowing, 4:2241, 2243
Rowntree, B. Seebohm, 4:1853–1854,
2213
Royal Academy (Britain), 2:543, 544;
4:1703, 1863, 1864; 5:2366
Royal Academy (France), 2:544
abolition of (1793), 2:624
Royal Academy of Fine Arts (San
Fernando), 2:997
Royal Albert Bridge (Britain), 4:1935
Royal and Catholic Army, 2:563
Royal Cake, The: or, The Western
Empires Sharing China Between
Them (lithograph), 1:435
Royal Central Gymnastic Institute
(Stockholm), 4:2242
Royal Chapel of Saint Agatha
(Barcelona), 1:181
Royal College of Chemistry (Britain),
3:1159
Royal College of Physicians (Britain),
2:746; 4:1879
Royal College of Surgeons (London),
3:1376
Royal Commission on the Poor Law
(Britain), 5:2445
Royal Conservatory of Music
(Brussels), 1:307
Royal Copenhagen china, 2:647
Royal Corps des Ponts Chaussées,
2:757
Royal Cotton Exchange (Britain),
3:1428
Royal Court of Saxony, 5:2430
Royal Dublin Society, 2:693
Royal Empire Society (Britain), 3:1118
Royal Geographical Society (Britain),
2:598, 783, 784, 927; 5:2437
Royal Highness (Mann), 3:1436
Royal Holloway College (London),
3:1377
Royal Institute for Experimental
Therapy (Frankfurt), 2:735
Royal Institute of Fine Arts
(Manchester), 1:185
Royal Institution (London), 2:1102;
4:2111
Royal Irish Academy, 2:693
Royal Irish Constabulary, 4:1814
royalism. See monarchism
Royal Italian Academy, 3:1445
Royal Jennerian Society, 3:1224
Royal Marriages Act of 1772 (Britain),
2:954
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich
(Britain), 1:96; 3:1257
Royal Military School (Paris), 3:1584
2751
INDEX
Royal Navy (Britain), 1:98; 2:526,
782; 5:2312, 2470
Dreadnaught battleship and,
2:681–683
German rivaly with, 3:1609–1612
Trafalgar and, 5:2344–2345
vaccination and, 3:1224
War of 1812 and, 5:2438, 2439,
2440
Royal Opera House (London). See
Covent Garden
Royal Palace (Athens), 4:2094
Royal Palace (Madrid), 3:1412, 1414
Royal Red Cross, 3:1638
Royal Serbian Academy, 4:2148
Royal Serbian Academy of Sciences,
1:207
Royal Society of Arts (Britain), 5:2493,
2494
Royal Society of Chemistry (London),
3:1376
Royal Society of London, 1:303, 341;
2:1102; 3:1223, 1376, 1402,
1477
Royal Statistical Society (London),
3:1376
Royal Tapestry Factory (Madrid),
2:997
Royal Theater (Berlin), 4:2092
Royal Tobacco Factory (Spain),
5:2314
Royaume des Fées, Le (film), 3:1483
Royer, Clémence, 2:696
Royer-Collard, Pierre-Paul, 2:1029;
4:1971
Rozanov, Vasily, 4:2183
Rozhdestvenski, Zinovi, 4:2065
RSDLP. See Social Democratic Labor
Party
rubber, 1:21, 205
bicycle tires of, 2:551, 600, 601;
3:1336
Cambodian plantations and, 3:1143
Congo Free State and, 3:1336, 1337
contraceptives and, 4:1827
Crystal Palace exhibit of, 2:588
Goodyear process for, 2:588; 3:1160
Industrial Revolution (second) and,
1:351
Pirelli and, 3:1502, 1504
Rubens, Peter Paul, 1:317; 2:640
Rubinstein, Anton, 4:1957; 5:2306
Rubinstein brothers, 3:1575
Rude, François, 4:2031, 2043–2044
Rudin (Turgenev), 5:2365
Rüdin, Ernst, 2:770
Rudolf, crown prince of Austria,
2:861, 864; 4:2044–2045
2752
Rue Brise-Miche, Paris, 1:124
Rue de Rivoli (Paris), 1:451; 4:1729
Rue Rambuteau (Paris), 4:1729
Rue Transnonain, 15 April 1834. A
Murdered Family (Daumier),
2:850
Rue Transnonain massacre (1834),
5:2311
Ruffo, Fabrizio, 3:1254; 4:1755, 2187
rugby. See football (rugby)
Rugby Football Association, 4:2242
Rugby Football Union, 2:830
Rugby League, 2:830
Rugby School (England), 1:102;
4:2240–2241
Ruge, Arnold, 5:2512
Ruhr region, 1:357, 445
coal mines and, 1:85, 486–487
Krupp steel industrial complex,
3:1273–1276, 1274
machine breaking and, 3:1411
Ruisdael, Jacob van, 2:543
Ruı́z Zorrilla, Manuel, 4:2230
Rules of the Sociological Method, The
(Durkheim), 2:699
Rum, Sultanate of, 4:2022
Rumania. See Romania
Rum millet, 3:1687
Rump, Godtfred, 2:647
Rumph, Stephen, 1:199
Runge, Philipp Otto, 1:428, 429;
2:910
runners, 4:2240
Ruppin, Arthur, 5:2521
rural life
artististic idealization of, 4:1706,
1756–1757
banditry and, 2:571
Constable paintings and, 2:543;
4:1705
educational opportunity and,
2:723–725
folklore studies and, 4:1756
French national identity and, 3:1522
gender and, 2:943
home-based industrial workers and,
3:1148–1149
migration and, 3:1110; 4:1753
as Millet painting subject,
3:1515–1516
Russian predominance of, 2:1017
villages and, 1:476; 4:1752,
1753–1754, 1756
See also Agricultural Revolution;
peasants; serfs, emancipation of
rural radicalism, 1:83
Rural Times (Cobbett), 1:489
E U R O P E
Rus, 5:2369, 2370
Rusalka (Dvořák), 2:701
Ruse, Michael, 2:618
Ruskin, John, 3:1408; 4:1746,
2045–2047, 2205; 5:2423
Carlyle as influence on, 1:371
on Cruikshank illustrations, 2:586
Crystal Palace vilified by, 2:590
Gaskell friendship with, 2:934
Gothic Revival and, 4:1917
Morant Bay uprising and, 1:371
as Morris influence, 3:1550
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1707, 1864,
1865
separate spheres ideology and, 2:943
spiritualism and, 4:2237
on Venice, 4:2046; 5:2403, 2405
Ruskin, John James (father), 4:2046
Ruslan and Lyudmila (Glinka),
2:979, 980
Ruslan and Lyudmila (Pushkin),
4:1919
Russell, Bertrand
Frege and, 2:883
on intellectuals, 3:1168
Mill (John Stuart) as godfather of,
3:1513
Poincaré (Henri) and, 4:1805
Russell, Francis, duke of Bedford, 1:29
Russell, John (1792–1878), 1:102;
2:1002, 1005, 1007, 1008
Corn Laws repeal and, 2:559; 4:1759
Russell, John, 3:1513
Russell, John Scott, 1:305
Russia, 4:2047–2059, 2053, 2058,
2062
Adrianople and, 1:13
advertising agency in, 4:1868
agriculture and, 4:2151, 2257
Albania and, 1:32, 33
Alexander I and, 1:37–38
Alexander II and, 1:38–39, 89
Alexander III and, 1:40–41, 89
Alexandra and, 1:41–42
alliance system and, 1:47, 48–50;
2:1013
anarchism and in, 1:56, 60, 161–162
anti-Semitism and, 1:40, 72, 75, 76,
77; 2:689; 3:1233, 1234, 1627,
1628
architecture and, 4:2075–2079
aristocracy and, 1:78, 80, 81, 83, 84,
85, 87, 471; 4:1747
army system of, 1:94, 97; 2:1014,
1016–1017; 3:1280–1282
art nouveau and, 1:114
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Austerlitz and, 1:132–133; 3:1586
Austria and, 1:146; 2:526, 703–705,
1081; 4:1995, 2054, 2067, 2070;
5:2392
Austro-Prussian War and, 1:236
avant-garde and, 1:157–158
Bakunin and, 2:161–162
Balkan League and, 1:32
Balkan nationalism and, 1:163, 165,
166, 276; 2:663–664; 3:1690
Baltic provinces and. See Finland and
the Baltic provinces
beards worn in, 1:190
Belinsky and, 1:207–208
Bely and, 1:208–210; 4:2079
Berdyayev and, 1:211–213
Bismarck diplomacy and, 1:232, 240;
2:674, 965
Black Sea control and, 1:243–244,
278, 376; 3:1683
Blok and, 1:249–250
‘‘Bloody Sunday’’ massacre in,
4:1976, 1977, 2055, 2078–2079
Borodino and, 1:272–273
Boshevism and. See Bolsheviks; Soviet
Union
Bosphorus and, 1:278; 2:577, 705;
3:1421
bourgeoisie in, 1:283, 284, 471;
4:2211
Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292
Bulgaria and, 1:312, 313;
2:703–704; 4:1717
Bund in, 313–315
bureaucracy in, 1:322–323, 324
cabarets in, 1:336–337
Catherine II (the Great) and,
1:374–377
censorship in, 1:400; 2:1014, 1016;
3:1552, 1613, 1626, 1627;
4:1747, 1869, 1870, 2052, 2055
Central Asia and, 1:395–397; 3:1116
Chaadayev and, 1:399–401
Chekhov and, 1:422–423
chemistry in, 1:426
child abandonment in, 5:2454–2455
China and, 1:434; 3:1679; 4:2172
cholera epidemic in, 1:436, 438,
450; 2:669
cinema in, 1:443; 4:1824
city government and, 1:449, 450
city violence and, 1:449
civilizing mission of, 1:462, 463, 464
civil war in, 3:1242, 1518, 1519,
1660
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
classical learning and, 1:286
communes in, 4:2052, 2151, 2153,
2195, 2196, 2257; 5:2460
communism and, 2:522
Concert of Europe and,
2:524–527, 565
Congress of Berlin and, 2:529,
530, 705
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–534,
565, 603, 958
Congress System and, 1:374
constitutionalism and, 4:2049–2050,
2055, 2056–2057, 2079, 2270
Cossacks and, 2:562–563; 4:1977;
5:2369–2370
counterrevolutionary repression in,
3:1625, 1626, 1660; 4:1832
crime and, 4:2079, 2172
Crimean War and, 1:38–39, 94,
243–244; 2:577–580, 1007,
1014, 1015; 3:1626; 4:1975,
2048, 2051, 2149–2150, 2153,
2196; 5:2410
cultural Russification and, 1:40
Czartoryski and, 2:603–604
Dardanelles and, 2:577
Decadence and, 2:633
Decembrists and, 4:2050, 2236
Diaghilev and, 2:654–655; 4:2077
Dostoyevsky and, 2:678–679
drinking culture of, 1:34–35
dueling code of, 2:696
Eastern Question and, 1:278; 2:526,
703–705, 1009
education in, 1:39, 376; 2:720, 723,
727, 1016, 1017; 4:2051–2052
elected assemblies in, 1:290
electric power and, 2:742
emigration from, 2:746; 3:1114
Entente Cordiale and, 2:609
Ethiopia and, 1:8
Eurasianism and, 2:771–775
famine in, 4:1755, 2055, 2056
Finland and. See Finland and the
Baltic provinces
football (soccer) in, 2:834
France and, 4:2048, 2050–2051,
2054; 5:2306, 2374, 2417, 2440,
2442
Freemasons and, 2:877, 881; 3:1552
French alliance with (1894), 1:411;
2:526, 642, 643, 795
French Revolution and, 2:887;
4:2047–2048
Fundamental Laws of 1906 and,
4:1978, 2057, 2211, 2257
INDEX
Germany and, 2:968; 4:2054, 2059,
2070, 2098–2099; 5:2478
Glinka and, 2:979–980; 3:1571, 1673
Gogol and, 2:988–989; 4:2076
Golden Age and, 4:2181, 2183
Goncharov and, 2:989–990
Gorky and, 2:992–993
Great Game and, 1:395
Great Reforms and, 1:39, 40, 88–89;
2:1014–1017; 4:1767
Greece and, 4:1982
Greek War of Independence and,
2:1020; 3:1494, 1612–1613,
1685, 1686
Hague conference and, 2:1034
Herzen and, 2:1064–1066
historiographical view of, 3:1518
Holy Alliance and, 2:531, 565, 1002,
1079–1081; 4:1970, 1971, 1973,
1985, 2228; 5:2392
Hungarian nationalism and,
3:1268–1269
imperial expansion of, 3:1116, 1120;
4:2051, 2172; 5:2370
industrialization in, 1:331; 4:2054,
2078–2080
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
and, 5:2493
infant mortality rate in, 4:1829
intelligentsia and, 1:207–208, 212;
3:1168, 1170–1172; 4:1975,
2050, 2052–2053, 2055
international law textbooks and,
3:1175
Japan and, 3:1209, 1210, 1212;
4:2063–2064, 2171
See also Russo-Japanese War
Jewish emigrants from, 1:40; 3:1113
Jews in, 1:73, 314–315; 3:1227,
1229, 1230, 1231, 1232–1233;
4:1808, 1978, 2055, 2057, 2257;
5:2519, 2520
Kadets and, 3:1241–1242; 4:2057,
2270, 2271
Kandinsky and, 3:1243–1246;
4:2077
Kropotkin and, 3:1272–1273
Kutuzov and, 3:1280–1282
labor movements in, 3:1287, 1288;
4:1976, 1978, 2078–2079;
5:2485, 2486, 2489
landed elite in, 1:469; 3:1627
law codification in, 4:2236
Leipzig battle and, 3:1319
Lenin and, 3:1326–1329; 4:1974,
1976, 2049, 2054, 2077, 2079
2753
INDEX
lesbianism in, 2:1084
liberalism in, 4:2055
liberals failure in, 3:1349
literacy rate in, 1:431; 4:1868
Lithuania and, 3:1365, 1365–1368
marriage age in, 4:1828
Martov and, 3:1460–1461
Marxist party in, 3:1327
See also Social Democratic Labor
Party
Mediterranean and, 3:1481–1482
Mensheviks and, 4:1976, 1977,
2270; 5:2486, 2518
Metternich diplomacy and, 3:1492,
1493, 1494, 1495
Meyerhold and, 3:1495–1496
migration and, 2:646; 3:1110–1111,
1112
military colonies and, 4:2050
Milyukov and, 3:1517–1520
monetary system of, 3:1538
Montenegro and, 3:1539, 1541
Münchengrätz treaty and,
3:1560–1561
multiethnic languages in, 2:724–725
music and, 2:979–980; 3:1571
Muslim jadidism in, 3:1206–1208
Mussorgsky and, 3:1575–1576,
1673–1674
mutual aid societies in, 3:1284
Napoleon and, 4:2048, 2051, 2078,
2227; 5:2440
Napoleonic Wars and, 1:37–38, 93,
272–273, 477; 2:553, 846, 895,
900–901, 901, 902–903;
3:1281–1282, 1492, 1493, 1586,
1588, 1599; 4:1748, 1900
Napoleon’s invasion/retreat from,
1:272; 2:603, 846, 861,
902–903, 958, 1080; 3:1308,
1319, 1492, 1588, 1599; 4:1766
national identity and, 1:400; 4:2048
nationalism and, 1:400; 4:1956,
2048, 2079, 2271; 5:2307
Nechayev and, 3:1613–1614
newspapers and, 4:1867, 1868,
1869, 1870
Nicholas I and, 3:1625–1626
nihilism and, 3:1638–1641
Nijinsky and, 3:1642–1643
October Manifesto and, 4:1978,
1979, 2057, 2211
Octobrists and, 3:1658–1660;
4:2057, 2058, 2257
Official Nationality concept of,
3:1626; 4:2048
2754
opera and, 2:654; 3:1575–1576,
1673–1674, 1674
Ottoman Empire and, 4:2086, 2164;
5:2391–2392
See also Russo-Turkish War
Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716, 1717
Paul I and, 4:1747–1748
Pavlov and, 4:1748–1749
Pavlova and, 4:1749–1751
peasant revolts and, 1:376; 2:669;
3:1328; 4:1755, 1831–1832
peasants in, 4:1752, 1753–1754,
1823, 1831–1832
penal exile and, 2:780–781
People’s Will and, 3:1326, 1614;
4:1767–1769, 1832
Plekhanov and, 4:1800–1801
poetry and, 1:249, 337
pogroms and, 1:76; 3:1395;
4:1802–1804, 1803, 1978, 2055,
2057; 5:2520
police system in, 4:1815
Polish insurrections and, 1:162;
3:1264–1265, 1624;
4:1809–1811
Polish territory of, 2:567, 957;
4:1806–1807, 1808–1811, 1812,
1817, 1933, 1976, 1984, 1985;
5:2370, 2371, 2441–2442, 2511
political parties in, 4:1975, 1976,
2057
populists and, 3:1640–1641;
4:1831–1832, 2052, 2053, 2132,
2209–2210, 2270; 5:2517
Portsmouth Treaty and,
4:1837–1838
post-1917 émigrés from, 3:1518,
1520
Potemkin mutiny and, 4:1976
Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861,
1862
professions in, 4:1880
prostitution regulation in, 4:1884
Protestant minority in, 4:1890,
1891, 1891
Protestant missions to, 3:1527
psychological research tradition of,
4:1908
Pushkin and, 4:1918–1920, 2075,
2165, 2181
Quadruple Alliance and, 1:374;
2:662
radicals in, 4:1975–1978, 2053
railroads and, 4:1933, 1937, 1975,
2064, 2172–2173; 5:2426, 2427,
2478, 2479
E U R O P E
Red Cross, 4:1950
religiophilosophical renaissance and,
4:2196
Repin and, 1956–1958
restaurants in, 4:1966
Restoration and, 4:1970, 1971, 1973
Revolutions of 1820 and,
4:1979–1980, 1981
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1984,
1985, 1986
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1991
Rimsky-Korsakov and, 4:1999–2000
Romania and, 4:2016, 2017, 2020,
2067
Rothschilds and, 4:2040
rule of law and, 4:2049, 2051
Russo-Turkish War and, 1:90–92
San Stefano Treaty, 4:2068,
2069–2070, 2085–2086
Schlieffen Plan and, 4:2098–2099
science and technology, 4:1749,
2076–2077
Second International and, 4:2127
secret societies in, 1:360, 361;
4:1991, 2050
secularization in, 4:2059, 2060, 2061
Serbia and, 1:206; 2:704–705;
4:2144, 2146
serf conditions in, 3:1305; 4:1754
serf emancipation in. See under serfs,
emancipation of
Shamil and, 4:2164–2165
Silver Age and, 4:2077, 2181–2183,
2217
slave trade and, 1:308
Slavophiles and, 1:400; 4:2048,
2194–2196; 5:2365, 2459
smallpox deaths in, 4:2198
Social Democrats and, 4:1976, 2209,
2270; 5:2518
socialism and, 4:2052, 2053, 2196;
5:2460
socialist revolutionaries and, 4:1976,
1978, 2049, 2209–2212; 5:2320,
2518
Soloviev (Vladimir) and,
4:2215–2217
Speransky and, 4:2172, 2236–2237
statistical studies and, 4:2249, 2250
Stolypin and, 4:1978, 2058,
2256–2257, 2271; 5:2479
Stravinsky and, 3:1573; 4:2077,
2261–2263
strikes in, 3:1288, 1327, 1328, 1628;
4:1974, 1977–1978, 2055–2056,
2268; 5:2390
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Struve and, 4:2270–2271
suffrage and, 4:2279
Sweden and, 4:2283
Swedish war with, 2:817
symbolists in, 1:209, 214
syndicalism and, 1:62
Table of Ranks in, 1:286, 323
Tchaikovsky and, 5:2306–2307
telephone service in, 5:2308
terrorism in, 4:2052, 2053, 2210,
2211, 2256; 5:2517
Three Emperors League and,
2:703–704; 3:1690
tobacco and, 5:2313
Tolstoy and, 5:2318–2320, 2319
trade and, 5:2335, 2336, 2338,
2343, 2343
Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi,
5:2391–2392
Triple Intervention of 1895 and,
4:2064
Turgenev and, 5:2364–2366
Turkish Armenians and, 1:92
universities and, 4:1975, 1976,
2052; 5:2378, 2379, 2385–2386,
2389–2390
university admittance in, 2:728
urban development and, 1:452
voluntary associations in, 1:117,
118, 119
waterway transport in, 5:2348
welfare initiatives in, 5:2451, 2452,
2454–2455
Westernizers in, 1:400; 2:1064;
4:2048–2049, 2195–2196;
5:2365, 2459–2460
White government of, 4:2271
wine and, 5:2475
Witte and, 5:2478–2479
women medical students in, 2:728
working class in, 5:2485, 2489
World of Art group in, 4:2181
world’s fairs and, 5:2502–2503
World War I and, 2:705; 4:2079
World War II and, 4:2079
Young Czechs and Old Czechs and,
5:2511
Zasulich and, 5:2517–2518
See also Moscow; Revolution of 1905;
Revolution of 1917; Russo-
Turkish War; St. Petersburg;
Siberia; Social Democratic Labor
Party; Ukraine
Russia and Europe (Danilevsky), 2:773
Russia and Europe (Masaryk), 3:1469
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Russia and Its Crisis (Milyukov),
3:1518
Russia and the Universal Church
(Soloviev), 4:2216
‘‘Russia before Peter the Great’’
(Belinsky), 5:2460
Russian Armenians, 1:87, 88–89
Russian Ballet, 1:154
Russian Easter Festival (Rimsky-
Korsakov), 4:1999, 2000
Russian General Oil Corporation, 1:88
Russian Imperial Geographical Society,
3:1272
Russian Juvenile Band, 3:1567
Russian language, 1:40; 2:821; 3:1605
Russian Literary Society, 2:679
Russian Orthodox Church, 1:381;
2:772; 3:1626; 4:2059–2063;
5:2370
Alexandra and, 1:41
Baltic provinces and, 2:821
Dostoyevsky and, 2:678
Nicholas I Official Nationality policy
and, 3:1626
Old Believers and, 4:2062, 2257
Pan-Slavism and, 4:1717
Peter the Great and, 4:2059, 2060;
5:2369
Poland and, 4:1807
Russia and, 4:2048
Slavophiles and, 4:2194–2195;
5:2459
Tolstoy and, 5:2319
Ukraine and, 5:2369, 2372
‘‘Russian People and Socialism, The’’
(Herzen), 2:1065; 5:2460
Russian Revolution of 1905. See
Revolution of 1905
Russian Revolutions of 1917. See
Revolution of 1917
Russian Social Democratic Labor
Party. See Social Democratic
Labor Party
Russian State Economy in the First
Quarter of the Eighteenth Century
and the Reforms of Peter the Great
(Milyukov), 3:1518
Russie et l’église universelle, La
(Soloviev), 4:2216
Russkoe bogatstvo (Milyukov), 3:1518
Russkoe musulmantsvo (Gasprinski),
3:1207
Russkoe slovo (Moscow newspaper),
3:1639, 1640; 4:1868
Russo-Japanese War, 1:49; 3:1691;
4:1976, 2055, 2063–2066, 2064,
2066, 2098, 2127
army structure and, 1:95
INDEX
background of, 1:434
Congress of Berlin and, 2:529–531
as fin de siècle event, 2:816
implications of Japanese victory in,
1:464
indemnity dispute and, 4:1837
Japanese alliances and, 3:1212
military technologies and, 1:99;
3:1507
Mukden battle and, 3:1507,
1556–1558, 1628; 4:2055, 2065
Plekhanov and, 4:1801
pogroms and, 1:76
Polish nationalists and, 4:1812
Portsmouth Treaty and, 3:1212,
1628; 4:1837–1838
Red Cross and, 4:1950
Revolution of 1905 and,
3:1627–1628
Russian protests and, 1:89; 3:1552,
1554
Russia’s defeat and, 1:146; 2:704,
774; 3:1328, 1473, 1557–1558,
1628, 1691
Siberia and, 4:2173
Vladivostok and, 5:2426, 2427
Witte and, 4:2065; 5:2479
Russolo, Luigi, 1:157; 2:918,
919, 920
Russo-Polish War (1792), 3:1264
Russo-Serbian Convention (1807),
1:206
Russo-Turkish War, 2:742; 3:1420,
1685; 4:2016, 2067–2070, 2069
Abdul-Hamid and, 1:2; 3:1689
Adrianople and, 1:12
Alexander II and, 1:39
Armenians and, 1:88, 90–92
Bismarck and, 2:526, 964
Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:276
Bulgarian massacre as factor in, 1:312
Catherine II and, 1:376, 377
Eastern Question and, 2:703
Istanbul and, 3:1188
jingoism and, 3:1234
Montenegro and, 3:1541
Nicholas I and, 3:1625
Ottoman effects of, 3:1683
Red Cross and, 4:1949
Russian victories and, 2:703
Serbia and, 3:1541, 1683
See also San Stefano, Treaty of
rustic life, 2:543
Ruth (Gaskell), 2:934
Ruthenians, 4:1809, 2020
2755
INDEX
Rutherford, Ernest, 1:427;
4:2070–2071
Ruy Blas (Hugo), 1:229; 2:1093
Ryan, Alan, 3:1514
Rydberg, Johannes, 4:2285
Rydberg, Viktor, 4:2286
Ryûkyûan kingdom, 3:1211
n
S Saint Arnaud, Armand-Jacques,
Saar coal fields, 1:486
Saarinen, Eliel, 1:113; 5:2503
Saavedra, Ángel, 3:1414
Sabahaddin Bey, 5:2515, 2516
Sabartès, Jaime, 4:1781
Sabine, Edward, 3:1658
sabotage, industrial, 3:1412; 4:1821
See also Luddism; machine breaking
Sacher-Masoch, Leopold von, 3:1270
Sachs, Jeffrey D., 5:2340
Sacre, Le (David), 2:624
Sacré-Coeur Basilica (Paris), 2:737;
3:1405; 4:1731, 1737, 1826
Sacred Books of the East (Müller),
3:1239
Sacred Heart, cult of, 1:385
Sacre du Printemps, Le (Stravinsky),
2:655, 774, 775; 3:1573, 1642,
1643; 4:2262
primitivism and, 4:1876
Sacrilege Law (France), 3:1387;
4:1969, 1970
Sade, Donatien-Alphonse-François de,
marquis de Sade, 2:518; 3:1270;
4:1834, 1959, 2073–2075
Sade, house of, 4:2073
Sade, Jean-Baptiste, 4:2073
Sadiq Bey, Muhammad al-, 5:2363
Sadiqi college (Tunisia), 5:2363
sadism, 3:1270; 4:2073, 2162
Sadko, The Tsar’s Bride (Rimsky-
Korsakov), 4:2000
Sadowa, Battle of (1866). See
Königgrätz, Battle of
Sadullah Bey, 4:2085
Šafǎrı́k, Pavel, 4:1716–1717
safety bicycle, 2:601
safety lamps, 1:487
Safvet Pasha, 4:2085
Sagan, Carl, 2:1031
Sagasta, Práxedes, 4:2230, 2231
Saggi bibliografici di economia politica
(Cossa, ed.), 4:1850
Saggio storico sulla rivoluzione
napoletana (Cuocco), 3:1192
2756
Sagrada Familia (Barcelona), 1:112,
183–184; 2:935, 937–938, 938;
4:1826
Said, Edward, 1:131; 3:1169,
1185, 1511
Said, Muhammad, 4:2274, 2276
Said Pash, 2:732; 3:1337–1338
Saigon, 3:138, 1137, 1141, 1143
Sailors’ Orphans, The: or, The Young
Ladies’ Subscription (Bigg), 4:1852
St. Andrews University, 2:1006;
3:1513
2:577, 578
Saint Barthélemy colony, 3:1116
St. Basils Cathedral (Moscow), 4:2062
St. Chads Cathedral (Birmingham),
4:1918
Saint Christopher (Saint Kitts), 1:365
St. Cloud (Paris), 4:1729
Saint-Cloud, Chàteau of, 3:1385
Saint-Cloud Decree (1810), 2:554
St. Denis Cathedral (Paris), 3:1386
Saint Domingue. See Haiti
Sainte-Beuve, Charles-Augustin,
1:102; 3:1334
Sainte Lydwine de Schiedam
(Huysmans), 2:1104
St. Étienne, 4:1736
Saint Fargeau, Lepeletier de, 4:1960
St. George, Republic of, 4:2188
Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Peace of
(1919), 1:309
St. Giles Church (Cheadle), 4:1918
St. Helena Island, 1:93, 270; 2:779,
847, 903, 1099; 3:1389, 1588;
4:1718, 1766
Saint-Hilaire, Étienne Geoffroy, 2:599
St. Isaac Cathedral of (St. Petersburg),
4:2078
Saint-Jean-d’Acre (Syria), 3:1585
Saint Joan (Shaw), 4:2166, 2167
St. John, Ambrose, 3:1621
Saint John’s Night on Bare Mountain
(Mussorgsky), 3:1575
Saint John the Baptist Preaching
(Rodin), 4:2009
Saint-Jorioz, Carlo Bianco di, 5:2514
‘‘Saint Julian Hospitator’’ (Flaubert),
2:828
Saint-Just, Louis-Antoine-Léon de,
2:844–845; 4:1700, 1960, 2006,
2007
St. Leon (Godwin), 2:978
St. Louis Olympic Games (1904),
3:1667
St. Louis World’s Fair (1904), 1:113;
2:589, 653
St. Marie’s Church (Derby), 4:1918
E U R O P E
Saint Mark, Republic of, 5:2402, 2403
St. Martin Canal (Paris), 4:1731
Saint Mary’s Chapel of the Rosary
(Venice), 3:1475
St. Patrick’s Cathedral (Dublin), 2:693
St. Paul’s Cathedral (London), 3:1378
St. Petersburg, 4:2048, 2055,
2075–2080
advertising and, 2:550
Alexandra’s dislike of, 1:41, 42
Armenians in, 1:88
Bely and, 2:774
Bloody Sunday massacre (1905) and,
2:993; 3:1627; 4:1976, 1977,
2055, 2078–2079
bourgeoisie and, 1:284
bureaucracy and, 1:323
cabaret in, 1:337
Chekhov in, 1:422–423
child abandonment in, 5:2455
Czartoryski in, 2:603
Diaghilev and, 2:654, 655
electric lighting and, 2:742
factories and, 1:449
founding and development of,
4:2075–2077
general strike (1905) in, 2:823
industrialization and, 1:40
industrialization and revolution in,
4:2078–2080
infant abandonment and, 1:431
Lenin in, 3:1326–1327, 1328
maternity hospitals, 5:2450
migration and, 3:1111
Milyukov in, 3:1518
Moscow compared with, 3:1551,
1552, 1554, 1555
penal labor and, 2:781
pogroms and, 4:1803
population growth of, 1:446
railroads and, 4:1933
renaming of, 4:2079
revolutionaries in, 3:1613
street lighting and, 2:742
telephone service and, 5:2308
theater in, 3:1496
voluntary associations and,
1:117, 119
wine consumption in, 5:2475
working class and, 5:2485, 2489
St. Petersburg Conservatory, 4:1999
St. Petersburg Imperial Ballet School,
3:1642
St. Petersburg League of Struggle for
the Emancipation of the Working
Class, 1:266; 3:1326, 1460
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

St. Petersburg State University,
4:1976, 2075
St. Peter’s Square (Rome), 4:1720
St. Rollox chemical complex, 4:2117
saints
canonization and, 1:385
shrines of, 4:1788–1789
Saint-Saëns, Camille, 3:1572, 1675;
4:1750, 1751
Saint-Simon, Henri de, 1:151, 459,
491; 2:930; 4:2080–2082, 2200,
2212
as Comte influence, 2:522–523
feminism and, 2:803, 946
as Heine influence, 2:1056
as Herzen influence, 2:1064
Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1513
Romanticism and, 4:2031
socialism and, 3:1286
utopian socialism and, 5:2395, 2396
Saint-Simonism, 2:650; 3:1337;
4:2081–2082, 2202–2203, 2204
on egoism, 5:2396
Roland and, 4:2013
secret societies and, 4:2131
Tristan and, 5:2357
utopian socialism and, 5:2396
St. Thomas’s Hospital (London),
2:1102; 3:1649
Saisons Russes, 4:1750
Sakhalin Island, 4:1837, 2064, 2065
S˛akir, Bahaeddin, 5:2515
salacious literature. See pornography
Salammbô (Flaubert), 2:827, 828
Salandra, Antonio, 2:972;
3:1202–1203
Salburger grosse Welttheater, Das
(Hofmannsthal), 2:1077
Saleilles, Raymond, 3:1315
Salic Law, 4:2229
Salieri, Antonio, 4:2106
Salis, Rodolphe, 1:335
Salisbury, Lord (Robert Cecil), 1:308,
404; 2:1009; 5:2322, 2414
program of, 2:1010–1011, 1013
Salisbury Cathedral, 4:1705
Salle River, 3:1319
Salmerón y Alonso, Nicolás, 4:2230,
2231
Salmon, André, 2:590; 4:1782
Salo de Cent de Barcelona, 1:182
Salomé (Wilde), 2:633; 3:1377;
5:2466
art nouveau imagery and, 1:108
Beardsley illustrations, 1:109, 192, 193
Salomé, Louise. See Andreas-Salomé,
Lou
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO
Salon (Paris), 2:544; 4:1946
avante-garde and, 1:153, 155
Corot and, 2:561
Courbet and, 2:568, 569
Daguerre and, 2:605
Daumier and, 2:621
Degas and, 2:634
Delacroix and, 2:640
of 1830s, 1:178
Géricault and, 2:955
impressionists excluded from,
3:1126, 1127–1128, 1535
Ingres and, 3:1165
Manet and, 3:1431, 1432, 1433
Monet and, 3:1535
rejections by, 3:1432
Renoir and, 4:1954, 1955
Rodin and, 4:2008, 2009
Rude and, 4:2043
salon cubists, 2:590–591, 592–593
Salon d’Art Idéaliste, 4:2295
Salon d’Automne (Paris), 1:399;
3:1474
avant-garde and, 1:153, 155
cubism and, 2:590
fauvism and, 2:795
Salon des Indépendants (Paris), 2:590;
3:1474
Salon des Refusés (Paris), 3:1432,
1433, 1530; 4:1707
Salonika, 1:1, 32, 163; 2:704; 3:1482
Salon of the King (France), 2:640
salons
aristocratic women and, 1:469
Berlin and, 1:215, 316; 2:675
Chopin’s performances in,
1:439, 440
Durand and, 2:696
Enlightenment and, 4:2029
Parisian republican, 2:649
Rossini and, 4:2038
Salons of the Rose + Cross, 4:2295
Šaloun, Ladislav, 4:1858
Salpêtrière Hospice (Paris), 4:1791,
1959
Saltykov, Sergei, 1:375; 4:1747
salvarsan, 2:736
Salvation Army, 1:36; 4:1886,
2082–2083
Salvemini, Gaetano, 3:1277
Salzburg, 2:958
Salzburg Festival, 2:1076, 1077
Samarin, Yuri, 4:2154, 2196
Samaritaine, Le (Paris department
store), 2:548
Sambre River, 486
1 9 1 4
INDEX
samedi soirs, 4:2038
same-sex desire. See homosexuality and
lesbianism
Sammlung architektonischer Entwürfe
(Schinkel), 4:2093
Samori Empire, 1:20
Samson et Delilah (Saint-Saëns),
3:1675
‘‘Samuel Johnson’’ (Macaulay),
3:1408
samurai (daimyo), 3:1208, 1209, 1210
San (Bushmen), 4:2219
sanatoriums, 5:2360–2361
Sand, George, 1:162, 168; 2:828;
3:1662, 1680; 4:1706, 1757,
2083–2085, 2084
Chopin relationship with, 1:439;
4:2029, 2084
feminism and, 2:802
Liszt and, 3:1360
Nadar and, 3:1578
as against women’s suffrage of, 2:651
on women’s superior sensibility,
2:945–946
Sand, Karl, 1:369; 2:959
Sandeau, Jules, 1:168
Sandhurst. See Royal Military Academy
San Domingo, 1:14
Sandžak of Novi Pazar, 3:1541
San Fernando Academy (Madrid),
4:1781
Sangiorgi, Ermanno, 3:1416
San Giuliano, marquis di (Antonio
Paternò Castello), 3:1202, 1203
Sangnier, Marc, 1:389
San Ildefenso alliance (1796), 2:901
sanitation, 1:251, 253
Berlin and, 1:218, 219
Chadwick and, 1:401–402
cholera and, 1:437, 438, 450; 2:658,
668, 669, 765
clean water’s importance and, 2:658,
667, 670
death rates and, 2:628, 644
Hamburg and, 2:1040
London and, 3:1372, 1373, 1380;
4:1911
London sewer construction and,
2:758; 3:1379
Madrid and, 3:1412
municipal reforms and, 1:450, 451
Paris sewer system and, 2:1049;
4:1731, 1774
slum housing and, 1:453, 454;
2:670; 4:1912
water pollution and, 2:764; 4:1912,
1914
2757
INDEX
Sankey Declaration on the Rights of
Man, 5:2459
San Martino, Battle of (1859), 4:2003
San Remo, 4:2125
sans-culottes, 1:111; 2:844, 887, 890,
892, 893, 894; 3:1403, 1506;
4:1960, 1962, 2007; 5:2486
San Sebastian, 4:2125, 2126
Sanskrit, 4:2022
San Stefano, Treaty of (1878), 1:276;
4:2068, 2069–2070, 2085–2086
Adrianople and, 1:12
Armenian Question and, 1:90–92
Bulgarian borders and, 1:312;
2:530–531; 3:1689; 4:2069,
2085, 2086
Congress of Berlin revision of,
2:529–530, 705
Eastern Question and, 2:703
Montenegrin borders and, 3:1541
Ottoman losses under, 2:703
provisions of, 3:1689
Russian power and, 1:39
Santa Creu Hospital (Barcelona),
1:112
Santafede. See Most Christian Army of
the Holy Faith
Santander, 4:2125
SantElia, Antonio, 1:157
Santo Domingo. See Haiti
Sappho and Socrates, or, How Is the Love
of Men and Women for Persons of
Their Own Sex to Be Explained?
(Hirschfeld), 2:1070
Sarabia, Ramòn, 1:379
Saracco, Giuseppe, 5:2378
Sarajevo, 1:277
Francis Ferdinand assassination in,
1:232, 242, 277, 407; 2:705,
861, 862, 865; 3:1628
Janissary settlement in, 1:273
World War I and, 2:527
Saratoga, Battle of (1777), 3:1261
Sardinia-Piedmont. See Piedmont-
Savoy
Sardou, Victorien, 4:1916
Sargent, John Singer, 1:289; 5:2405
Sarraut, Albert, 3:1144
Sarrien, Ferdinand, 2:858
Sarto, Giuseppe Melchiorre. See Pius X
Sartor Resartus (Carlyle), 1:103, 370;
2:941
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 2:1101; 3:1167,
1169
Kierkegaard as influence on, 3:1253
Sasun district, 1:92
sati (widow burning), 3:1134
Satie, Erik, 815; 4:2086–2087
2758
satire. See political satire
Satsuma family, 3:1210
Saturday Review (magazine), 4:2165,
2253
Saturn’s rings, 3:1478
Saussure, Ferdinand de, 2:593
Sauvage, Henri, 5:2503
savage. See primitivism
Sava River, 1:205
Savigny, Karl von, 2:1023; 3:1314,
1594
Savoy. See Piedmont-Savoy
Savoy, house of, 1:413; 2:533;
4:2000, 2002
Savoy, The (periodical), 1:192
Saxe, Maurice de, 4:2083
Saxe-Coburg, 1:200
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 1:457
Saxons, 4:2018
Saxony, 2:803; 4:1987, 1995
agricultural research and, 3:1160
Congress of Berlin and, 2:533
cotton industry and, 2:554; 3:1149,
1153
List as U.S. consul in, 3:1357
Lutheran population of, 4:1892
Napoleon and, 2:957; 3:1320, 1322
Prussia and, 2:958; 4:1900, 1901
Revolution of 1848 and, 2:961
women’s press restrictions in, 3:1681
Saxony-Weimer, 1:369, 370
Say, Jean-Baptiste, 4:1961
Sayn-Wittgenstein, Carolyne von,
3:1360
Sazonov, S. D., 3:1628
Sbaheddin, Ottoman prince, 3:1690
Scale and Scope (Chandler), 2:711
‘‘Scandal in Bohemia, A’’ (Doyle),
2:680
Scandinavia
coastal shipping and, 4:1933; 5:2348
emigrants from, 2:646
established church in, 4:1895
literacy in, 4:1868
open-air museums in, 3:1564
Protestant population of, 4:1790,
1890, 1895
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987
secularization in, 4:2133
sports in, 4:2245
telephone service in, 5:2308
tuberculosis prevention in, 5:2361
universities in, 5:2379–2380
village community in, 4:1754
wine and, 5:2475
See also Denmark; Sweden and
Norway
E U R O P E
Scandinavian Monetary Union,
3:1537, 1538
Scapegoat, The (Hunt), 4:1864
Scarborough, 4:2124
Scarisbrick, Charles, 4:1918
Scénes de la Vie de Bohème (Mürger),
3:1577; 4:1916
Scenes from Clerical Life (G. Eliot),
2:744
Scenes from the Massacres at Chios
(Delacroix), 4:1705
Schaaffhausen, A., 1:174, 175
Schaaffhausenschen Bankverein,
1:175, 176
Schaffer, Joseph and Peter, 3:1674
Schall und Rauch (Berlin cabaret),
1:335–336
Schapiro, Leonard, 5:2460
Scharnhorst, Gerhard von, 2:958
Scharzenberg, Felix zu, 1:148; 2:962
Schaudinn, Fritz, 4:2303
Schauspielhaus (Berlin), 1:216; 4:2092
Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, 4:2285
Schéhérazade (ballet), 3:1642
Scheherazade (Rimsky-Korsakov),
4:1999, 2000
Scheldt River, 3:1173
Schelling, Caroline Schlegel von,
3:1647; 4:2088
Schelling, Friedrich von, 1:497;
4:1703, 2031, 2087–2089,
2095, 2195
as Belinsky influence, 1:207
as Chaadayev influence, 1:400
Eurasianism and, 2:772, 774
evolution and, 2:615
Fichte as influence on, 2:814
Hegel and, 2:1051, 1078
Hölderlin friendship with, 2:1078
Novalis friendship with, 3:1647
Scherzo fantastique (Stravinsky),
4:2261
Scheurer-Kestner, Auguste,
2:684, 811
Scheveningen, 4:2125
Schey, Friedrich, 5:2420
Schiele, Egon, 1:153, 254;
4:2089–2091, 2090; 5:2421
Schiff, Jacob, 4:1837
Schiller, Friedrich, 4:2288
Schiller, Friedrich von, 1:197, 370;
2:678
German cultural identity and, 3:1523
Goethe friendship with, 2:985, 987
Hölderlin and, 2:1078
Humboldt (Wilhelm) friendship
with, 2:1097
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich
von, 4:2088
Schlegel’s reviews of, 4:2095
Schubert and, 4:2106
secularization view, 4:2133
Schiller, Johann Wolfgang von, Ibsen
as influence on, 3:1108
Schimmelpenninck, Rutger Jan,
4:2188, 2189
Schinderhannes. See Bückler, Johannes
Schindler, Alma, 3:1418
Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, 1:215, 216,
317; 2:876; 4:1769, 2091–2094,
2093
Schinkel Pavilion (Berlin), 4:2092
schizophrenia, 3:1240
Schlegel, August Wilhelm von, 2:912,
985; 3:1647; 4:1703, 1769,
2094–2096, 2097
Schelling and, 4:2088
Schlegel, Caroline von. See Schelling,
Caroline Schlegel von
Schlegel, Friedrich von, 1:385; 2:814,
873, 985
brother August Wilhelm and,
4:2094, 2095, 2096
Novalis and, 3:1647
Schelling and, 4:2088
Schleiermacher and, 4:2097
Schleiden, Matthia Jakob, 1:340
Schleiermacher, Dorothea
Mendelssohn-Veit, 3:1647
Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 2:660,
1054; 3:1647; 4:2030, 2095,
2096–2098; 5:2381
Schlesinger, Johann Jakob, 2:1052
Schleswig, 4:1993, 1994
Schleswig-Holstein, 1:146; 2:952;
4:1993, 1994
Bismarck policy and, 1:235–236, 238
Danish claims and, 2:648, 963
Danish-German War and, 2:607,
608; 4:1902
Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:871
Prussian annexation of, 2:964;
4:1902
Schlieffen, Alfred von, 2:968; 3:1508;
4:2098–2099
Schlieffen Plan, 1:232; 3:1507, 1508;
4:1937, 2098–2100
Schliemann, Heinrich, 1:219; 4:1769
Schloss, Das (Kafka), 3:1242, 1243
Schloss Babelsberg (Potsdam), 4:2094
Schlossbrücke (Berlin), 4:2092
Schloss Charlottenhof (Potsdam),
4:2094
Schloss Glienecke (Potsdam), 4:2094
Schloss Tegel estate, 4:2092
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Schlumbohm, Jürgen, 3:1147
Schlüter, Andreas, 4:2076, 2092
Schmahl, Jeanne, 4:2279
Schmidt, Auguste, 3:1681
Schmidt, Johannes, 2:774
Schmidt, Johann Kaspar. See
Stirner, Max
Schmidt, Wilhelm, 2:774
Schmidt-Rottluff, Karl, 3:1310
schnapps, 1:34
Schneider-Creusot, 5:2485, 2499,
2503
Schneider family, 1:471
Schnitzer, Eduard (Emin Pasha),
2:783
Schnitzler, Arthur, 3:1437;
4:2100–2101; 5:2421
Schoenberg, Arnold, 1:153, 198;
2:654; 4:2101–2103, 2263;
5:2421
atonality and, 3:1245, 1437, 1572
on Brahms, 1:295–296
as Kandinsky influence, 3:1245
Mahler and, 3:1418
Mann and, 3:1435, 1437
opera and, 3:1676
Ravel and, 4:1944
Stravinsky and, 4:2262
Schola Cantorum, 2:628; 4:2087
Schonberg, J., 4:2143
Schönbrunn, Treaty of (1809), 1:133;
2:860–861; 3:1236, 1586;
5:2374
Schöneberg (Berlin suburb), 1:218
Schöne Müllerin, Die (Schubert),
4:2107
Schönerer, Georg von, 1:10, 145, 263;
2:689, 1068; 3:1393, 1394
School for Orphan Girls (Bonvin),
4:1947
School for Scandal, The (Sheridan),
3:1108
School Law of 1842 (Sweden), 4:2285
‘‘School of 1830’’ (Barbizon painters),
1:178
School of Fine Arts (Barcelona),
4:1781
schools. See education; literacy
Schopenhauer, Arthur, 1:296;
4:2103–2106, 2105
cultural pessimism and, 2:631
as Generation of 1898 influence,
2:950
as Jung influence, 3:1238
as Mann influence, 3:1436
Rank and, 4:1938
Romanticism and, 4:2028–2029,
2030
INDEX
on spiritualism, 4:2237
Schottengymnasium (Vienna), 1:10
Schou, Philip, 2:647
Schouw, Joachim Frederik, 2:649
Schreiber, Johann, 3:1484
Schreiner, Olive, 1:372
Schreyvogel, Joseph, 5:2418
Schricker, Ivo, 2:834
Schubert, Franz, 1:197; 3:1565, 1570;
4:2106–2107; 5:2418
as Dvořák influence, 2:701
Romanticism and, 4:2026, 2027,
2029, 2106, 2107
Schubert, Gotthilf Heinrich von,
4:1924
Schubertiades, 4:2106
Schulter, Johann Friedrich von,
4:1723
Schulze-Delitzsch, Hermann, 1:55,
111; 2:556
Schumann, Clara, 4:2029
Schumann, Robert, 1:209, 225;
3:1419, 1565, 1570; 4:2027,
2029, 2107
Brahms and, 1:295
Liszt and, 3:1571
music criticism by, 3:1566, 1570
Paganini as influence on, 4:1699
Schumpeter, Joseph, 3:1122
Schurz, Carl, 2:962; 4:1987
Schwanengesang (Schubert), 4:2107
Schwann, Theodor Ambrose Hubert,
1:340
Schwartz, Pedro, 3:1514
Schwarzenberg, Felix zu, 2:863
Schwarzenberg, Friedrich von, 4:1722
Schwarzenberg, Karl zu, 2:903;
3:1319, 1320, 1321
Schwarzenberg family, 1:469
Schweppes soft drinks, 2:588
Schwerin, written constitution of,
2:959
Schwierige, Der (Hofmannsthal),
2:1077
Science and Hypothesis (H. Poincaré),
4:1805
science and technology, 4:2107–2116
access to knowledge and,
4:2111–2113
African colonization and, 1:20;
3:1118
Agassiz and, 1:22–24
Agricultural Revolution and,
1:25–26, 27, 27, 28–29; 3:1164
airplanes and, 1:30–31
armaments and, 2:1034
armies and, 1:96, 99, 101, 217
2759
INDEX
automobiles and, 1:148–151
Berlin as leading center of,
1:215, 217
Bernard and, 1:227–228
body and, 1:251
Britain and, 1:350
Brougham and, 1:303
Cajal and, 1:340–342
cholera and, 1:438
cinema and, 1:440–443
coal mining and, 1:487–488
Cockerill inventions and, 1:492–493
Comte and, 2:523
Crystal Palace exhibits of, 2:588
Curies and, 2:594–596
Cuvier and, 2:598–599
Denmark and, 2:649
de Vries and, 2:652–653
Dreadnaught battleship and,
2:681–683, 968
economic growth and, 1:350;
4:2115–2116
Eiffel Tower and, 2:737–738
Einstein and, 2:739–740
electricity and, 2:741–742;
3:1161–1162
engineers and, 2:757–761
environment and, 2:766
First Industrial Revolution and,
2:709; 3:1152–1154
Goethe studies and, 2:986
Helmholtz and, 2:1057–1058
Hertz and, 2:1062–1063
Huxley and, 2:1101–1103
interplay between, 4:2108–2110
Kelvin and, 3:1249–1250
knowledge production and,
4:2110–2111
Laennec and, 3:1297–1298
Lavoisier and, 3:1311–1313
liberalism and, 3:1341
London and, 3:1376–1377
Luddite resistance to, 3:1391–1392
Lumière brothers and, 3:1396–1398,
1397
machine breaking and, 3:1410–1412
Manchester and, 3:1430
Marconi and, 3:1444–1445
Maxwell and, 3:1477–1478
Milan and, 3:1502
military tactics and, 1:99; 2:1034;
3:1506–1507
Nobel and, 3:1644–1645
ocean exploration and, 3:1653–1654
Pasteur and, 4:1742–1744
2760
Pavlov and, 4:1748–1749
photography and, 4:1770–1774
Poincaré (Henri) and, 4:1804–1805
positivism and, 4:1843–1844
progress and, 2:815
racism and, 4:1926, 1928
railroads and, 4:1934
Roentgen and, 4:2011–2012, 2070
Romantic view of, 4:2027
Russia and, 4:1749
St. Petersburg and, 4:2076–2077
Second Industrial Revolution
and, 1:351, 355–356;
3:1156–1164
secularization and, 4:2133
Siemens and, 4:2179–2180
spiritualism and, 4:2238, 2239
statistical reasoning and, 4:1922
steel and, 3:1158–1159
subways and, 4:2271–2273
Sweden and, 4:2285–2286
technology-to-science feedback and,
4:2113–2115
telephones and, 5:2308
transatlantic crossing and, 1:353
Wells and, 5:2458–2459
world’s fairs and, 5:2493, 2496,
2497, 2499, 2500, 2503, 2505
See also biology; botany; chemistry;
medicine; physics; zoology
Science et l’hypothèse, La (H. Poincaré),
4:1805
Science expérimentale, La (Bernard),
1:228
science fiction, 2:816; 5:2408, 2458
Science Museum (London), 3:1376
Science of Ethics, The (Stephen), 4:2254
Science of Logic (Hegel), 2:1053
Science of Mechanics, The (Mach),
3:1409
Science sociale movement, 5:2516
Scientific-Humanitarian Committee
(Berlin), 2:1069, 1070, 1071,
1086; 4:2163
Scientific Marxism, 4:2218
scientific revolution, 4:1779
‘‘Scientific Romances’’ (Wells),
5:2408
scientism, 4:1953, 2133
Scotch whisky, 5:2477
Scotland, 4:2116–2122; 5:2433
aristocracy in, 1:80
art nouveau and, 1:107, 112
Carlyle and, 1:370–371
church attendance in, 4:1893
civil marriages in, 4:1894
E U R O P E
Corn Laws repeal campaign in, 2:558
demographic change in,
4:2120–2122
economic changes in, 4:2117
education in, 2:722; 4:2119–2120
emigrants from, 1:343, 346; 2:1005
engineers in, 2:758
factories in, 2:792
football (soccer) in, 2:831, 832,
833, 834
Frazer and, 2:872–873
Greek Revival architecture in, 4:1769
Hardie and, 2:1043–1044
Highland vs. Lowland society in,
4:2120, 2121
housing in, 2:1089, 1090, 1091
international exhibitions in, 5:2499
joint-stock banking in, 1:172
land agitation in, 4:1755
landed elite in, 3:1306; 4:2116,
2117, 2120
literacy in, 2:720; 4:1868
Lyell and, 3:1402
Maxwell and, 3:1477–1478
newspapers and, 4:1866, 1867,
1868, 1869
Owen factory village in, 2:1088
phrenology and, 4:1775
politics and, 4:2118
Poor Law and, 4:2119; 5:2452
potato blight in, 2:1005
Protestant population of, 4:1890,
1890, 1893
religious makeup of, 2:1002, 1006;
5:2118–2119
representation and, 2:1003
Scott and, 4:2121, 2122–2123
Smiles and, 4:2199–2200
social issues in, 4:2119, 2122
sports in, 4:2240, 2243, 2246
Stevenson and, 4:2254–2256
technology and, 3:1153
telephone service in, 5:2308
Union with England (1707), 2:999,
1006
universities in, 4:2119–2120;
5:2379, 2384, 2387
village community in, 4:1754
world’s fairs and, 5:2504, 2505,
2506
Scott, George, 4:2283
Scott, Robert F., 2:784
Scott, Walter, 2:930; 3:1441; 4:2030,
2121, 2122–2124, 2253
as Delacroix influence, 2:640
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

as Doyle influence, 2:681
football (soccer) and, 2:831
operatic texts based on, 3:1671
Scottish baronial style, 1:186
Scottish Enlightenment, 1:465;
4:2120, 2123
Mill (James) and, 3:1510
Scottish Football Association, 2:832
Scottish League, 2:831
Scottish Miners Federation, 2:1043
Scottish moralists, 4:2212
Scottish Office, 4:2118
Scouting for Boys (manual), 1:159–160
‘‘Scramble for Africa.’’ See Berlin
Conference
Scream, The (Munch), 3:1558, 1559;
4:2287
Scriabin, Alexander, 1:440; 2:654
Scribe, Augustin Eugène, 3:1107
Scribners (publisher), 4:2255
sculpture, 4:1702
art nouveau and, 1:109, 152
Berlin museum collections and,
1:219
Canova and, 1:347–349
cubism and, 1:156; 2:591
Daumier and, 2:621
Denmark and, 2:647
Doré and, 2:677
futurism and, 2:919
German expressionism and, 1:154
Matisse and, 3:1475
museums and, 1:219; 3:1562
Picasso and, 4:1710
realism and, 4:1947
Renoir and, 4:1956
Rodin and, 4:2008–2011
Rude and, 4:2031, 2043–2044
St. Petersburg and, 4:2076
Scuola di Polizia Scientifica (Italy),
4:1816
Scutari
Albania and, 1:32
Montenegro and, 1:166
Nightingale’s nurses at,
3:1637–1638, 1637, 1649
siege of (1912–1913), 1:34,
163, 164
Scythians, The (Blok), 1:250; 2:774;
4:2217
SDF. See Social Democratic Federation
SDLP. See Social Democratic Labor
Party
SDP. See Social Democratic Party
‘‘Sea Dog’’ table, 2:913
Seagull, The (Chekhov), 1:423; 3:1495
Sea Lady, The (Wells), 5:2458
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
seamstresses, 4:2158
séances, 4:2237, 2238
Search Decree (1819, Germany),
2:959
seascapes, 4:2027, 2029
seaside resorts, 3:1324, 1325;
4:2124–2127; 5:2328
bourgeoisie and, 1:288; 4:2125;
5:2328
Mediterranean France and, 1:288,
303
‘‘Season of Russian Opera’’ (Parisian
program), 2:654–655
‘‘Seasons of Russian Opera’’ (Diaghilev
production), 2:774
Secession. See Vienna Secession
Secession style, 1:108, 112, 152–153,
154; 3:1530
Séchelles, Marie-Jean Hérault de,
4:1960
Sechenov, Ivan, 4:1749, 1908
Second Adventism, 4:1714
secondary schools. See education
Secondat, Charles-Louis de. See
Montesquieu, baron de
Second Balkan War (1913), 1:12,
164–165, 166; 2:705; 3:1691;
4:2149
Bulgaria’s losses in, 1:313; 2:705
Montenegro and, 3:1541
Second Carlist War, 4:2231
Second Coalition. See War of the
Second Coalition
Second Congress of the Russian
Socialist Democratic Labor Party
(1903), 3:1328
Menshevik-Bolshevik split at, 3:1487
Second Empire (France), 1:44, 52,
234, 248; 2:852–854; 4:1928,
1962, 1998, 2131–2132, 2302;
5:2496, 2497
Bonapartism and, 1:269
bureaucracy and, 1:322
collapse of, 2:567, 853; 3:1592
Courbet’s opposition to, 2:569
critics of, 2:852
degeneracy theme and, 2:637
Deraismes and, 2:649
education and, 2:721
establishment of, 3:1592
fall of, 2:669, 870
fashion and, 1:482
feminist movement and, 4:1998
Ferry’s opposition to, 2:810
Franco-Prussian War and,
2:853–855, 867–870
French Radicals and, 4:1928
INDEX
Gambetta as critic of, 2:853,
928, 929
Haussmann and, 2:1047–1050;
4:1729–1731
Lyon and, 3:1404
Lyon silk industry and, 3:1404
Offenbach and, 3:1660–1661
overview of, 2:852–854;
3:1592–1593
Paris under, 4:1729–1731,
1733–1734
peasant vote for, 4:1755
Pius IX and, 4:1725, 1726
press curbs and, 4:1870
prostitution and, 4:2302
republicanism and, 4:1962
revisionist view of, 3:1593
secret society opposition to,
4:2131–2132
support for, 2:852
world’s fairs and, 5:2496, 2497
See also Crimean War; Franco-
Prussian War; Napoleon III
Second Estate (France), 2:767, 841,
842, 886
Second Home Rule Bill of 1893
(Britain), 2:978, 1011
Second Industrial Revolution. See
Industrial Revolution, Second
Second International, 1:11, 205;
2:521–522; 4:2127–2129, 2267;
5:2502
anarchists expulsion from, 3:1294
Bolshevik/Menshevik split and,
3:1487
Engels and, 2:756
feminism and, 2:805
founding of, 3:1294
Guesde and, 2:1025–1026
Hardie and, 2:1044
Luxemburg and, 3:1398, 1399, 1400
pacifism and, 2:825; 4:1696, 1697
Plekhanov and, 4:1801
Social Democratic Party and, 3:1399;
4:2127, 2128, 2129
World War I and, 3:1473
Second Land Act of 1881 (Britain),
2:1010
Second Law of Thermodynamics,
2:631
Second Moroccan Crisis. See Agadir
Crisis
Second Navy Law of 1900 (Germany),
3:1610
Second of May, 1808, The (Goya), 2:999
Second Opium War, 3:1679–1680
2761
INDEX
Second Partition of Poland (1793),
4:1900
Second Reform Bill (Britain). See
Reform Act of 1867
Second Republic (France), 1:44,
178–179, 421; 2:567; 4:1946,
2136; 5:2317
Courbet and, 2:568; 4:1706
Daumier caricatures and, 2:621
feminism and, 2:803
Hugo and, 2:1093
Lamartine and, 2:849; 3:1304
Louis-Napoleon and, 3:1590–1591;
4:1706
Millet’s paintings and, 3:1516
overthrow of, 2:852; 3:1591
overview of, 2:849–852
Proudhon and, 4:1899
suffragism and, 4:2277–2278, 2279
Second Republic (Spain), 1:368
Second Restoration. See Restoration
Second Serbian Uprising, 4:2142,
2144
Second Sex, The (Beauvoir), 4:1762
Second String Quartet (Schoenberg),
4:2102
Second Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419
Second Viennese School, 4:2102
Secret Agent, The (Conrad), 2:536
‘‘Secret Sharer, The’’ (Conrad), 2:535,
536
secret societies, 4:2129–2132
Apostles as, 4:2258
Black Hand as, 1:242
Blanqui and, 1:248
Carbonari as, 1:359–362;
4:2130–2131; 5:2513, 2514
communist groups as, 2:521, 522
decline of, 1:361
in France, 4:1995, 2129–2132
Freemasons as, 2:877–882
in Greece, 4:1981–1982
Italian nationalism and, 1:359–363;
3:1193, 1194–1195, 1254
in Italy, 4:2001–2002, 2129–2131;
5:2513–2514
masculinity and, 3:1471
Pius IX’s condemnation of, 4:1798
in Portugal, 4:1841
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1989,
1995
in Russia, 1:38; 3:1168; 4:1991,
2050
Second French Republic and, 2:851
Turkish nationalism and, 3:1690
Veri Italiani as, 5:2514
2762
Young Italy as, 4:2001–2002, 2131;
5:2513–2514
Section Française d l’Internationale
Ouvrière. See French Socialist
Party
secularization, 4:2132–2134
conservatives’ opposition to, 2:958
Directory and, 2:666
education and, 4:1891
Eiffel Tower and, 2:737
Ferry and, 2:810–812
French church-state separation and,
4:1929–1930, 2136–2137;
5:2432–2433
French intellectuals and, 3:1168
French law and, 3:1595
French Radicals and, 4:1929
French Revolution and, 2:844
French school system and, 2:721,
723, 810, 856, 858, 929; 4:1891
hospitals and, 1:411
Jews and, 3:1229, 1232
Kulturkampf and, 3:1278
main areas of, 4:2133
museums and, 3:1561, 1562
Napoleon and, 2:957; 3:1192, 1193
nursing and, 3:1649–1650
papal denunciation of, 3:1199
Pius IX’s war against, 4:1795, 1797
positivism and, 4:1843–1844
Protestants and, 4:1893–1894, 1896
Prussian school system and, 2:966;
3:1277
reaction to, 4:2134
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 3:1193
of rites of passage, 4:1894
Roman Question and, 4:2024
in Russia, 4:2059, 2060, 2061
in Serbia, 4:2141
spiritualism and, 4:2239
three phases of, 4:2133
urban church attendance and, 4:1824
See also separation of church and state
secular religion, 2:523–524
Sedan, Battle of (1870), 2:569, 810,
854, 928, 964; 3:1507; 4:2004,
2035, 2242, 2243
French surrender at, 2:870, 1050;
4:1734
Kesselschlacht and, 3:1507
Napoleon III’s command at, 3:1593
Seddon, Richard John, 3:1623
seduction theory (Freud), 2:905
seed drill, 1:25; 2:757; 3:1305
E U R O P E
Segesser, Philipp Anton von, 4:2291
Segu, 1:13
Séguin, Philippe, 3:1593
seignorialism, 4:1988, 1990, 1995
Seine River, 4:1731
bridges over, 4:1729, 1730
Seitz, William C., 3:1537
Seize Mai crisis (1877), 2:649
Selected Passages from Correspondence
with Friends (Gogol), 1:208;
2:988
selective breeding. See eugenics
self-determination. See nationalism
Self-Help (Smiles), 2:1006; 4:2199
self-made man, 1:284; 2:1006
Self-Portrait (David), 2:624
Self-Portrait as St. Sebastian (Schiele),
4:2090
Self-Portrait with Black Clay Vase and
Spread Fingers (Schiele), 4:2090
Self-Portrait with Hand to Cheek
(Schiele), 4:2089
Selfridge, Harry Gordon, 2:551
Selfridges (London department store),
2:551; 3:1378
Seligmann, Adelbert F., 4:1877
Selim III, Ottoman emperor, 3:1420,
1683, 1685
Selimiye (Crimean hospital barracks),
1:278
Seljuks, 4:2022
Sella, Quintino, 3:1200
Sellwood, Emily, 5:2309
Semaines Sociales (France), 1:389
Semana Trágica (Barcelona), 4:2231;
5:2488
semiotics, 2:593
Semiramide (Rossini), 3:1670; 4:2038
Semmel, Bernard, 3:1514
Semmelweiss, Ignac, 4:2134–2136
Semper, Gottfried, 1:317
Semper Opernhaus (Dresden), 3:1567
Semyonovsky mutiny (1820), 2:1081
Sen, Amartya, 3:1427
Senatory Measures: Lord Morpeth
Throwing Pearls before Swine
(cartoon), 4:1913
Seneca, 4:2124
Senegal
French enclave in, 1:19, 20, 21;
2:509, 812
slave trade and, 1:13, 15
Senegal River, 2:780
Senestrey, Ignaz von, 4:1722
Senhouse, Roger, 4:2259
Senior, Nassau, 2:716
Senne River, 1:305, 306
Sensales, Giuseppe, 4:2174
sensational novels, 2:575
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Sense and Sensibility (Austen),
1:130–131
Sentimental Education (Flaubert) and,
2:827
separate spheres, 1:70, 418
bourgeoisie and, 1:472; 2:943
civil society and, 1:467, 468
family life and, 3:1451, 1452, 1471
ideology of, 2:943
labor movements and, 2:945
masculine elite and, 3:1470
separation of church and state
anticlericalism and, 1:68–69
Belgium and, 1:204
British Nonconformists and, 2:1006
Concordat of 1801 and, 2:527–529
French Revolution and. See Civil
Constitution of the Clergy
Germany and, 2:966
Giolitti’s view of, 2:972
Kulturkampf and, 3:1277
liberals and, 2:958
O’Connell’s belief in, 3:1655
papal denunciation of, 1:381–382;
3:1199; 4:1798
papal infallibility doctrine and,
4:1896
political Catholicism and,
1:387–388; 4:1718–1719
Portugal and, 4:1842
Protestant advocates of, 4:1895
See also secularization
separation of church and state (France,
1905), 2:540; 4:1895,
2136–2137
anticlericalism and, 1:69, 389
Catholic political parties and, 1:389
Dreyfus affair as factor in, 2:685
French Radicals and, 4:1929–1930
Jaurès role in, 3:1217
overview of, 2:858–859
papacy and, 4:1721
Waldeck-Rousseau and,
5:2432–2433
See also secularization
Separation of Mother and Child, The
(Norton), 3:1645
Sephardic Jews, 3:1226; 5:2519
Sepoy Mutiny, 1:499; 2:508, 706,
1008; 4:2137–2141
causes of, 4:2138–2140
consequences of, 4:2140
Disraeli’s response to, 1:501; 2:673
East India Company and, 2:706,
1008; 3:1135
racism and, 3:1120
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks
(U.S.), 2:738
September Convention (1864),
4:1797
September Laws of 1835 (France),
2:621
September Massacres of 1792
(France), 2:563, 799, 891, 973;
4:2006
September program (1914), 3:1357
September Revolution of 1868
(Spain), 1:59
Septet (Stravinsky), 4:2263
septic infections, 3:1262
Serafim of Sarov, 4:2063
Seraing textile factory (Belgium),
1:493; 2:791
Serbia, 4:2141–2149
Albania and, 1:32, 33; 3:1691
alliance system and, 1:48, 49; 2:663;
3:1546
assassination of Francis Ferdinand
and, 2:663–664, 705
Austria-Hungary and, 1:146, 166,
206, 207, 242, 243, 277; 2:663,
704–705, 862, 863, 865; 3:1247,
1546; 4:1994, 2146–2149
Balkan League and, 1:32
Balkan Wars and, 1:2, 13, 146, 163,
164–165, 166, 313; 2:704–705;
3:154, 1691
Belgrade and, 1:205–207
Black Hand and, 1:242–243, 277;
2:705; 4:2132
Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:166,
242–243, 273, 275–276, 277;
2:703, 705, 862; 4:2146, 2148
Bulgaria and, 1:313; 4:2149
Congress of Berlin and, 4:2144,
2145
Eastern Question and, 2:704–705
Greater Serbia plan and, 1:2; 4:2148
Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:137,
142; 2:862
hatred of Francis Ferdinand in, 2:862
independence of, 1:206; 2:530, 703,
1018; 3:1173, 1683, 1689
Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225
Karadjordje and, 3:1247–1248;
4:2142, 2144, 2145
monetary system of, 3:1538
Montenegro and, 1:242; 3:1539,
1541, 1546
nationalist movement in, 1:2, 163,
166, 207, 242–243; 2:705;
3:1247–1248, 1268; 4:1993,
1994, 2142–2143, 2147
INDEX
Ottoman Empire and, 1:2, 39, 206;
3:1420, 16833
revolt of 1804 and, 1683–1684
revolution of 1904 and, 2141–2142
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1986
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1993,
1994
Russian support for, 2:705; 3:1519,
1628; 4:1717, 2067
San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2069,
2085
suffrage in, 4:2279
trade and, 4:2147; 5:2337
Serbian Learned Society, 1:207
Serbian National Organization
(Bosnia), 1:276
Serbian National Theater, 4:2148
Serbian Orthodox Church, 1:206;
4:2142–2143
Serbian Revolution of 1904,
4:2141–2142
Serbian Royal Academy of Sciences,
4:2148
Serbo-Bulgarian War, 1:312
serfs, emancipation of, 4:1754,
2149–2155, 2154
Alexander I and, 1:38; 2:1014
Alexander II and, 1:39;
2:1015–1016
aristocracy and, 1:84; 2:1017
Austria-Hungary and, 1:142;
4:1987, 1995
Baltic provinces and, 2:819
Belinsky advocacy of, 1:208
civil society emergence and, 1:118
Denmark and, 2:647
dimensions of serfdom, 4:2150–2152
effects of, 1:84, 476; 2:1017;
3:1638; 4:1755–1756
French Revolution and, 3:1305;
4:1754, 2279
Hungary and, 4:1994
Jewish economic activity and, 3:1232
Poland and, 4:1809
provisions and consequences of,
4:2153–2155
Prussia and, 4:2251
Russia and, 1:38, 39; 2:1014,
1015–1016; 3:1341, 1552;
4:1754, 1975, 2049, 2051,
2149–2155, 2172–2173, 2196;
5:2365, 2371, 2460
serfdom foundational challenges,
4:2152–2153
Siberian migration and,
4:2172–2173
2763
INDEX
Slavophiles and, 4:2196
Ukraine and, 5:2371
utilitarianism and, 5:2393
Sergei Alexandrovich, grand duke of
Russia, 4:1978, 2210
serialism, Stravinsky and, 4:2261,
2262–2263
Serrano y Domı́nguez, Francisco,
4:2230
Sertürner, Friedrich, 2:686
Sérusier, Paul, 4:2294
Sesame and Lilies (Ruskin), 2:943
Seton, Ernest Thompson, 1:159
Settlement Act of 1662 (Britain),
4:1819
Seurat, Georges, 2:738, 795, 796,
941; 3:1398; 4:2155–2158,
2292
impressionism and, 3:1132, 1133,
1530; 4:1709
as Pissarro influence, 4:1794
pointillism and, 3:1474
poster art and, 4:1845
Sevastopol, 1:243; 2:1007
siege of (18541land855), 1:244;
2:578, 579
Sevastopol Stories (Tolstoy), 5:2318
Seven Acts of Mercy, The (Caravaggio),
2:941
Seven Lamps of Architecture, The
(Ruskin), 4:1917, 2046
Seventh Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419
Seven Weeks’ War (1866). See Austro-
Prussian War
Seven Years’ War, 1:343, 375;
2:706, 841
Séverine, 2:696, 697
Severini, Gino, 1:157, 214; 2:918
Severn, Joan, 4:2047
Severn, Joseph, 4:2028
Sévigné, Madame de, 2:994
sewers. See sanitation
sewing machine, 1:483; 2:549;
4:2158–2160
Crystal Palace exhibit of, 2:588
electric, 2:741
Sex in Relation to Society (Ellis), 2:746
sex manuals, 4:2163
sex offenders, 3:1270
sexology. See sexuality
Sexual Inversion (Ellis and Symonds),
2:745, 948; 4:2296
sexuality, 4:2161–2164
anticlericalism and, 1:70
aristocratic prerogatives and, 1:469
beard theory and, 1:190–191
birth control and, 4:1827–1830,
1831
2764
Bloomsbury Group and, 4:2258,
2259
body and, 1:251, 253, 254
bourgeois mores of, 1:287; 4:2161
colonialism and, 3:1472
contraceptives and, 2:805, 947
double standard and, 1:469; 2:797,
798, 804, 947; 3:1471
Ellis theories on, 2:745–746, 1085
Enlightenment view of, 4:2029
fin de siècle and, 2:816
Fourier’s views on, 4:2202
free love movement and, 2:803
Freudian theory and, 2:905,
906–907, 908; 4:1904, 1905,
2104, 2163, 2164
Hirschfeld theories on, 2:1069–1071
Krafft-Ebing theories on, 2:1085;
3:1270–1271
male impotence fears and, 3:1472
Malthusian view of, 3:1425
marriage and family and, 3:1453
married love and, 4:2163
masculine ideology of, 3:1471, 1472
medical construction of,
3:1270–1271
Mill (Harriet) and, 3:1509
Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1509
‘‘perversions’’ and, 4:2162–2163
pornography and, 4:1833–1836
primitivism and, 4:1875, 1876
Roland’s view of, 4:2013
Romantics’ view of, 4:2026
Roussel’s view of, 4:2041–2042, 2162
Sade and, 4:2073–2074
Sand’s portrayal of, 4:2083
Schnitzler’s portrayal of, 4:2100,
2101
Schopenhauer’s theory on,
4:2104–2105
Soloviev’s (Vladimir) view of,
4:2216–2217
Symond on, 4:2296, 2297
Weininger on, 5:2449
women’s equality and, 4:1762
women’s fashions and, 2:943, 944
working class and, 4:2161–2162
See also homosexuality and
lesbianism; prostitution
Sezession. See Secession style
Sforza Cesarini family, 4:2035
Shadow-Line, The (Conrad), 2:536
shadow plays, 1:335
Shaftesbury, Lord (Anthony Ashley
Cooper), 1:402, 429; 4:1912
E U R O P E
Shahrastani, 3:1516
Shaka (African chief), 1:17
Shakespeare, William, 1:153, 229;
2:535; 3:1663; 4:1824–1825;
5:2319
Coleridge lectures on, 1:497
as Delacroix influence, 2:640
Doré illustrations for, 2:676
as Pushkin influence, 4:1919
Rossini operatic texts from, 3:1671
Schlegel’s translations of, 4:2094,
2095
Schubert’s works and, 4:2106
Strindberg and, 4:2269
Verdi operatic texts from, 3:1672
Wagner and, 5:2429
Shakhovskoi, Dmitri, 3:1241
Shamil, 4:2164–2165
Shandong Province, 1:292
Shanghai, 3:1679
Shanley, Mary Lyndon, 3:1514
Shape of Things to Come, The (Wells),
5:2459
sharpshooting societies, 4:1989
Shaw, George Bernard, 2:1012;
4:2165–2167; 5:2445
on Darwinian evolution, 2:618
Fabians and, 1:987; 4:2166, 2206;
5:2444, 2458
as Ibsen enthusiast, 3:1109
socialism and, 4:2206
Wilde and, 5:2465, 2466
Shcherbtov, Mikhail, 1:400
Shchukin, Sergei, 3:1474
Sheehy-Skeffington, Hanna,
4:2280–2281
sheep, 1:26, 134; 2:505
New Zealand farming of, 3:1623
sheet music, 3:1566
Sheffield, 2:763
factories and, 2:792
football (soccer) and, 2:831
industrial smoke, 2:765
Sheffield silver-plate, 3:1153
Shekhtel, Fyodor, 1:114
Shelburne, earl of (William Petty),
2:839
Shelley, Mary, 1:333; 2:945–946;
4:2168, 2168–2169; 5:2480
father, Godwin, and, 2:982
husband, Percy Shelley, and,
4:2168–2169, 2170
Romanticism and, 4:2029
Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 1:333; 4:2028,
2169–2170
Hellenism and, 4:1769
on London, 3:1373
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

opium use by, 2:686
Romanticism and, 4:2027, 2030,
2031, 2170
wife, Mary Shelley, and,
4:2168–2169, 2170
Shelley, Percy Florence, 4:2169
Shelley, Timothy, 4:2169
shell shock, 1:410; 3:1507; 4:1906
Shenyang. See Mukden, Battle of
Shepherd, Thomas Hosmer, 2:589
Sheptytsky, Andrii, 5:2373
Sheridan, Caroline. See Norton,
Caroline
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 3:1108,
1645; 5:2465
Sherrington, Charles Scott, 1:341, 342
Sherwood, Mrs., 1:428
Shevchenko, Taras, 4:1717; 5:2370
Shiel, M. P., 2:633
Shiga, Kiyoshi, 2:736
Shigenobu, Okuma, 3:1211
Shimmer of the Sea (ship), 2:535
Shimonoseki, Treaty of (1895), 1:434;
4:2170–2171
Shingarev, Andrei, 3:1241
shipbuilding, 5:2350, 2351
dreadnaught battleships and,
2:681–683
Hamburg and, 2:1040
steel and, 3:1157, 1158, 1163
Shipov, Dmitri, 3:1659
shipping
American Civil War and, 2:1008
Amsterdam and, 1:53
Black Sea and, 1:243
Britain and, 3:1155
dock workers and, 5:2485–2486
Dublin and, 2:691
East India Company and, 2:705–706
Greece and, 2:1018
Hamburg and, 2:1038–1039, 1040
Manchester and, 3:1431
of meat, 2:659
navigational instruments and,
3:1249, 1250
New Zealand and, 3:1623–1624
oceanic exploration and,
3:1653–1654
Scandinavia and, 4:1933; 5:2348
steel ships and, 3:1163
Suez Canal and, 3:1338, 1482
telegraph use in, 3:1445
Shipping Federation (Britain), 3:1291
Shirley (C. Brontë), 1:301; 2:802;
3:1392, 1410
Shishtov, Treaty of (1791), 1:206
shock tactics, 3:1506
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
shoe manufacture, 2:792; 4:2159
shooting (sport), 4:2243
shopkeepers. See retail trade
shoplifting, 2:574, 576
shopping. See consumerism
Short History of the World, A (Wells),
5:2459
Short Outline of a Croatian-Slavic
Orthography (Gaj), 2:924
shortwave radio, 3:1445
Shostakovich, Dmitri, 3:1496; 4:2000
Shrapnel, Henry, 1:99
Shrek 2 (film), 2:678
Shrewsbury, 3:1148
Shrewsbury, earl of (John Talbot),
4:1918
shrines, 4:1788–1789
Shveja: The Mistress (Mussorgsky),
3:1576
Siam, 3:1137, 1138, 1139, 1140,
1141, 1142; 5:2500
Siamanto, 1:90
Sibelius, Jean, 3:1419
Siberia, 1:395; 4:2151, 2171–2173
agricultural reforms and, 4:2257
conquest and settlement of, 4:2172
Dostoyevsky sentence in, 2:678
Japan and, 4:2063–2064
Kropotkin’s exploration of, 3:1272
Lenin’s exile in, 3:1327
migration to, 2:746
Polish exiles in, 4:1810, 1818
Radishchev’s exile in, 3:1552
Russian exiles in, 2:781; 4:2050,
2054, 2172
Russian migrants to, 2:646
Speransky and, 4:2236
strike suppression in, 3:1628
Vladivostok, 4:2064; 5:2426–2427
See also Trans-Siberian Railroad
Sicilian Fasci, 4:2173–2175, 2178
Sicily, 4:2175–2178, 2177
Austria and, 4:2001
banditry and, 2:571; 3:1199,
1414–1416; 4:1821
Carbonari and, 1:360
Crispi and, 2:581
emigration from, 3:1199
Garibaldi and, 3:1255, 1415;
4:2003, 2175, 2176
Italian unification and, 1:392;
2:931–932; 3:1198, 1199
literacy in, 2:724
mafia and, 3:1414–1417; 4:1821,
2173–2175, 2178
Naples and, 4:1980
INDEX
as outside Napoleon’s empire,
3:1192
peasant unrest in, 4:2173–2175,
2178
Revolution of 1820 and, 1:361
Revolution of 1848 and, 2:581;
3:1196, 1255
Verga and, 5:2407
Victor Emmanuel II and,
5:2410–2411
violent crime and, 2:571
See also Kingdom of the Two Sicilies;
Naples; Palermo
Sick Child, The (Munch), 3:1558,
1559
Sickert, Walter Richard, 1:191
Sickness unto Death (Kierkegaard),
3:1251
Siddall, Elizabeth, 4:1864
side-chain theory, 2:735–736
Sidgwick, Henry, 4:2238; 5:2394
Sidi Mohammed, 3:1548
Sieg des Judentums über das
Germanentum, Der (Marr),
1:71, 72
Siège de Corinthe, Le (Rossini), 3:1671;
4:2038
Siege of Corinth, The (Byron), 1:332
Siegfried (Wagner), 3:1571, 1674
Siemann, Wolfram, 2:871
Siemens, Werner von, 1:217; 2:741;
4:2178–2180
Siemens & Halske, 4:2179, 2273
Siemens-Martin open-hearth process,
1:485; 3:1158; 4:2115
Sierra Leone, 1:13–14, 19
Sieste (Matisse), 2:796
Sieyès, Emmanuel-Joseph, 1:456;
2:767, 768, 842; 4:2180–2181,
2246
Consulate and, 2:845–846
as Napoleon supporter, 2:895; 3:1585
Sigl, Robert, 2:802
Signac, Paul, 2:795; 3:1474, 1530;
4:1794, 2156–2157, 2158
Sign of Four, The (Doyle), 2:680
Sigurd (Reyer), 3:1675
Sikhs, 2:706; 4:2137, 2138
Silas Marner (G. Eliot), 2:744; 4:1756
Silesia. See Bohemia, Moravia, and
Silesia
Silhouette, La (French journal), 2:621
silica, 1:425
silk manufacture, 2:790, 791
Chinese trade and, 3:1678, 1679
Lyon and, 3:1153, 1404, 1405
Pasteur disease study and, 4:1743
Silk Road, 1:395
2765
INDEX
Sillon (France), 1:389
‘‘Silly Novels by Lady Novelists’’
(G. Eliot), 2:744
Silverado Squatters, The (Stevenson),
4:2255
Silver Age (Russia), 4:2181–2183
futurism and, 4:2182–2183
poets of, 2:774
St. Petersburg and, 4:2077
Soloviev (Vladimir) and, 4:2217
silver coinage standard, 1:171; 3:1537
Silver Dove, The (Bely), 2:774
silver nitrate, 1:340–341
Simarro Lacabra, Luı́s, 1:341
Simfoniya, 2-ya, dramticheskaya (Bely),
1:209
Simmel, Georg, 1:220; 4:2183–2185,
2215; 5:2446
Simon, John, 1:325; 3:1373
Simon, Jules, 2:812
Simon, Théodore, 2:927
Simon Boccanegra (Verdi), 5:2406
Simonis et Biolley, 1:492
‘‘Simple Heart, A’’ (Flaubert), 2:827
Simplicissimus (German weekly),
3:1435
Simpson’s in the Strand (London
restaurant), 4:1966
Simrock, Fritz, 2:701
Sinan Pasha, 5:2361
Sinclair, Isaak von, 2:1078
Sindh, 3:1134
Sindicato operato, Il (syndicalist
newspaper), 4:2299
Singer, Isaac Bashevis, 1:447–448
Singer Company, 4:2160; 5:2499
Singer sewing machine, 2:588
factory in Scotland, 2:792
singlehood, 2:645, 947; 3:1451
motherhood and, 4:2042
women as missionaries and, 3:1528
Singspiel, 3:1673, 1674
Singulari Nos (encyclical, 1834), 1:388
Sinn Féin, 2:691; 3:1182, 1183–1184,
1185; 4:1964
Sin of Father Mouret, The (Zola), 1:70
Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895),
1:293, 434, 435; 4:1837, 2064,
2170–2171
Sinope, Battle of (1853), 1:244; 2:577
sipahis, 4:2141, 2144
Sipiagin, Dmitri, 4:2054
Sir Nigel (Doyle), 2:681
Sisley, Alfred, 3:1126, 1128, 1534;
4:1954
Sismondi, Jean-Charles Leonard de,
4:2185–2186
sister republics, 2:666; 4:2186–2190
2766
Sisters of Saint Joseph de Cluny, 1:384
Sisters of the Good Shepherd, 4:1886
Si Votha, prince of Cambodia, 3:1141,
1142
Six-Day race (bicycle), 2:602
Six Little Piano Pieces, (Schoenberg),
4:2103
1649 Law Code (Russia), 4:2150
Sixth Symphony (Beethoven),
3:14191.197
Sixth Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419
Skandalkonzert of 1913, 4:2101
Sketches by Boz (Dickens), 2:656
Cruikshank illustrations, 2:585
skiing, 4:1821
Skinner, Quentin, 4:1958
Sklodowska, Marie. See Curie, Marie
Skobelev, Mikhail D., 4:2068
Škoda works (Pilsen), 1:260
Školská, Matice, 1:262
Skorupski, John, 3:1514
Skoufas, Nikolas, 2:1019
Skovoroda, Grigory, 4:2216
skull study. See phrenology
Skye, island of, 4:2121
skyscrapers, 2:590, 736, 738
Slade, Henry, 4:2238
‘‘Slap in the Face of Public Taste, A’’
(futurist manifesto), 1:157;
4:2182
Slataper, Scipio, 5:2354
slaughterhouses, 2:766
Slav Congress. See Prague Slav
Congress
slave revolts, 1:364, 365, 498; 2:890,
1036
Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead
and Dying: Typhoon Coming On
(Turner), 5:2368
slavery, 4:2190–2194, 2191
Africa and, 1:13–14, 15, 16, 37;
2:509; 4:2193–2194, 2219
Agassiz’s view of, 1:23
Atlantic economy and,
4:2191–2192
Berlin Conference on, 1:229
Britain and, 4:2190, 2192, 2193;
5:2461, 2462–2463
British abolishment of, 1:18, 19,
211, 365; 2:1003
Brussels Declaration on, 1:308–309
capitalist industrialism and, 2:708
Caribbean and, 1:363, 364;
2:708–709, 890, 1036; 4:1925,
1927, 2190, 2191
citizenship and, 1:458
colonial abolishment of, 1:458,
498, 499
E U R O P E
colonialism and, 1:498, 499; 2:506,
509, 509–510, 888, 1036;
4:1923, 1925, 2190–2191
consequences of, 4:2194
France and, 2:888, 1036; 4:1959,
2279
French abolishment of, 2:843, 897,
1036
galley slaves and, 2:779
international conventions against,
1:309; 3:1173
Napoleon’s reinstatement of, 1:498;
2:897, 1036
Ottoman captives and, 1:206
race and, 4:1924–1926, 1928, 2194
Romanies and, 4:2021
serfdom vs., 4:2151
Toussaint Louverture and, 4:2192;
5:2332
Tunisia and, 5:2362
Turners portrayal of, 5:2368
women’s status compared with,
2:804
See also antislavery movement;
Atlantic slave trade; serfs,
emancipation of
Slavery Convention of 1926, 1:309
Slavic-Bulgarian History
(Hildendarski), 1:312
Slavı́n monument, 4:1858
Slavonia, 1:242
Slavonic Dances (Dvořák), 2:701
Slavophiles, 4:2048, 2194–2197;
5:2365, 2459
basic tenets of, 4:2194–2196
Chaadayev’s influence on, 1:400;
2:772
Euroasianism and, 2:772
Gaj and, 2:924
Russian identity and, 2:772
sobornost concept of, 1:212; 4:2194,
2196
Westernizers vs., 2:1064, 1066
See also Pan-Slavism
Sleeping Beauty, The (Tchaikovsky),
5:2307
Diaghilev staging of, 2:655
sleeping sickness, 3:1264
Slovakia, 1:118, 142; 4:1993
Slovenia, 4:2243–2244
Slowacki, Juliusz, 4:1808, 1818
slums, 1:453, 454, 454, 455; 2:1088;
4:2079
death rates in, 2:628
Gissing novels about, 2:974–975
London and, 3:1375
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
 INDEX

Manchester and, 3:1430 Smoke (Turgenev), 5:2365 Bund and, 1:313–315

Paris and, 2:1088; 4:1729, 1733
photographs of, 4:1772
public health problems in, 4:1912
reformers and, 2:1090–1092
St. Petersburg and, 4:2079
typhus outbreaks and, 2:670
Small, Albion, 4:2214
smallpox, 4:2122, 2197–2198,
2197–2199
Algeria and, 1:43
Australia and, 1:134
infant deaths from, 2:667
London and, 3:1372
peasant victims of, 4:1751
Scotland and, 4:2122
vaccination for, 2:628, 644; 3:1222,
1223–1224, 1224; 4:2197
vaccination opponents and, 4:2198
Smetana, Bedřich, 2:700, 701;
3:1673; 4:1858
Smil, Vaclav, 3:1160; 4:2115
Smiles, Samuel, 1:284; 2:1006;
3:1323; 4:2199–2200
Smit, Nicolaas, 3:1423
Smith, Adam, 1:465, 490; 2:515;
3:1152; 4:1973, 2120, 2203
classical economics and, 2:712–714,
715, 716, 717, 718; 5:2333,
2334, 2338
consumption and, 2:551
economic liberalism and, 3:1410
free trade and, 2:558, 707, 708, 716;
4:1887
List and, 3:1356, 1357
Malthusian economic theory vs.,
3:1426
market optimism of, 2:709
as Marx target, 3:1466
as Philosophic Radicals influence,
3:1512
republicans and, 4:1961
Sismondi and, 4:2185, 2186
as slavery opponent, 4:2192
sociology and, 4:2212
on transports importance, 4:1931
Smith, Adolphe, 5:2490
Smith, Anthony D., 3:1607
Smith, Barbara. See Bodichon, Barbara
Leigh
Smith, Frank, 4:2083
Smith, Sydney, 1:302–303
Smith, William (geologists), 4:2113
Smith, William Robertson (scholar),
2:872
Smithson, Harriet, 1:225
smoking. See tobacco
Smolensk, 1:272
Smolenskin, Perez, 5:2519, 2520
Smolny Institute (St. Petersburg),
4:2077
smuggling, 2:512
Smuts, Jan Christian, 1:258; 4:2224
Smyrna, 1:90
Snach von Wuthenow (Fontane), 2:829
Snellman, Johan Wilhelm, 2:820
Snow, John, 1:437; 4:2109, 2110
Snowden, Philip, 4:2208
Snow Maiden, The (Rimsky-Korsakov),
2:774; 4:1999, 2000
Snow Mask, The (Blok), 1:250
Snow Storm: Hannibal and His Army
Crossing the Alps (Turner),
4:1704; 5:2367
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
(film), 2:677
snuff, 5:2313–2314, 2315
Soames, Olave St. Clair, 1:160
soap, 1:15
sobornost (Slavophile concept), 1:212;
4:2194, 2196
soccer. See football
sociability
consumerism and, 2:547, 549
working class, 3:1439–1440
See also associations, voluntary
Social Catholicism, 1:203, 387, 389
social class. See class and social relations
social clubs. See associations, voluntary
social constructionism, 2:1082
social contract, 3:1272, 1603
social Darwinism, 2:618–619, 777;
4:1811, 2213, 2303; 5:2330
anti-Semitism and, 1:76; 2:753
‘‘degenerate’’ as term and, 2:636
eugenics and, 1:403; 2:619; 4:2249
German pre-World War I rhetoric
and, 2:968
imperialism and, 3:1120
Spencer and, 3:1272; 4:2235
statistical studies and, 4:2249
working class and, 5:2489
Young Turks and, 5:2516
Social Democratic Federation
(Britain), 1:59, 372; 2:787, 1011
Labour Party and, 3:1295
Social Democratic Labor Party
(Russia), 4:2049, 2054, 2209,
2270; 5:2518
Bolshevik-Menshevik split and,
3:1328
Bolsheviks and, 1:264–265, 266,
267; 2:522; 3:1328; 4:1768
Gorky and, 2:992
Lenin and, 3:1327, 1328
Martov and, 3:1460–1461
Mensheviks and, 3:1487–1488
Plekhanov and, 4:1801
Social Democratic Labor Party
(Sweden), 4:2284
Social Democratic Party (Austria),
1:11; 2:1090; 3:1395
Vienna and, 5:2420, 2421
Social Democratic Party
(Czechoslovakia), 1:11
Social Democratic Party (Germany),
1:36, 61, 111; 2:967; 4:2205;
5:2469, 2473
artisans and, 1:104
Bebel and, 1:194, 195; 3:1289, 1311
Berlin subculture and, 1:219
Bernstein and, 1:230–231; 3:1328
Bismarck’s suppression of, 1:459;
2:966; 3:1279; 4:1903
bourgeois members of, 1:290
cooperatives and, 2:556
founders of, 1:194
homosexual emancipation and,
2:1070, 1071
Kautsky’s Erfurt program and,
3:1248
Liebknecht and, 3:1355–1356
Luxemburg and, 3:1399–1400
popular vote and, 2:967, 968
Second International and, 3:1399;
4:2127, 2128, 2129
women’s rights and, 3:1292–1293
working class and, 5:2484, 2485,
2487, 2490, 2492
Social Democratic Party (Latvia),
2:823
Social Democratic Party (Poland),
3:1399
Social Democratic Party (Romania),
4:2017
Social Democratic Workers Party
(Russia), 4:1976
Social Democratische Arbeiderspartij
(Netherlands), 3:1619
social insurance. See health insurance;
pensions; welfare
socialism, 4:2200–2207
Adler (Alfred) and, 1:9–10
Amsterdam and, 1:54–55
anarchism and, 1:58, 59
anarchosyndicalism and, 1:60, 61, 62
anti-Semitism and, 1:76, 184; 2:689
Armenians and, 1:89

E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4 2767
INDEX
artisans and, 1:111, 474
Austria and, 1:10–11
Bakunin-Marx rivalry and, 1:161, 162
Bebel and, 1:194–195
Belgium and, 1:199, 203, 204,
205, 307
Belinsky and, 1:208
Berdyayev and, 1:212
Berlin and, 1:219
Bernstein and, 1:230–231
Bismarck’s repression of, 1:36,
238–239; 2:966
Blanc and, 1:247–248
Britain and, 1:59, 86, 372, 373;
2:1011; 3:1295, 1297,
1692–1693; 4:2200–2201,
2205–2207; 5:2490
Bund and, 1:314–315; 3:1233
Carpenter and, 1:372
as Catholic political challenge, 1:381,
388, 389
Chartism differentiated from, 1:418
Christian Democracy and, 4:2209
cities and, 1:449
class and, 1:474–475, 476
classical economists vs., 2:716,
717–718
communism vs., 2:520, 521, 522
cooperatives and, 2:556
education of workers and, 2:724
elected representatives of, 1:290
Engels and, 2:754, 755, 756
Fabians and, 1:230, 372, 787–788
family conditions and, 3:1450
feminism and, 1:194–195; 2:805,
946; 3:1276, 1288, 1293; 4:1714
First International and, 2:824–825
Fourier and, 4:2031, 2200,
2201–2202
France and, 1:247–248; 2:824, 859;
4:1929, 1930, 2127, 2128, 2129,
2200, 2201–2203, 2205, 2265,
2298, 2299
French church-state separation and,
4:2137
French doctor-reformers and, 1:286
French feminism and, 1:127;
2:650–651; 4:1761
French Radicals and, 4:1929, 1930
gender ideas of, 2:946; 3:1293
Germany and, 1:194–195, 230–231;
3:1310–1311, 1399–1400;
4:2127, 2128, 2129, 2203, 2205;
5:2473, 2489, 2490–2491
Guesde and, 2:1025–1026
Hamburg and, 2:1040
2768
Herzen and, 2:1064–1066; 5:2460
imperialism and, 3:1119–1121
Italy and, 3:1201, 1202, 1203,
1276–1277, 1424; 4:2174;
5:2363–2364, 2377, 2491
Jaurès and, 3:1214, 1215–1219
Jews and, 3:1232–1233
See also Bund
Kautsky’s popularization of, 3:1248
Kuliscioff and, 3:1276–1277
labor movements and, 3:1286–1288,
1291, 1292, 1295
Lassalle and, 3:1310–1311
late-nineteenth-century development
of, 4:2205
liberal agenda vs., 3:1349
Liebknecht and, 3:1355–1356
literary criticism and, 1:207
Luxemburg and, 3:1398–1401
Manchester and, 3:1430
Martov and, 1460–1461
Marx and, 3:1461, 1464,
1466–1468; 4:2200, 2201,
2203–2205, 2214
Mazzoni and, 3:1556
Milan and, 3:1504
Mill’s (John Stuart) view of, 2:718
Morris and, 1:59, 372; 3:1551;
4:1865
Netherlands and, 3:1619
Owen and, 4:2200–2201
pacifism and, 2:825; 3:1461; 4:1696,
1697
papal opposition to, 1:381; 4:1795,
1797, 1798
Paris and, 4:1732–1733
parliamentary election wins and,
3:1293
Péguy and, 4:1760, 1761
Poland and, 1:314; 2:753;
4:1811–1812, 1818
populist peasant-orientation and,
4:1831–1832
Proudhon and, 3:1287, 1288;
4:1897–1899
republican view of, 4:1962
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987,
1988, 1995
Roland and, 4:2013–2014
Romanticism and, 4:2031
Ruskin and, 4:2047
Russia and, 4:2052, 2054, 2196;
5:2460
Saint-Simon and, 4:2031, 2080,
2081, 2082, 2200, 2202–2203
E U R O P E
Shaw and, 4:2166
Smiles and, 4:2200
strikes and, 4:2265, 2267–2268
Sweden and, 4:2284
syndicalists and, 4:2298, 2299
temperance movement and, 1:36
Tristan and, 5:2357–2358, 2397
Turati and, 5:2363–2364
varieties of, 4:2205–2207
Webb and, 4:2206; 5:2443–2445
Westernizers and, 5:2459
women and, 5:2488
women’s suffrage and, 3:1293
working class and, 1:474; 3:1294
World War I and, 3:1203, 1461
See also First International; Marxism;
Second International; Social
Democratic Party; socialist
revolutionaries
Socialism, Christian, 4:2207–2209
anti-Semitism of, 1:73; 3:1395
Austria and, 1:11, 73; 3:1393, 1395
Catholicism and, 1:389
Germany and, 1:189
Vienna and, 5:2420, 2520
Socialism and Political Struggle
(Plekhanov), 4:1801
Socialism: Utopian and Scientific
(Engels), 2:756; 3:1462; 4:2205;
5:2395
Socialist International. See Second
International
Socialist League (Britain), 1:59, 372;
2:651; 3:1295; 4:2205
Socialist League (Milan), 3:1556
Socialist Party (Amsterdam), 1:54–55
Socialist Party (Britain), 3:1297
Socialist Party (France), 2:1025, 1026;
4:1929, 1930; 5:2491
French Socialist Party vs., 3:1217,
1292
Socialist Party (Italy), 1:62; 2:609,
972, 973; 3:1201, 1203, 1294,
1424; 4:2299; 5:2363, 2364
Kuliscioff and, 3:1276–1277
Lombroso and, 3:1371
Malatesta and, 3:1424
Mozzoni’s critique of, 3:1556
Socialist Party (Poland), 1:314;
4:1811, 1818
socialist realism, 1:207; 3:1496;
4:1958
socialist revolutionaries, 4:1976, 1978,
2049, 2209–2212; 5:2320, 2518
Socialist Revolutionary Party (Russia),
4:1768, 1976, 2209–2212
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Socialist Students Association
(Vienna), 1:9
Socialist Workers Party (Spain),
4:2231
‘‘Social Organism, The’’ (Spencer),
4:2234
Social Preconditions of National
Revival in Europe (Hroch),
3:1607
social psychology, 2:909
Social Reform or Revolution?
(Luxemburg), 3:1399; 4:2205
Social Reform Party (Germany),
2:1040
social relations. See class and social
relations
Social Rights and Duties (Stephen),
4:2254
Social Science Association (Britain),
2:769
social security programs. See welfare
Social Statics; or, The Conditions
Essential to Human Happiness
(Spencer), 4:2234
Social System, The (Gray), 4:2201
social welfare. See welfare
Società Umanitaria (Milan), 3:1503
Société Anonyme des Établissements
John Cockerill, 1:493
Société Biblique (Paris), 4:1895
Société des Amis des Noirs, 2:888
Société des Gens de Lettres, 3:1577
Société des Missions Evangélique
(Paris), 4:1895
Société Générale (Belgium), 1:173;
3:1335
Société Générale (Netherlands), 1:493
Société Générale de Crédit Mobilier,
1:170, 173, 174–175
Société Générale pour Favoriser le
Développement du Commerce
et de l’Industrie en France,
1:174, 176
Société libre des Beaux-Arts (Brussels),
1:307
Société Nationale pour Enterprises
Industrielles et Commerciales,
1:174
Société pour l’Amélioration du Sort de
la Femme, 2:649; 4:1998
Société Pratique des Vélocipèdes,
2:600
Societies of the Friends of the
Constitution. See Jacobins
Society for National Education
(Poland), 2:753
Society for Promoting Working Men’s
Associations, 4:2208
Society for Psychical Research, 4:2238
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge, 1:303; 3:1509;
4:1868
Society for the Patriotic Museum of
Bohemia, 4:1711
Society for the Promotion of Christian
Knowledge, 3:1527
Society for the Promotion of the
Gospel, 3:1527
Society for the Propagation of the
Faith, 1:384
Society for the Protection of Ancient
Buildings, 3:1551
Society for the Study and Cure of
Inembriety (Britain), 2:769
Society for the Study of the Amur
Region, 5:2426
Society in America (Martineau), 3:1459
Society of Charitable Economics
(Paris), 4:1850
Society of Creative Musicians, 4:2102
Society of Friends (Odessa), 3:1685
Society of Missionaries of Africa (White
Fathers), 3:1528, 1528
Society of Revolutionary Republican
Women (France), 2:801–802
Society of St. Vincent de Paul, 1:203,
383; 4:2208
Society of the Cincinnati, 3:1264
Society of the Rights of Man (France),
3:1285
Society of the United Irishmen, 1:373;
2:1000; 3:1176–1177, 1657;
4:2187
Sociological Review (journal), 4:2215
sociology, 1:220; 4:1961, 2212–2215
Comte and, 2:523; 4:1844
consumerism and, 2:552; 4:2235
criminality theories and, 2:570, 572,
574; 3:1371
Durkheim and, 2:698–700; 4:1844
Ellis and, 2:745
family studies and, 3:1450–1451
fin de siècle and, 2:816
LeBon and, 3:1316–1317
positivism and, 4:1844
Simmel and, 4:2183–2184, 2215
Spencer and, 4:2213, 2233
Weber and, 4:2212, 2215;
5:2446–4748
Sociology (Simmel), 4:2184
Socrate (Satie), 4:2087
Socrates, 4:2218
Soddy, Frederick, 4:2070
sodomy law, 2:1082–1083, 1084
Soeurs Vatard, Les (Huysmans),
2:1104
Soffici, Ardengo, 2:918
INDEX
Sofia, 2:741
soft drinks, 2:588
Sohlman, Ragnar, 3:1645
Soho (London neighborhood),
3:1373, 1375
‘‘Sohrab and Rustum’’ (Arnold), 1:102
soil chemistry, 4:2109
Soirées de Saint-Pétersbourg, Les
(Maistre), 3:1422
Sokol (Prague association), 4:1856
Sokol movement, 4:2243–2244
Sokolov, Nikolai, 3:1639, 1640
Sokoto Caliphate, 1:20
Solages, marquis de, 3:1216
solar energy, 2:764
soldiering. See armies
Soldiers Three (Kipling), 3:1256
Soldini, Abbé, 3:1384
Solemn Communion (Triquet), 1:379
Solemn League and Covenant, 3:1184
Solferino, Battle of (1859), 1:392;
2:863, 952; 3:1592; 4:1948,
2003
Red Cross founding and, 2:867;
3:1650
Solidaridad Catalana, 4:2231
Solidaridad Obrera, 4:2300
solidarism, 4:1964
Solidarité des Femmes, La,
4:1761–1762
Sologub, Fyodor, 4:2182
Solomon, Maynard, 1:198, 199
Solomon, Simeon, 4:1865
Soloviev, Sergei, 3:1552; 4:2215;
5:2459, 2460
Soloviev, Vladimir, 1:212, 249;
2:773–774; 4:2215–2217
Russian symbolists and, 4:2181, 2182
Slavophiles and, 4:2196
Solovieva, Poliksena (Allegro), 4:2183
Solvay, Ernst, 3:1160
Somalia, 2:783
Something of Myself (Kipling), 3:1257
‘‘Something on William Shakespeare
upon the Occasion of Wilhelm
Meister‘‘ (Schlegel), 4:2095
Somme, Battle of (1916), 3:1185
Somov, Konstantin, 4:2181
Sonata in B Minor (Liszt), 3:1360
Sonata Napoleone (Paganini), 4:1698
Sonatas (Valle-Inclán), 2:950
Sonatine (Ravel), 4:1944
Song of the Nightingale (ballet), 3:1475
Songs of Experience (Blake), 1:244
Songs of Innocence (Blake), 1:244
Sonne, Jorgen, 2:647
sonnet form, 4:2095
Sonnets (Mickiewicz), 3:1500
Sonnets to Orpheus (Rilke), 1:65
2769
INDEX
Sonnino, Sidney, 3:1203; 5:2377
Sophia (Divine Wisdom) concept,
1:249; 4:2182, 2216
Sophie of Bavaria, 2:863
Sophocles, 2:1078; 3:1663; 4:1770
Sorbonne. See University of Paris
Sorby, Henry Clifton, 4:2115
Sorel, Georges, 4:1760, 2217–2218,
2299
anarchosyndicalism and, 1:61, 62
Bergson critique of, 1:213, 214
futurism and, 2:921
Soroschinsky Fair (Mussorgsky), 3:1575
Sorrow (Van Gogh), 5:2400
Sorrows of Young Werther (Goethe),
2:983; 3:1436
Sotsialistichesky vestnik (Menshevik
publication), 3:1761
Soubirous, Bernadette, 4:1788
Souham, 3:1321
‘‘Soul of Man under Socialism, The’’
(Wilde), 2:633
Soult, Marshal, 2:1029
Source, The (Ingres), 3:1167
South Africa, 4:2218–2225, 2221,
2222, 2224
British settlement colony in, 3:1115
colonial trade and, 2:505; 3:1122
creation of, 1:20; 2:1011
European interests in, 1:17–18, 19
football (soccer) in, 2:834
immigrants in, 2:504
indigenous population of, 2:604;
3:1118
Kipling and, 3:1257
racial lines in, 1:500; 4:1997,
2219–2220, 2222, 2224; 5:2489
Rhodes and, 4:1996–1997, 2222
slavery and, 4:2219
Zulu and, 1:17, 18, 99; 2:1009;
3:1118; 4:2219, 2220, 2223
See also Boer War
South African Republic (Transvaal),
1:18, 256–259; 3:1422; 4:1997,
2220, 2221, 2223
South African War. See Boer War
South America. See Latin America;
specific countries
southern Africa, 1:17–18, 19, 220;
3:1118
Southern Insurgents, 5:2517
southern Netherlands. See Belgium
Southern Question (Italy), 3:1199,
1256
Southern Rhodesia, 1:21
Southey, Robert, 1:333; 3:1426;
4:2029, 2169
2770
South Kensington Museum (London).
See Victoria and Albert Museum
South Manchurian Railway, 3:1212,
1557; 4:2064, 2065
South Pacific
Gauguin paintings and, 4:1875
Protestant missionary societies in,
3:1527
South Pole, race to, 2:783, 784
South Slavs, 2:862, 865
Prague Slav Congress and,
4:1861–1863
South Tyrol, 4:2004
South Wales Miners Federation, 5:2436
Southwark (London), 3:1378
South West Africa. See Namibia
Southwest Africa (Namibia), 2:506
Soutsos, Alexandre, 3:1666
Souvenir de Mortefontaine (Corot),
2:562
Souvenir des environs du lac de Nemi
(Corot), 2:562
Souvenir de Solférino, Un (Dunant),
2:952; 4:1948, 1949
Souvenir for May Day 1907, A (Crane),
4:2201
Souvenir of Castel Gandolfo (Corot),
2:561
Souvenirs (Tocqueville), 5:2317
Souvenirs d’égotisme (Stendhal),
4:2253
Souvenirs d’enfance et de jeunesse
(Renan), 4:1953
Souvenirs intimes (Olivier), 4:1782
souversismo, 5:2491
Soviet Communist Party, 3:14906;
4:2212
Soviet of Workers’ Deputies, 4:1977
soviets, 4:1976, 1977
Soviet Union, 2:536
ballet style in, 2:655
Bely and, 1:207, 210
Bernstein on, 1:231
Bolshevik/Menshevik definitions
and, 3:1488
communism and, 2:522
Glinka’s musical nationalism and,
2:980
Gorky’s image in, 2:993
Indochina and, 3:1144–1145
intelligentsia and, 3:1172
Kadets banned by, 3:1242
Kandinsky and, 3:1245–1246
Kropotkin’s funeral and, 3:1273
Meyerhold and, 3:1495, 1496
Pavlov and, 4:1749
Pelletier visit to, 4:1762
E U R O P E
Poland and, 1:315
Repin and, 4:1958
St. Petersburg and, 4:2079
Silver Age end and, 4:2183
Slavophilism and, 4:2196
socialist revolutionaries and, 4:2209,
2211–2212; 5:2518
Third International and, 4:2128,
2129
view of Great Reforms in, 2:1014
Webb and, 5:2445
World War II, 4:2079
See also Russia
Sovremennik (Russian journal), 1:208;
3:1639, 1640
Sower, The (Millet), 1:179; 4:1947
Soyer, Alexis, 4:1966
Sozialdemokrat, Der (underground
newspaper), 1:230
Sozialdemokratische Partei
Deutschlands. See Social
Democratic Party (Germany)
Sozial reform oder Revolution?
(Luxemburg), 3:1399
Spad, Lisa, 2:918
Spain, 4:2225–2233, 2228, 2230
anarchism and, 1:58–59; 3:1293;
4:2231; 5:2488
anticlericalism and, 1:68, 69, 366,
388; 5:2488–2489
architecture and, 4:2232
art nouveau and, 1:108, 112
banditry in, 2:571, 572
banking and, 1:174
as Berlin Conference participant,
1:221
Bourbons and, 4:1971, 2225, 2226,
2228–2229, 2231–2232
Cajal and, 1:340–342
Carbonari and, 4:2130
Caribbean and, 1:363–364, 365–366
Carlism and, 1:68, 83, 366–368;
2:539; 4:1763–1764, 2227,
2229–2231
Catholicism and, 1:377, 379;
4:1766; 5:2488–2489
Catholic nursing care in, 3:1648
censorship in, 4:1869
child abandonment in, 5:2455
chocolate consumption in, 1:496
civil wars in, 1:366, 367–368;
4:2300
coffee in, 1:494
colonial losses of, 2:949; 3:1116
colonies of, 1:363–366; 2:503;
4:1979, 2225, 2228, 2229, 2231
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Congress of Vienna and,
2:532–534, 534
conservatism and, 2:540
conservative-liberal system and,
2:540
constitutions of, 4:1996, 2227,
2228, 2229, 2232, 2278
dueling code in, 2:696; 3:1472
education in, 2:720, 723, 724–726
emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 748
emigrants to settlement colonies
from, 2:505
engineering projects in, 2:757
Ferdinand VII and, 1:420;
2:808–809; 4:1763–1764, 1767
football (soccer) and, 2:833
foundling homes/hospitals in,
5:2451
French intervention in, 2:525;
4:1764, 1981, 2225–2229
French Revolution and, 2:887
Generation of 1898 and, 2:949–952;
4:2232
Goya and, 2:996–999; 4:1703,
2225, 2226
Haiti and, 5:2332
Hohenzollerns and, 2:853, 868, 964
Holy Alliance intervention in, 2:566
ideological divide in, 1:366; 4:1763
imperialism and, 1:499; 2:949,
1035–1036; 3:1114–1115;
4:1979, 2225, 2228, 2229, 2231
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
and, 5:2493
Inquisition in, 4:1969, 2227
international exhibitions and, 5:2499
Italy and, 3:1191
Jewish conversions in, 1:74
Joseph Bonaparte as king of, 4:1764,
2226, 2227–2228
labor movements and, 3:1289, 1290,
1292; 4:2299–2300; 5:2485,
2488–2489
landed elite in, 3:1306
liberalism and, 1:366–367, 368;
3:1343, 1347; 4:2230
Low Countries and, 1:199
maternity hospitals in, 5:2450
monetary system of, 3:1538
Morocco and, 3:1548, 1549
Naples and, 3:1580
Napoleon and, 2:553, 846, 902;
3:1599; 4:1763
See also Peninsular War
Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1587
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
nineteenth-century politics in,
4:2228–2232
nobility and, 3:1307
Ottoman Empire and, 5:2361
painting and, 4:1703
papacy and, 4:1719, 1720
penal exile and, 2:779
Picasso and, 4:1781–1784
police system in, 4:1814
popular culture and, 4:1821
Portugal and, 4:2225
Protestant minority in, 4:1890,
1891, 1891, 1895
Radicals in, 4:1928
railroads and, 4:1933
republicanism and, 4:1964, 2231,
2300
Restoration in. See Restoration,
Spanish
Revolutions of 1820 and, 1:361;
2:566, 959; 4:1979–1980, 1980,
1981
Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1985,
1986
Rome and, 4:2034
Rothschilds and, 4:2040
seaside resorts in, 4:2124, 2125,
2126
Second International and, 4:2127
settlement colonies and, 2:503
slavery abolishment and, 2:506
slavery and, 4:2190
slave trade and, 1:13
smallpox deaths in, 4:2198
South American independence and,
2:525, 809
spiritualism in, 4:2238
sports in, 4:2243, 2244
strikes in, 3:1288; 4:2231, 2265,
2267
suffrage in, 4:2232, 2278
syndicalism and, 1:61, 62; 3:1292;
4:2266, 2267, 2298, 2299–2300
syphilis in, 4:2300
tea drinking in, 1:495
telephone service in, 5:2308
tobacco and, 5:2313, 2314
trade and, 5:2337
Trafalgar battle and, 4:2225;
5:2344–2345
universities in, 5:2379, 2389
waterway transport in, 5:2348
welfare initiatives in, 5:2451, 2452
wine and, 5:2475, 2477, 2478
working class and, 5:2485
INDEX
See also Barcelona; Catalonia; Madrid
Spanish-American War (1898), 1:181;
2:949; 3:1414; 4:2127, 2231
Spanish Civil War. See Civil War,
Spanish
Spanish Contrabandista (Ansdell),
2:572
Spanish Cycling Federation, 4:2244
Spanish Gypsy, The (G. Eliot), 2:745
Spanish Socialist Workers Party,
4:2231
Sparks, Tryphena, 2:1045
spas, 1:261, 288; 3:1323, 1324, 1325;
5:2327–2328
Spate, Virginia, 3:1537
SPD. See Social Democratic Party
Special, The (periodical), 2:1086
Special Creation, doctrine of, 2:615
specialization, 2:515
special theory of relativity
Einstein and, 2:739–740; 3:1409;
4:1780–1781
Poincaré (Henri) and, 4:1805
speciation, 3:1302
‘‘Speckled Band, The’’ (Doyle), 2:680
Spectator, The (magazine), 4:2258
spectator sports. See sports
Specter Watches Over Her (Gaugin),
2:939–940
Spectre de la rose, Le (ballet), 3:1642
spectroscopy, 1:426
speculative rationalism, 5:2512
speed of light, 2:740
Speenhamland Act of 1795 (Britain),
2:709
Speenhamland System (Britain),
1:358, 359; 2:709; 4:1819, 1848,
1850
Malthusian opposition to, 3:1425
Speke, John Hanning, 2:783
Spencer, Barbara, 2:515; 4:1887
Spencer, George, 4:2233
Spencer, Herbert, 3:1513;
4:2233–2236; 5:2445
evolution theory and, 2:615–616,
777; 4:2233–2235
influence of, 4:2235
Morant Bay uprising and, 1:371
as Polish positivist influence, 4:1811
psychology and, 4:1907
social Darwinism and, 3:1272;
4:2235
sociology and, 4:2213, 2233
as Suttner influence, 4:2282
Webb and, 5:2444
Spencer, Thomas, 4:2233
Spengler, Oswald, 2:774
2771
INDEX
Speransky, Mikhail, 1:38; 4:2049,
2172, 2236–2237
Speyer, Franziska, 2:735
Sphacteria island, 3:1612
Spiess, Adolf, 4:2242, 2245
Spinazzola, Vittorio, 3:1502
spinning machinery, 1:24, 492, 493;
2:791; 3:1152, 1153
riots against, 3:1410, 1411
Spinoza, Benedict (Baruch) de, 2:744,
983, 1032, 1051
Spiritism, 4:2238
Spirit of the Laws, The (Montesquieu),
2:537–538
‘‘Spirit Sight’’ (Schopenhauer), 4:2237
spiritualism, 3:491, 1491;
4:2237–2239, 2238
art nouveau and, 1:109, 112
Doyle and, 2:681
Jung and, 3:1238
Kandinsky and, 3:1245
Owen and, 3:1693
Spleen de Paris, Le (Baudelaire), 1:187
Splendeurs et misères de courtisanes
(Balzac), 1:169
Spoken into the Void (Loos), 3:1381
spontaneous generation, theory of,
3:1302; 4:1743, 2113
Spontini, Gaspare, 3:1671
sporting clubs, 4:2241, 2244
sports, 4:2239–2246
amateur, 4:2240–2241, 2242, 2245
cycling and, 2:599–600, 601, 602;
4:1824
football (soccer) and, 2:830–835;
3:1326
Gaelic, 3:1182
gymnastics and, 4:1989, 2239–2244,
2245
institutionalization of, 4:2242–2244
invention of modern, 4:2239–2242
leisure and, 3:1324, 1326; 4:1824
London attractions, 3:1378
masculinity and, 3:1473
New Woman and, 2:947
racism and, 4:1927
See also Olympic Games
Sports et divertissements (Satie), 4:2087
Sportsmans Sketches, A (Turgenev),
5:2365, 2460
Spree River, 1:218
‘‘springtime of the peoples,’’ 4:1991
Spurzheim, Johann Gaspar,
2:925–926; 4:1775
Sri Lanka, 5:2313, 2336
Stadio-Warthausen, Johann Philipp,
2:860
2772
stadiums, 4:2243
Stadtpark (Hamburg), 4:1740
Staël, Germaine de, 1:227; 2:945;
4:2185, 2246–2248, 2247
Constant and, 2:545, 546
feminism and, 2:802
Heine rebuttal to, 2:1056
Lafayette and, 3:1300
as Leopardi influence, 3:1333
liberalism and, 3:1343
Schlegel and, 4:2095
Talleyrand and, 5:2305
Staël von Holstein, Eric, 4:2246
Staffordshire, 3:1153
stagecoaches, 5:2346, 2347, 2349
Stages on Life’s Way (Kierkegaard),
3:1251, 1252
Stahl, Friedrich Julius, 4:2088
stained glass, 1:112, 113; 4:1865
Morris designs, 3:1550
Stalin, Joseph, 1:207; 2:655; 3:1208,
1462; 4:2128
Lenin and, 5:2459
Marx as influence on, 3:1461
Meyerhold’s execution by, 3:1495,
1496
Muslims and, 4:2165
Stalky & Co. (Kipling), 3:1256
Stambolov, Stefan, 1:312, 313
standardization, 3:1163, 1430
standard of living, 2:552; 3:1164,
1426
death rate and, 2:644
Stanford University, 2:770
Stanhope, John Rodham Spencer,
4:1865
Stanislavsky, Konstantin, 1:423;
3:1495–1496
Stanislavsky method, 3:1495–1496
Stanislaw II August Poniatowski, king
of Poland, 2:602; 3:1265; 4:1806
reforms of, 4:1807
Stanley, Edward. See Derby, Lord
Stanley, Henry Morton, 1:221, 222;
2:783–784
as Leopold II’s African agent, 2:783;
3:1136
masculine image of, 3:1472
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 1:67
‘‘Stanzas Written in Dejection, near
Naples’’ (Shelley), 4:2170
Star-Film, 3:1483
Starkov, V. V., 1:266
Starley, James and John K., 2:601;
3:1163
Star Wars (film), 2:678
Stasov, Vladimir, 2:654; 4:1957
E U R O P E
State and Anarchy (Bakunin), 4:2205
State Bank of Russia, 2:1016
State Hermitage Museum
(St. Petersburg). See Winter Palace
stateless society. See anarchism
Statesman’s Manual, The (Coleridge),
1:497
States of the Church. See Papal State
State Tretyakovsky Galerie (Moscow),
3:1575
Stations of the Cross, 1:385
Statistical Society of London, 3:1426,
1638
statistics, 4:2248–2250
bell curve and, 2:652, 770; 4:1922
crime records and, 2:570; 4:1922
demographic data and, 2:643–646
de Vries and, 2:652
Durkheim suicide study and, 2:699
eugenics and, 2:770
Galton curve and, 2:652, 770
Galton’s coefficients of correlation
and, 2:927
Malthus and, 3:1426
Maxwell’s use of, 3:1478
Quetelet and, 4:1921–1922
sociology and, 2:699
zemstvos investigatons and, 4:1832
Statue of Liberty (New York City),
2:736
Statute of Artificers (1563), 2:511
Stead, William Thomas, 1:332; 2:798;
4:1697, 2083
steam engine, 4:1931, 2108, 2111;
5:2348
coal-powered, 1:485, 493
Cockerill textile manufacture and,
1:493; 2:791
in Denmark, 2:647
as factory power, 2:791–792;
3:1152, 1153, 1157, 1410, 1427
First Industrial Revolution and,
2:709; 3:1152, 1153
locomotives, 4:1932
Madrid horsepower, 3:1413
thermodynamics and, 3:1161, 1250
turbine, 3:1161
steam hammer, 3:1430
steam press, 4:1866
steamships, 1:20, 278; 3:1163;
5:2350, 2354
as battleships, 2:681–682
Britain and, 1:303, 304–305
Brunel and, 1:303, 304–305
coal production and, 1:486
engineering and, 2:760
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

exploration and, 2:782
Hamburg fleet of, 2:1040
immigration and, 1:353; 2:646
leisure travel and, 4:1824
oceanic exploration and, 3:1658
as ocean liners, 3:1163
Opium Wars and, 1:355
Stechlin, Der (Fontane), 2:829
steel cutlery, 3:1153
steel production
Bessemer process of, 3:1157, 1158
coke and, 1:485
factories and, 2:792
Germany and, 2:967; 3:1158,
1273–1276
Krupp family and, 3:1273–1276,
1275
machine breaking and, 3:1412
protectionism and, 1:354
Rhineland and, 1:330
as Second Industial Revolutions basis,
1:351; 2:709; 3:1157,
1158–1159
Sweden and, 4:2285
technology and, 1:485; 3:1152,
1158; 4:2115
See also iron
Steffeck, Carl, 3:1353
Stein, Gertrude, 1:214, 299; 4:1782
cubists and, 2:593; 4:1783–1784
Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und
zum, 1:323, 458; 4:2250–2252
Metternich and, 3:1493
Prussian reforms of, 2:958, 1042;
3:1305, 1341; 4:1900
Stein, Leo, 3:1474
Steinberg, Leo, 4:2011
Steinberg, Michael, 2:1077
Steinlen, Theophile-Alexandre, 1:335;
4:1845; 5:2486
Stekel, Wilhelm, 2:906; 4:1905
Stenbock, Eric, 2:633
Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle), 2:830;
3:1504; 4:1946, 2252–2253;
5:2403
Stephane Mallarmé (Manet), 4:2293
Stephanie, princess of Belgium, 4:2045
Stéphanois basin (France), 1:351
Stephen, Leslie, 4:2253–2254
Stephen, Vanessa, 4:2258
Stephen, Virginia. See Woolf, Virginia
Stephens, Elizabeth, 4:2236
Stephens, Frederic George, 4:1863,
1865
Stephenson, George, 1:304; 2:758,
760; 4:1932
Stephenson, Robert, 1:304
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
‘‘Steppe, The’’ (Chekhov), 1:423
Sterba, Editha and Richard,
1:198–199
stereophotography, 4:1772
stereoscope, 3:1398
sterilization (germ-killing), 2:659;
3:1358
sterilization (reproductive), 2:619,
639, 769, 770–772, 778, 928
Sterling, John, 3:1513
Sternberg, Francis, 4:1711
Sternhell, Zeev, 2:542
stethoscope, 3:1298; 5:2359
Steuben, Charles de, 2:568
Stevens, Thomas, 2:601
Stevens, Wallace, 1:214
Stevenson, Frances, 3:1370
Stevenson, Robert Louis, 4:2253,
2254–2256
Stewart, Dugald, 4:1713
Stewart, Robert. See Castlereagh,
Viscount
Stieglitz, Alfred, 4:1772–1773
stigmata, 1:385
Stiller, Mauritz, 4:2287
Stillman, W. J., 4:1864
Stine (Fontane), 2:829
Stinnes, Mathias, 2:960
Stinnes family, 1:471
Stirner, Max (Johann Kaspar Schmidt),
4:2203; 5:2512, 2513
Stock Exchange in St. Petersburg, The
(Beggrov), 4:2078
stock exchanges, 1:354
Amsterdam, 1:53
aristocracy and, 1:84, 85
Brussels, 1:356
communications revolution and,
1:353–354
crime and, 2:571
Hamburg, 2:1039
London, 3:1374
Milan, 3:1503
Stockholm, 4:2286
electric lighting and, 2:741
gymnastics and, 4:2242
international exhibitions and, 5:2499
Olympic Games and, 4:2246
riots in, 4:2284
telephone service in, 5:2308
Stocking, George, 1:461
Stocklet, Adolphe, 3:1261
Stockmar, Christian Friedrich von,
3:1335
Stockton & Darlington Railway,
1:486; 2: 764
Stoclet Frieze (Klimt), 3:1261
Stoecker, Adolf, 1:71, 72; 2:967
INDEX
stoichiometry, 1:424–425
Stoke City Football Club, 1:120
Stoker, Bram, 4:1822, 2255; 5:2464
Stolberg-Wernigerode family, 1:469
‘‘Stolen Bacillus, The’’ (Wells), 5:2458
Stolypin, Peter, 3:1628, 1659, 1660;
4:1978–1979, 2058,
2256–2258; 5:2479
assassination of, 3:1660; 4:2058
Struve and, 4:2271
Stolypin reaction, 1:89
Stomps, Theo J., 2:653
Stonebreakers, The (Courbet), 2:568,
569; 4:1706, 1946–1947, 1956
Stonecutter (Courbet), 4:1757
Stone Guest, The (Pushkin), 4:1919
Stones of Venice, The (Ruskin), 1:371;
3:1550; 4:2046
Stoney, George Johnstone, 4:2113
Stopes, Marie, 4:2163
Storia di una capinera (Verga), 5:2407
Storm, The (Ciot), 4:1710
Storm, Theodor, 3:1533
Storm Bell, The (feminist journal),
1:332
Storting (Norwegian parliament),
1:227
Story of Gösta Berling, The (Lagerlöf),
4:2287
Story of My Life (Sand), 4:2083, 2084
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 2:934
Strachey, Lytton, 2:835; 3:1638;
4:2258–2259
Strachey, Richard, 4:2258
Stracheyesque (term), 4:2259
Stradbroke, Lord, 1:72
Straits Convention of 1841,
1:244, 278
Strand Magazine, 2:680
Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde
(Stevenson), 4:2255
Strasbourg, 1:50, 52
strategy, tactics vs., 3:1505
Strauss, Anna, 4:2260
Strauss, David Friedrich, 1:51;
2:743–744, 754, 1054; 3:1464;
5:2512, 2513
Strauss, Eduard, 4:2259, 2260
Strauss, Johann (father),
4:2259–2260, 2261; 5:2418,
2419
Strauss, Johann (son), 3:1661;
4:2259–2261; 5:2405, 2420
Strauss, Josef, 4:2259, 2260, 2261
Strauss, Leo, 1:320
Strauss, Richard, 1:54; 3:1643,
1675–1676; 4:2102, 2260;
5:2470
2773
INDEX
as Berlin Philharmonic conductor,
1:219
Hoffmannsthal as libbretist for,
2:1077; 3:1675, 1676
opera and, 3:1675–1676
Stravinsky, Fyodor, 4:2261
Stravinsky, Igor, 1:154; 4:1944, 2000,
2077, 2261–2263
Diaghilev and, 2:654, 655; 4:1876
Rite of Spring premier and, 2:655,
774, 775; 3:1573; 4:1876
Strawberry Hill (Walpole estate),
4:2030
Straw Mannikin, The (Goya), 2:997
Stray Dog (St. Petersburg café),
4:2182
Strayed Reveller, The (Arnold), 1:102
Street, Berlin (Kirchner), 1:220;
4:1711
streetcars, 1:207
street lighting, 1:207, 451
electric, 1:446; 2:741, 742; 3:1414
gas, 1:445–446; 2:548, 742
Streghe, Le (Paganini), 4:1698
Strepponi, Giuseppina, 5:2406
strikes, 4:2263–2268
anarchosyndicalism and, 1:59, 61, 62
Barcelona and, 1:183
Belgium and, 1:203
Berlin and, 1:219
Britain and, 2:1008, 1011; 3:1288,
1441; 4:2265, 2266
Chartist-led, 1:416–417; 4:2265
early protests, 4:2263–2265
European-wide (1868–1873), 3:1288
France and, 2:857; 3:1288; 4:1930,
2265–2267; 5:2484, 2485, 2488,
2491
German miners, 3:1289
Ireland and, 4:2267
Italy and, 3:1288; 4:2174, 2266,
2267–2268; 5:2485, 2488, 2491
Milan and, 3:1504
mutual aid societies and, 3:1284
Paris and, 4:1733
Prague and, 4:1861
Russia and, 3:1288, 1327, 1328,
1628; 4:1974, 1977–1978,
2055–2056, 2268; 5:2390
St. Petersburg and, 4:2079
Siberia and, 4:2173
Spain and, 3:1288; 4:2231, 2265,
2267
syndicalism and, 4:2263–2268,
2298–2300; 5:2485, 2491
See also general strikes
2774
Strindberg, August, 4:2268–2270,
2286–2287
Strindberg Feud, 4:2269
Strindbergs Infernokris (Brandell),
4:2269
String Quartet in D Major
(Schoenberg), 4:2102
String Quartet in F (Ravel), 4:1944
string quartets
amateurs and, 3:1568
Beethoven and, 1:197; 3:1568, 1570
Dvořák and, 2:701
String Quintet in C (Schubert),
4:2107
Stritt, Marie, 4:2280
Strossmayer, Joseph George, 4:1722
structuralism, 2:593
‘‘Structure and Connexions of Nuerox,
The’’ (Cajal), 1:342
‘‘struggle for survival.’’ See natural
selection
Struve, Gustav von, 2:961, 962
Struve, Peter, 3:1171, 1241, 1518;
4:1832, 2270–2271
Stuart, James (author), 4:1762
Stuart, James (educator), 1:372
Stuck, Franz von, 1:155; 4:2293
Studies in the History of Russian
Culture (Milyukov), 3:1518
Studies in the History of the Renaissance
(Pater), 4:1746
Studies in the Psychology of Sex (Ellis and
Symonds), 2:745, 746; 4:2296
Studies of a Biographer (Stephen),
4:2254
Studies of the Greek Poets: Second Series
(Symonds), 4:2296
Studies on Hysteria (Freud and Breuer),
2:905; 4:1904
Studies Scientific and Social (Wallace),
5:2437
Studie über Minderwertigkeit von
Organen (A. Adler), 1:9
Studio of the Moscow Art Theater,
3:1496
Study for Summer: The Gleaners
(Millet). See Gleaners, The
Study in Scarlet, A (Doyle), 2:680, 681
Study of Organ Inferiority
(A. Adler), 1:9
‘‘Study of Poetry, The’’ (Arnold),
1:103
Study of Sociology, The (Spencer),
4:2233
Stumm, Karl von, 2:960
Stumpf, Carl, 1:298; 2:1099–1100
Śtúr, Ludovit, 4:1716
Sturdza, Roxandra, 2:1080
Sturge, Joseph, 1:416
E U R O P E
Sturgeon, William, 3:1430
Stürgkh, Karl, 1:11
Sturm, Der (avant-garde weekly),
1:155; 3:1309, 1381
Sturm Gallery (Berlin), 1:155
Sturm und Drang, 2:983, 985
Style Guimard, le, 2:1027, 1028
Styria, 3:1236
subconscious, 3:1238
Subjection of Women, The (J. S. Mill),
2:804, 946, 1008; 3:1509, 1514
Mozzoni Italian translation of,
3:1555
‘‘Subjective Immortality’’ (Pater),
4:1746
Sublime Porte. See Ottoman Empire
sublime, concept of the, 4:1702,
1703–1704, 1738
submarine warfare, 1:232; 3:1611;
5:2313
subscription banquets, 4:1963
suburbs
Berlin and, 1:217, 218–219
bourgeois family life and,
3:1452–1453
Brussels and, 1:306
cemeteries in, 2:628
Dublin and, 2:690, 691
growth of, 1:444, 452
housing and, 2:1087–1088, 1090,
1092; 3:1453
London and, 2:1088; 3:1373, 1375
Parisian worker displacement to,
2:1049; 4:1732, 1733
railroads and, 4:1936
subways and, 4:2272–2273
working class and, 5:2484–2485
subways, 4:2271–2274; 5:2502,
2503
Berlin and, 1:217
Budapest and, 1:311
impact of, 4:2272–2273
origins of, 4:2271–2272
Paris and, 1:109–110; 2:815, 1027,
1028; 4:1732, 1733
Sucharda, Stanislav, 4:1858
Sudan, 1:18, 19; 2:782
Fashoda Affair and, 2:643, 663,
794–795; 3:1117–1118
Kitchener campaign in, 3:1258–1259
Mahdi and, 1:18–19; 2:734, 783
Mehmet Ali conquest of, 2:731–732
Omdurman and, 2:734, 794;
3:1125, 1668–1669, 1669
Südbahn rail connection, 5:2355
Sue, Eugène, 1:70; 2:575; 4:1941
Suez (port), 1:18
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Suez Canal, 1:18, 53, 353, 390, 436;
2:733; 3:1482; 4:2274–2276,
2275; 5:2405
British imperialism and, 3:1122
Disraeli shares in, 2:733
Fashoda Affair and, 2:794–795
French engineers and, 2:760
Lesseps and, 3:1337–1338
Verdi opera and, 2:733; 3:1572
Suez Canal Company, 2:674, 794;
4:2274, 2275, 2276
Suez War, 4:2276
Suffrages des femmes (Paris),
1:127, 128
suffragism, 4:2276–2281, 2278;
5:2397
aristocracy and, 1:83
Australia and, 1:135
Austria and, 1:145; 2:865; 4:2281;
5:2421
Belgium and, 1:203, 204
bourgeoisie and, 1:290
Britain and, 1:203, 290; 2:798;
4:2276–2281, 2278, 2280;
5:2461, 2487
as British Chartist platform,
1:414–415, 418; 4:2277; 5:2487
British Corn Laws repeal campaign
and, 2:558–559
British expansion of, 1:457; 2:540,
977, 1002, 1003, 1008, 1009
British riots for, 2:1003, 1004
Fawcett and, 2:797–799
France and, 1:203, 247, 271, 290;
4:1928–1929, 1961, 1964, 1998,
2181, 2276–2281; 5:2317
French Directory and, 2:665
French electorate restrictions and,
2:848, 851
French Second Empire and, 3:1592
general strikes for, 3:1293; 4:2268
Germany and, 1:203, 459; 2:964
Greece and, 2:1021
Hamburg and, 2:1040, 1041
Irish Catholics and, 3:1656
Italy and, 2:972; 3:1200, 1277
landownership as basis of, 3:1305
liberalism and, 3:1347
masculine distinctions and, 3:1470
Mill (James) on, 3:1510
municipal restrictions on, 1:449
Naples and, 3:1581
Netherlands and, 3:1616, 1617,
1619
New Zealand and, 3:1622–1623
peasants and, 4:1752, 1755
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Prague and, 4:1856, 1860
Prussia and, 1:290
Revolutions of 1848 and, 1:141
Russian first national elections and,
3:1241–1242
Sicily and, 4:2173–2174
Spain and, 4:2232, 2278
Sweden and Norway and, 3:1293;
4:2279, 2281, 2283
Switzerland and, 4:2279, 2291
Wales and, 5:2436
working class movement for, 1:459;
2:567
Suffragiste, La (periodical), 4:1762
Sufis, 2:784; 4:2164
sugar-beet farming, 1:260; 2:659,
762, 764, 960; 4:1753
sugar consumption
coffee/tea drinking and, 1:494
increase in, 2:659, 710
trade and, 3:1151
sugar cultivation
Caribbean, 1:363, 364, 365, 499;
2:709
Haiti and, 2:1036
slavery and, 4:1924–1925, 2190,
2191
Suggestions for Thought to Searchers
After Religious Truth
(Nightingale), 3:1637
suicide, 2:629, 632, 699, 816
Suicide (Durkheim), 2:699
Suicide as a Social Mass Phenomenon
(Masaryk), 3:1469
Suleiman Pasha, 4:2068
sulfur mining, 4:2176
Sulle lagune (Verga), 5:2407
Sullivan, Arthur, 3:1661
sulphuric acid, 3:1160
Sumatra, 3:1617
Summer Nights (Berlioz), 1:225
Summer Palace (St. Petersburg),
4:2075
Sumner, William Graham, 2:619;
4:2213, 2235
sumptuary laws, 2:546, 548
sun, age of, 3:1250
Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La
Grande Jatte, A (Seurat), 2:941;
3:1132; 4:1709, 2156–2157,
2157, 2158
Sunday clothes, 2:550
Sunday Observance societies, 1:288
Sundukian, Gabriel, 1:88
Sunflowers, The (Van Gogh), 5:2401
Sunni Muslims, 3:1547
Suor Angelica (Puccini), 4:1916
INDEX
superman ideal (Nietzsche), 3:1629,
1633–1635, 1636
Supplementary Convention of 1956,
1:309
‘‘Supplement to the Battle of the Mice
and Frogs, A’’ (Leopardi), 3:1334
Supplex Libellus Valachorum (1791),
4:2018
supply and demand, laws of, 2:707,
715, 718
suprematism, 1:157–158
Supreme Being, cult of the, 4:2007
Supreme Council of India, 3:1407
Supreme Ruthenian Council, 4:1993
surgery
anesthesia and, 3:491
antisepsis and, 2:644; 3:1358–1359;
4:1744
Larrey and, 3:1307–1308
Lister and, 3:1358–1359, 1359;
4:1744
professionalization of, 4:1877
Surmále, Le (Jarry), 3:1214
surplus value, 4:2201, 2205
Surprise Attack, The (Vereschagin),
1:396
surrealism
avant-garde and, 1:153
collage and, 2:593
Gaudı́ as influence on, 2:938
Jarry and, 3:1214
Kandinsky and, 3:1246
symbolism and, 4:2295
‘‘survival of the fittest,’’ 4:2213
evolution and, 2:616, 618, 619,
777, 778
Malthusian theory and, 3:1426
Spencer and, 4:2234, 2235
Susanin, Ivan, 2:979
Sussex chairs, 2:915
Sutherland, duchess of, 1:85
Suttner, Arthur Gundaccar von,
4:2281
Suttner, Bertha von, 4:1697, 1698,
2281–2283
Schnitzler and, 4:2100–2101
Sutton, Robert, 1:338
Sutton and Torkington factory
(Manchester), 3:1429
Suur-Merijoki Farm (Finland), 1:113
Suvorin, Alexei, 1:423
Suvorov, Alexander, 3:1281; 4:1748
Suzanne Sewing (Gauguin), 2:939
Světlá, Karolı́na, 4:1857
Svevo, Italo, 5:2356
Sviatopolk-Mirsky, Nikolai I., 4:2068
Svyatolpolk-Mirsky, Peter, 4:2055
Swahili (people), 1:16
2775
INDEX
Swain, Gladys, 4:1791
Swan Lake (Tchaikovsky), 4:1750;
5:2307
Swazi, 4:2221
sweatshop labor, 1:474, 483; 3:1470;
4:2159, 2160
Sweden and Norway, 4:2283–2288,
2284, 2286
aging population in, 3:1662
agricultural workers in, 1:24
banking in, 1:172
Bernadotte and, 1:226–227; 2:903
chemistry in, 1:424, 425
colonies and, 3:1114, 1116
commercial policy and, 2:514
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532, 534
drinking culture of, 1:34, 35
education in, 1:431; 2:720; 4:2285
emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 748
established church in, 4:1895
Finland and, 2:817, 819
football (soccer) and, 2:834
France and, 5:2374
French Revolution and, 2:887
industrial/manufacturing exhibitions
and, 5:2493
labor movements in, 3:1289, 1290,
1291
Leipzig battle and, 3:1319
liberalism and, 4:2283–2284
monetary union and, 3:1538
Napoleonic Wars and, 2:901, 903
Nobel and, 3:1644–1645
nursing in, 3:1648
peaceful separation of, 3:1345;
4:1698
Protestant population of, 4:1890,
1890
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987
Russia and, 1:376, 377
St. Petersburg and, 4:2076
socialism and, 4:2284
socialist party strength in, 3:1293,
1294
sports in, 4:2241, 2242
strikes in, 4:2267–2268
Strindberg and, 4:2268–2269
suffrage in, 4:2279, 2281
Swedish-Russian War and, 2:817
telephone service in, 5:2308
temperance movements in, 1:35, 36,
37; 4:1896
trade and, 5:2336, 2338, 2340
universities amd, 5:2379–2380
welfare initiatives in, 5:2452
2776
women’s suffrage and, 4:2281
women university students in, 2:728
See also Norway; Stockholm
Swedenborg, Emanuel, 1:246; 4:2268
as Jung influence, 3:1238
Swedish language, 2:819, 820
Swedish People at Work and Play
(Strindberg), 4:2286
‘‘Swept and Garnished’’ (Kipling),
3:1257
Świe˛tochowski, Aleksandr, 4:1811
Swift, Jonathan, 4:2254
Swift, Susie, 4:2083
swimming, 4:2240–2243, 2245;
5:2328
Swimming Association of Great
Britain, 4:2242
Swinburne, Algernon Charles, 1:246;
2:940; 5:2310
Swinemünde, 4:2125, 2126
Swing, The (Renoir), 4:1955
Swing riots (England), 1:357–359;
3:1411
Swiss Civil War, 1:317
Swiss Croix bleue, 4:1896
Switzerland, 4:2288–2291, 2289
Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:51
anarchists in, 1:57
Burckhardt and, 1:315–320
Catholicism in, 1:377; 4:2290, 2291
democratization in, 4:2290–2291
economic development in, 4:2290
First International in, 2:825
football (soccer) in, 2:833, 834
France and, 2:666; 4:2288
French Revolutionary Wars and,
2:894, 900
Geneva Convention and, 2:952–953
as Helvetic Republic, 4:2188, 2189,
2288
Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225
Jung and, 3:1238
labor movements and, 3:1291
Lenin’s exile in, 3:1329
literacy in, 2:720
Luxemburg in, 3:1399
Mann in, 3:1436
mesmerism in, 3:491
monetary union and, 3:1538
Napoleonic Empire and, 2:553;
3:1597
peasants in, 4:1755
political exiles in, 3:1113
professions in, 4:1880
Protestant population of, 4:1890,
1890
E U R O P E
radicals in, 4:1990, 2289, 2291
Red Cross and, 4:1948, 1949
republicanism and, 4:1963
Revolutions of 1830 and,
4:1983–1986
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987,
1990
Sismondi and, 4:2185–2186
sister republics and, 4:2188, 2189
sports in, 4:2241, 2242, 2244, 2245
suffrage in, 4:2279, 2291
telephone service in, 5:2308
trade and, 4:2290; 5:2336, 2338,
2339
universities in, 5:2379, 2388
welfare initiatives in, 4:1963; 5:2452
women’s medical training in, 2:945
women university students in, 2:728;
3:1399
Swoboda, Hermann, 5:2449
Sybil (Disraeli), 1:371; 2:672
Sydenham Crystal Palace, 2:588–589,
590; 4:1738
Sydney (Australia), 1:133, 134, 135
Syllabus of Errors (1864), 1:6,
381–382, 388; 3:1330
contents of, 3:1199; 4:1719,
1797–1798
First Vatican Council and, 4:1722
Kulturkampf as reaction to, 3:1277
on Protestantism, 4:1890
Sylphides, Les (ballet), 3:1642
Sylvester Patent of 1851 (Austria),
2:863
Sylvias Lovers (Gaskell), 2:934
symbolic mythology, 4:2030
symbolism, 4:2292–2296
art nouveau and, 1:109, 112
Beardsley designs and, 1:192
Bely and, 1:209, 214
Bergson and, 1:214
Blok and, 1:249
Debussy musical characteristics and,
2:631
Decadence and, 2:633; 4:2292–2294
Gauguin and, 2:939–941
irrationalism and, 4:2294–2295
Klimt and, 3:1261–1262
in literature and art, 2:940; 4:2292,
2293–2294
Mallarmé and, 3:1529; 4:2292,
2293, 2294
modernism and, 3:1529
origins and context of, 4:2292
Picasso and, 4:1781
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1863, 1865
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Russian, 2:774; 4:2181–2182
Schiele and, 4:2089
Seurat and, 4:2157
theater and, 3:1496
‘‘Symbolisme, Le’’ (Moréas), 4:2294
‘‘Symbolism in Painting: Paul
Gauguin’’ (Aurier), 2:939
Symbolist Movement in Literature, The
(Symons), 2:633
Syme, James, 3:1358–1359
Symonds, John Addington, 2:745;
4:1747, 2296–2297; 5:2376,
2405
Symons, Arthur, 2:632, 633
symphonic poem, 3:1360, 1568
Symphonie fantastique (Berlioz),
1:224–225
Symphonie funebre et triomphale
(Berlioz), 1:225
symphony, 3:1568
Beethoven and, 1:196, 197, 198;
3:1568, 1570
Bely on, 1:209
Berlioz and, 1:224–225
Brahms and, 1:295
Mahler and, 3:1418–1419, 1572
piano arrangements of, 3:1566
Romanticism and, 4:2027
synapse, 1:342
synchromists, 1:156
syndicalism, 1:56, 59, 60–62;
4:2297–2300
Amiens Charter and, 4:2298–2299,
2300
anarchosyndicalism and, 1:60
fascism and, 1:61, 62
France and, 4:2266, 2267,
2298–2299; 5:2485, 2491
Italy and, 4:2266, 2267, 2298, 2299
labor movements and, 3:1292, 1297
Milan and, 3:1504
Sorel and, 4:2218, 2299
Spain and, 1:61, 62; 3:1292; 4:2266,
2267, 2298, 2299–2300
strikes and, 4:2263–2268,
2298–2300; 5:2485, 2491
Sweden and, 4:2284
Wales and, 5:2436
syndicat. See anarchosyndicalism;
syndicalism
Synge, J. M., 5:2510
synthetic materials, 3:1160
synthetic Zionism, 5:2521
synthetism, 4:2294
syphilis, 1:251, 410; 4:2293,
2300–2303, 2302
Australia and, 1:134
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Charcot’s joints and, 1:408
Ehrlich’s treatment for, 2:736
fin de siècle and, 2:816
regulation of, 4:2162, 2302–2303
sexuality and, 4:2162
Syria
British campaign in, 3:1613
Eyptian invasion of, 2:732;
3:1420–1421, 1613
Napoleon and, 2:731; 3:1585
Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 1:278;
3:1560, 1561; 5:2391, 2392
systematicity (legal principle), 3:1315
Système de politique positive (Comte),
2:524; 4:1843
System of Ethics (Fichte), 2:813
‘‘System of Human Freedom’’
(Fichte), 2:813
System of Logic (J. S. Mill), 2:717;
3:1513, 1514; 4:1844; 5:2394
System of Nature (Linnaeaus), 4:2285
System of Positive Polity (Comte), 2:524
System of Synthetic Philosophy, A
(Spencer), 4:2233, 2234
System of Transcendental Idealism
(Schelling), 4:2088
Széchenyi, István, 1:117, 140; 3:1266,
1267
diary entry of, 3:1267
Szeklers, 4:2018
Szela, Jakub, 4:1755
Szelenyi, Ivan, 3:1172
Szeps, Moritz, 4:2045
n marketplace, 1:19
T
Taaffe, Eduard von, 2:864, 865;
4:2045; 5:2511
Tabarro, Il (Puccini), 4:1916
Tableau de Paris (Mercier), 4:1728
table d’hote, 4:1965
Table of Ranks (Russia), 1:286, 323
Tabouillot, Alfred von, 1:66
Tacitus, 3:1384
tactics. See military tactics
Tactigers (Dutch literary movement),
3:1619
Taff Vale Railway Company, 3:1296
Tag- und Jahreschefte (Goethe), 2:987
Tahiti, 5:2501
French venture in, 2:812
Gauguin in, 2:939–940, 941;
3:1530; 4:1710, 1874
Tailhade, Laurent, 4:2294
tailors, 1:481; 2:792
INDEX
Taine, Hippolyte-Adolphe, 2:689,
1074; 3:1132; 5:2522
Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864),
1:434; 4:2171
Tait, Peter Guthrie, 3:1250, 1477
Taiwan, 1:434; 4:2171
Tajikistan, 1:395
Taj Mahal (India), 2:597
Takamori, Saigô, 3:1210
Talbot, William Henry Fox, 4:1770,
1771, 1771
Tale of the Antichrist (Soloviev), 2:774
Tale of Tsar Saltan, The (Rimsky-
Korsakov), 4:2000
Tale of Two Cities, A (Dickens), 1:371;
2:657; 3:1586
Tales from the Vienna Woods (J.
Strauss), 4:2260
Tales of Belkin (Pushkin), 4:1919
Tales of Hoffmann, The (Offenbach),
3:1661
Talleyrand, Charles Maurice de,
4:1733; 5:2305–2306
Congress of Vienna and, 2:532,
533–534, 534, 565, 1081;
3:1493; 5:2306
Delacroix and, 2:640
divine-right monarchy and, 4:1971
as Napoleon supporter, 2:895
Tallinn, 2:818
Tamassia, Arrigo, 2:1082
Tametomo, Kuroki, 3:1557
Tamworth Manifesto of 1834, 5:2322
Tancred (Disraeli), 2:672
Tancredi (Rossini), 3:1670; 4:2038
Tangier, 3:1545, 1548, 1549
Tanjore, 2:706; 3:1134
Tannenberg, Battle of (1914), 3:1508
Tannhäuser (Wagner), 3:1360, 1675;
5:2430
Tanzania, 1:16
Tanzimat (Ottoman reforms), 1:90,
274; 3:1188, 1190, 1517, 1686
Taparelli, Massimo. See Azeglio
Tapia, Luis José Sartorius, 4:2229
‘‘Taras Bulba’’ (Gogol), 2:988
Tarde, Alfred de, 1:214
Tarde, Gabriel de, 2:552; 4:1909,
2214
criminality theory and, 2:573–574
Tariff Reform League (Britain), 1:405
tariffs. See protectionism
Tarnovsky, Ippolit, 2:1084
Tarnovsky, Veniamin, 4:2303
Tarquı̂no de Quental, Antero, 4:1840
Tárrida del Armol, Fernando, 1:59
Tartuffe (Molière), 4:1969
2777
INDEX
Tashkent, 1:395
Tasmania, 1:134; 2:505, 780
Tassel House (first art nouveau
building), 1:109
Tatar, Maria, 2:1023
Tatars, 2:562, 772–773; 3:1207, 1208
Tate Gallery (London), 4:1865
Tatiana, princess of Russia, 3:1627
Taurida Palace (St. Petersburg),
4:2077, 2079
Tausk, Viktor, 1:65
taverns, 2:547
Tawfik, viceroy of Egypt, 4:2275
taxation
Britain and, 2:977, 1002, 1004,
1007, 1012; 3:1154, 1369, 1426;
4:1759, 1848, 1867
classical economics and, 2:718
France and, 2:840, 841, 842, 847,
884, 888, 896; 3:1885
Germany and, 2:968
Hobson economic theory on, 2:1075
Italy and, 3:1200
millet system and, 3:1517
Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1192,
1598; 4:1786
Prussia and, 2:1042
for schools, 2:720
Taylor, A. J. P., 2:962, 967, 1033
Taylor, Alan M., 2:515
Taylor, Alfred, 5:2466
Taylor, Barbara, 5:2481
Taylor, Edgar, 2:1023
Taylor, Harriet. See Mill, Harriet
Taylor
Taylor, Helen, 4:2279
Taylor, Isidore-Justin-Séverin, 2:605;
3:1432
Taylor, J. Hudson, 3:1527–1528
Taylor, John, 3:1508, 1509, 1513
Taylor, Marshall (‘‘Major’’), 2:602
Taylor, Mary, 1:300–301
Taylor, Robert, 3:1600
Tay Son revolution (1771), 3:1137,
1138
Tchaikovsky, Peter, 2:654, 655, 980;
3:1565, 1571, 1575; 4:1919;
5:2306–2307
tea. See coffee, tea, chocolate
teachers
Jews as, 3:1229
professionalization of, 4:1878
Prussian certification of, 2:723
from religious orders, 2:721
women as, 2:721, 723, 724,
727–728, 945; 3:1680; 4:1881
tearooms, art nouveau, 1:112
Teatro alla Scala (Milan). See La Scala
2778
Teatro Costanzi (Rome), 3:1567
Teatro Real (Madrid), 3:1414
technical schools, 1:286, 473; 2:720,
727; 5:2382–2383, 2389
engineer training and, 2:759
Technische Hochschulen, 5:2382
technology. See science and technology
Tecumseh, 5:2439, 2440
Te Deum (Berlioz), 1:225
teetotal (origination of term), 1:36
Teffi, Nadezhda, 4:2183
Tegnér, Esaias, 4:2287
Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 1:214
Telefon Hirmondo, 5:2308
telegraph, 1:217; 2:576, 962; 4:2109,
2111
Crystal Palace exhibit of, 2:588
electricity and, 3:1161, 1477
Kelvin and, 3:1249
Marconi and, 3:1444–1445; 4:1780
railroads and, 4:1936–1937
Second Industrial Revolution and,
3:1163
in Serbia, 4:2147
Siemens and, 4:2179
in Sweden, 4:2285
transatlantic, 3:1249, 1444–1445,
1658; 4:1937
wartime use of, 2:580; 3:1506
Tel el Kebir, 2:734
Telemark, 4:1821
fin de siècle and, 2, 815
telephones, 3:1449; 5:2307–2309
Belgrade and, 1:207
football (soccer) reporting by,
2:831–832
Industrial Revolution (second) and,
3:1157
railroads and, 4:1937
Second Industrial Revolution and,
3:1163
Serbia and, 4:2147
Sweden and, 4:2285
telescope, 4:2113
Telescope, The (Russian journal),
1:399, 400
television, 4:1780
Telford, Thomas, 2:759
temperance. See alcohol and
temperance
Temperance Society (Britain), 1:36
temperature, Kelvin scale of, 3:1249
Temple, Henry (father), 4:1712
Temple, Henry John (son). See
Palmerston, Lord
Templo Explatorio de la Sagrada
Familia, El. See Sagrada Familia
E U R O P E
Temps, Le (Paris newspaper), 2:810
Temps viendra, Le (Rolland), 4:2015
Temptation of Saint Anthony, The
(Flaubert), 2:827, 828
Ten, C. L, 3:1514
Ten Commandments, The (film),
2:677–678
tenements, 1:454; 2:1089, 1090
Berlin, 1:218, 219
Naples, 2:1087
Ten Hour Bill of 1847 (Britain), 1:417
tennis, 3:1324; 4:2239, 2243, 2244,
2245
Tennis Court Oath of 1789 (France),
2:768, 842
Tennyson, Alfred, 2:1046;
5:2309–2310
‘‘Charge of the Light Brigade’’ of,
1:95, 244
on Darwinian evolution, 2:618
Doré illustrations for, 2:676
Morant Bay uprising and, 1:371
‘‘Ten O’Clock’’ (Whistler), 4:2294
Tenon, Jacques, 4:1790
Tenskwatawa, 5:2439
Tenth of March, 1820, in Cadiz, The
(engraving), 4:1980
‘‘Tenth Symphony’’ (Schubert),
4:2107
Ten Years of Exile (Staël), 4:2247
Teraoka, Masami, 1:192
Terek Cossacks, 2:562
Ter-Gukasov, A. A., 1:88
Ternan, Ellen, 2:657
Ternaux, Louis, 1:492
Terrace at Sainte-Adresse (Monet),
3:1128–1129, 1129, 1535
Terrasse, Claude, 3:1214
Terrenoire steel plant (France), 1:353
Territoire de Belfort, 1:51
Terront, Charles, 2:601
Terror, the. See Reign of Terror
Terror in Russia, The (Kropotkin),
3:1272
terrorism
Alexander II assassination and, 1:39
anarchism and, 1:57–58, 60, 171,
181; 3:1497
Black Hand and, 1:242–243
Irish Home Rule and, 4:1741
Kropotkin’s argument for,
3:1272–1273
Lenin and, 3:1326, 1327
Nechayev and, 3:1613–1614
People’s Will and, 3:1326;
4:1767–1768, 1832
in Russia, 4:2052, 2053, 2210,
2211, 2256; 5:2517
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

September 11, 2001, attacks and,
2:738
Serbian Black Hand and, 1:242–243;
2:705
Tesla, Nikola, 3:1161
Tess of the d’Urbervilles (Hardy),
2:1045; 4:2256
Test Acts of 1829 (Britain), 4:1895;
5:2457
Testem Benevolentiae (apostolic letter,
1899), 3:1332
Tettenborn, Friedrich Karl von,
2:1038
Tetzner, Theodor, 4:2023
Teutonic Mythology (J. Grimm), 2:1023
Teutonic race, 1:403
Texas, 1:338
Text-Book of Psychiatry (Krafft-Ebing),
3:1238
textiles
Armenia and, 1:88
art nouveau and, 1:107, 108, 109,
112, 113, 152
Barcelona and, 1:180, 357
Belgium and, 1:200, 201, 203;
2:791
Berlin and, 1:217
Bohemian Lands and, 1:260
capitalist bourgeoisie and,
1:284, 287
Chartism and, 1:415, 416
child labor and, 1:430; 3:1150;
5:2486, 2487
clothing and, 1:481; 2:549
Continental System and, 2:554
cotton and, 4:2193
East India Company trade in,
2:705, 706
electric power and, 2:741
factories and, 2:788, 791, 792
factory housing and, 2:1087
French manufacture of, 3:1153
German manufacture of, 2:960
Industrial Revolution (first) and,
1:24, 351
labor movements and, 5:2486
labor reform and, 1:285
Luddism and, 3:1392
machine breaking and, 3:1410–1412;
4:2264
machinery and, 1:24, 492, 493;
3:1142, 1153, 1154, 1287
Moravia and, 1:141
Morris designs for, 3:1550; 4:1865
Prague and, 4:1856
Rothschilds and, 4:2039
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
sewing machine and, 4:2158–2160
strikes and, 4:2264; 5:2485
Sweden and, 4:2285
Switzerland and, 4:2290
technology and, 4:2108
women labor activists and, 3:1293
women workers and, 2:792; 3:1148;
5:2486, 2487
See also cotton; silk manufacture;
wool
Thackeray, Harriet (Minny), 4:2253,
2254
Thackeray, William Makepeace, 2:586;
4:2237
thagi (ritual murderers), 3:1134
Thailand. See Siam
Thames, Battle of the (1813), 5:2440
Thames River
cholera/pollution link and, 1:437
London and, 3:1372, 1375, 1378
pollution and, 1:450
tunnel project, 1:304
Thanks to the Dowry (Bouchot), 3:1454
Thatcher, Margaret, 2:976
Thaulow, Milly, 3:1558
theater
Armenia and, 1:88
avant-garde and, 1:153, 157–158
Beardsley design influence on, 1:192
Benavente comedies and, 2:951
Berlin and, 1:219; 3:1109
Bernhardt and, 1:229–230
Blok and, 1:250
cabarets and, 1:335–337
Chekhov and, 1:423
cinema and, 3:1397
cities and, 1:445
D’Annunzio and, 2:609
Dublin and, 2:693
fin de siècle and, 2:815
Goethe and, 2:983, 984, 985
Gogol and, 2:988
Gorky and, 2:993
Gouges and, 2:994
Greek tragedy and, 2:1097; 4:1769,
1770
Herzl and, 2:1068
Hofmannsthal and, 2:1076–1077
Hugo and, 2:1092–1093
Ibsen and, 3:1107, 1108–1109;
4:2287
Jarry and, 3:1213, 1214
Lasker-Schüler and, 3:1309
London and, 3:1377
Madrid and, 3:1414
INDEX
Marinetti and, 2:917
Meyerhold and, 3:1495–1496
in mid-nineteenth century,
3:1107–1108
Moscow and, 3:1551
old age representation in, 3:1663
peasant plays and, 4:1756
popular culture and, 4:1821,
1824–1825
Rolland and, 4:2014–2015
Sade and, 4:2074
Schinkel and, 4:2092
Schlegel’s translations and, 4:2094,
2095
Schnitzler and, 4:2100
Serbia and, 4:2148
set design and, 1:192; 4:2092, 2294
Shaw and, 4:2165–2167
Strindberg and, 4:2268–2269, 2286
symbolist movement and, 4:2292,
2295
Turgenev and, 5:2365
Vienna and, 5:2418, 2419
Viennese anti-Semitism and,
3:1394–1395
Warsaw and, 5:2442
Wilde and, 5:2465, 2466
Yeats and, 5:2510
See also opera; operetta
Theater del Liceu (Barcelona), 1:181
Théâtre d’Art (France), 4:2295
Théâtre de l’Oeuvre (Paris), 1:153;
3:1213
Théâtre des Champs-Elysées (Paris),
1:154; 3:1643
Théâtre du Gymnase (Menzel), 3:1490
Théâtre du Peuple, 4:2015
Théâtre du Peuple, Le (Rolland), 4:2015
Théâtre Italien (Paris), 3:1671–1672;
4:2038
Théâtre Libre (London), 3:1109
Théâtre Lyrique (Paris), 3:1672
Theatrophone, 5:2308
theft. See property crime
theism, 4:1893
Theism, Being Three Essays on Religion
(J. S. Mill), 3:1514
Theology of Feeling, 4:2030
Théorie des quatre mouvements
(Fourier), 2:803, 838; 4:2202
Théorie du pouvoir politique et religieux
(Bonald), 1:268
Theory of Moral Sentiments, The
(Smith), 2:712
‘‘Theory of Population, Deduced from
the General Law of Animal
Fertility, A’’ (Spencer), 4:2234
2779
INDEX
Theory of the Four Movements (Fourier),
2:803, 838; 4:2202
Theory of the Leisure Class (Veblen),
2:552
theosophy, 3:1245; 4:2295; 5:2509
Theravada Buddhism, 3:1137, 1138
Thérèse de Lisieux (‘‘Little Flower’’),
1:385; 4:2134
Thérèse Raquin (Zola), 5:2522
Theresian Quarter (Trieste), 5:2354
Thermidor, 4:1961
Thermidorian Reaction (1794), 2:837,
844–845
Thermidorians, 2:665, 894
thermodynamics, 1:426; 2:652;
3:1160–1161; 4:1780, 2108
Kelvin and, 3:1249–1250, 1478
Maxwell and, 3:1478
Planck and, 4:1799
as rebuke to progress, 2:631
two laws of, 3:1250, 1478
Theseus and the Minotaur (Canova),
1:347
Thessaly, 1:2; 2:530, 1022; 4:2085
‘‘They’’ (Kipling), 3:1257
They Did Not Expect Him (Repin),
4:1957
Thierry, Augustin, 3:1441;
4:2080–2081
Thiers, Louis-Adolphe, 1:492; 2:540,
1030; 3:1664; 4:1932;
5:2310–2311
Bonapartism and, 1:270, 271
liberalism and, 3:1344
Louis-Philippe and, 3:1389
Paris Commune and, 4:1735–1736,
1737
press censorship and, 4:1870
Third French Republic and, 2:855,
928; 4:1734
Thieu-Tri, 3:1140
Thimonnier, Barthélemy, 4:2158,
2159
Things As They Are (Godwin). See
Caleb Williams
Thinker, The (Rodin), 3:1471; 4:2009
Third Class Carriage, The (Daumier),
2:621, 623
Third Coalition. See War of the Third
Coalition
Third Estate (France), 2:767–768,
841, 842, 886; 4:2180
Third Home Rule Bill of 1914
(Britain), 3:1184
Third International, 4:2128–2129;
5:2364
Third of May, The (Goya), 2:999
2780
Third Partition of Poland (1795),
4:1900
Third Reform Bill (Britain). See Reform
Act of 1884
Third Reich. See Nazism
Third Republic (France), 2:567–568;
4:1953, 1961, 1962, 1964, 1998,
2137, 2198, 2243, 2278;
5:2310–2311, 2432, 2491,
2498–2499, 2500
anticlericalism and, 1:69; 2:540;
3:1649–1650; 4:1795
anti-Semitism and, 2:689
Barrès and, 1:184–185
Boulangism and, 1:184–185,
281, 282
Caillaux and, 1:338–340
Caribbean colonies and, 1:365
Catholic political activity and,
1:388, 389
Charcot and, 1:407, 410
church-state separation and, 2:529;
4:2137; 5:2432
conservatism and, 2:540–542;
4:1737
degeneracy theme and, 2:239
Deraismes and, 2:649
education and, 2:721, 723
Eiffel Tower and, 2:737
fall of (1940), 2:929
feminist movement and, 4:1998
Ferry and, 2:810–813
Franco-Prussian War and, 2:870;
3:1593
Freemasonry and, 2:881
Gambetta and, 2:928, 929
Hugo and, 2:195
intellectuals and, 3:1168–1169
labor movements, 5:2491
lawyers and, 4:1879
Leo XIII relations with, 3:1331
liberalism and, 3:1346
Michel’s critique of, 3:1497
national identity and, 3:1522
overview of, 2:854–859
Paris Commune and, 2:855;
4:1735–1737
Paris reconstruction resumption
during, 4:1731–1732
Poincaré (Raymond) and,
4:1805–1806
press curbs and, 4:1870
proclamation of, 2:810, 870, 928,
929; 4:1734
public health programs and,
4:1914–1915
E U R O P E
Renan and, 4:1953
republicanism and, 4:1961, 1962,
1964
sports and, 4:2243
suffrage and, 4:2278
Thiers and, 5:2310–2311
vaccination requirements and,
4:2198
Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432
world’s fairs and, 5:2498–2499,
2500
‘‘third sex’’ theory, 5:2375–2376
Third Symphony (Beethoven),
1:197, 198
Third Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419
Thirty Days War (1897). See Greco-
Turkish War
Thirty-Nine Articles (Anglican),
3:1621
Thomas, Ambroise, 3:1675
Thomas, Clément, 4:1735, 1737
Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist, 3:1158;
4:2113
Thomas, William, 3:1514
Thomas à Kempis, 1:385
Thomas Aquinas, 1:214; 3:1332
Thomas-Gilchrist converter, 1:485
Thompson, Benjamin (Count
Rumford), 4:2111
Thompson, William, 2:803; 3:1693;
4:2201
Thomson, Charles, 3:1142
Thomson, James, 3:1249
Thomson, John, 4:1772; 5:2490
Thomson, Joseph John, 1:427;
4:2070, 2071, 2113
Thomson, William. See Kelvin, Lord
Thorbecke, Johan Rudolf, 3:1343,
1617
Thoré, Théophile, 1:180
Thoreau, Henry David, 4:2029
thorium, 2:594, 595
Thornton, Marianne, 2:835
Thornton, Robert John, 1:246
Thorvaldsen, Bertel, 2:647; 4:1702
‘‘Thoughts of a Modern Pole’’
(Dmowski), 4:1812
Thoughts on Man (Godwin), 2:982
Thoughts on the Cause of the Present
Discontents (Burke), 1:327
Thoughts on the Education of Daughters
(Wollstonecraft), 5:2479
‘‘Thoughts on the Improvement of the
Races of Our Cultivated Plants’’
(de Vries), 2:652
Thouret, Michel-Augustin, 4:1790
Thrace
Bulgaria and, 1:312, 313
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

First Balkan War and, 1:163, 164
Russo-Turkish War and, 1:12
Second Balkan War and, 1:313
‘‘Thrawn Janet’’ (Stevenson), 4:2255
3-D process, 3:1398
‘‘three-body problem,’’ 4:1804
three-class suffrage, 4:2278
‘‘Three Conversations on War,
Progress, and the End of History’’
(Soloviev), 4:2217
Three Dancers in a Diagonal Line on
the Stage (Degas), 2:635
Three Emperors League, 1:48, 146;
2:526, 705
disintegration of, 3:1690
San Stefano Treaty and, 2:703
Three Essays on Religion (J. S. Mill),
4:1844
Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
(Freud), 2:906; 4:1905, 2163;
5:2376
Three Faces of Fascism (Nolte), 2:686
‘‘Three Meetings’’ (Soloviev), 4:2216
Three Pieces for the Piano, The
(Schoenberg), 4:2102
Three Sisters (Chekhov), 1:423; 3:1551
‘‘Three Students, The’’ (Doyle), 2:680
Three Tales (Flaubert), 2:827, 828
threshing machines, 1:25; 2:757
riots against, 1:357, 358–359;
3:1411
Thule-Gesellschaft, 2:1032
Thurn und Taxis, Prince, 1:85
Thurnwald, Richard, 2:770
Thus Spoke Zarasthustra (Nietzsche),
3:1631, 1632, 1633–1634, 1635,
1636
Thyrza (Gissing), 2:975
Thyselius, Carl, 4:2284
Thyssen family, 1:471; 3:1159
Tianjin, 3:1678, 1679, 1680
Tianjin, Treaties of (1858), 3:1579,
1679–1680
Tibet, 1:49; 2:597
Ticino, 4:2288, 2291
tidal studies, 3:1658
Tieck, Friedrich, 1:216; 2:912
Tieck, Ludwig, 3:1647; 4:2095
Tietz family, 2:551
Tiflis, 1:88
Tilak, Bal Gangadar, 3:1136
Tillett, Ben, 3:1296
Till Eulenspiegel (R. Strauss), 3:1643
Tilsit, Treaties of (1807), 1:38, 226,
272; 2:553, 817, 846, 876, 1042;
3:1599; 4:2250
TIM (Louis Mitelberg), 2:622
Timar system (Ottoman), 3:1420
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
timber, 1:81; 2:505, 710
Timbuctoo (Tennyson), 5:2309
Timbuktu, 2:782
Time (Russian journal), 2:678
Time and Free Will (Bergson), 1:213
Time Machine, The (Wells), 5:2458
timepieces, 3:1323–1324; 4:2290
Times of London, 4:1823, 1864,
1866, 1867, 1871
Hardie obituary in, 2:1044
price of, 4:1867
Times Roman typeface, 4:1867
Timofejewena, Raissa, 1:9
Tintern Abbey (Wales), 4:2030
‘‘Tintern Abbey’’ (Wordsworth),
4:2030; 5:2482
Tippecanoe, Battle of (1811), 5:2439
Tippu Tip (Hamed bin Muhammad),
1:16–17
Tipu Sultan, 3:1134
tires, 1:149; 2:551, 600, 601; 3:1336
Tiresias and Other Poems (Tennyson),
5:2310
Tirol, 2:958
Tirpitz, Alfred von, 1:232; 2:967, 968;
5:2312–2313, 2353
British naval rivalry and,
3:1609–1611
Tirpitz Plan, 5:2312
Tirtoff, Romain de. See Erté
Tischbein, Johann Heinrich (the
Elder), 2:984
Tisdall, Caroline, 1:156
Tisza, István, 2:864
Tisza, Kálmán, 2:864
Titanic (ocean liner), 3:1163, 1445;
4:2083
‘‘Tithonus’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309
Titian, 2:543; 3:1433
Tito, Ettore, 5:2405
Titov, Vladimir, 2:772
Tkachev, Peter, 2:1065; 3:1613;
4:2052, 2053
‘‘To a Skylark’’ (Shelley), 4:2170
‘‘To a Wealthy Man who Promised a
Second Subscription to the
Dublin Municipal Gallery if It
Were Proved the People Wanted
Pictures’’ (Yeats), 5:2510
tobacco, 5:2313–2316
Austrian tax on, 3:1502
Caribbean production of, 2:709
European consumption of, 2:710
Java and, 3:1617
slavery and, 4:2190–2193
trade and, 3:1151
women smokers and, 2:947
Töchter-Institut (Milwaukee), 1:67
INDEX
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 2:603; 3:1357;
4:2213; 5:2316–2318, 2448
on French peasantry, 4:1756
Guizot as influence on, 2:1030
in Manchester, 1:454
Mill (John Stuart) reviews of, 3:1513
Montesquieu as influence on, 2:537
O’Connell’s Irish Catholic
movement and, 3:1657
revolutionary age and, 1:317; 3:1342
on voluntary associations,
1:115–116, 117, 119, 120
Tofani, Oswaldo, 2:695
Togo, Heihachiro, 3:1557–1558;
4:2064
Togoland, 1:20, 222; 2:967
Toilers of the Sea, The (Hugo), 2:1094
toilets, 1:219, 251, 253, 450, 453
Tokugawa family, 3:1208, 1209,
1210; 4:2064
Tokyo (Edo), 3:1208, 1210
Tolentino, Battle of (1815), 3:1254
toll roads, 5:2346
Tolpuddle Martyrs of 1834 (Britain),
5:2462
Tolstoy, Alexei, 4:2076, 2079
Tolstoy, Leo, 1:423; 3:1215; 4:2165,
2217; 5:2318–2320, 2319
Freemasonry and, 2:878, 881
Goncharov as influence on, 2:989
portrayal of Kutuzov by, 3:1282
Repin’s portrait of, 4:1957
Rolland’s biography of, 4:20
Ruskin and, 4:2047
Spencer and, 4:2235
Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307
Tombeau de Couperin, Le (Ravel),
4:1944
Tom Brown’s School Days (Hughes),
1:428
Tomlinson, Charles, 4:2114
Tomomi, Iwakura, 3:1210
Tomon, Thomas de, 4:2078
Tom Sawyer (Twain), 2:676
Tone, Theobald Wolfe, 3:1176
Tone, Wolfe, 4:2187
Tonio Kröger (Mann), 3:1436, 1437
Tonkin, 3:143, 1141, 1142
Tönnies, Ferdinand, 1:64; 2:698–699;
4:2212–2213, 2214, 2215
Tono-Bungay (Wells), 5:2458
Ton That Thuyet, regent of Vietnam,
3:1141
Tooke, Horne, 1:244
Too True to Be Good (Shaw), 4:2167
Topkapi Palace, 3:1190
topology, 4:1804
2781
INDEX
Torberg, Friedrich, 4:2101
Tories, 1:82, 86; 5:2320–2323,
2412, 2457, 2471
Burke and, 1:326
Castlereagh and, 1:373–374
Catholic emancipation and, 2:1003
Chamberlain (Joseph) and, 1:405
as Conservative party, 2:537, 540
Corn Laws and, 2:559, 672, 715,
1004–1005; 4:1759, 1889
Curzon and, 2:597–598
Disraeli and, 2:672–674, 1008–1009
imperialism and, 2:589
jingoism and, 3:1234–1235
Peel and, 2:540, 559, 672,
1004–1005; 4:1758–1759
Pitt and, 2:1001
Salisbury and, 2:1010–1011
split in, 2:672
trade policies and, 2:517; 4:1889
Ulster Unionists and, 3:1181, 1184
Torlonia family, 4:2035
Torno al casticismo, En (Unamuno),
2:951
Törnqvist, Egil, 4:2269
torpedo, 5:2312
Torquato Tasso (Goethe), 2:985
Torrens, Robert, 2:515; 4:1887
Torrents of Spring, The (Turgenev),
4:2265
Torrijos, José Marı́a, 4:2229
Tor under der Tod, Der
(Hofmannsthal), 2:1077
Tosca (Puccini), 3:1677; 4:1916
Tosca, La (Sardou), 4:1916
Toscanini, Arturo, 3:1418, 1435
Toshimichi, Ôkubo, 3:1210
Totatitätsideal, 3:1533
Totemism and Exogamy (Frazer),
2:872
Toulon, 3:1482
siege of (1793), 2:900; 3:1584
Toulouse, 4:1736
Toulouse-Lautrec, Charles de, 5:2323
Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, 1:335;
2:550, 815; 5:2323–2325,
2324, 2400
absinthe depictions by, 1:3
Daumier as influence on, 2:622
Picasso and, 4:1781
poster art and, 4:1845, 1846
Tour de France, 2:602; 4:1824, 2245
Tourettes symdrome, 1:408
Touring Club Ciclistico Italiano,
5:2331
Touring Club de France, 5:2330–2331
touring clubs, 5:2330
2782
tourism, 5:2325–2332, 2330
automobiles and, 1:149
British bourgeoisie and, 1:288
cycling and, 2:600, 602
Grand Tour and, 5:2326–2327, 2329
leisure and, 3:1324; 4:1824
Mediterranean towns and,
1:288, 303
photography and, 4:1772
Rome and, 4:2033, 2035
seaside resorts amd, 4:2124–2126;
5:2328
spas and, 5:2327–2328
Switzerland and, 4:2291
syphilis transmission and, 4:2303
vacations and, 3:1324–1325; 4:1824
Venice and, 5:2405
Tour of Flanders, 4:2245
Tour of Italy, 4:2245
Tourzel, marquise de, 3:1385
Toussaint Louverture, 1:364–365;
2:1036; 4:2192; 5:2332–2333,
2333
Tout, Thomas Frederick, 2:1073
Tovey, Donald Francis, 1:295
Towards Democracy (Carpenter), 1:372
Towards International Government
(Hobson), 2:1076
Tower of London, 3:1375
towns. See cities and towns
Trachenberg Plan (1813), 3:1319,
1320
track and field, 4:2245
Tractarianism (Oxford Movement),
2:1006; 4:1917, 2046
Manning and, 3:1440
Newman and, 3:1620–1621; 4:1918
tractors, 1:25; 3:1161
Tracts for the Times (Oxford
Movement), 3:1440, 1620
Tracts on the Popery Laws (Burke),
1:327
trade and economic growth,
5:2333–2344, 2339, 2341, 2343
African colonialism and, 1:13–22, 43,
205, 220–222, 222, 499
Amsterdam and, 1:53–55
Balkan Orthodox merchants and,
3:1684–1685
Belgrade and, 1:206
Bismarck’s protectionism and, 1:239
Black Sea access and, 1:243, 278
Britain and, 3:1147, 1154–1155
British colonies and, 2:999;
3:1154–1155
British interests in China and,
3:1578–1579, 1678–1680
E U R O P E
Canada and, 1:344
capitalist principles and, 1:350
Caribbean colonialism and, 1:364
China and, 3:1678–1680
Chinese restrictions and, 1:433, 434;
3:1678, 1679
cholera transmission and, 2:669
cities and, 1:445, 446, 452
Cobden-Chevalier Treaty and,
1:491–492
colonial, 2:505; 3:1151, 1154–1155
colonial restrictions and, 2:504–505
commercial policy and, 2:512–517
consumerism and, 2:546, 547,
551–552; 3:1151–1152
East India Company and, 2:705–706
flows of trade and, 5:2335–2336
Germany and, 2:967
globalization and, 3:1151–1152,
1155, 1537–1538; 5:2342, 2343
Hamburg and, 2:1038–1040
imperialism and, 3:1115, 1120,
1122, 1123, 1124
India’s imbalance and, 3:1135, 1136
internal trade effects and,
5:2340–2342
Japan and, 3:1209–1212
List theories on, 3:1356, 1357
London and, 3:1372, 1374
Manchester and, 3:1427,
1428–1429, 1430–1431
markets and, 3:1447–1449
Mediterranean and, 3:1482
monetary unions and, 3:1537–1538
Napoleon and, 1:106, 272, 303;
2:553–554, 846, 902;
3:1586–1587, 1599
New Zealand and, 3:1623–1624
oceanic exploration and,
3:1653–1654
policy factors and, 4:1888–1889
protectionism and, 1:354–355;
2:513–515; 4:1887–1889
road and waterway transport and,
5:2346–2350
Serbia, and, 4:2147; 5:2337
Suez Canal and, 3:1338
Sweden and, 4:2285
Switzerland and, 4:2290; 5:2336
tariffs and, 5:2337, 2340
trade policy and, 5:2338–2349
transportation/communication
innovations and, 1:353–354
Trieste and, 5:2354–2355
Venice and, 5:2402, 2403, 2405
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Zollverein and, 5:2524–2526
See also free trade
trade policy. See commercial policy
Trades Union Congress (Britain),
2:1008, 1012; 3:1290, 1295,
1296; 4:2266
Trade Union Act of 1913 (Britain),
3:1296
trade unions. See labor movements;
syndicalism
Trafalgar, Battle of (1805), 2:554,
846; 3:1586; 4:2225;
5:2344–2345, 2344–2345, 2345,
2438
Nelson and, 2:901, 1002; 3:1615
Trafalgar Square (London), 1:59;
3:1375, 1376
Traffics and Discoveries (Kipling),
3:1257
Trafford Park (Manchester), 3:1431
Tragic Duel, A: The Death of Monsieur
Harry Alis (Tofani), 2:695
Tragic Week (Barcelona, 1909),
1:181–182, 183
Trahison des clercs, La (Benda), 3:1169
Training in Christianity
(Kierkegaard), 2:648
Traité de l’association domestique
agricole (Fourier), 2:838; 4:2202
Traité des dégénérescences physiques,
intellectuelles, et morales de l’espèce
humaine (Morel), 2:636, 637
Traité élémentaire de chimie
(Lavoisier), 1:424; 3:1312
Trakl, Georg, 3:1309, 1310
Hölderlin as precursor of, 2:1079
Trampusch, Emilie, 4:2260
transatlantic cable, 3:1249,
1444–1445, 1653; 4:1937
transatlantic crossing
immigrants and, 1:353
meat shipments, 2:659
steamships and, 1:304–305
transcendentalism, 1:497; 2:813;
4:2088
transcendental phenomenology, 1:299
Transformations and Symbols of the
Libido (Jung), 3:1239
Transformations of Patriarchy in the
West, 1500–1900 (Miller),
3:1451–1452
Translation and Harmony of the Four
Gospels, A (Tolstoy), 5:2319
transmutation, 2:614, 615
transportation and communications,
5:2346–2352
Africa and, 1:20, 21
Agricultural Revolution and, 1:28
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
airplanes and, 1:29–31
Amsterdam and, 1:53–54
Belgium and, 1:201
Belgrade and, 1:206–207
Berlin and, 1:217
Britain and, 1:303–305
business firms and, 1:329–330
canals and, 5:2347–2348, 2350
capitalist markets and, 1:353–354
Central Asia and, 1:395, 407
cities and, 1:452
as colonialism facilitation,
1:499, 500
consumerism and, 2:548
crime and, 2:576
electricity and, 2:741–742
engineers and, 2:757–758
environment and, 2:763–764
exploration and, 2:782
food distribution and, 2:659
football (soccer) and, 2:831–832
as immigration facilitator, 2:646, 749
India and, 2:706; 3:135
Industrial Revolution (second) and,
1:351; 3:1163–1164
innovations in, 1:353
international organizations and,
1:352–353
leisure and, 3:1324, 1325–1326;
4:1824
London and, 3:1372, 1373, 1374
Marconi and, 3:1444–1445
Milan and, 3:1502, 1504
military tactics and, 3:1506
military uses of, 2:580
Netherlands and, 3:1617
newspapers and, 4:1866
New Zealand and, 3:1624
Portugal and, 4:1840
roadways and, 4:1936; 5:2346,
2348, 2349, 2350–2352
seaside resorts and, 4:2124, 2125
Serbia and, 4:2147
South Africa and, 4:2222
stagecoaches and, 5:2346, 2347,
2349
steam power and, 4:2108
Suez Canal and, 4:2274–2276, 2275;
5:2405
Sweden and, 4:2285
tourism and, 5:2328–2331
transatlantic, 1:304–305, 353;
2:659; 3:1249, 1444–1445,
1653–1654; 4:1937
waterways and, 5:2346–2350
INDEX
See also automobile; railroads;
shipping; steamboats; subways;
telegraph; telephones
Trans-Siberian Railroad, 3:1628;
4:1936, 2064, 2172–2173;
5:2426, 2427, 2478, 2503
Transvaal. See South African Republic
Transvaal Committee, 3:1182
transvestism, 2:1084; 3:1270
coining of term, 2:1069
Transvestites, The (Hirschefeld),
2:1069
Transylvania, 1:137, 141; 4:2017,
2018, 2019
Trapani, 4:2177
Trauma of Birth, The (Rank), 4:1938
Traumdeutung, Die (Freud), 2:905,
906; 4:1905
Travail, Le (Zola), 5:2523
Travailleurs de la mer, Les (Hugo),
2:1094
travel. See explorers; tourism; travel
writing
travel guides, 5:2326, 2329
Travellers Club (London), 1:185
Travels and Discoveries in Northern
and Central Africa (Barth), 2:782
Travels in America (Chateaubriand),
1:421
Travels in Icaria (Cabet), 2:521
Travels in North America (Lyell),
3:1402
Travels in the Interior of Africa (Park),
2:782
Travels in West Africa (M. Kingsley),
2:783
travel writing
African exploration and, 2:782, 783
Chateaubriand and, 1:420–421
Galton and, 2:927
Humboldt (Alexander) and, 2:1096,
1097
Travemünde, 4:2125
Traviata, La (Verdi), 3:1572, 1673;
5:2406
Treachery of the Blue Books (Wales;
1847), 5:2434
Treason of the Clerks, The (Benda),
3:1172
Treasure Island (Stevenson), 4:2255
treasury bill, 1:161
treaties. See international law: key
word
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism
(Maxwell), 3:1249, 1478
Treatise on Instrumentation and
Modern Orchestration (Berlioz),
1:225
2783
INDEX
Treatise on Natural Philosophy (Kelvin
and Tait), 3:1250
Treatise on the Origin of Language
(Herder), 2:1060
Treffz, Jetty, 4:2261
Treitschke, Heinrich von, 1:71–72;
2:619, 959; 3:1533;
5:2352–2354, 2524
conservative nationalism and, 3:1605
Trendelenburg, Friedrich Adolf, 2:660
Trent, 3:1198, 1199
Trentham Park (Staffordshire), 1:186
Trentino, 2:902; 3:1203
Trento, 3:1203
Trepov, Fyodor, 4:1768; 5:2517
Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow), 1:287
Trevelyan, George Macaulay, 2:930
Treves, Claudio, 5:2364
Trezzini, Domenico, 4:2075, 2076
Trial, The (Kafka), 3:1242, 1243
trial by jury, 1:39; 3:1341
Trial of French Colonialism, The (Ho),
3:1144
‘‘trial of the thirteen’’ (France), 2:810
triangle trade, 4:2191
Trianon Tariffs of 1810, 2:553
Triat (French gymnastics leader),
4:2241
Tribuna, La (Italian daily), 4:1868
Tribune des femmes (women’s
newspaper), 4:2013
Tribune des peuples, La (journal),
3:1500
tricolor (French Revolutionary flag),
2:842, 855, 887; 3:1387
tricolor (Italian flag), 3:1192, 1196,
1606
tricycles, 2:601
Trier, pilgrimage to, 4:1788
Trieste, 1:145; 3:1482; 4:2004;
5:2354–2357, 2355, 2402, 2403
Austria and, 2:958; 3:1198
economic activity and, 3:1195
German nationalism and, 2:961
Italy and, 3:1199, 1203
John of Austria and, 3:1236
Trikoupis, Harilaos, 2:1021
Trinidad, 4:2225
Trinity Church (Berlin), 4:2097
Trinity College (Cambridge), 3:1477
Trinity College (Dublin), 2:693
Trinity College (Oxford), 3:1620
Triomphe de la Raison, Le (Rolland),
4:2015
Tripe, Linnaeus, 4:1772
Triple Alliance, 1:48, 239; 2:526, 965
Bulgaria and, 1:166
creation of, 3:1545
2784
Crispi’s foreign policy aims and,
2:583
Italy and, 3:1200, 1202–1203
Romania and, 2:965; 4:2017
Triple Entente, 1:49, 50; 2:704;
3:1203, 1277; 4:1801
Triple Intervention of 1895, 1:434;
4:2064
Tripoli, 3:1420
Tripolitania, 3:1546, 1691
Trip to the Moon (film), 1:441
Triquet, Jules Octave, 1:379
Tristan, Flora, 2:650, 939, 943;
3:1288; 5:2357–2359, 2358,
2397
Tristan und Isolde (Wagner), 3:1571,
1674, 1675, 1676; 5:2431
Trittico, Il (Puccini), 4:1916
‘‘Triumph of Life, The’’ (Shelley),
4:2170
‘‘Triumph of the Holy See and Church
against the Assaults of
Innovators’’ (799), 4:1719
Trocadéro Palace (Paris), 5:2499,
2500, 2505
Troeltsch, Ernst, 4:2215; 5:2446
Trois Gymnopédies (Satie), 4:2086
Trois morceaux en forme de poire
(Satie), 4:2087
Trois Sarabandes (Satie), 4:2086
Trois urnes, Les (Gouges), 2:996
Trollope, Anthony and Rose, 4:2237
Tropical South Africa (Galton), 2:927
Troppau Conference (1820). See
Congress of Troppau
Troppau Protocol (1820), 2:531–532;
4:1971, 1981
Troppmann, Jean-Baptiste, 2:575
Trotsky, Leon, 1:267, 267; 3:1172,
1208; 4:2128, 2210
anti-Semitism and, 1:76
Bolshevik-Menshevik split and,
3:1487
on Guchkov, 3:1659
Revolution of 1905 and, 4:1974,
1976, 1977
‘‘Trout’’ Quintet (Schubert), 4:2106
Trovatore, Il (Verdi), 3:1572, 1673;
5:2406
Troy, excavation of, 4:1769
Troyens, Les (Berlioz), 1:225
Troyer, John, 1:211
Troyon, Constant, 1:178
Trubetskoy, Nikolai, 2:775
Trudoviki, 4:2057
True Principles of Pointed or Christian
Architecture (Pugin), 4:1917
Truth and Reality (Rank), 4:1939
E U R O P E
Tsakalof, Athanasios, 2:1019
Tsarskoye Selo lyceum (St.
Petersburg), 4:1918
Tschermak von Seysenegg, Erich,
2:653; 3:1486
Tschudi, Hugo von, 1:219
Tsushima, Battle of (1905), 3:1558,
1628
Tsvetayeva, Marina, 1:250; 4:2183
Tswana, 4:2220
tuberculosis, 2:667; 5:2359–2361
Berlin and, 1:218
Bohemian Lands and, 1:261
death rate from, 2:644
Dublin deaths from, 2:690
Koch’s tuberculin and, 3:1263;
5:2359, 2361
London and, 3:1372, 1554
modern concepts of, 5:2359–2360
Moscow and, 3:1554
Paris and, 4:1732–1733
peasant victims of, 4:1751
public health and, 1:450; 2:628;
5:2361
treatment of, 5:2360–2361
Tübingen seminary, 2:1051, 1078;
4:2087–2088
TUC. See Trades Union Congress
Tucker, Paul Hayes, 3:1537
Tu-Duc, king of Vietnam,
3:1140–1141
Tuileries, 2:732, 1047; 3:1385, 1446;
4:1727, 1728, 1729
French revolutionaries attack on,
3:1386
massacres (1792) at, 1:412; 2:844
Paris Commune burning of, 4:1736
Tukolor Empire, 1:20
Tull, Jethro, 1:25; 2:757
Tunis, 5:2497
Tunisia, 2:582, 812; 3:1116;
5:2361–2363
Turandot (Puccini), 4:1916–1917
Turati, Filippo, 2:971; 3:1276, 1277,
1504, 1556; 5:2363–2364
turbine engine, 2:682
Turco in Italia, Il (Rossini), 3:1670;
4:2038
Turgenev, Ivan, 1:208; 2:535, 828,
830; 5:2364–2366
Gissing compared with, 2:975
Goncharov as influence on, 2:989
intelligentsia and, 3:1168
nihilist portrayal by, 3:1639
peasant portrayal by, 2:1015
as Westernizer, 5:2365, 2459, 2460
Zola and, 5:2365, 2523
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Turgeneva, Asya, 1:209
Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques, 2:842;
3:1384; 4:1931
Turian, Bedros, 1:90
Turin, 4:1797, 2003, 2130
economic activity and, 3:1195
electric lighting and, 2:741
Naples contrasted with, 3:1581
as Piemont-Savoy capital, 4:1785,
1787
Turkestan, 1:395, 396–397
Turkic dialects, 1:395, 396
Turkic people, 3:1207, 1208
Turkish Armenians, 1:89–92
Turkish Bath, The (Ingres), 3:1167
Turkish Straits, 4:2085, 2086
Turkmenistan, 1:395
Turm, Der (Hofmannsthal), 2:1077
Turnen, 4:2241–2242, 2243
Turner, J. M. W., 2:763;
4:1703–1704, 1704, 1707, 2027,
2029, 2046; 5:2366–2368, 2367,
2403, 2404
Constable contrasted with, 2:543;
4:1704–1705
Friedrich’s importance compared
with, 2:910
Turner, Richard, 1:36
turnips, 1:26
Turnovo Constitution of 1879
(Bulgaria), 1:312
turnpikes, 5:2346
Turn-Vereins, 1:457
Turpin, Dick, 4:1821
Turpitudes sociales (Pissarro), 4:1794
Turreau, Louis-Marie, 2:563
Tuscany, 1:392; 2:533, 536; 4:1970,
1994, 2000–2003
Austrian Habsburg rule of, 3:1191,
1193
Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1193,
1599
Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1196
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 3:1198, 1592
Tussaud, Madame, 1:288;
3:1561–1562
Twain, Mark, 1:219, 278; 2:676
Twardowski, Kazimierz, 1:298, 299
Twelve, The (Blok), 1:250
twelve-tone music, 3:1245, 1437,
1572; 4:2101, 2102–2103, 2103
XX, Les (artists’ association), 1:307
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the
Sea (Verne), 3:1116; 5:2408,
2497
Two-and-a-Half International, 4:2128
Two Foscari, The (Byron), 1:333
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Two Fundamental Principles of Ethics
(Schopenhauer), 4:2104
Two Scenes of the Indian Mutiny in
1857 (Atkinson), 4:2139
Two Sicilies. See Kingdom of the Two
Siciles
Two Sources of Morality and Religion,
The (Bergson), 1:213
Two-Thirds Law (France), 2:665
‘‘Two Voices, The’’ (Tennyson),
5:2309
Tydfil, Merthyr, 3:1295
Tylor, Edward, 2:873
Tyninghame House (Haddington,
Scotland), 2:1091
typhoid, 1:251, 450; 2:667
Berlin and, 1:218
sanitation and, 2:766; 4:1912
typhus, 2:667, 668; 4:1912, 1913
factors in spread of, 2:669–670
Tyrkova, Ariadna, 3:1241
Tyrol, 3:1235–1236
Tyrolena Revolt (1809), 3:1235–1236
Tyrš, Miroslav (Friedrich Emanuel
Tirsch), 4:1856, 2244
Tytherly (Queenswood), Hampshire,
4:2200–2201
Tzigane (Ravel), 4:1945
n Ulster, 2:1009–1010
U Belfast riots, 3:1183
Ubangi, 1:13, 15
Überbretti (Berlin cabaret), 1:335
Über das Geistige in der Kunst
(Kandinsky), 1:155
‘‘Uber den Fleis in Mehreren
Gelehrten Sprachen’’ (Herder),
2:1060
Über den nervösen Charakter (A.
Adler), 1:9
Über die letzten Dinge (Weininger),
5:2449
Uber die Neuere Deutsche Literature.
Fragmente (Herder), 2:1061
Übermensch (superman), 3:1629,
1633–1635
Ubu enchaı̂né (Jarry), 1:153
Ubu roi (Jarry), 1:153, 154; 3:1213,
1214
Ubu sur la butte (Jarry), 1:153; 3:1214
Ucciali, Treaty of (1889), 1:7–8
Uganda, 1:21; 2:1068; 3:1528
Uganda Crisis of 1903, 5:2521
‘‘Ugly Duckling, The’’ (Andersen),
2:648
INDEX
UGT. See Unión General de
Trabajadores
Uhde, William, 2:590, 591
Ujedinjenje ili smrt (Union or Death),
4:2148–2149
Ujest, duke of. See Hohenlohe-
Ohringen, Christian-Kraft von
Ukraine, 4:2271; 5:2369–2373,
2372
Cossacks and, 2:562–563
Gogol and, 2:988
Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:137, 142
Kadets and, 3:1241
nationalism and, 1:447
Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716, 1717
pogroms in, 1:40; 4:1802, 1803
Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861,
1862
railroads, 4:1933
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987
separatists movements in, 1:39
Stolypin and, 4:2257
trade and, 5:2340
See also Crimea
Ukrainian Orthodox Church, 5:2370
ulema, 5:2515, 2516
Ulm, Battle of (1805), 1:132; 2:846,
901; 5:2374–2375
Ulrichs, Karl Heinrich, 2:1070, 1082,
1085–1086; 4:2297;
5:2375–2377
Orange Order and, 3:1176–1177
Unionists and, 3:1181, 1184
Ulster Volunteer Force, 3:1184–1185
ultramontanism, 1:381–384, 388
Maistre and, 3:1421
Manning and, 3:1441
papal infallibility and, 4:1721, 1722
Pius IX and, 4:1795
Ultras (Spain), 4:2228, 2229
Ulyanov, Alexander, 3:1326; 4:1768,
2054
Ulyanov, Vladimir Ilyich. See Lenin,
Vladimir
Ulysses (Joyce), 2:691, 694; 4:1833;
5:2356
‘‘Ulysses’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309, 2310
Umanità Nuova (Italian anarchist
newspaper), 3:1425
Umberto I, king of Italy, 1:362;
3:1441; 5:2377–2378
assassination of, 3:1201
Umbria, 3:1193; 4:1724
Unamuno y Jugo, Miguel de,
2:950–951; 4:2232
2785
INDEX
Unbestechliche, Der (Hofmannsthal),
2:1077
Unbound Prometheus, The (Landes),
2:709; 3:1153
Uncle Vanya (Chekhov), 1:423
Uncommercial Traveller, The
(Dickens), 2:657
unconscious, 3:1239; 4:1905
underground. See subway
Underground group, 4:2273
Understanding Human Nature
(A. Adler), 1:10
Under the Greenwood Tree (Hardy),
2:1045
Under Western Eyes (Conrad), 2:536
Undine (Tchaikovsky), 5:2307
Une Baignade, Asnières (Seurat),
4:2155–2156
Unemployed of London: Inscription on
the Gates, West Indies Docks
(engraving), 2:1010
unemployment, 1:351; 2:101, 1011
British Poor Law and, 4:1819–1820
of professionals, 4:1879
welfare initiatives and, 5:2454
unemployment insurance, 1:356;
2:1012; 4:1915
UNESCO, 1:298
‘‘Unfinished Symphony’’ (Schubert),
4:2107
Unger, Franz, 3:1485
Uniate Church, 4:2018, 2019;
5:2369, 2372, 2372–2373
Austria-Hungary and, 1:138, 145;
4:1809
Lithuania and, 4:1808
unification, Italian. See Risorgimento
unified field theory, 2:740
uniformitarianism, 2:615
Union des Droites, 2:540
Union des Sociétés Francaise de
Gymnastique, 1:118
Union Fraternelle du Commerce et de
lIndustrie, 1:389
Unión General de Trabajadores,
4:2231, 2300
Union Générale (Lyon), 3:1405
Unionist Party (Croatia), 2:925
Unionists (Belgium), 1:200
Unionists (Britain), 1:405; 2:1010,
1011; 3:1181, 1184, 1348;
4:1742; 5:2322–2323
Union of Belgian Athletic Sports
Societies, 4:2245
Union of Brest of 1596, 5:2369,
2372
Union of Cities (Russian
organization), 3:1242
2786
Union of French Sporting and Athletic
Societies, 4:2245
Union of Gymnastic Societies (France),
4:2243
Union of Liberation (Russia), 3:1627;
4:2055, 2270
Union of Parliaments, 4:2118
Union of Polish Youth, 2:753
Union of 17 October (Russia). See
Octobrists
Union of Socialist Workers, 1:109
Union of South Africa, 4:2224–2225
Union of Unions (Russia), 4:1976
Union or Death. See Black Hand
Unitarians, 2:1002; 3:1407,
1458–1459, 1513; 4:1893
Unitary Socialist Party (Italy), 5:2364
United Committee for the Prevention
of the Demoralization of the
Native Races by the Liquor
Traffic, 1:37
United Diet of 1847 (Prussia), 1:234;
2:877
United Irishmen. See Society of the
United Irishmen
United Kingdom. See Great Britain
United Kingdom of the Netherlands,
1:199
United Nations, 1:309
Human Development Index, 5:2334
United Nations Charter, 5:2459
United Presbyterian Church, 4:2118
United Provinces of Italy, 4:1985
United Services College, 3:1256
United States
advertising and, 4:1868
Agassiz and, 1:23–24; 2:618
airplane and, 1:30, 31
anarchism and, 1:57
Annekes in, 1:66–67
antislavery movement and,
4:2192–2193
Australian colonies compared with,
1:135
automobile industry in, 1:149;
5:2352
Barbizon painting and, 1:177
Berlin Conference delegation from,
1:221, 222
Britain’s colonial loss of, 1:498;
2:1000
British trade with, 3:1155
Cabet utopian colonies in, 1:338
Canada and, 1:346
capitalism and, 1:328
Catholic liberalism in, 3:1332
Chateaubriand in, 1:420, 421
E U R O P E
chemistry and, 1:426, 427; 3:1160
Chinese treaty and, 3:1579, 1679
cholera and, 1:436
cinema and, 1:441; 3:1396
coal production and, 1:486
Coca-Cola and, 2:688
Constitution, 4:2290
consumerism in, 2:552
Continental System and, 2:553, 554
corporations in, 1:330, 355; 2:711
cotton and, 1:18, 329
Cuba and, 1:366
cycling and, 2:600, 601, 602
degeneration studies in, 2:638
department stores in, 2:551
Dickens tours of, 2:656, 657
Doré exhibition tour of, 2:677
drinking culture in, 1:32
Dvořák in, 2:701
economic growth rate of, 1:331
Einstein’s move to, 2:740
engineering projects in, 2:760
eugenics and, 2:619, 769, 770–771
evolution theory and, 2:618
feminism in, 2:804, 806
First International in, 2:825
football (soccer) in, 2:830, 834
Fourierism in, 2:838; 4:2202;
5:2397
Freudian analysis in, 2:909
Geneva Convention and, 2:952
German Forty-Eighters in, 2:962
German relations and, 2:968
Gorky’s travels in, 2:993
Greek Revival style in, 4:1769
Hague conference and, 2:1034
Haiti and, 2:1037
hashish use in, 2:687
immigrants to, 2:504–505, 506, 507,
646, 647, 747, 747, 750–752,
960; 3:1112, 1114; 4:2285, 2287
immigration policies of, 1:353; 2:750
imperialism and, 3:1116, 1120, 1124
impressionist school in,
3:1131–1132
Industrial Revolution in, 1:329
intellectuals and, 3:1168
international law and, 3:1174, 1175
Irish Fenians in, 2:1009
Irish immigrants in, 1:351; 2:1005
Italian immigrants in, 3:1199
Japan and, 4:2063, 2064, 2065, 2066
Japanese treaties with, 3:1209–1210,
1211
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Kipling in, 3:1256
Kościuszko in, 3:1264, 1265
Kossuth’s reception in, 3:1269
Lafayette and, 3:1300, 1301
Leopold II’s Congo colony and,
3:1336
List in, 3:1357
Lithuanian immigrants in,
3:1367–1368
mafia and, 3:1417
Mahler in, 3:1418
Mann’s move to, 3:1434,
1435–1436
Martineau in, 3:1459
Masaryk and, 3:1469
monetary unions and, 3:1538
Monroe Doctrine and, 3:1174
musical scene in, 3:1566
Napoleon and, 5:2439
neoconservatives in, 2:536
Offenbach’s tour of, 3:1661
‘‘old’’ vs. ‘‘new’’ immigrants to,
2:750
Olympic Games and, 3:1667, 1668
Owenite community in,
3:1692–1693, 1693
Paine and, 4:1700, 1701
Panama Canal and, 3:1338
Pavlova’s tours of, 4:1750
peasant immigrants in, 4:1756
photography and, 4:1770,
1772–1773
phrenology and, 4:1776
phylloxera origination in, 4:1777
Pre-Raphaelite influence in, 4:1864
psychoanalysis in, 4:1905
railroads and, 1:329, 353
Romanies and, 4:2023
Romanticism in, 4:2029
Russian Jewish immigrants in, 1:40;
4:1804
Russo-Japanese War mediation by,
3:1212; 4:2065
Second International and, 4:2127
September 11, 2001, terrorist attack
on, 2:738
skyscrapers in, 2:736, 738
slavery abolishment and, 1:18, 19,
365, 458, 499; 2:506
slavery in, 4:1927, 2190–2194
slave trade and, 1:13, 308
Slovak immigrants in, 1:119
social insurance and, 1:356
sociology in, 4:2215
Spain and, 4:2231
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Spanish exports to, 1:180
spiritualism and, 4:2237
Talleyrand in, 5:2305
telephone service and, 5:2307–2308
temperance movement in, 1:37
tobacco and, 5:2313
Tocqueville on, 1:115–116;
5:2316–2317
trade and, 5:2335, 2336, 2337,
2340, 2342
voluntary associations in, 1:115–116,
119
wages in, 2:752, 752
War of 1812 and, 2:846;
5:2438–2441
women’s rights and, 1:67
worker immigrants to, 1:353
world’s fairs in, 2:589; 5:2493,
2495, 2496, 2499, 2500, 2502,
2503, 2504
World War II and, 1:232
See also American Revolution; Civil
War, American
Universal Congress for the
Amelioration of the Condition of
the Blind and Deaf-Mute (Paris,
1878), 5518
Universal Exposition (Paris). See
Exposition Universalle
universal male suffrage. See suffragism
Universal Panama Interoceanic Canal
Company, 3:1338
Universal Peace Congress, 4:1695,
1699, 2282
Universal Postal Union, 1:352
Università Commerciale Luigi
Bocconi, 3:1502
Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1:307
universities, 5:2378–2391, 2385
admissions to, 2:728
amateur sports and, 4:2240–2241,
2242
Amsterdam and, 1:54
British extension program and, 1:372
bureaucrats from, 1:322, 323–324;
2:726
chemistry chairs and, 1:425
class and, 2:728; 3:1512
Dublin and, 2:693
economics as discipline in, 3:1510
examinations and, 4:1877
first British nonsectarian, 1:303;
3:1512
first British physics laboratory and,
3:1250
French reforms and, 2:666
INDEX
German government-supported,
1:355
German nationalism and, 2:960
German restraints and, 1:369; 2:969
German student liberal activists and,
2:959
German student nationalists and,
1:369
Greek students and, 2:1018
history as discipline of, 2:1072, 1073,
1074
Jewish students at, 3:1229
London and, 3:1377
physics studies in, 4:1778–1779
professional training in,
4:1876–1877, 1878, 1879, 1880,
1881
Prussia and, 4:1972
Prussian influence on, 4:1900
reforms of, 5:2386–2390
Russia and, 4:1975, 1976, 2052;
5:2378, 2379, 2385–2386,
2389–2390
Russian Great Reforms and, 2:1016,
1017
Scotland and, 2:1006; 4:2119–2120;
5:2379, 2384, 2387
students from colonies at, 3:1524
Sweden and, 4:2285
types of, 5:2381–2386
women’s admittance to, 1:372;
2:625, 626, 728, 816, 945, 1016;
3:1377, 1399
Universities Mission (Nyasaland),
2:783
University College (Dublin), 2:693
University College (London), 3:1377;
4:1844
University Decree (Germany, 1819),
2:959
University Extension Program
(Britain), 1:372
University Law of 1819 (Germany),
1:369
University of Aberdeen, 2:1006
University of Amsterdam, 2:652
University of Athens, 5:2380
University of Barcelona, 1:182, 341
University of Basel, 3:1238
Burckhardt and, 1:316, 317,
319, 320
University of Belgrade, 1:207; 4:2148
University of Berlin, 1:215; 5:2381
Burckhardt and, 1:316, 317
Einstein and, 2:740
Fichte as rector of, 2:814
2787
INDEX
Hegel professorship at, 2:1053
Hertz and, 2:1062
historiography and, 2:1072
Humboldt and, 2:958
Koch professorship at, 3:1263, 1264
Schlegel and, 4:2096
Schleiermacher and, 4:2096, 2097
Virchow and, 5:2426
Young Hegelians and, 5:2512
University of Bologna, 1:362
University of Bonn, 4:2095
Helmholtz and, 2:1057
Mann’s open letter to, 3:1435
University of Bordeaux, 2:698
University of Cambridge. See
Cambridge University
University of Christiana, 3:1560
University of Coimbra, 4:1840
University of Dorpat, 1:40
University of Edinburgh, 1:371;
2:1006; 4:1712–1713
Doyle and, 1:371; 2:679, 680
Maxwell and, 3:1477
Mill (James) and, 3:1510
University of Giessen, 1:425
University of Glasgow, 2:1006;
5:2387
Kelvin and, 3:1249, 1250
Lister and, 3:1358
University of Göttingen, 1:497; 2:687
Grimm brothers and, 2:1023, 1024
Koch and, 3:1262
student activism at, 2:959
University of Graz, 3:1270
Mach and, 3:1408
University of Halle, 4:2096, 2097
University of Heidelberg, 2:1053
Helmholtz and, 2:1057
student activism and, 2:969
University of Jena, 1:369; 4:2088
Fichte professorship at, 2:813, 814,
1078
Haeckel professorship at, 2:1031,
1032
Marx and, 3:1464
Schelling and, 2:1051
University of Königsberg, 2:1057
University of Leipzig, 2:735; 3:1468,
1532–1533; 4:1908; 5:2507
Goethe studies at, 2:982
University of Lille, 4:1742
University of London, 1:287; 3:1377;
5:2384–2385, 2387
as democratizing institution, 1:303;
3:1512
University of Moscow. See Moscow
University
2788
University of Naples, 5:2379
University of Paris (Sorbonne), 1:214;
4:2215; 5:2381
Charcot and, 1:408
Curies and, 2:595–596
Durkheim and, 2:698
Guizot and, 2:1029, 1030
Michelet and, 3:1498–1499
Poincaré (Henri) and, 4:1804
University of Prague, 1:261; 3:1408
University of Saragossa, 5:2389
University of Strasbourg, 3:1270;
4:1743
University of Toulouse, 3:1215
University of Toronto Press, 3:1514
University of Tübingen, 3:1356
University of Turin, 3:1371
University of Valencia, 1:341
University of Vienna, 1:10
Brentano and, 1:298
Freud and, 1:410; 2:904
Klimt paintings for, 3:1260
Krafft-Ebing and, 3:1270
Mach and, 3:1408, 1409
Masaryk and, 3:1468, 1469
Mendel and, 3:1485
Mesmer and, 3:1490
University of Vilnius, 3:1500
University of Wales, 5:2435
University of Warsaw, 5:2380, 2442
University of Würzburg, 1:298
University of Yurev, 1:40
University of Zurich, 2:740
t, 3:1399
University Statute of 1863 (Russia),
2:1016
Unkiar-Skelessi, Treaty of (1833),
1:278; 3:1560, 1561;
5:2391–2392
Straits Convention (1841)
abrogating, 1:278
Unknown Woman, An (Blok), 1:250
unmarried adults. See singlehood
Unofficial Committee (Russia), 1:38
Unseating the Pope (cartoon), 4:1725
Unteraar Glacier, 1:22
Unter den Linden (Berlin), 2:742
Unto This Last (Ruskin), 4:2047
Unwiederbringlich (Fontane), 2:829
Uomo delinquente, L’ (Lombroso),
2:638; 3:1371; 4:2023
Upper Silesian coalfields, 1:351,
486–487
Uppsala University, 1:425
Urabi, Ahmad, 2:734
uranium, 2:594, 595
urbanization. See cities and towns
E U R O P E
Urbi et Orbi (Bryusov), 1:249
Urmson, J. O., 3:1514
Urning, 5:2376
Urrah ibn Sharik, 3:1517
Uruguay, 2:834, 931; 5:2500
Ussher, James, 2:615
U.S. Steel, 1:330
Ussuri Cossacks, 2:562
usury, 3:1582
utilitarianism, 5:2392–2394
Bentham and, 1:210–211; 5:2392,
2393–2394
Carlyle critique of, 1:371
Chadwick and, 1:401
Cobbett critique of, 1:489
education and, 3:1511–1512
Mill (James) and, 3:1510, 1511
Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1514
O’Connell and, 3:1654–1655
origins of, 5:2392–2393
Utilitarianism (J. S. Mill), 3:1513;
5:2394
Utopia (More), 1:26, 337; 2:520
utopian socialism, 4:2200;
5:2395–2398
Cabet and, 1:337–338
communism and, 2:520, 521, 522
features of, 5:2395–2396
feminism and, 2:803
Fourierists and, 1:247, 248, 459;
2:838–839; 4:2201–2202;
5:2396
Morris and, 3:1559
Owen and, 2:650; 3:1284, 1286,
1692–1693, 1693
populists and, 4:1831–1832
Saint-Simon and, 4:2081
secret societies and, 4:2131
women’s rights and, 5:2487
Utrecht, Peace of (1713), 1:308
Utrillo, Maurice, 1:335
Utrillo, Miquel, 1:335
Uvarov, Sergei, 4:2048
Uzbekistan, 1:395
Uzès, duchesse d (Marie-Clémentine
de Rochechouart-Mortemart),
1:280
n
V
vacations, 3:1324–1325; 4:1824
vaccination
immunology and, 2:735–736;
4:1743
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Jenner and, 3:1222, 1223–1224,
1224
opponents of, 4:2198
Pasteur and, 4:1742, 1744, 1745
rabies and, 3:1263; 4:1744
smallpox and, 2:628, 644; 3:1153,
1223; 4:2197, 2197–2198
tuberculosis and, 5:2361
vacuum cleaners, 2:741
vaginal sponge, 4:1827, 1829
Vaihinger, Hans, 1:9
Vaillant, Auguste, 1:57
Vaillant, Édouard-Marie, 2:685;
3:1217; 4:2298
Vaincus, Les (Rolland), 4:2015
Vaı̈sse (Lyonnais prefect), 3:1404
Valadier, Joseph, 4:2033
Val d’Aosta (Brett), 4:1864
Valdemars, Krišjanis, 2:820
valence, theories of, 1:427
Valenciennes, Pierre-Henri de, 2:561
Valenciennes basin, 486
Valentine Rescuing Sylvia from Proteus
(Hunt), 4:1864
Valéry, Paul, 1:187, 214; 3:1213
Valle-Inclán, Ramón Marı́a del, 2:950;
4:2232
Vallette, Alfred, 3:1213
Vallette, Marguerite Eymery
(Rachilde), 2:632; 3:1213
Valley of Fear, The (Doyle), 2:680
Vallon, Annette, 5:2481
Valmy, Battle of (1792), 2:844, 891,
899; 3:1338; 4:1900
Valperga (Shelley), 4:2168–2169
Valses nobles et sentimentales (Ravel),
4:1944
Valtat, Louis, 2:796
Value, Price, and Profit (Marx),
3:1462
Van Beveren, Edmond, 1:203
Vanda (Dvořák), 2:701
Van der Kemp, Johannes, 3:1527
Vandervelde, Emile, 1:204
Van Diemens Land. See Tasmania
Vanemuine Society (Tartu), 2:821
Vaneyev, A. A., 1:266
Van Gogh, Theo, 5:2400, 2401
Van Gogh, Vincent, 4:1709;
5:2399–2402, 2401
absinthe depictions by, 1:3
Doré folio engravings and, 2:677
as fauve influence, 2:795
Gauguin and, 2:939
as German expressionism influence,
1:154
Japanese art forms as influence on,
3:1210
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
as Matisse influence, 3:1474
postimpressionism and, 3:1536;
4:1709
symbolism and, 4:2294
Toulouse-Lautrec and, 5:2323,
2400
Van Gogh, Vincent (uncle), 5:2399
Van Houten chocolate, 1:496
Van Praet, Jules, 3:1335
van’t Hoff, Jacobus Hendricus, 1:426;
2:652, 653
‘‘Va pensiero’’ (Verdi), 3:1672
Vaquette de Gribeauval, Jean-Baptiste,
3:1340
Varennes, royal family’s capture at,
3:1385, 1386, 1403, 1446, 1447
variation, analysis of, 4:1922
Varlet, Jean, 2:974
Varna, 1:278; 2:577
Varoujan, Daniel, 1:90
Vatican. See Catholicism; papacy;
Papal State
Vatican Archives, 3:1332
Vatican Council, First (1870), 1:382,
388; 2:966; 3:144, 1164, 1277;
4:2134
papal infallibility and, 4:1719,
1722–1723, 1795, 1798
Pius IX and, 4:1722, 1795, 1798
Vatican Council, Second
(1962–1965), 4:1794
Vatican Decrees in Their Bearing on
Civil Allegiance, The (Gladstone),
4:1896
Vattel, Emmerich von, 2:953; 3:1173,
1175
Vaugeois, Henri, 1:4
Vaughan, Diana, 2:881
Vaux, Clotilde de, 2:523
Vauxcelles, Louis, 1:156; 2:795
Vazem, Yakaterina, 4:1750
Veblen, Thorstein, 2:552; 4:2235
Vega, Garcilaso de la, 2:951
Veit, Dorothea, 4:2095
Veith, Gustav, 5:2419
Vekhi (Struve), 4:2271
Vekhi controversy, 3:1171
Velázquez, Diego Rodrı́guez de Silva,
2:999; 4:2225
Velde, Henry van de, 1:108, 109,
152, 485
Velestinlis, Rigas, 3:1685
Vellay, Julie, 4:1793
Vélo-Auto (journal), 2:602
vélocipède, 2:599–600
Vélocipède Illustré, Le (trade journal),
2:600
velodromes, 2:601, 602
INDEX
Vendée uprising (1793), 2:563, 565,
844, 892, 893, 1095; 4:1755,
1951, 1960
Napoleon and, 3:1599
Vendémiaire, 2:563
Vendôme Column (Paris), 1:270;
2:569; 4:1729, 1736
venereal disease, 4:2161, 2162
male fear of, 3:1471, 1472
prostitutes and, 4:1883, 1884, 1885
rubber condoms as protection
against, 4:1827
See also Contagious Diseases Acts of
1864, 1866, and 1869; syphilis
Venetia, 1:392; 2:533, 866,
867, 962
Austria and, 2:864; 3:1198
Lombardy and, 3:1193
Metternich and, 3:1494
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 3:1198–1199
Venetian Accademia, 1:347
Venetian Republic, 4:2001, 2004;
5:2354, 2402
Venetsianov, Alexei, 2:1015
Venezia nische Epigramme (Goethe),
2:985
Venezuela, 5:2500
Venice, 4:2000, 2003; 5:2402–2405,
2404
Austria and, 3:1192, 1584, 1597;
4:1994–1995, 2004; 5:2355,
2356, 2402–2404
Italian unification with, 3:1199
Mediterranean and, 3:1481, 1482
Murano glass-thread spinning,
3:1202
Napoleon and, 1:133; 3:1192
opera house in, 3:1565–1566
as republic, 3:1191
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1990
Ruskin on, 4:2046; 5:2403, 2405
tobacco use in, 5:2314
Victor Emmanuel II and, 5:2411
Venice, 1840 (Turner), 5:2404
Venizelos, Eleuthérios, 3:1345
Venstre (Norway), 3:1345
Ventre législatif, Le (Daumier), 2:621
Ventura, Gioacchino, 4:1718
Venus Italica (Canova), 1:348
Venus of Urbino (Titian), 3:1433
Vêpres siciliennes, Les (Verdi), 3:1678;
5:2406
Vera Kommissarzhevskaya Theater,
1:250
Verband deutscher Arbeitervereine,
3:1311
2789
INDEX
Verdi, Giuseppe, 2:732; 3:1565;
4:2039; 5:2405–2407
Italian unification and, 3:1572,
1672, 1676
La Scala and, 3:1504
opera and, 3:1567, 1672–1673,
1676; 4:1915
Rossini and, 3:1572
on Strauss (Johann), 4:2260
Verdier, Daniel, 2:517; 4:1889
Verdun, fall of (1792), 2:891
Vereeniging, Peace of (1902), 1:258
Vereschagin, Vasili, 1:396
Véret, Désirée, 5:2397
Verga, Giovanni, 4:1756;
5:2407–2408
Vergennes, Charles Gravier de, 3:1384
Vergniaud, Pierre-Victurnien, 2:973;
4:1952
Verguin, Emanuel, 3:1159
Verhaegen, Arthur, 4:2209
Verhaeren, Émile, 4:2295
Veri Italiani, 5:2514
verismo, 3:1671, 1677; 5:2407–2408
Vérité, La (Zola), 5:2524
Verklärte Nacht (Schoenberg), 4:2102
Verlaine, Paul, 1:3; 2:939, 940;
4:1845, 2292
Vernadsky, Vladimir, 2:775
Verne, Jules, 1:29; 3:1161;
5:2408–2409, 2497
Vernet, Carle, 2:955
Verona Conference (1822), 1:308
Verro, Bernardino, 4:2174
Versailles, 1:270, 452; 2:964; 4:1726
Estates-General meeting at,
2:767–768; 3:1385
Louis XVI and, 3:185, 1384
Louis-Philippe museum at, 3:1389
National Assembly at (1871),
4:1735, 1736, 1737
royal court at, 4:1726
storming of, 2:843
women’s march on (1789), 4:1728
Versailles Conference (1919), 3:1144
Verses about the Beautiful Lady (Blok),
1:249
Verstraete, Theodoor, 4:1948
Versuch, die Metamorphose der Pflanzen
zu erklären (Goethe), 2:986
‘‘Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden’’
(Mendel), 3:1486
Verve (magazine), 3:1475
Verviers woolen industry, 1:492–493;
2:791
Vessil Pasha, 4:2068
Vestiges of the Natural History of
Creation (Chambers), 2:777
2790
Vestnik Evropy (journal), 3:1552
Vetsera, Mary, 4:2045
Veuillot, Louis, 1:388
Veuve Clicquot, 5:2476
Viaduc deEstaque, Le (Braque), 2:797
Viaggio a Reims, Il (Rossini), 3:1671;
4:2038
Viang Chan, 3:1142
Viardot-Garcia, Pauline, 5:2365
Via Santa Lucia (Naples), 3:1582
Vicalvarada, 4:2229
Vichy, 5:2327, 2328
Vichy regime, 3:1477; 4:2303
Vick, Brian, 2:871
Vico, Giambattista, 2:584, 1062;
3:1499; 4:2212
Victoire Marie Louise, duchess of
Kent, 5:2411
Victor Amadeus II, duke of Savoy. See
Victor Amadeus III
Victor Amadeus III, king of Sardinia,
1:411–412; 4:1786
Victor Emmanuel I, king of Sardinia-
Piedmont, 1:413; 3:1193; 4:1786
Victor Emmanuel II, king of Italy,
4:2003; 5:2409–2411, 2410
Catholicism and, 1:380
Cavour and, 1:391, 392
Charles Albert and, 1:413, 414;
3:1197
France and, 5:2410, 2497
Garibaldi and, 2:932; 3:1197, 1198;
4:2004; 5:2410–2411
Giolitti and, 2:972
papacy and, 4:1725
Papal State invasion and, 4:2004
Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1786
Risorgimento (Italian unification)
and, 3:198, 1197, 1198
Rome and, 4:2036, 2037; 5:2411
son Umberto I and, 3:1201; 5:2377
Victor Emmanuel III, king of Italy,
3:1201
Victoria (Australia), 1:133, 134, 135
Victoria, empress consort of Germany,
2:873, 875
Victoria, princess of Great Britain,
5:2414, 2468
Victoria, queen of Great Britain,
1:135; 2:1006; 3:1638;
5:2411–2416, 2413, 2414, 2415,
2471
Albert as husband of, 3:1335;
5:2412–2414, 2413
background and childhood of,
5:2411–2412
death of, 2:1011
Diamond Jubilee of, 2:1012
E U R O P E
Disraeli and, 2:673
early reign of, 5:2412
as Empress of India, 2:674; 3:1135
European royal relatives of, 1:200;
2:873; 3:1627
fin de siècle death of, 2:816
gender roles and, 2:946
gerontocracy and, 3:1664
Golden Jubilee of, 2:742
as ‘‘Grandmother of Europe,’’
5:2414–2415
Great Exhibition of 1851 and,
2:587
Hanover and, 2:969
imperialism and, 1:435
leisure travel and, 1:288
Leopold I as uncle of, 3:1335
liberalism and, 3:1345
marriage of, 2:946; 3:1335
opium trade and, 3:1678
Palmerston and, 4:1713
Peel confrontation with,
4:1758–1759
Russian royal family and, 1:41
Scotland and, 4:2121
son Edward VII and, 2:729–730,
1011
taste for coca-seeped wine of, 2:688
Tennyson and, 5:2309
trade and, 5:2339
widowhood of, 5:2414
William II and, 5:2415, 2468
world’s fairs and, 5:2494, 2496
Victoria and Albert Museum
(London), 2:588; 3:1376, 1562,
1563
Victoria Cross, 2:579; 5:2413
Victoria Eugénie Julia Ena, queen of
Spain, 4:2231
Victoria Mesmerises (cartoon), 5:2339
Victorian culture, 5:2411
beards and, 1:191
British aristocracy and, 1:86
Carlyle and, 1:371
Darwinian evolutions impact and,
2:614, 618
death and, 2:629
degeneration theories and, 2:636
family portrait, 2:1001
Gladstone and, 2:976–979
sexuality and, 4:2161, 2259
sports and, 4:2240
typhus epidemic and, 2:670
utilitarianism and, 1:211
voluntary associations and, 1:119
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Victoria of Hanover. See Victoria,
queen of Great Britain
Victoria Regia (water lily), 2:589
Victorine, Mme., 1:481
Victory (Conrad), 2:536
Victory over the Sun (futurist opera),
1:157–158
Vidocq, François-Eugène, 2:575
Vie, La (Picasso), 4:1782
Vie de Beethoven, La (Rolland), 4:2015
Vie de Henry Brulard (Stendhal),
4:2253
Vie de Jésus, La (Renan), 2:688;
4:1892, 1953–1954; 5:2399
Vie de Napoléon (Stendhal), 4:2252
Vie de Rancé, La (Chateaubriand),
1:421
Vie de Rossini (Life of Rossini;
Stendhal), 4:2252
Vie d’un simple, La (Guillaumin),
4:1756
Vie internationale, La (journal), 1:205
Vielé-Griffin, Francis, 4:2294
Vien, Joseph-Marie, 2:623
Vienamese Communist Party,
3:1144–1145
Vienna, 5:2416–2422, 2419
Adler (Alfred) and, 1:8–10
Adler (Victor) and, 1:10–11
advertising and, 2:550
anti-Semitism in, 1:73, 75, 77;
2:816, 1067; 3:1233,
1393–1395, 1418; 4:2045;
5:2420, 2421–2422
art nouveau and, 1:112, 152–153;
2:815; 3:1530
Beethoven in, 1:195–196, 197–198;
3:1568
Berlin as cultural rival to, 1:215
bourgeois culture and, 1:288
Brahms in, 1:295–296
Brentano and, 1:298
Budapest as dual capital with, 1:309
cabarets in, 1:336
child abandonment in, 5:2455
Christian Socialism in, 5:2420, 2520
consumerism in, 2:548
counterrevolution and, 2:567
electric lighting in, 2:741
as fin de siécle cultural center,
2:1067; 3:1418, 1419
fin de siècle mood of, 2:815
football (soccer) in, 2:834
Freud and, 2:904–909; 4:1904
Herzl in, 2:1967–1968
Hoffmannsthal and, 2:1076
housing in, 2:1090
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Jewish community in, 3:1525–1526
Jewish cultural role in, 3:1231, 1234
Jews in, 4:2102
Klimt and, 3:1260–1262
labor movements and, 3:1288
Loos and, 3:1381–1382
Lueger as mayor of, 3:1233,
1392–1395
Mach and, 3:1408, 1409
Mahler in, 3:1418, 1419
Mesmer and, 3:1490
migration and, 3:1111, 1113
modern painting and, 3:1530
music and, 3:1565, 1568
Napoleon in, 2:901, 902
New Market, 5:2417
Offenbach operetta productions in,
3:1661
opera and, 3:1673
Ottoman threat to, 3:1690
population growth of, 1:446; 2:1087
psychoanalysis and, 4:1905
public art museum in, 4:1825
railroads and, 4:1933; 5:2418
Revolution of 1848 and, 1:141, 142;
2:808, 961; 3:1220, 1236, 1267;
4:1990, 1994, 2002;
5:2418–2419
Rothschilds and, 4:2040, 2041
Rudolf (crown prince) and, 4:2045
Schiele and, 4:2089, 2091; 5:2421
Schnitzler and, 4:2100; 5:2421
Schubert and, 4:2106; 5:2418
socialism and, 1:9–10
Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2260–2261;
5:2420
subway in, 4:2272
telephone service in, 5:2308
Trieste and, 5:2355, 2356
university admittance in, 2:728
urban redevelopment and, 1:452;
2:1088
voluntary associations and, 1:117
world’s fair (1873) and, 2:589;
5:2498
See also University of Vienna
Vienna, Congress. See Congress of
Vienna
Vienna, siege of (1683), 1:206
Vienna, Treaty of (1815), 3:1227
Vienna, Treaty of (1864), 2:648
Vienna 1900, 5:2421
Vienna Academy of Fine ARts, 1:152
Vienna Circle, 3:1409; 5:2421
Vienna Coinage Treaty (1857), 1:171
INDEX
Vienna Congress. See Congress of
Vienna
Vienna Conservatory, 3:1418
Vienna Philharmonic, 3:1418
Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, 4:1938
Vienna Secession, 1:152–153;
3:1260–1261, 1381, 1530;
4:2295; 5:2421
Vienna Sezession Gallery. See Vienna
Secession
Vienna Workshops for Handicrafts,
1:112, 153
Vienna World’s Fair (1873), 2:589;
5:2498
Viennese Novellettes (Schnitzler), 4:2100
Viennese Waltz, 4:2261; 5:2418
Vie parisienne, La (Offenbach), 3:1660
Vier ernste Gesante (Brahms), 1:296
Vierhaus, Rudolf, 4:1940
Vies de Haydn, de Mozart et de
Métastase (Stendhal), 4:2252
Vietnam. See Indochina
View at Narni (Corot), 2:561
View from My Window, Eragny
(Pissarro), 4:1794
View of Shrewsbury Across the Severn
(watercolor), 3:1148
View of the Altes Museum, A (Laurens),
4:2093
View of the Elevated Mountain at the
Champ de la Reunion for the
Festival of the Supreme Being, 20
Prairial, Year 2 of the French
Republic (8 June 1794), 2:896
View of the Kremlin and the Kamenny
Bridge in Moscow (Alekseev),
3:1553
View on the Stour near Dedham
(Constable), 2:544
Vignon, Mme., 1:481
Vigny, Alfred de, 2:1050; 3:1577;
4:2028
Vikelas, Dimitros, 3:1666, 1667
Vikova-Kuneticka, Bozena, 4:2281
Villafranca, Peace of (1859), 1:392;
4:2003
village community, 1:476; 4:1752,
1753–1754
idealization of, 4:1756
Village Near Beauvais, A (Corot),
2:562
Villain, Raoul, 3:1218, 1219
Villa Reale Chiatamone (Naples),
4:2092
Villèle, Joseph, 2:847
Villeneuve, Pierre-Charles de, 3:1615;
5:2344–2345
Villermé, Louis-René, 1:247,
285–286, 438; 4:1910
2791
INDEX
Villette (C. Brontë), 1:301
Villi, Le (Puccini), 4:1915, 1916
Villiers, de, 2:745, 746
Villon, Jacques, 1:156
Vilnius, 3:1366, 1367, 1368
Vinaver, Maxim, 3:1241
Vincennes (Paris prison), 4:2074
Vindex: Social and Legal Studies in
Man-Manly Love (Ulrichs),
2:1085–1086
Vindication of Natural Society (Burke),
1:326
Vindication of the Rights of Man, A
(Wollstonecraft), 5:2480
Vindication of the Rights of Women
(Wollstonecraft), 2:802,
945–946, 995, 1000; 5:2480
Vinet, Alexandre, 4:1895, 2136
vineyards. See wine
Vinius, Andrei, 2:781
Vin Mariani (wine seeped in coca
leaves), 2:687–688
Vinogradov, Pavel, 3:1518
Violin and Palette (Braque), 2:592, 592
violin virtuosity, 3:1566;
4:1698–1700
Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène, 4:1917, 2030;
5:2422–2424
as Gaudı́ influence, 2:935
Virchow, Rudolf, 2:1069; 3:1277;
4:1882, 1913–1914;
5:2425–2426
Virgil, 1:246
Virginibus Puerisque (Stevenson),
4:2255
Virgin Mary. See Marian devotion
Virgin Soil (Turgenev), 5:2365
virtue, republicanism and,
4:1958–1959, 1960, 1961, 2007
Vision After the Sermon: Jacob
Wrestling with the Angel
(Gauguin), 2:939, 940
Vision of Judgment, The (Byron), 1:333
‘‘Vision of Sin, The’’ (Tennyson),
5:2309
Visions of the Daughters of Albion
(Blake), 1:244
Vistula Land, 4:1810, 1811
vitalism, 1:228; 2:660
‘‘vital spirit’’ theory, 2:615
Vitoria, Battle of (1813),
4:2227–2228
Vivante, Angelo, 5:2356–2357
Vivian Grey (Disraeli), 2:672
Viviani, René, 2:697, 859, 1084
Vlachs (Cincars), 4:2146
Vladivostok, 4:2064; 5:2426–2427
Vlaminck, Maurice de, 1:153; 2:796,
797; 4:1875
2792
vocational schools, 5:2381
vodka, 1:34, 35, 37
Vodou, 2:1036
Vogel, Julius, 3:1623
Voice from the Factories (Norton),
3:1646
Voices from Russia (anthology), 2:1066
Voix des femmes, La (feminist
newspaper), 2:650; 3:1288
Voix intérieures, Les (Hugo), 2:1093
Vojvodina, 1:242
Völkerpsychologie, 5:2507
völkisch movement, 1:10
Volksgeist, 3:1523; 4:1756
Volkslieder (Herder), 2:1061
Volkspark movement (Germany),
4:1738, 1740–1741
Volksschules, 2:723
Volksverein für das Katholische
Deutschland, 5:2474
Vollard, Ambroise, 2:591, 634;
3:1474
Volney, comte de (Constantin-
François Chasseboeuf), 4:1909
Volta, Alessandro, 1:424–425;
4:1780, 2114
Voltaic Pile, 4:1780, 2114
Voltaire, 1:28, 103, 169, 327, 411,
432; 3:1323, 1339, 1489;
4:1968, 2030, 2047; 5:2393
Catholic response to, 1:385
on Holy Roman Empire, 2:957
as intellectual, 3:1167
on need for Paris’s urban renewal,
4:1727
on Prussia, 3:1506
voluntary associations. See associations,
voluntary
Vonckist revolt (1789), 4:2187
Von der Klassifikation der psychischen
Phänomene (Brentano), 1:299
Von Deutscher Art un Kunst
(anthology), 2:1061
‘‘Von deutscher Baukunst’’ (Goethe),
2:983
Von Erkennen und Empfinden der
Menschlichen Seele (Herder),
2:1061
Von Ratibors family, 1:4699
Von Stephany brothers, 4:2242
Vooruit, 2:556
Voprosy zhizni (Russian journal), 1:212
Voraces, Les, 3:1404
Vor dem Sturm (Fontane), 2:829
Vorlesungen, über dramatische Kunst
und Literatur (A. W. Schlegel),
4:1769
Voronikhin, Andrei, 4:2077
E U R O P E
Vorontsov, Vasily, 4:2054
vorticism, 1:214
Vosges Mountains, 1:51
voting rights. See suffragism; women’s
suffrage
Vovelle, Michel, 2:629; 3:1584
Vow of Louis XIII, The (Ingres),
3:1165, 1166; 4:1705
Voyage dans la lune, Le (Offenbach),
3:1661
Voyage dans le Levant (Forbin), 2:605
Voyage en Amérique (Chateaubriand),
1:421
Voyage en Icarie (Cabet), 1:337;
4:2203; 5:2397
Voyage en Orient (Lamartine), 3:1303
Voyage musical au pays du passé
(Rolland), 4:2015
Voyage musical en Allemagne et en
Italie (Berlioz), 1:225
Voyage of the Beagle, The, 2:617
Voyages pittoresques et romantiques dans
lancienne France (Nodier and
Taylor), 2:605
Voyange dans la lune, La (film), 3:1483
voyeurism, 3:1270
Vremya (Russian journal), 2:678
Vrubel, Mikhail, 3:1551
‘‘Vues cinématographiques, Les’’
(Méliès), 3:1483
Vuillard, Édouard, 1:153; 5:2323
vulcanization, 3:1160; 4:1827
Vulpius, Christiane, 2:985
Vyšehrad (Czech national cemetery),
4:1858
n
W
Wachau, 3:1321, 1322
‘‘Wacht am Rhein, Die’’ (song),
2:960–961
Waddington, William Henry,
2:530, 811
Waffen nieder!, Die (Suttner), 4:1698,
2282
wages
classical economics and, 2:714,
715, 717
of female teachers, 2:724
married women and, 2:802, 804,
942, 946
men’s vs. women’s, 2:805, 944, 945;
3:1470–1471
Moscow and, 3:1554
United States vs. European countries,
2:752, 752
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Wages, Price, and Profit (Marx),
3:1462
Wagner, Cosima, 1:403; 3:1360, 1361
Wagner, Eva, 1:404
Wagner, Friedrich, 5:2429
Wagner, Johanna, 5:2429
Wagner, Otto, 1:153
Wagner, Richard, 1:10, 11; 3:1565;
5:2429–2432, 2430
anti-Semitism and, 2:1067; 5:2429,
2430
artistic vision of, 3:1108
Baudelaire essay on, 1:188
Berlioz friendship with, 1:225
Brahms and, 1:295
as Chamberlain (Houston) influence,
1:403, 404
Chopin’s influence on, 1:440
degeneration and, 2:638, 816
as Dvořák influence, 2:701
German music and, 3:1571
Gesamtkunstwerk and, 1:108, 112
Liszt’s promotion of, 3:1360, 1361
Louis II’s patronage of, 3:1383
Mahler and, 3:1418–1419
Mann as devotee of, 3:1435, 1436
music dramas of, 3:1571
Nazism and, 5:2431
Nietzsche’s view of, 3:1635, 1675
Offenbach’s aesthetic vs., 3:1661
operas of, 1:191; 3:1360,
1382–1383, 1435, 1567, 1571,
1674–1675, 1676, 1677; 4:1915
operatic influence of, 3:1675
Renoir and, 4:1955
Revolutions of 1848 and, 2:961
Rimsky-Korsakov and, 4:1999
Romanticism and, 4:2027
Schopenhauer’s influence on,
4:2104
on Strauss (Johann), 4:2260
symbolists and, 4:2294
See also Bayreuth Festival
Wagner, Siegfried, 3:1675
Wagram, Battle of (1809), 2:846, 902;
3:1586
Wahhabi, 3:1420
rebellion of 1811–1813, 2:732
Wahlverwandeschaften, Die (Goethe),
2:987
Wailly, Charles de, 4:1727
Waitangi, Treaty of (1840), 3:1622
Walachia, 4:2016, 2019, 2021
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987,
1990, 1993
Walbrook, Anton, 2:655
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Waldeck-Rousseau, René, 1:339;
2:685, 858, 1026; 3:1216;
5:2432–2433
Waldeck-Rousseau Law. See Law of
Associationsn of 1884
Walden, Herwarth, 1:155; 3:1309
Walden Pond, 4:2029
Waldersee, Alfred von, 1:294
Waldeyer, Wilhelm, 1:341; 2:735
Waldstein, Johann von, 2:790
Wales, 5:2433–2437, 2435, 2436
Anglican disestablishment in,
2:1012–1013
banking in, 1:172
English crown and, 2:999
football (soccer) and, 2:832, 834
gender balance in, 5:2435–2436
housing and, 2:1089
industrialization and, 1:350
liberalism in, 5:2434–2435, 2436
Lloyd George and, 3:1368–1369
Methodists in, 2:1002
mining in, 5:2433, 2436, 2436
Nonconformists in, 2:1006; 5:2433,
2434
population of, 5:2433, 2434, 2435
representation and, 2:1003
urban population of, 2:1087
Walker, Elizabeth, 2:751
Walking Man, The (Rodin), 4:2009
Walks in Rome (Stendhal), 4:2252
Walküre, Die (Wagner), 3:1571, 1674
Wallace, Alfred Russel, 2:616; 4:2206;
5:2437–2438
Wallachia, 3:1420, 1689
Wallas, Graham, 5:2444
Wallon, Henri-Alexandre, 2:856
Wallonia, 1:199–200, 201, 202,
203, 204
Walpole, Robert, 4:2030
Walter, John, 4:1867
Walther, Otto, 5:2360
Walt Whitman: A Study (Symonds),
4:2296
Waltz (Ravel), 4:1944–1945
waltzes, 4:2260, 2261; 5:2418, 2420
Wanderer above a Sea of Fog
(Friedrich), 2:911
‘‘Wanderer’’ Fantasy (Schubert), 4:2106
Wanderers, 4:1956–1957
Wandering Jew, The (Sue), 1:70; 4:1941
Wanderings of Oisin, The (Yeats),
5:2509
‘‘Wanders Nachtlieder’’ (Goethe),
2:984
Wanderungen durch die Mack
Brandenburg (Fontane),
2:828–829
INDEX
Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido
(Jung), 3:1239
Wanghia, Treaty of (1844), 3:1579
Wann-Chlore (Balzac), 1:167
Wannsee (Berlin suburb), 1:219
War and Peace (Tolstoy), 2:881;
3:1282; 5:2318, 2319, 2320
War between Serbia and Bulgaria, The:
Serbian Artillery Crossing the Ploca
Mountains (Schonberg), 4:2143
Ward, Mrs. Humphrey (Mary Augusta
Ward), 4:1844
Ward, William, 4:1852
warfare
antisepsis and, 4:1743
‘‘cabinet wars’’ and, 2:1033
cholera epidemics and, 2:669
Congress of Vienna’s approach to,
2:661–662, 1033
diplomatic alternative to, 2:661–664
Geneva Convention and, 2:952–953;
3:1175
Hague conferences and,
2:1033–1035
imperialism and, 2:1033; 3:1118
imperialist defeats and, 3:1473
international law and, 3:1175
levée en masse and, 3:1338–1340
loser indemnity payment and, 4:1837
Marinetti’s political futurism and,
2:921
medical services and, 3:1307–1308,
1637–1638
Moltke’s theory of, 3:1532
protectionist trade and, 4:1888
Red Cross and, 4:1948–1949
social Darwinist view of, 2:619
twentieth-century transformation of,
2:1034
typhus epidemics and, 2:668, 669
See also armies; militarism; military
tactics; pacifism; specific wars
War Hawks (U.S.), 5:2439
War in History (military journal),
4:2099
War in Sight Crisis (1875), 1:239
War of 1805, 4:2051; 5:2374–2375
War of 1812, 2:553, 846;
5:2438–2441
War of 1859. See Franco-Austrian War
War of Greek Independence. See Greek
War of Independence
War of the Dnepr Estuary, 1:243
War of the First Coalition
(1792–1797), 2:860, 899–900
War of the Fourth Coalition (1813),
1:38; 2:903
2793
INDEX
War of the Second Coalition
(1799–1801), 2:860, 895,
900–901; 5:2374
Paul I and, 4:1748
War of the Spanish Succssion, 3:1191
War of the Third Coalition
(1805–1807), 1:37–38; 2:603,
860, 901–902; 3:1586–1587;
5:2374
War of the Two Brothers, 4:1839
War of the Worlds, The (Wells), 5:2459
‘‘Warren Hastings’’ (Macaulay), 3:1408
Warsaw, 5:2441–2442
child abandonment in, 5:2455
Chopin in, 1:439
Kościuszko uprising in, 3:1265
migration and, 3:111
railroads, 4:1933
rebuilding of, 4:1807
Russian occupation of, 4:1810
Russian restrictions in, 1:40
as Russian territory, 4:1808
See also Grand Duchy of Warsaw
Warsaw positivists, 5:2442
Wars of German Unification. See
German unification
Wars of Liberation (1813–1815),
4:1900
Wars of Liberation from Napoleon
monument (Berlin), 4:2092
Wartburg Castle, 2:959
Wartburg Festival (1817), 1:369
Washington, George, 1:420; 3:1299
Canova statue of, 1:347
Paine open letter on, 4:1701
Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland?
(anthem), 4:1826
Wassermann Test, 4:2303
waste disposal. See sanitation
Waste Land, The (T. S. Eliot), 2:657
watchmaking. See clocks and watches
water
elements comprising, 3:1312
filtration of, 4:2109–2110
London supply of, 3:1373
Paris supply of, 2:1049; 4:1731
power from, 2:790–799; 3:15021
See also drinking water
water contamination. See pollution;
sanitation
Waterlilies (Monet), 3:1133
Waterloo (1815), 1:357, 407; 2:524,
565; 4:2039, 2124; 5:2367,
2442–2443, 2457
Clausewitz and, 1:477
Leipzig battle compared with,
3:1319
2794
Napoleon’s defeat at, 1:270; 2:847,
903, 1002, 1099; 3:1387, 1388,
1588; 4:1968; 5:2442–2443,
2457
Prussia and, 4:1900
Wellington and, 2:1002
Waterloo Cup Coursing Meeting, The
(Ansdell), 1:72
waterway transport, 5:2346–2350
Watson, John B., 4:1908
Watt, James, 1:485; 2:758, 760;
3:1153; 4:2108, 2115
Watt & Boulton engines, 2:760
Wattignies, Battle of (1793), 2:900;
3:1506
Watt steam engine, 3:1152
Waverly (Scott), 4:2030, 2123
Waverly overture (Berlioz), 1:225
wave theory of light, 2:739; 4:1780
waxwork museums, 3:1561–1562,
1564
Way to the Open, The (Schnitzler),
4:2100, 2101
WCTU. See Womans Christian
Temperance Union
Wealth of Nations (Smith), 2:515, 712,
713, 717; 3:1410, 1426; 4:1887,
2186, 2203
weapons. See armament; rifless
Weavers, The (Hauptmann), 3:1411
weaving
art nouveau and, 1:107, 108, 112
machine breaking and, 3:1410, 1411
mechanization of, 1:24, 493; 2:791;
3:1153, 1154, 1405
Silesian rebellion (1844) and, 3:1287
steam-powered loom and, 3:1157
See also textiles
Webb, Beatrice Potter, 1:134; 2:788;
4:2206; 5:2443–2446, 2445,
2458
Webb, Philip, 3:1550
Webb, Sidney, 2:787, 788; 4:2206;
5:2444, 2445, 2458
Weber, Alfred, 4:2215
Weber, Carl Maria von, 3:1570, 1673,
1674; 5:2429
Weber, Eugen, 1:101, 462; 3:1522
Weber, F. C., 4:2076
Weber, Frans, 1:298
Weber, Marianne Schnitger, 5:2446
Weber, Max, 1:220; 2:698; 3:1316;
4:1875; 5:2446–2448
capitalism defined by, 1:349; 5:2447
on German power-politics, 2:967
on intellectuals, 3:1169
Protestant-capitalism thesis of,
4:1892, 1893
E U R O P E
Protestant ethic and, 4:1892;
5:2446–2447
sociology and, 4:2212, 2215;
5:2446–2447, 2448
Stephen and, 4:2254
Weber, Wilhelm, 2:1062
Webern, Anton von, 4:2102, 2263
Webster, James, 1:198
Wedding (Berlin district), 1:219
Wedding, The (Léger), 2:590
Wedekind, Franz, 1:65, 336; 2:633
Wedgwood, Josiah, 2:547, 548, 550;
3:1153; 4:2111, 2115
Wedgwood family, 2:547, 548, 613,
617
Wedgwood pottery, 2:547, 548;
3:1153
Wednesday Psychological Society
(Vienna), 1:8; 2:906, 907
Weg ins Freie, Der (Schnitzler),
4:2100, 2101
Weg zur Macht, Der (Kautsky), 3:1248
Weib im Konflikt mit den socialen
Verhältnissen, Das (Anneke), 1:66
Weierstrass, Karl, 2:1099
weights and measures, 3:1173
Weihaiwei (China), 1:292
Weill, Georges, 4:2081
Weimar Republic, 1:189; 5:2446
Bernstein’s posts in, 1:231
Chamberlain (Houston) movement
against, 1:404
Goethe and, 2:984, 985
homosexual rights movement and,
2:1071
Mann and, 3:1435
Prussia and, 4:1899
Weinberg, Wilhelm, 2:770
Weininger, Otto, 5:2448–2450
Weir of Hermiston (Stevenson),
4:2256
Weitling, Wilhelm, 4:2203
Weitsch, Friedrich Georg, 2:1096
Weizmann, Chaim, 5:2521
welfare, 1:291; 5:2450–2456
as British bureaucratic function,
1:324–325
British ‘‘New Liberalism’’ and,
2:1012
British Poor Law and, 1:211; 2:714,
1003; 4:1819–1820
bureaucracy and, 1:324–325
Catholic organizations and, 1:383,
387, 389, 438
Chadwick and, 1:401, 402
Chamberlain (Joseph) and, 1:405
child services and, 1:431
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

classical economists and, 2:715,
716, 717
Danish system of, 2:648
‘‘deserving poor’’ and, 5:2450–2451
factory paternalism and, 2:793
family life and, 3:1456
free markets and, 2:709
Hobson’s economic theory and,
2:1075
industrialization and, 1:356; 2:709
Krupp steelworks and, 3:1275
Malthusian view of, 2:715;
3:1425–1426
municipal government and, 1:450
outdoor relief and, 4:2119; 5:2454,
2462
poverty and, 4:1847–1854
Protestant advocates of, 4:1896
public initiatives (1870–1914) and,
5:2451–2454
state-sponsored, 1:239, 291, 321,
356, 459; 2:540, 966, 2450,
2453; 3:1664, 1664–1665;
4:1851, 1854, 1915
Switzerland and, 4:1963; 5:2452
unemployment insurance and, 1:356;
2:1012; 4:1915
use of (1815–1914), 5:2454–2456
working class and, 5:2490, 2491
See also charity; health insurance;
pensions
welfare state, 5:2451, 2452
Wellesley, Arthur. See Wellington,
duke of
Wellesley, Richard Colley, 2:954;
3:1134
Wellington (New Zealand), 3:1624
Wellington, duchess of, 1:481
Wellington, duke of (Arthur Wellesley),
1:97; 2:577; 5:2457–2458
as Brontë sisters hero, 1:300
Catholic emancipation and, 1:381;
5:2321, 2322, 2457
Cruikshank caricatures of, 2:586
on George IV, 2:955
as member of Parliament, 2:1003,
1005; 4:1758
Napoleonic Wars and, 2:902, 903,
1002; 4:1900
Peninsular War and, 4:1764, 1765,
1766, 1839, 2227–2228
Waterloo and, 5:2442–2443, 2457
world’s fair (1851) and, 5:2494
Wells, H. G., 3:1214; 4:1905;
5:2458–2459
air flight and, 1:30
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Fabians and, 2:787
socialism and, 4:2206
Verne and, 5:2408
Webb and, 5:2445
Welsh, Freddie, 5:2435
Welsh, Jane Baillie. See Carlyle, Jane
Welsh
Welsh Football Association, 2:832
Welsh language, 5:2435–2436
Welsh Rugby Union, 5:2435
Welt, Die (Zionist weekly), 2:1068
Weltpolitik, 2:967–998
Weltraetsel, Die (Haeckel), 2:1032
Weltschmerz, 4:2028
Wenceslas, Saint, 4:1858
Wenceslas Square (Prague), 4:1858,
1861
Wendel family, 1:471
Wenlock Games, 3:1667
Wentworth, Charles Watson. See
Rockingham, marquis of
Werefkin, Marianne von, 1:155;
3:1245
Werfel, Franz, 4:1859
Werner, Alfred, 1:426
Wernicke, Carl, 1:408
Werther (Massenet), 3:1675
Wesen des Christentums, Das
(Feuerbach), 2:744, 754; 4:2133;
5:2512
Wesley, Charles, 2:1002
Wesley, John, 2:1001; 4:1895
Wesley, Richard, 5:2457
Wesselényi, Miklós, 3:1266
Wessex Poems and Other Verses (Hardy),
2:1045
West Africa
British ‘‘Indirect Rule’’ in, 2:508
European interests in, 1:15–22;
3:1118
French imperialism in, 3:1115, 1116
Portuguese colonies in, 2:509
slave trade and, 1:12–14, 15
Westbrook, Harriet, 4:2169, 2170
West End (London), 1:85; 2:548,
551; 3:1373, 1375, 1378
Western Armenians. See Turkish
Armenians
Westernizers, 5:2459–2460
Bakunin and, 2:161–162, 1064
Belinsky and, 1:207–208; 2:1064
British in India as, 2:673
Chaadayev’s influence on, 1:400
colonizers as, 2:508, 509; 3:1115,
1120, 1124
concept of civilization and,
1:461–464
INDEX
cultural differences and, 2:508
Goncharov as, 2:990
Greek university students and,
2:1018–1019
Herzen and, 2:1064, 1066
imperialism and, 3:1115, 1120, 1124
Istanbul and, 3:1186–1187
Japan and, 3:1209, 1210, 1211
liberalism linked with, 3:1342
missionaries as, 3:1527, 1528
Ottoman Empire and, 3:1420
Russia and, 1:400; 2:1064;
4:2048–2049, 2195–2196;
5:2365, 2459–2460
Slavophiles vs., 2:772, 1064, 1066;
4:2195–2196; 5:2459
Turgenev and, 5:2365, 2459, 2460
Vietnam and, 3:1144
Westinghouse electric company, 2:742
Westminster (London), 1:186; 3:1378
Westminster, cardinal-archbishop of,
3:1440–1441
Westminster, duke of, 1:85; 3:1373
Westminster Abbey
Darwin buried in, 2:617
Dickens buried in, 2:657
Kelvin buried in, 3:1250
Kipling buried in, 3:1257
Livingstone buried in, 2:783
Lyell buried in, 3:1402
Westminster Review, 2:743, 744, 1102;
3:1513; 4:1746; 5:2394
Spencer and, 4:2234, 2235
Westöstlicher Diwan (Goethe), 2:987
Westphal, Karl, 2:1070, 1082
Westphalia. See Kingdom of Westphalia
Westphalia, Peace of (1648), 2:532
West Prussia, 2:961
Wet, Christiaan Rudolf de, 1:257
wetland drainage, 2:762
wet nurses, 1:431; 4:1829
Weyrother, Franz von, 1:132
whaling, 2:766
Whampoa, Treaty of (1844), 3:1579
What I Believe (Tolstoy), 5:2319
What Is a Nation? (Renan), 1:51;
3:1522; 4:1953
What Is Art? (Tolstoy), 5:2319
What Is Property? (Proudhon), 1:56
What Is the Third Estate? (Sieyès),
2:767, 842; 4:2180
What Is to Be Done? (Chernyshevsky),
3:1613, 1640; 4:1831, 2052
What Is to Be Done? (Lenin), 1:265;
2:522; 3:1171, 1328, 1460
What Should People Know about the
Third Sex? (Hirschfeld), 2:1070
2795
INDEX
wheat. See grain
Wheaton, Henry, 3:1175
Wheeler, Anna, 2:650, 803; 3:1288;
4:2201
When We Dead Awaken (Ibsen),
3:1107, 1109
Where Angels Fear to Tread (Forster),
2:835
Where Do We Come From? What Are
We? Where Are We Going?
(Gauguin), 1:152; 2:941
Whewell, William, 3:1477, 1654
Whigs, 1:416; 2:1004; 4:1984;
5:2321, 2367, 2385, 2412, 2457,
2460–2462
Brougham and, 1:302, 303
Corn Laws repeal and, 2:559, 1005;
4:1759
Fox and, 2:1001
liberalism and, 3:1343, 1347, 1348
newspapers and, 4:1872
parliamentary reform and, 2:1001
Pitt and, 2:101
Poor Law and, 4:1819–1820
trade policies and, 2:517
William IV and, 5:2461, 2471
See also Liberal Party
Whirlpool, The (Gissing), 2:975
whiskey. See alcohol and temperance
Whistler, James Abbott McNeill,
1:109, 191; 4:1874, 2294
Whitbread, Samuel, 5:2461
Whitbread brewery, 1:284
White Army (anti-Bolshevik), 3:1520;
4:1803
Whiteboys, 3:1657
Whitechapel (London), 3:1373, 1375,
1376
white-collar crime, 2:571
white-collar workers, 1:352, 355, 473;
4:1879
White Company, The (Doyle), 2:681
White Fathers (Society of Missionaries
of Africa), 3:1528, 1528
Whitehall Mystery, The: Discovering the
Mutilated Trunk (engraving), 2:576
Whitehead, Alfred North, 1:214
White Horse, The (Gauguin), 2:941
Whiteley, William, 3:1378
White Mountain, Battle of (1620),
1:259
Whites (Polish moderates), 4:1809
white slave trade, 4:1884
White Terror of 1815 (France),
2:565, 847
Whitman, Walt, 1:372; 4:2296, 2297
Wholesale Salvation (social reform
programs), 4:2083
2796
whooping cough, 2:667
Whydah (African trading port),
1:14, 15
Why I Am a Communist (Cabet),
2:521
‘‘Why We Paint Ourselves: A Futurist
Manifesto’’ (Larionov and
Zdanevich), 1:157
Wide Streets Commission (Dublin),
2:691
Widowers’ Houses (Shaw), 4:2165
widows, 1:287; 5:2452, 2455
Wiehl, Antonı́n, 4:1858
Wielopolski, Aleksandr, 4:1809
Wiener Werkstätte, 1:112, 153, 336;
3:1260, 1261
Wieniawski, Henri, 4:1700
Wiese, Leopold von, 4:2215
Wigram, Clive, 3:1136
Wilberforce, Samuel, 2:614, 1102;
4:1896
Wilberforce, William, 1:36; 2:510;
5:2462–2463
Wild Duck, The (Ibsen), 3:1108
Wilde, Jane, 5:2464
Wilde, Oscar, 2:951; 4:2182, 2255;
5:2464–2466, 2465
Beardsley’s illustrations and, 1:109,
192, 193
censorship and, 3:1377
cigarette smoking and, 5:2315
Decadence and, 2:632, 633
degeneration and, 2:639
fin de siècle and, 2:816
hashish reference by, 2:687
homosexuality of, 2:241, 633, 1070,
1084; 3:1184; 4:2258, 2297;
5:2465–2466
as Ibsen enthusiast, 3:1109
Pater and, 4:1746, 1747
Yeats and, 5:2509
Wilde, William, 5:2464
Wilhelm Braumüller (publisher),
5:2449
Wilhelmina, queen of the Netherlands,
3:1619
Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship
(Goethe), 2:985, 987; 4:2095
Carlyle translation, 1:370
Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre (Goethe),
2:985, 987; 4:2095
Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung
(Goethe), 2:984
Wilhelmstrasse (Berlin), 1:217
Wilhelm Tell (Schiller), 4:2288
Wilhelm zu Wied, prince of Albania,
1:34
Wilkinson, James, 5:2440
E U R O P E
will, the, 4:2103, 2104–2105
Willemfonds (Belgium), 1:202
Willette, Adolphe, 1:335
William I, emperor of Germany and
king of Prussia, 1:234, 235;
3:1394, 1533; 5:2325,
2467–2468
alliance system and, 1:48
anarchist assassination attempts on,
2:966
Austro-Prussian War and, 1:147, 148
Bismarck and, 1:238–239, 240;
2:962–963, 963, 964
brother Frederick William IV and,
2:877
German unification and, 2:964;
3:1383; 4:1902
gerontocracy and, 3:1664
Krupp and, 3:1274
Menzel painting of, 3:1489
as regent, 2:962
son Frederick III and, 2:874, 966
William II, emperor of Germany and
king of Prussia, 2:966–969, 1068;
5:2467, 2468–2470, 2469
accession to throne of, 1:240;
2:966
alliance system and, 1:48, 49;
2:663, 664
authoritarianism of, 2:862
Bismarck and, 5:2468, 2474
Bismarck’s dismissal by, 1:233,
240–241; 2:663, 967
on Boxer Rebellion, 1:292
British policies and, 2:1013
cabaret satire of, 1:336
Chamberlain’s (Houston) racial
theories and, 1:403
conservatism of, 2:874, 967
Eulenburg affair and, 2:1071, 1084
father, Frederick III, and, 2:873, 874
Herzl and, 5:2521
Moroccan Crises and, 3:1545, 1549
musical taste of, 1:219
naval buildup and, 3:1609, 1610
popularity of, 3:1347
Prussia and, 4:1903
Rudolf (crown prince) and, 4:2045
Russia and, 3:1628
technical colleges and, 5:2382
Tirpitz and, 3:1610; 5:2312
Victoria and, 5:2415, 2468, 2471
World War I and, 1:232; 2:663, 664
World War II and, 1:232
William III, king of Great Britain,
3:1407
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

William IV, king of Great Britain,
5:2470–2471
reform and, 2:1003
Victoria as successor to, 5:2411–2412
Whigs and, 5:2461, 2471
William IX, prince of Hesse-Kassel,
4:2039
William I, king of the Netherlands,
1:173, 493; 3:1617; 4:1984, 1986
Belgian Revolution of 1830 and,
1:200; 3:1335, 1617
William II, king of the Netherlands,
3:1617
William V, prince of Orange, 3:1616,
1617
Williams, David, 5:2433
Williams, Eric, 2:708–709, 710
Williams, Tennessee, 4:2269
William Shakespeare (Hugo), 2:1094
Williamson, Alexander, 1:426
Williamson, Jeffrey, 2:514, 710;
3:1151; 5:2338–2339, 2340
Williamson, Mary, 2:770
William Tell (Rossini), 3:1661, 1671;
4:2038, 2288
William Tell (Schiller), 3:1523
Willich, Henriette von, 4:2097
Willis, Le (Puccini), 4:1915
Wills, William, 2:782
Will Therapy (Rank), 4:1939
Wilmersdorf (Berlin suburb), 1:218
Wilson, Daniel, 1:282
Wilson, E. O., 2:1031
Wilson, Edmund, 3:1257
Wilson, James, 1:160; 2:558
Wilson, Woodrow, 3:1144
Wiltshire, 3:1410
‘‘Winckelmann’’ (Pater), 4:1746
Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 1:347;
4:1746, 1769
Wind among the Reeds, The (Yeats),
5:2509
Windischgrätz, Alfred zu, 1:142;
2:808, 961; 4:1860; 5:2419
Windscheid, Bernhard, 3:1315
Windsor, house of, 4:2118
Windsor—Royal Lodge, 3:1602
Windthorst, Ludwig, 1:238;
5:2471–2475
Center Party leadership by, 1:388,
393; 2:966
Kulturkampf opposition by, 3:1279
wine, 5:2475–2478
Algeria and, 1:47
Catalonia and, 1:180, 182
coca mixed with, 2:687–688
distilled spirits vs.1.34
as drinking water alternative, 2:658
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
France and, 1:34, 35; 2:762; 4:1777
industrialization and, 2:549
pasteurization of, 4:1743
phylloxera and, 4:1776–1778
Winnower, The (Millet), 3:1515;
4:1757
Winnowers, The (Courbet), 1:25
Winter, Ernst, 2:576
Winter Games (Olympics), 3:1668
Winter Palace (St. Petersburg),
4:2075, 2077, 2078, 2079
Wir (literary group), 2:1067
Wireless Telegraph and Signal
Company, 3:1444; 4:1780
Wisconsin Woman Suffrage
Association, 1:67
‘‘Wish House, The’’ (Kipling), 3:1257
Wissenschaftslehre (Fichte system),
2:813, 814
‘‘Witch of Atlas, The’’ (Shelley),
4:2170
With the Flow (Huysmans), 2:1104
Witkowitz (Moravia-Silesia), 1:260
Witte, Sergei, 1:40–41; 3:1627, 1628;
4:1837, 1978, 2054, 2055, 2056,
2173, 2257; 5:2478–2479
Russo-Japanese War and, 4:2065;
5:2479
Wittelsbach dynasty, 3:1382–1383
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 2:873; 3:1253;
4:2104; 5:2449
Wittgenstein, Paul, 4:1945
Witt-Schlumberger, Marguerite de,
4:2279
Witty, Calvin, 2:600
Witwatersrand gold mines, 1:256–257
Wives and Daughters (Gaskell), 2:934
Woe from Wit (Griboyedov), 1:208
Wöhler, Friedrich, 2:687; 3:1160;
4:2109
Wolf, Eric, 4:1756
Wolf, Hugo, 3:1418, 1571
Wolf, Julius, 3:1538
Wolfenden Committee (Britain),
2:746
Wolfers, Philippe, 1:109
Wolff, Christian, 4:1907
Wolff, Kurt, 3:1243
Wölfflin, Heinrich, 1:320
Wolffsohn, David, 5:2521
Wollstonecraft, Mary, 1:244; 4:1962;
5:2479–2481, 2480
daughter, Mary Shelley, and, 4:2168;
5:2480
feminism and, 2:802, 945, 995,
1000; 5:2481
Godwin’s memoir for, 2:981
Wolstoneholme, Elizabeth, 1:331–332
INDEX
Wolzogen, Ernst Ludwig von,
1:335–336; 4:2102
Woman Combing Her Hair (Degas),
1:252
Woman Drinking Absinthe (Picasso), 1:3
Woman of No Importance, A (Wilde),
5:2465
Woman: Past, Present, and Future
(Bebel), 1:194–195
Woman’s Christian Temperance
Union, 1:37
woman suffrage. See women’s suffrage
Woman’s Work and Womans Culture
(Butler), 1:332
Woman’s World (magazine), 5:2464
Woman with the Hat (Matisse), 1:153
women
as absinthe drinkers, 1:3
Anti-Corn Law League and, 2:558
aristocratic prerogatives of, 1:469
art nouveau and, 1:108
automobiles compared with, 1:149
bathing costumes of, 4:2124
in Belgian workforce, 1:201
Berlin salons and, 1:215
birth control and, 2:947; 4:1827,
1829, 2041, 2042, 2161–2162,
2163
body and, 1:251, 253, 255
Bosnian Muslim, 1:274, 276
bourgeois roles of, 1:287, 288–290,
445, 472; 2:549
Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292
British improvement societies and,
2:769
British Industrial Revolution and,
1:352, 371
Catholicism and, 1:379, 383, 384,
385, 387
child abandonment by, 5:2454–2455
civilizing missions of, 1:463
civil society and, 1:466, 467
clothing and, 1:481–484; 2:548, 943
as coal miners, 1:488
as consumers, 2:549
convicts in Brixton prison, 2:573
couture fashion and, 1:481–483
crime and, 2:573, 574
cycling and, 2:601
Decadent representations of, 2:632
as Degas subjects, 2:634
as domestic servants, 3:1374
in Dublin workforce, 2:691
education of, 1:286–287; 2:625,
626, 721, 723, 724, 725, 726,
727, 728, 801, 929; 4:1891
2797
INDEX
emigration reasons for, 3:1114
eugenics societies and, 2:770, 771
exclusion from associations of, 1:116
exclusion from citizenship of, 1:458,
458–459
as explorers, 2:783
as factory workers, 1:350, 351, 352,
371, 401, 475; 2:789, 792, 945;
3:1148
as femme fatale, 4:2292–2293
fertility decline and, 2:645–646
food riots and, 5:2488
Freemasonry and, 2:881, 882, 882
French family law and, 3:1595; 4:1761
French Radicals and, 4:1929
French Revolution and, 2:888, 897
Gauguin paintings of, 2:939–940,
941
German political protest and, 2:959
Hardy’s portrayals of, 2:1046
idealization of, 1:287
impressionist painting and, 3:1128,
1131–1132, 1543–1545
Islamic customs and, 1:396–397
Jewish role of, 3:1230
Jewish schools for, 3:1229
labor movements and, 3:1288,
1292–1294, 1293
labor protectionist laws for, 1:285,
288; 2:944; 3:1276, 1556
as lawyers, 2:726
leisure activities of, 3:1325
lesbianism and, 2:1082–1088;
4:21636
libraries for, 3:1352
literacy and, 2:723, 724; 3:1363;
4:2119, 2148
literacy rates (by country,
1800–1914), 3:1363
London occupations of, 3:1374
as Lueger supporters, 3:1395
markets and, 3:1447–1448
maternity hospitals for, 5:2450
as mediums, 4:2237, 2238
as missionaries, 3:1528
as monarchs, 1:367
musical performance and, 3:1568
as nurses, 2:945; 3:1637–1638,
1648–1650; 4:1881
old-age pensions and, 3:1664, 1665
peace movements and, 2:1034;
4:1696, 1698
piano playing by, 1:439
pornography and, 4:1834
poster images of, 4:1846
2798
Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1864, 1865,
1865
professional barriers for, 4:1881
as professionals, 2:728
propriety and, 3:1438–1439
prostitution and, 4:1882–1886,
2301
Protestantism and, 4:1891
psychology of, 4:1909
Red Cross service and, 3:1650
reform societies and, 1:119
reproductive rights and,
4:2041–2042
republicanism and, 4:1961–1962
Revolutions of 1848 and,
4:1991–1992, 1995
Romanticism and, 4:2029
Saint-Simonian view of, 4:2081
in science, 2:594–596
in Second Industrial Revolution
workforce, 1:352
sewing and, 4:2158, 2159
sewing machine and, 4:2158–2160
sexuality and, 4:2161, 2164
sports and, 4:2241, 2245–2246
strikes and, 4:2266; 5:2488
as subjects of sexualized anticlerical
writing, 1:70
supposed superior sensibility of,
2:945–946
as teachers, 2:721, 723, 724,
727–728, 945; 3:1680
as telephone operators, 5:2308
temperance movements and,
1:36, 37
as textile workers, 2:647
tobacco use by, 5:2314, 2315, 2315
tourism and, 5:2326–2331
universities and, 2:728, 945, 1016;
3:1377, 1399; 5:2385, 2387,
2388, 2390
utopian socialism and, 1:338; 4:1831
Vietnam and, 3:1138
voluntary associations and, 1:120
Weininger on, 5:2449
welfare initiatives and, 5:2450, 2451,
2454
as white-collar workers, 1:473
in workforce, 2:697, 943, 944–945,
947; 3:1470, 1471
in working class, 5:2487–2488, 2488
working class rights movement and,
1:459
writing as acceptable occupation for,
1:130
E U R O P E
See also feminism; gender; women’s
suffrage
Women Carrying Jeanne Deroin in
Triumph (illustration), 2:651
Women in the Garden (Monet), 1:482
Women of Algiers in Their Apartment
(Delacroix), 2:640
Women’s March on Versailles (1789),
4:1728
women’s movement. See feminism
women’s rights. See feminism
Women’s Rights (France), 4:2279
Women’s Rights Convention (Seneca
Falls, N.Y., 1848), 2:804
Women’s Social and Political Union
(Britain), 2:798, 805, 1044;
4:1714, 2280
Women’s Solidarity, 4:1761–1762
women’s suffrage, 1:67, 290;
2:805–806, 947; 4:2276,
2278–2281, 2278, 2280
Australia and, 1:136
Britain and, 1:115, 332; 2:625, 626,
797–799, 805–806, 806, 947,
1008, 1044
British militant tactics for, 1:115;
2:805–806, 1012; 4:1714, 1715,
1761
Finland and, 2:823, 947
France and, 1:127–128; 2:650–651,
697; 4:1761, 1929, 1998, 2279
French women’s long-time denial of,
2:650
Germany and, 1:129, 189; 2:675
Greek denial of, 2:1021
Italy and, 3:1277, 1555–1556
labor movements and, 3:1292
Mill (Harriet Taylor) on, 3:1509
Mill (John Stuart) advocacy of,
2:1008
Netherlands and, 3:1616, 1619,
1620
New Zealand as first to grant, 3:1623
politique de l’assaut strategy for,
4:1998
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1992
socialist support for, 3:1293
Suttner and, 4:2282
United States and, 1:67
Wales and, 5:2436
Wollstonecraft on, 5:2480, 2481
Wonderful Adventures of Nils, The
(Lagerlöf), 4:2287
Wonderful Visit, The (Wells), 5:2458
Wondrous Tale of Alroy, The (Disraeli),
2:672
wood. See timber
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Wood, Roger, 3:1486
Woodcraft Indians (youth group),
1:159
woodcut prints, 1:246; 3:1489; 4:1823
Munch and, 3:159, 1558
Japan and, 1:109, 111, 192
Wood Demon, The (Chekhov), 1:423
Woodlanders, The (Hardy), 2:1045
Woodside, Alexander, 3:1137
Woodville, R. Caton, 4:1739
wool
Australia and, 1:134, 135; 2:505
Belgian manufacture of, 1:201,
492–493; 2:791
British factories and, 2:791; 3:1149
French machine breaking and,
3:1411
machine breaking and, 4:2264
New Zealand export of, 3:1623
Woolf, Leonard, 4:2258; 5:2445
Woolf, Virginia, 1:299; 2:835, 989;
4:1905, 2253, 2258, 2259;
5:2445, 2459
Woolfall, David Burley, 2:834
Woolner, Thomas, 4:1863, 1864
Woolwich. See Royal Military Academy
Wordsworth, Dorothy, 4:2029;
5:2481, 2482
Wordsworth, William, 1:102, 428;
2:1078; 3:1512; 5:2327,
2481–2483
as Coleridge influence, 1:496, 497
on Ladies of Llangollen, 2:1084
on Malthus’s heartlessness, 3:1426
Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1513
Romanticism and, 2:543; 4:2027,
2029–2031; 5:2481–2482
workday/workweek, 1:285, 288, 401;
2:793
leisure and, 4:1824
Owen reforms and, 3:1692
Ten Hour Bill and, 1:417; 4:1824
workers. See labor; labor movement;
working class
Workers’ Accident Insurance Institute
(Prague), 3:1242
Workers and Employers Luxembourg
Commission, 1:247
workers’ associations
Christian Socialism and,
4:2208–2209
Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987, 1991
Roland and, 4:2013
Workers’ Brotherhood (Germany),
3:1287
Workers in the Dawn (Gissing),
2:974–975
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory
(film), 1:441; 4:1824
Workers’ Opposition (Russia), 1:62
Workers’ Question and Christianity,
The (Ketteler), 4:2208–2209
Workers’ Union (Tristan), 5:2358, 2397
workhouses, 1:351, 359, 415; 4:1848;
5:2450, 2454
Chadwick test and, 1:401
disease and, 3:1649
as Malthus proposal, 2:715
New Poor Law and, 4:1820, 1848
working class, 1:473–475;
5:2483–2493, 2486
Action Française and, 1:5
Amsterdam socialists and, 1:55
anarchism and, 1:56, 58, 59
anti-Corn Laws movement and,
2:558, 559, 560
art nouveau housing for, 1:109
Bakunin’s vs. Marx’s tactics and,
1:162
Barcelona conditions and,
1:181, 183
baths and spas and, 5:2327, 2328
in Belgium, 1:201–202, 203
as Berlin subculture, 1:219, 220
Bohemian Lands impoverishment of,
1:261
British capitalism and, 2:1006–1007
British education reformists and,
1:303
British Labour Party and, 3:1297
British Methodists as, 2:1002
British suffrage expansion and,
2:1008, 1009
British unrest and, 2:1010, 1011
in Brussels, 1:305, 307
in Budapest, 1:310
Cabet and, 1:337–338
capitalism and, 1:352, 356; 2:716
Catholicism and, 1:382, 383, 387,
389, 394
Center Party (Germany) and, 1:394
Chartism and, 1:416–417, 418;
2:559, 1003; 3:1286, 1390,
1657–1658
child labor advocacy and, 2:708
children and, 1:431
cholera conspiracy theories and,
2:669
Christian Socialism and, 4:2208;
5:2488
city life and, 1:447–449, 450, 452,
453, 455
Combination Acts and, 2:510–511
INDEX
communism and, 2:521, 522
components of, 1:473–475
consumerism and, 2:549–550, 555
cooperatives and, 1:247; 2:555–557
criminality and, 2:572
Crystal Palace at Sydenham and,
2:589
death rates of, 2:628
diet of, 2:658–659
disease and, 2:668, 670
diversity and change in,
5:2491–2492
Dublin and, 2:691
education and, 1:431; 2:723–726
factory paternalism and, 1:446;
2:793
factory towns and, 1:446
First Industrial Revolutions effects
on, 1:350–351
First International and, 3:1289
French feminism and, 2:650–651
French Radicals and, 4:1929, 1930
French sans-culottes as, 1:111;
2:844, 887, 890, 893
furniture and, 2:912–913
gender ideology and, 2:943, 944;
3:1741; 5:2483–2484
in Hamburg, 2:1041
housing and, 2:1087–1089,
1090–1092
Leftists and Rightists, 5:2488–2489
leisure and, 1:288; 3:1323, 1324,
1325, 1326; 4:1824
Lenin and, 3:1327, 1328, 1329,
1401
Leo XIII’s concern for,
3:1331–1332; 4:1720
libraries and, 3:1352
in London, 3:1374, 1374
lower-middle-class alliance with,
1:472–473
Luddism and, 3:1391–1392
machine breaking and, 3:1410–1412
in Manchester, 3:1428, 1430
marriage and family and,
3:1455–1456
Marxism and, 3:1382, 1464
Mazzini and, 3:1481
Menshevik view of, 3:1488
Milan and, 3:1504
in Moscow, 3:1553–1554
museum visits by, 3:1563
naturalist portrayal of, 4:1947
newspapers and, 4:1866, 1867,
1868, 1870–1871, 1872
2799
INDEX
new womanhood and, 2:947
Owen reforms and, 3:1692
in Paris, 4:1727–1728, 1732–1733,
1733, 1734
Paris Commune and, 4:1736
parliamentarian demands of, 2:567
pensions and, 3:1664–1665
in Poland, 4:1811, 1812
police and, 4:1814, 1815, 1817
prostitution and, 4:1883, 1884,
1885, 1886
realist portrayal of, 4:1946–1947
rights movements and, 1:459
seaside resorts and, 4:2125, 2126
Second Industrial Revolution and,
1:352
Second International and, 3:1294
separate spheres ideology and, 2:943
sexuality and, 4:2161–2162
shopkeeping and, 1:472–473
Smiles’s view of, 4:2199–2200
sociability and, 3:1439–1440
socialism and, 1:474; 3:1294
solidarity and, 5:2484–2486
state-sponsored social insurance and,
1:356, 459
strikes and, 4:1930, 2266; 5:2484,
2485, 2488
in Switzerland, 4:2290–2291
syndicalism and, 1:56, 59, 61, 62
temperance movements and, 1:36
tobacco use by, 5:2314
tourism and, 5:2328, 2329
travel and, 4:1824
typhus epidemic and, 2:670
university students and, 5:2387
urban housing of, 2:1087; 4:1912
vaccination opposition and, 4:2198
in Vietnam, 3:1143
welfare initiatives for, 5:2451–2454,
2456
women in workforce from,
5:2487–2488, 2488, 2491
See also labor movements
Working-Class International (France),
3:1292
Working Men’s Association, 4:2277
Works (Fichte), 2:814
workshops, factories vs., 2:788–789,
790
Works of Love (Kierkegaard), 3:1251,
1252
World as Will and Representation, The
(Schopenhauer), 4:2029, 2103,
2104
World Court, 4:1697
2800
World League for Sexual Reform,
2:1071
World of Art, The (St. Petersburg
journal), 2:654; 4:1957, 1958
World of Art group, 4:2181
World Prohibition Federation, 1:37
World’s Columbian Exposition
(Chicago, 1893), 2:589; 4:2009;
5:2503
World Set Free, The (Wells), 5:2459
world’s fairs, 2:589; 5:2493–2506
art nouveau exhibitions, 1:108,
111, 113
Barcelona (1888), 1:182–183
Budapest (1896), 1:310, 311
colonial exhibits and, 2:815
electricity and, 2:742, 815
food pavilions in, 4:1967
impact of, 5:2504–2506
imperialism and, 4:1875
Krupp steel displays at, 3:1274
London, 5:2496, 2496, 2498
See also Great Exhibition of 1851
Milan and, 3:1502
Paris and. See Exposition Universelle
primitive artifacts and, 4:1875
World’s Woman’s Christian
Temperance Union, 1:37
World War I
absinthe ban and, 1:4, 37
Action Française and, 1:5
Adler (Victor) and, 1:11
African colonialism and, 1:22
aircraft and, 1:31
alcohol production and, 1:37
alliance system as factor in, 1:47–50,
146, 232; 2:527, 968–969
anarchosyndicalism and, 1:62
armies and, 1:93, 101
assassination of Francis Ferdinand
and, 1:207, 242–243, 277;
2:663–664, 862, 865, 961;
3:1628; 4:2149
Australian troops and, 1:136
Austria-Hungary and, 1:146; 2:862,
863, 865, 968–969; 3:1203
automobile and, 1:151; 5:2352
Balkan Wars as prelude to, 1:163,
166; 2:663, 704–705
Belgian neutrality and, 1:199, 205
Bergson and, 1:214–215
Bernstein and, 1:231
Bethmann Hollweg’s view of, 1:232;
2:969
Bosphorus and, 1:278
Britain and, 2:1013
E U R O P E
Bulgaria and, 1:313
Caillaux’s arrest and, 1:339
Canada and, 1:346–347
casualties of, 1:101
Chamberlain (Houston) propaganda
and, 1:404
Charcot’s hysteria theories and, 1:410
China and, 1:435
Clemenceau and, 1:480
colonial troops and, 1:501
Concert of Europe’s obsolescence
and, 2:527, 565
cubism and, 2:593
curbs on liberal ideals and,
3:1349–1350
Curie (Marie and Irène) medical
work in, 2:596
Curzon and, 2:598
Czech independence and, 1:263–264
D’Annunzio and, 2:609–610
declaration of, 2:664
degeneracy labels and, 2:639
Delcassé and, 2:643
Diaghilev and, 2:655
diplomatic breakdown and, 2:664
Dreadnaught and, 2:683
dueling cultures effect of, 2:696
Eastern Question and, 2:704–705
Egypt and, 2:734
Eurasianism and, 2:775
events leading to, 1:240, 278;
2:663–664, 861–862, 968–969;
3:1546
fin de siècle as era prior to, 2:817
Forster and, 2:836
Francis Joseph and, 2:862, 863, 865
French approach to, 2:859
French feminism and, 2:697
Freud and, 2:908
Geneva Convention and, 2:953
German ‘‘encirclement’’ fears and,
1:48, 49; 2:526, 527;
3:1545–1546, 1549
German Mitteleuropa aims and,
2:960
German naval weakness and, 3:1611
German political rhetoric and,
2:968–969
German weapons and, 1:99
German women’s movement and,
1:189
Guesde and, 2:1026
Hague Conventions and, 2:1035
historical views of, 2:1033
Hoffmannsthal and, 2:1076, 1077
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

India and, 1:501
Ireland and, 3:1185
Italian politics and, 2:921, 972
Italy and, 2:609–610; 3:1202–1203,
1277
Japan and, 1:434
Jaurès and, 3:1214, 1218
Kadets and, 3:1242, 1519
Kandinsky and, 3:1245
Kipling and, 3:1257
Kitchener and, 3:1258
Kropotkin and, 3:1273
Kuliscioff and, 3:1277
Lasker-Schüler and, 3:1309
Lenin and, 3:1329
List and, 3:1357
Lloyd George and, 3:1370
Mann and, 3:1435
masculine response to, 3:1473
mass deaths and, 2:628, 629
military tactics and, 1:100–101
military technology and, 3:1507,
1508
Milyukov and, 3:1519
modernism and, 3:1531
monarchs toppled by, 2:568
Montenegro and, 3:1541
nationalist rhetorics and, 3:1606
New Zealand troops in, 3:1624
nurses and, 3:1650
Ottoman Empire and, 1:92, 166
pacifists and, 3:146, 1425; 4:16981
patriotism and, 4:1826
Péguys death in, 4:1761
photography and, 4:1773–1774
Planck and, 4:1799
Plekhanov and, 4:1801
pogroms and, 4:1803
Poincaré (Raymond) and, 4:1805,
1806
Poland and, 2:753; 4:1819
Portugal and, 4:1842–1843
Prague and, 4:1861
protectionist propaganda and, 2:515
psychoanalysis and, 4:1906
Red Cross and, 3:1650
Romania and, 4:2017
Rothschilds and, 4:2041
Russia and, 3:1519, 1628; 4:2079
Russian-French alliance and, 1:41
Russian royal family and, 1:42
Russian withdrawal from, 2:522
Schiele and, 4:2090–2091
Schlieffen Plan and, 3:1508;
4:2099
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
seaside resorts and, 4:2126
Second International and, 4:2128
Shaw’s opposition to, 4:2167
shell-shock cases and, 1:410; 3:1507;
4:1906
socialist revolutionaries and,
4:2211
Spain and, 4:2232
submarine warfare and, 3:1611
Suez Canal and, 4:2276
Switzerland and, 4:2291
syndicalism and, 4:2299
Tirpitz and, 5:2312–2313
Triple Alliance and, 3:1202–1203
Tunisia and, 5:2363
Turkestan and, 1:397
Vietnamese troops in, 3:1144
wine industry and, 5:2478
women’s suffrage activists and,
2:798, 806–807
women’s suffrage and, 4:1714
working class and, 5:2492
Zasulich and, 5:2518
World War II, 2:817
airplanes and, 1:31
Einstein and, 2:740
Geneva Conventions and, 2:953
Mann and, 3:1435, 1436
Maurras and, 3:1477
Planck and, 4:1800
Rothschilds and, 4:2041
Russia and, 4:2079
World Zionist Organization, 2:685
Worringer, Wilhellm, 1:155
Worshipful Society of Apothecaries
(London), 3:1376
Worship of Bacchus, The (Cruikshank),
2:587
Worth, Charles Frederick, 1:481–483
Wounded Cuirassier (Géricault), 2:955
Wounds of Armenia (Abovian), 1:88
wound treatment, 3:1358
Wozzeck (Berg), 3:1676
Wrangel, Ferdinand, 2:819
Wrangel, Friedrich von, 2:961
Wrangel, Peter, 4:2271
Wren, Christopher, 2:757
Wright, Frances (Fanny), 3:1288,
1300
Wright, Frank Lloyd, 1:192; 5:2422
Wright brothers (Orville and Wilbur),
1:29, 30, 31; 3:1163;
4:2114–2115
writing. See literacy; literature
Writings on the Poor Laws (Bentham),
4:1847–1848
INDEX
Wrongs of Women, The
(Wollstonecraft), 5:2480
WSPU. See Women’s Social and
Political Union
Wuchale, Treaty of (1889). See Ucciali,
Treaty of
Wulz, Giuseppe, 5:2355
Wundt, Wilhelm, 2:1099; 3:1238;
4:1908, 1909; 5:2506–2508
on Schopenhauer, 4:2104
Wupper, Die (Lasker-Schüler), 3:1309
Württemberg, 1:236, 369
List as U.S. consul in, 3:1357
Napoleon and, 2:901, 957
Prussia and, 2:867, 964; 4:1901
written constitution of, 1:457; 2:959
Wuthering Heights (E. Brontë), 1:301,
302
Wyndham Act of 1903 (Britain),
2:1011; 3:1181
n
X
Xanthos, Emmanuel, 2:1019
X Club, 4:2233
xenophobia, 1:433, 440; 2:685, 859
Xhosa, 4:2219, 2221
Xiamen, 3:1679
Xieng Khouang, 3:1142
x-rays, 2:594, 596; 3:1398; 4:1804,
2012, 2070
n
Y
Yaik Cossacks, 2:562
Yalu, Battle of the (1904), 4:2065,
2171
yangwu yundong movement, 1:435
Yanina, Albania and, 1:32
Yearbook for Psychoanalytic and
Psychopathological Investigations,
2:906
Yearbook for Sexual Intermediate Types
(Hirschfeld, ed.), 2:1071, 1086
Yeats, William Butler, 1:246; 3:1183;
4:1742, 1746; 5:2310,
2509–2510
Yekaterinburg (Russia), 1:42
Yellow Book, The (avant-garde
periodical), 1:192; 2:633
yellow journalism, 4:1872
‘‘Yellow Peril,’’ 4:2172
Yellow Sound (Kandinsky), 3:1245
2801
INDEX
Yellow Submarine, The (Max graphics),
1:192
Yeni Camii (Istanbul), 3:1189
Yesenin, Sergei, 4:2183
Yevgeny Onegin (Pushkin), 1:208
Yiddish language, 1:314, 447; 3:1113,
1366, 1368, 1526
Ymagier, L’ (art journal), 3:1213
Yokohama, 3:1209, 1210
Yorck von Wartenburg, Paul, 2:660
York, 4:1853
Yorkshire, 1:445
Luddite rebellion in, 3:1392, 1410
wool industry in, 3:1149
worker housing in, 2:1089
Yorkshire Miners’ Associations, 3:1288
Yoruba, 1:15
Youmans, Edward L., 4:2233
Young, Arthur, 1:358
Young, Brigham, 1:338
Young, Robert, 2:617
Young, Thomas, 1:407
Young America, 5:2514
Young Czechs and Old Czechs,
4:1469, 1712, 1859, 1860;
5:2510–2511
Young England, 2:672
Young Estonia, 2:822
Young Europe, 3:1195, 1480; 4:2016,
2131
Young Finnish Party, 2:822
Young Germany, 2:754
Young Girl at Her Toilet (Corot),
4:1707
Young Girls at the Piano (Renoir),
4:1955–1956
Young Hegelians, 2:754; 3:1463,
1464; 4:2203; 5:2511–2513
Younghusband, Francis Edward, 2:597
Young Ireland, 3:1656; 5:2514
Young Italy, 1:361, 414;
5:2513–2514
Garibaldi and, 2:930
Mazzini and, 3:1194–1195, 1480;
4:1989, 2001–2002, 2131;
5:2513–2514
Young Ladies of the Village (Courbet),
2:568
Young Medardus (Schnitzler), 4:2100
Young Russia, 4:2052
Young Spartans Exercising (Degas),
2:634
Young Törless (Musil), 3:1574
Young Turks, 3:1682, 1689;
5:2514–2516
Abdul-Hamid II and, 1:1; 3:1690,
1691
Albania and, 1:32
2802
Armenian Question and, 1:92
Austria-Hungary and, 1:146
Balkans and, 2:704–705
Balkan Wars and, 1:163, 164
Bulgaria and, 1:313
Germany and, 1:278
Istanbul and, 3:1190
jadidism and, 3:1207
Jaurès’s support for, 3:1217
revolution of 1908 and, 3:1691
Youth (Tolstoy), 5:2318
youth gangs, 2:575
Ypsilantis, Alexander, 2:1019;
4:1981–1982
Ysaye, Eugène-Auguste, 1:307
Yuan Ming Yuan (Beijing palace),
3:1680
Yugoslavia, 1:207; 2:610, 972
See also Serbia
YWCA (Young Women’s Christian
Association), 1:36
n Zhelyabov, Andrei, 4:1832
Z Zhukovsky, Vasily, 1:249; 2:979
Zabaldone di pensieri (Leopardi), 3:1333
Zabern, 2:968
zadrugas, 4:2141, 2147
Zagreb, 2:924, 925; 3:1220
Zaionchkovsky, Peter A., 2:1014
Zaitsev, Varfolomei, 3:1639, 1640
Zambezi River, 2:783
Zamore et Mirza (Gouges), 2:994
Zamoskvoreche (Moscow
neighborhood), 3:1553
Zamoyski, Andrzej, 4:1809
Zanardelli, Giuseppe, 2:971; 3:1201;
5:2363–2364
Zanzibar, 1:16, 17; 2:783; 4:2191
slave trade ban and, 1:308, 309
Zapiski iz myortogo doma
(Dostoyevsky), 2:678
Zapiski iz podpolya (Dostoyevsky),
2:678
Zaporozhet, P. K., 1:266
Zaporozhian Cossacks, 5:2370
Zappas Games (Athens), 3:1666
Zaragoza, siege of, 4:1764
Zaragoza Medical Faculty, 1:341
Zarathustra (Nietzsche concept),
3:1629, 1632, 1633–1634
zarzuela, 3:1414
Zastoupil, Lynn, 3:1514
Zasulich, Vera, 1:264, 265;
4:1767–1768, 1832;
5:2517–2518
E U R O P E
Zauberflöte, Die (Mozart), 3:1673,
1674; 4:2092; 5:2417
Zdanevich, Ilya, 1:157
Zealand, 2:647
Zeit Constantins des Grossen, Die
(Burckhardt), 1:317
Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie
(journal), 1:426
Zelanti, 2:539
Zelmira (Rossini), 4:2038
Zemlinsky, Alexander von, 4:2101
Zemlinsky, Mathilde von, 4:2102
Zemlya Volya. See Land and Liberty
Zemo of Citium, 1:55
Zemp, Joseph, 4:2291
Zemstvo Octobrists, 3:1660
zemstvos, 1:39; 2:1014, 1016, 1017;
3:1518; 4:1975, 2051, 2270
Octobrists and, 3:1658–1659
radical statisticians and, 4:1832
Zemtsov, Mikhail, 4:2076
Zeno’s Conscience (Svevo), 5:2356
Zentrum. See Center Party
Zeppelins, 3:1163
Zetkin, Clara, 2:805, 946; 3:1293
Zigeuner, Die (Grellmann), 4:2022
Zigeunerbaron, Der (Strauss), 4:2261
Zigeuner-Buch (Dillmann), 4:2023
Zille, Heinrich, 1:219
Zimmerman, A. A., 2:601
Zionism, 3:1233, 1366; 5:2518–2522
anti-Semitism and, 1:76, 77
Austrian origin of, 3:1526
Bund’s aims contrasted with,
1:313, 314
Dreyfus affair as impetus for, 2:685
Herzl and, 1:76, 77; 2:1066, 1067,
1068–1069; 5:2518, 2520–2521
Jewish emancipation and, 3:1227
Nordau and, 2:638
Zipernowsky, Károly, 2:741
Zipes, Jack, 2:1023
ziqiang yungdong movement, 1:435
Zoetrope, 1:441
Zoist, The (journal), 3:1491
Zola, Émile, 2:830; 4:1730;
5:2522–2524, 2523, 2524
Cézanne friendship with, 1:397,
398, 399
Crystal Palace and, 2:590
Degas friendship with, 2:634
degeneration and, 2:638, 650, 816
on department stores, 1:289; 2:548
Dreyfus defense by, 1:480; 2:684,
685, 685, 858; 3:1168, 1216;
5:2523–2524
1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4

Flaubert and, 2:827; 5:2523
Gissing compared with, 2:975
Goncourt brothers as influence on,
2:991
Huysmans and, 2:1104
on impressionist painting, 3:1132
as intellectual, 3:1167
on leisure activities, 3:1323, 1325
as Manet defender, 3:1433; 4:1708
naturalism and, 4:2292;
5:2522–2524
obscenity battle and, 4:1833
Pissarro and, 4:1793
publisher of works of, 4:1955
realism and, 2:991
as Sand critic, 4:2084
sexual anticlericalism and, 1:70
Suez Canal opening and, 4:2274
Turgenev and, 5:2365, 2523
Zöllner, Carl Friedrich, 4:2238
Zollverein, 1:171, 487; 2:505, 512;
5:2524–2526
conservatives and, 2:540
E U R O P E 1 7 8 9 TO 1 9 1 4
founding of, 2:960; 3:1538
Hamburg and, 2:1040
liberals and, 3:1346
List’s approval of, 3:1357
Prussian diplomacy for, 4:1901
Zoloto v lazuri (Bely), 1:209
Zongli Yamen (Chinese ministry),
1:435
zoology
Agassiz comparative, 1:22–23
Cuvier taxonomy, 2:598–599;
3:1563
degeneration and, 2:238
Haeckel and, 2:1031–1032
Huxley and, 2:1101–1102
Lamarck and, 3:1301, 1302–1303
natural selection and, 2:617
Zoonomia (E. Darwin), 2:777
Zorn, Anders Leonard, 4:1948
Zoroaster, 3:1634
Zorrilla, José, 2:951
Zouaves, 4:1726
Zuber, Terence, 4:2099
Zulian, Girolamo, 1:347
INDEX
Zulu kingdom, 1:17, 18, 99; 4:2219,
2220, 2223
Britain and, 2:1009; 3:1118
military tactics and, 1:99
Zumalacárregui y de Imaz, Tomás de,
4:2229
Zum ewigen Frieden (Kant), 2:953
Zur Geschichte der Religion und
Philosophie in Deutschland
(Heine), 2:1056
Zurich
Brentano in, 1:298–299
Burckhardt in, 1:317
female teachers in, 2:724
Jung in, 3:1238–1240
psychoanalysis and, 4:1905
women medical students in, 2:728
Zurich Psychoanalytic Association,
3:1240
Zwanzigste Jahrhundert, Das (journal),
3:1435
Zweig, Stefan, 3:1629
Zwölfjährige Jesus im Tempel, Der
(Liebermann), 3:1353
2803