Introduction to Biomechanics:

lecture 3
ASU: MCT 342
UEL: EG8537
Spring 2021

• Associate Prof Aliaa Rehan Youssef

• e10006@eng.asu.edu.eg
 Kinetics
• Introduction
• Force
• Gravitational force
• CoM, LoG, & stability

2
 Kinetics
• To define kinetics
• To describe force
• To describe gravitational force
• To identify how body stability is maintained

3
 Biomechanics

• Kinematics
– description of motion
– considers time, displacement, velocity, acceleration, and
space factors of a system s motion
• Kinetics
– study of forces associated with the motion of a body
– Such as torque, mass, force

4
 Biomechanics

Kinematics Kinetics

Linear Angular Linear Angular

Force Torque
Position Position
Velocity Velocity
Acceleration Acceleration
 What are forces applied to human body?
• linear or Translatory force.
• Rotatory Torque
 Remember
• Load: general term that describes the application of a force to
a body
• Mass: quantity of matter in an object
• Weight: gravitational force acting on a mass (mass * 9.8).
• Force of gravity: potential acceleration of a body toward the
center of the earth as a result of gravity.
Basic forces
 Basic forces
• Tension: application of one or more forces that pulls apart or separates a
material (also called a distraction force). Used to denote the internal stress
within a tissue as it resists being stretched.

• Compression: a force, applied perpendicularly to the contact surface, that

pushes or pulls one object directly against another.

• Bending: effect of a force that deforms a material at right angles to its long
axis. A bent tissue is compressed on its concave side and placed under
tension on its convex side. A bending moment is a quantitative measure of
a bend. Similar to a torque, a bending moment is the product of the
bending force and the perpendicular distance between the force and the
axis of rotation of the bend.
 Basic forces
• Shear: a force produced as two compressed objects slide past each
other in opposite directions (like the action of two blades on a pair
of scissors).

• Torsion: application of a force that twists a material around its

longitudinal axis.

• Distraction: a force, applied perpendicularly to the contact surface,

that pushes or pulls one object directly away from another.

• Friction: resistance to movement between two contacting surfaces.

 Forces
Internal
• Produced from structures located
within the body
• May be “active” or “passive.”
• Active: by muscles
• Passive: Connective tissues
• Initiate, control or counter act
movements created by external force
or internal forces
External
• Produced by forces acting from
outside the body.
• Either gravitational force or external
load
• Gravitational force: pulling on the
mass of a body segment
• External load: such as other
objects, people, …
• External forces can either facilitate or
restrict movement.
 Forces
Internal External

•muscle, ligamnets, •Gravitational force:

bones…. pulling on the mass
of a body segment
•External load: such
as other objects,
people,
 motion/
Internal??? External???
equilibrium
 Naming Force
• We use “something-on-something” to identify forces and label
vectors.
• The first part of the force name will always identify the source
of the force;
• The second part of the force name will always identify the
object or segment that is being acted on.
Force as a vector
Force as a vector
 Force as a vector

Spatial orientation

Direction

Magnitude
Poi
app nt o
lica f
tio
n
 Describe the force vector:
weightboot-on-legfoot (WbLf)

The first part of the force name will always identify the source
of the force;
The second part of the force name will always identify the
object or segment that is being acted on.
 The force vector WbLf.
• The force vector WbLf is an external force because the weight
boot is not part of the body, although it contacts the body.
• The point of application is on the leg (closest to where the
weight boot exerts its pull);
• The action line and direction indicate the direction of the pull
and the angle of pull in relation to the leg;
• The length is drawn to represent the magnitude of the pull.
 Describe the force vector:
muscle-on-forearmhand (the vector MFh)
 Describe the force vector:
muscle-on-forearmhand (the vector MFh)
• Internal muscle force (e.g., the brachialis) pulling on the
forearm-hand segment.
• The point of application is at the attachment of the muscle
• The orientation and direction are toward the muscle (pulls are
toward the source of the force) at an angle to the segment.
 Forces
Internal External

•muscle, ligamnets, •Gravitational force:

bones…. pulling on the mass
of a body segment
•External load: such
as other objects,
people,
 Segmental centers of mass (CoM) & composition of
Gravitational Forces
GA: Gravity acting on the arm
segment
GF: Gravity acting on the forearm
segment
GH: Gravity acting on the hand
segment
GFh: Gravity acting on the arm and
forearm-hand segments.

GFh: Gravity acting on the arm and forearm-hand

segments.
GAfh: Gravity acting on the arm-forearm-hand segment.
Segmental centers of mass (CoM) & composition of
Gravitational Forces
• CoM is the point around which a segment is balanced
• Each segment has it segmental CoM and LoG
• The position of CoM is determined by experiments
• When multiple segments act together (as rigid link), a new CoM
– Equal masses: at the center of new segment
– Unequal masses: closer to the heavier mass
– A new vector force vector will be equal to the original two vectors
(resultant force)
– Combining two or more forces into a single resultant force is called
(composition of forces)
 Gravitational Force
• The gravitational force: a force vector
– Magnitude: mass X 9.8
– Point of application: center of mass (CoM) or center of Gravity (CoG)
of the object
– Orientation/Direction: vertical downwards
– The gravitational vector s called Line f Gravity (LoG)
– The length of LOG determines the magnitude of force
 CoM & LoG of human body
• In the resting anatomic position, it is located in front of sacral vertebrae 2, S2

CoG

LOG: falls
within the base
of Support
(BoS) The base of support (BOS): the area
beneath an object or person. It includes
every point of contact that the object or
person makes with the supporting
surface.
Muscle force

Point of
orientation
application
 Muscle force
• Internal force
– Active or passive tension in a muscle creates a force (a pull) on all segments to which the muscle
is attached.
– Causes angular motion (moment/torque) and translational motion.
• The point of application of a muscle force vector is located at the point of attachment of the
muscle on the segment under consideration.
• The muscle action line is in the direction of pull that the fiber or tendons of the muscle
create at the point of application.
• Muscle vectors (like all vectors) continue in a straight line from the point of application
(regardless of any change in direction of muscle fiber or tendon after the point of
application).
• The magnitude of a muscle force is generally a hypothetical or theoretical value because the
absolute force of a muscle’s pull on its attachments cannot be measured in most living
subjects.
– Determined from cadavers and radiographic imaging
 Torque (moment)
• A rotatory force: acting at a distance from the center of
rotation of a segment
• Rotate a segment around an axis of rotation
– A force acting without a moment arm can push and pull an object
generally in a linear fashion
– Torque = Force * moment arm
– Moment arm: the perpendicular distance between the axis of
rotation of the joint and the force.
– At equilibrium: all torques = zero (ℰ " = 0)
 So what? Can you reflect?
• How can you measure force?
• How you can use this information?
 Now it is the time to understand!!
• How the forces applied to the body can change human
motion?

i.e. How does kinetics explain kinematics?

 What Newton’s first law is about?

• Static equilibrium
• Dynamic equilibrium
• Mass
• Center of gravity
• Inertia
• Mass moment of inertia
 What is Newton’s law is about: Equilibrium

Static equilibrium Dynamic equilibrium

• its linear and rotational • its linear and/or its

velocities are zero—the rotational velocity is >
body is not moving. zero, but is constant.
• the linear and rotational • the linear and rotational
accelerations of the body accelerations of the body
are zero. are zero.
 Dynamic equilibrium
• Moving at a constant velocity
• E.g. elevator

• If no changes in velocity: acceleration is zero…Force is zero

 Inertia
• Object resistance to
– the initiation of motion
– change in motion.
• It is directly proportional to its mass.
– It is related to the amount of energy required to alter the velocity of a
body.
– The greater the mass, the more energy is required
 Mass Moment of Inertia
• Body resistance to a change in angular velocity.
– Symbol: I
– Unit: kilograms-meters squared
• Depends on both
– the mass of the body
– the distribution of its mass with respect to an axis of rotation.
– kg-m2.
• Because most human motion is angular rather than linear, the
concept of mass moment of inertia is very relevant and important.
 Which is farther, distances of the centers of mass of
Rt or Lt limb?

The right extended (and “longer”) lower extremity has a greater mass moment of inertia than the left.
 So what?
• The ability to actively change an entire limb’s mass moment of
inertia
– increase the muscle forces and joint torques necessary for movement.
• Left lower extremity:
– The lower limb’s reduced mass moment of inertia reduces the torque
required by the hip muscles to accelerate and decelerate the limb during
swing phase (decreased I).
• Right extended lower extremity:
– Increased I
 Applications
• Light Vs heavy shoes:
– Changing footwear can also make a difference.
– Lighter shoes: CoM moves proximal, I decreased, torque decreased
 Applications

• Divers who reduce their moment of inertia in order to successfully complete multiple somersaults while in the air
• Reducing the body’s mass moment of inertia results in an increased angular velocity
• Maximizing the body’s mass moment of inertia and greatly slows the body’s angular velocity.
 Applications

e r ?
slow
ch is
h i
W
 What Newton’s second law is about?

• Inertia
• Mass moment of inertia
• Acceleration
• Impulse
• Momentum
• Work
• Energy
• power
Newton’s Second law
 Applications
• A large unbalanced push or pull (F unbalanced) applied to an object of a
given mass (m) will produce more acceleration (a) than an unbalanced
small push or pull.
• Inertia is resistance to acceleration and is proportional to the mass of the
body or object.
• The greater the mass of an object, the greater the magnitude of net
unbalanced force needed either to get the object moving or to change its
motion.
• The acceleration of an object will be in the direction of the net unbalanced
force.
• A net unbalanced force can produce translatory, rotatory, or general
motion.
 Lesson learned from the law of acceleration
• The force (torque)-acceleration relationship
• Impulse-Momentum Relationship
• Work-Energy Relationship
 Force-acceleration relationship: a cause-effect

• The left side of the equation, force (F), can be

regarded as a cause because it represents a pull or the right side, m*a, represents the effect
push exerted on a body. of the pull or push.
• ΣF designates the sum of, or net, forces acting on a
body.
 Remember
• If the sum of the forces acting on a body is zero, acceleration is
also zero and the body is in linear equilibrium (Newton’s first
law).

• If, the net force produces acceleration, the body will accelerate
in the direction of the resultant force. In this case, the body is
no longer in equilibrium
 Another relationship, which?

Torque is expressed in newton-meters, where 1 Nm = 1kg-m2 X radians/sec2.

• Torque-angular acceleration relationship

• The angular acceleration of a rotating segment is proportional to the
torque (i.e., the product of the muscle force and its internal moment
arm) but is inversely proportional to the mass moment of inertia
 Which is farther, distances of the centers of mass of
Rt or Lt limb?

The right extended (and “longer”) lower extremity has a greater mass moment of inertia than the left.
 Lesson learned from the law of acceleration
• the force (torque)-acceleration relationship
• Impulse-Momentum Relationship
• Work-Energy Relationship
 Linear Impulse-Momentum Relationship

Acceler
ation is
change th
of velo e rate of
city (Δv
/t).

linear momentum (mass

a linear impulse (force multiplied by a change in
multiplied by time) linear velocity)
 Linear Impulse-Momentum Relationship

linear momentum (mass

a linear impulse (force multiplied by a change in
multiplied by time) linear velocity)

the momentum of a moving body (p;

An impulse: Kg.m/sec).
a force applied over a Momentum: describes the quantity of
period of time motion possessed by a body.
 Angular Impulse-Momentum Relationship

Angula
r accele
rate of ration i
change s the
velocity of angu
(Δω/t). lar

angular momentum (mass moment of inertia

Angular impulse (torque
times a change in angular velocity).
multiplied by time)
 Linear Impulse-Momentum Relationship

linear momentum (mass

a linear impulse (force multiplied by a change in
multiplied by time) linear velocity)

the momentum of a moving body (p;

An impulse: Kg.m/sec).
a force applied over a Momentum: describes the quantity of
period of time motion possessed by a body.
 Linear Impulse-Momentum Relationship

Immediate stop, do we need large breaking force or small?

 Linear Impulse-Momentum Relationship
• The linear momentum of an object such as a moving car is
changed by the application of a force over a given time.
• When a quick change in momentum is required (during an
emergency stop, for instance), a very large brake force is
applied for a short time.
• Less brake force for the same time, or the same brake force for
even less time, results in a smaller change in momentum.
• Impulse and momentum are vector quantities.
How should we land?
 Applications: Injury prevention: linear momentum
• when landing from a jump, peak forces can be reduced
throughout the joints of the lower extremities if the impact of
the landing is prolonged
– by more “give” in the muscles—through a lower level and prolonged
eccentric activation.
Which is less injurious?
Are they ok?
 Applications: Injury prevention: linear momentum
• Bicycle helmets, rubber or springed flooring, and protective
padding
– Equipment designs intended to reduce injuries by increasing the
duration of impact in order to minimize the peak force of the impact.
 Lesson learned from the law of acceleration
• the force (torque)-acceleration relationship
• Impulse-Momentum Relationship
• Work-Energy Relationship
 Work-Energy Relationship
• can be used to study human movement by analyzing the
extent to which work causes a change in an object’s energy.
 Work-Energy Relationship
• What is work?
• Work occurs when a force or torque operates over some linear
or angular displacement (force moves the object for some
distance).
• Expressed in Joules (J)
 What is work?

• Linear work= the magnitude of the force (F) applied against an

object and the linear displacement of the object in the direction of
the applied force.
– No movement: no MECHANICAL work e.g. isometric contraction
• Angular work : the magnitude of the torque (T) applied against the
object, and the angular displacement of the object in the direction of
the applied torque
 Positive & negative work
• Positive work:
work is done is the direction of
applied force/torque
• Negative work:
work is done in a direction
opposite to applied
force/torque
 How about isometric contraction?
• No displacement…..no work?

• Mechanical vs metabolic work

 What is mechanical energy?
• The capacity to do physical work
 What are the types of mechanical energy?
Potential energy
• is a function of the height of the object’s center of mass (mass & position),
within a gravitational field.
Kinetic energy
• is influenced by the object’s mass and velocity (mass & velocity),
regardless of the influence of gravity.
 So what about angular energy: Work-Energy
Relationship?
• An object’s angular kinetic energy is related to its mass
moment of inertia (I) and its angular velocity.
• There is no angular correlate to potential energy.
 Work-Energy Relationship

The change in kinetic energy caused by a force applied over a given displacement.
 Remember
• The work-energy relationship does not take into account the
time over which the forces or torques are applied.
• Work and displacement are vector quantities.
• Work can be positive or negative
– Positive work: concentric muscle contraction (shortening)
– Negative work: eccentric muscle contraction
– Zero mechanical work does not mean zero metabolic work
Describe the magnitude work?
 Example

Immediate stop,
does large change in kinetic energy require large breaking force?
 Example
• The kinetic energy of an object such as a moving car is changed
by the application of a force over a displacement.
– When a quick change in kinetic energy is required (e.g., for an
emergency stop), a very large brake force is applied over a short
displacement.
– Less brake force for the same displacement or the same brake force
applied for even less displacement results in a smaller change in
kinetic energy.
 Power
• Power: the rate of performing work.
– The ability for muscles to generate adequate power may be critical to
the success of movement or to the understanding of the impact of a
treatment intervention.
 Power
• Example 2, in a basketball court, it is often the player’s vertical
speed at takeoff that determines success in achieving a
rebound.
 Power
• Example 1, an elderly sick person must cross a busy street in
the time determined by a pedestrian traffic signal.
 Power
• Rate of doing work
Power
 Power: Definitions
• Average power (P): work (W) divided by time (Equation 4.10).
• Instantaneous linear Power: the rate of work at any instant
(Equation 4.11)
– force X velocity.
– Angular
• Instantaneous angular power (Equation 4.12) :
– torque (T) X angular velocity (ω)
 Angular power
• A clinical measure of muscle performance.
• Example, The mechanical power produced by the quadriceps, is
equal to the net internal torque produced by the muscle times the
average angular velocity of knee extension.
– Power is often used to designate the net transfer of energy between active
muscles and external loads.
– Positive power reflects the rate of work done by concentrically active
muscles against an external load.
– Negative power, in contrast, reflects the rate of work done by the external
load against eccentrically active muscles.
Positive Negative
 What Newton’s third law is about?

• Action-reaction
• Ground reaction force
• Joint reaction force
 Newton’s third law
• When one object applies a force to the second object, the
second object must simultaneously apply a force equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to that of the first object.

• These two forces that are applied to the two contacting objects
are an interaction pair and can also be called action-reaction (or
simply reaction) forces.
• Weightboot-on-legfoot
(WbLf) and legfooton-
weightboot (LfWb) are
reaction forces or an
interaction pair.
• Both forces exist by
virtue of the contact
between the two
objects.
• Although separated
for clarity, these two
vectors will be in line
with each other.
 Example
• during an isometric exercise, the internal and external torques
are equal and in opposite rotary directions.
 Example
• Person who falls off the roof of a second-story building exerts a
force on the ground, and the ground exerts an equal and
opposite force on the person.
– Because of the huge discrepancies in mass between the earth and
the person, the effect, or acceleration experienced by the person, is
much greater than the effect “experienced” by the ground.
– As a result, the person may sustain significant injury.
Thank You