THE CELL

The Cell Theory

The ideas of all three scientists namely, Schwann, Schleiden, and Virchow, led to the development of
the Cell Theory, which is one of the fundamental theories unifying all the topics in Biology. The Cell
Theory states that:
1. All living organisms are made up of one or more cells.
first statement explains that all living things, whether microscopic or macroscopic, simple, or complex,
of any classification, are made up of either one or more than one cells. There are living organisms that
are made up of one cell called unicellular or single celled organisms. Examples of unicellular organisms
are bacteria and protozoans. There are also living organisms that are made up of more than one cell
called multicellular or multi-celled organisms. Animals, plants, and fungi are multicellular organisms.

2. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.

All biological or living processes that occur within the body for it to survive happen in the cells. For
example, red blood cells are important to the human body. These cells carry oxygen to the different parts
of the body. Oxygen is important in cellular respiration. You learned in previous grades that some of the
living processes include reproduction, digestion or nutrition, and excretion. All these processes start with
the cells.
3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Every cell comes from one another cell that existed or lived before it. This postulate of the Cell Theory
refers to the process of cell division, where one cell divides to produce two or more cells. This is the
basis of cellular reproduction.

Cell – Basic unit of life. Smallest functional and structural units of the body.

Prokaryotic Cell

 Cell which has no presence of nucleus

• Lacking of nuclear envelope
• Nuclear substance is mixed or in direct contact with the rest of the cytoplasm
 Eukaryotic Cell

 Cell which has a true nucleus and surrounded by a nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope

Principal Part of the Cell

1. Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane – defining boundaries with gate-like properties.

2. Cytoplasm – contains organelles and molecules.
3. Nucleus – acts as the control center and contains a cell’s genetic information.

The four basic functions of a cell membrane and these are

1. It acts as a barrier that separates the internal and external structures

2. It controls the flow or passage of substances into and out of the cell through its property called
selective permeability

3. Its external glycoproteins helps identify the cell to other cells such as immune cells

4. It participates in intracellular signaling by its receptor proteins.

CYTOPLASM -According to Thompson, (2015) This is the gel-like substance that fills the space
between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.

It consists of the intracellular fluid called cytosol and organelles.

• Cytosol- the fluid portion of cytoplasm, contains water, dissolved solutes, and suspended particles.

Organelles are considered to be the “little organs” found inside the cytoplasm and are bound to perform
different tasks in cellular metabolism. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
 NUCLEUS is the large organelle usually found centrally.

- carries the genetic material that contains information for cell activities and cell division.
- controlling the cell’s activities and cellular structure and produces ribosomes through its nucleoli. It has
three distinct parts namely nuclear envelope, nucleolus and chromatin.

Nuclear envelope - The outer part of the nucleus that covered by two layers. the which then contains
small openings termed as nuclear pores. Nuclear pores regulate movement of different substances into
and out of the cells.

Nucleolus is a round structure that is made of the DNA, RNA and proteins. The nucleolus is also the
one responsible for making ribosomes which contains small units of RNA.

Chromatin - the genetic material is spread out which encompass the last part of the nucleus.

Ribosomes - also synthesize proteins that are intended to be used in the cytosol.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - These organelles extend from the nuclear envelope and filled with
ribosomes, synthesize glycoproteins and phospholipids that are then transferred into the plasma
membrane, or secreted during exocytosis.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – Endoplasmic Reticulum without ribosomes. It is where fatty acids
and steroids are being made. And more importantly, Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum detoxifies harmful
substances and serves as a storage site for ionized calcium, which gets released as part of an intracellular
signal for muscle contraction and the actions of some chemical messengers called hormones.

The Golgi apparatus is like a flattened sacs that acts like a pathway for processing proteins and lipids
made by the Endoplasmic Reticulum. It forms several things. It forms secretory vesicles.

This secretory vesicle that discharges processed proteins via exocytosis into extracellular fluid. It forms
membrane vesicles that ferry new molecules to the plasma membrane. Forms transport vesicles that
carry molecules to other organelles, such as lysosomes.
 Lysosomes – sacs containing digestive enzymes, a number of digestive enzymes that break down
ingested material and worn- out organelles and release their components into the cytosol. It can digest
the entire cells (autolysis) and carry out extracellular digestion.

Peroxisomes are small, membrane- bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down fatty acids,
amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino acid
breakdown and can be toxic to a cell.

Mitochondrion is a bean-shaped organelles are the major structures to produce Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP)-the main energy source for most chemical reactions within the cell.

- ATP is the main energy source for most chemical reactions within the cell, and cells with a large energy
requirement have more mitochondria than cells that require less energy.
- mitochondria also participate in the regulation of intracellular ionized calcium

Intracellular ionized calcium - contain their own DNA and ribosomes, both of which make them
capable of reproducing themselves and making new proteins, but the main source of the cell’s DNA is
contained within its largest organelle, the nucleus.

The cytoskeleton is made of networks of the following protein elements. It is like tree-branches that
holds organelles in place and aid them in changing shape. This protein element consists of
microfilaments, intermediate filament and microtubules.

Microfilaments are small protein strands that provide mechanical support and generate force for
movement.

• analogous to muscles in your body.

• anchor proteins within the plasma membrane and

• provide support for microvilli.

• Intermediate filament on the other hand are protein strands that are larger than microfilaments but
smaller than microtubules.

• organelles in place and attach cells to one another.

• Microtubules are long, hollow protein tubes that determine shape and movement similar to the way
bones shape your body.
 • stiff components of cilia and flagella.

Centrioles are like mini-tunnels that were stacked together by threes (microtubule triplet) and formed a
cylindrical organelle composed of nine triplets. Putting a pair of these centrioles plus a pericentriolar
material will make up a centrosome.

Centrosome is found near the nucleus and will be later essential for cell division called Mitosis. That is,
the pericentriolar material of the centrosome contains tubulins that build microtubules in nondividing
cells and form the mitotic spindle during cell division.

TISSUES

- Group of cells with similar structure and function – 4 Types; Epithelium, Connective, Nervous, Muscle.
1. Epithelium Tissues – Cells fit closely together. Tissue layer always has one free surface. The lower
surface is bound by a basement membrane. Avascular (Have no blood supply). Regenerate easily if well
nourished.

Found in different areas like Body coverings, body linings, glandular tissue.

Function is to protect, to absorb, filtrate, secrete.

Types:

a. Simple Epithelium
 Simple squamous – Single layer of flat cells. Usually forms membranes. Lines body cavities.
Lines lings and capillaries.
 Simple Columnar – Single layer of tall cells. Often includes goblet cells, which produce mucus.
Lines digestive tracts.
 Pseudostratified – Single layer, but some cells are shorter than the others. Often looks like a
double cell layer. Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract. May function in absorption
or secretion.
b. Stratified Epithelium
  Stratified squamous – Cells at the free edge are flattened. Found as a protective covering where
friction is common. Location can be on skin, mouth, esophagus.
 Stratified cuboidal – Two layers of cuboidal cells.
 Stratified columnar – Surface cells are columnar; cells underneath vary in size and shape.
 Stratified cuboidal and columnar – Rare in human body. Found mainly in ducts of large glands.
 Transitional epithelium – Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching. Lines organs of
the urinary system.
c. Glandular Epithelium
 Gland – one or more cells that secretes a particular product.
 Two major types:
o Endocrine gland – Ductless, meaning, hormones go through the blood instead of gland. Secretions are
hormones.
o Exocrine gland – Empty through ducts to the epithelial surface. Include sweat and oil glands.

2. Connective Tissues – Found everywhere in the body. Includes the most abundant and widely
distributed tissues.

Functions are to bind body tissues together, supports the body, provides protection.

Variation in blood supply: some tissue types are well vascularized (has good blood supply), some have
poor blood supply or are avascular.

Extracellular matrix, non-living material that surrounds living cells.

Two main elements; Ground substance – mostly water along with adhesion proteins and polysaccharide
molecule. Fibers – produced by the cells, three types (Collagen fiber, Elastic fibers, Reticular, fibers).

Types:

a. Bone (osseous tissue) – composed of bone cells in lacunae (cavities). Hard matrix of calcium salts.
Large numbers of collagen fibers. Used to protect and support the body.
b. Hyaline Cartilage – Most common cartilage. Composed of abundant collagen fibers, rubbery matrix,
entire fetal skeleton is hyaline cartilage.
c. Fibrocartilage – Highly compressible.
d. Dense connective tissue – cells are fibroblasts. Eg., Tendon – attach muscle to bone. Ligaments – attach
bone to bone.
e. Areolar connective tissue – Tissue between muscle and skin. Most widely distributed connective tissue.
Soft, pliable tissue. Contains all fiber types. Can soak up excess fluid.
f. Blood – blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix. Fibers are visible during clotting. Functions as the
transport vehicle for materials.
g. Adipose tissue – Fat tissues. Many cells contain large lipid deposits. Functions are to insulate the body,
protects some organs, serves as a site of fuel storage.
h. Reticular connective tissue – Delicate network of interwoven fibers. Forms stroma (internal supporting
network) of lymphoid organs. Lymph nodes, Spleen, Bone marrow.

3. Muscle Tissues – Function is to produce movement.

Types:

a. Skeletal muscle – Can be controlled voluntarily. Cells attach to connective tissue. Cells are striated.
Cells have more than one nucleus.
b. Cardiac muscle – Found only in the heart. Function is to pump blood. Cells are striated. One nucleus per
cell.
c. Smooth muscle – Involuntary muscle meaning, can function without any control. Surrounds hollow
organs. Attached to other smooth muscle cells. No visible striation, one nucleus per cell.

4. Nervous Tissues – Neurons and nerve support cells. Function is to send impulses to other areas of the
body. Function is to send impulses to other areas of the body. Irritability. Conductivity.

- Regenaration; Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells.

- Fibrosis; Repair by dense fibrous connective tissue (scar tissue).
- Determination of method; Type of tissue damaged. Severity of the injury.
- Tissues that regenerate easily; Epithelial tissue. Fibrous connective tissue and bone.
- Tissues that regenerate poorly; Skeletal muscle.
- Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue; Cardiac muscle. Nervous tissue within the brain and
spinal cord.
- Epithelial tissue arises from all three primary germ layers.
- Muscle and connective tissue arise from the mesoderm.
- Nervous tissue arises from the ectoderm.
- With old age there is a decrease in mass and viability in most tissues.