Introduction to Biomechanics:

lecture 4
ASU: MCT 342
UEL: EG8537
Spring 2021

• Associate Prof Aliaa Rehan Youssef

• e10006@eng.asu.edu.eg
 Force addition and splitting: mathematical

• Pythagoras theory
• Trigonometric function
 How can deal with angled forces?
Force composition

Parallelogram method The polygon method

•finding sum or •finding sum or

resultant of two resultant of more
vectors. than two vectors.
(Can be used for two
vectors also).
 Graphical methods
Parallelogram method
Step 1: Visualize Force
Graphical method
 ch ed
Atta
No t Sketc
h or
illust simple
ratio
n
Free Body Diagram
s)
t(
en
gm
Se
 Use a free-body diagram
Tool to solve biomechanical problems with multiple forces acting on a
single body or system.
• Free-body diagrams are constructed to
– facilitate the process of solving biomechanical problems
– help identify the forces and moments acting on individual parts of a system
– ensure the correct use of the equations of statics
– Starting point to develop a mathematical model of forces acting on an object
• For this purpose,
– the parts constituting a system are isolated from their surroundings
– the effects of the surroundings are replaced by proper forces and moments.
• Shows all forces and kinematic points
– Draw a representative free-body diagram
What are the components?
 What are the force systems?

Too much Information

Y-axis

X-axis
 Figure explained
• X-axis
• F is the magnitude of the horizontal force applied by the person on the file cabinet to move the file cabinet to
the right.
• Since forces of action and reaction must have equal magnitudes, F is also the magnitude of the force applied by
the file cabinet on the person.
– Since forces of action and reaction must have opposite directions and the same line of action, the force applied by the file cabinet
on the person tends to push the person to the left.
• f1 and f2 are the magnitudes of the frictional forces f1 and f2 between the file cabinet, the person, and the
horizontal surface, both acting in the horizontal direction parallel to the surfaces in contact.
• Since the file cabinet tends to move toward the right, f1 on the file cabinet acts toward the left.
• Since the person tends to move toward the left, f2 on the person acts toward the right and it is the driving force
for the person to push the file cabinet

• Y-axis
– W1 and W2 are the weights of the file cabinet and the person, respectively, and they are always directed vertically downward.
– N1 and N2 are the magnitudes of the normal forces on the horizontal surface applied by the file cabinet and the person,
respectively.
– They are also the magnitudes of the forces applied by the horizontal surface on the file cabinet and the person.
 Free-body diagram use: go simple

The purpose of analysis

– to determine how much muscle force is required by knee joint
extensor muscles (M) to extend the knee during walking
– to determine the magnitude of the ground reaction force (G)
– To determine Joint (J) reaction force
• Draw all forces vectors (arrows) carefully (magnitude, direction)
– muscle force, gravity, external force

M: a resultant muscle force

G: ground reaction force
S & F: weight of the shank-and-foot segments.
J: the joint reaction force.
 Free-body diagrams: Analysis
• Draw a a body segment(s) removed from its environment (free)
and all the forces it act on it
• The analysis of movement requires that all forces that act on
the body be taken into account all known and unknown forces
and moments are shown.
• Equilibrium mapping
– Write the equations of static equilibrium
• Solve/analyze the system
 Free-body diagrams: Analysis
• Draw a a body segment(s) removed from its environment (free) and all the forces it act on it
– a “snapshot” or simplified sketch that represents the interaction between a body and its environment.
– Analyze one or multiple segments
– Assumes rigid connections
• The analysis of movement requires that all forces that act on the body be taken into account
– all known and unknown forces and moments are shown.
• A force is unknown if its magnitude or direction is not known.
– For the known forces, we indicate the correct directions.
– If the direction
– of a force is not known, then we try to predict it.
– Our prediction may be correct or not. However, the correct direction of the force will be an outcome of the
static analysis.
• Equilibrium mapping
– Write the equations of static equilibrium
• Solve/analyze the system
Remember: Free-body diagram steps
Example: Free-body diagram essentials
 Example: Free-body diagram essentials
M: Shoulder resultant shoulder abductor muscle force;
J: Glenohumeral joint reaction force
S: segment weight
B: ball weight.

• In this example the torque produced by the external forces, S and B, tends to rotate the arm in a clockwise, adduction,
or −Z direction.
• The line of force of M, therefore, in combination with its moment arm, creates a torque in a counterclockwise,
abduction direction, or +Z direction.
 Example: Free-body diagram essentials
• Determine the purpose of analysis
– to determine how much muscle force is required by the
glenohumeral (shoulder) joint abductor muscles (M) to keep the arm
abducted to 90 degrees
– to determine the magnitude of the glenohumeral joint reaction force
(J) during this same activity.
• Assume the state of equilibrium:
– Static equilibrium
– Sum of force/torques = zero
 Example: Free-body diagram steps
Step I:
• Identify and isolate the free body under consideration.
• e.g. the glenohumeral joint was “cut through,” and the
free body is the combination of the entire arm and the
resistance (exercise ball weight).

Step II:
• Define a coordinate reference frame that
allows the position and movement of a body
to be defined with respect to a known point,
location, or axis.
 Example: Free-body diagram steps
• Step III
• identify and include all forces that act on the free body.
– Internal forces are those produced by muscle (M).
– External forces include the force of gravity on the mass of the exercise ball (B), as
well as the force of gravity on the arm segment (S).
• Draw all forces on the figure while specifying their approximate point of
application and spatial orientation.
– For example, vector S acts at the center of gravity of the upper extremity, a
location determined by using anthropometric data (tables)
• The direction of the muscle force (M)
– drawn to correspond to the line of muscle pull and in a direction to generate
torque that opposes the net torque produced by the external forces.
 Example: Free-body diagram steps
• Step IV:
• Draw the joint reaction force (J)
– created across the glenohumeral articulation.
– Initially the direction of the joint reaction force may not be known,
but, it is typically drawn in a direction opposite to the pull of the
dominant muscle force.
– The precise direction of J can be determined after static analysis is
carried out and unknown variables are calculated.
 Example: Free-body diagram steps
• Step V
• Governing equation of motion
 an
t h
re rc e m e
Mo e fo
: s a
on Co: plane
cti llel on ar:
f a ra
o pa Pl a n
i n the
e Force systems
t h ey
?
Lin e or they ? Are
e pl a n e
m m
sa Are eting sa
• me
Non-coplanar or
Coplanar
spatial

General General
Colinear Parallel Concurrent (non-concurrent Concurrent Parallel (non-concurrent
non-parallel) non-parallel)

i on
Like Unlike ct Like Unlike
re
Di
 Force systems:
more than one force acting on a body
Coplanar Non-coplanar
i o n: l C o: s
a ct alle Plan ame
e of par Colinear a
Are t r: plane
r
L in e o he
m same y in the
sa plan
e?
Parallel Parallel

Non- Non-
parallel parallel

e et?
e sm Concurrent Concurrent
rc
fo
Do
Non- Non-
concurrent concurrent
 Force systems
Are they in the same plane?

• All the forces are acting on a two-

dimensional (plane) surface (X, Y).
Coplanar • The lines of action of a set of forces lie in a
single plane

• The line of action of all the forces do not

Non-coplanar lie in one plane
 Force systems
How about their line of action orientation?

Colinear
• When the lines of action of all the forces of a system act along the same
line.
• Forces have the same orientation and line of action.
• It may varies in

(Linear) • Magnitude
• Direction
• Add or subtract

• The line of actions of all forces is parallel to each other

• Force vectors run parallel to each other

Parallel • have same orientation

• Have different line of actions
• It includes forces and moments
• Non-concurrent
Concurrent & non-concurrent
Intersect or do not intersect?
 Force systems
Intersect or do not intersect?

• All forces pass through a common point.

Concurrent • This point is called point of concurrency.

• The lines of actions of all forces meet at the point of
concurrency.

Non- • When the forces of a system do not meet at a common

point of concurrency.

concurrent • Parallel forces are the example of this type of force

system.
Which force system?
Which force system?
Which force system?
Which force system?
Which force system?
 Objectives
• Define important force-related terminologies
• Revise basic trigonometry functions and Pythagoras theorem
• Describe how you can quantify force vectors mathematically
and graphically
• Describe how to draw free body diagram
• Explain various force systems in biomechanics
• Calculate force in various force systems
• Identify body machines
Force systems
Coplanar Non-coplanar

Colinear

Parallel Parallel

Non- Non-
parallel parallel

Concurrent Concurrent

Non- Non-
concurrent concurrent
 Linear Force system
• Two or more forces act on the same segment, in the same
plane, and in the same line
– Line of action: if they extended, they overlap
• Are assigned positive and negative values
– Y-axis: up, positive
– X-axis: right, positive
– Z-axis: forward, positive
 Linear Forces: Resultant
• Can be composed into a single force vector
– Magnitude: Arithmetic sum of the magnitudes of all forces
– Action line: same action line as that of the original
composting vectors
– Point of application: along the action line of all composing
vectors
– Direction: the same orientation in space as the composing
vectors
Vector composition of two collinear forces vectors that are acting on the knee:
(1) the weight of the shank-and-foot segment (S) and
(2) the exercise weight (W) applied at the ankle.
These forces are added to determine the resultant force (R).
The X-Y coordinate frame indicates +Y as upward; the negative sign assigned to the forces indicates a downward pull
Vector composition of two collinear forces vectors that are acting on the head:
(1) The weight of the head (H)
(2) The traction force (T)
Both act along the same line but in opposite directions. R is the algebraic sum of these vectors.
These forces are added to determine the resultant force (R).
The X-Y coordinate frame indicates +Y as upward; the negative sign assigned to the forces indicates a downward pull
Total force acting downwards
WbLf = -40 N
GLf = -48 N
Total: (-40) + (-48) = -88 N
Leg-foot segment is accelerating downwards
(unbalanced force)
Unless, a force touching the leg foot segment
acts upwards in the same line
Force systems
Coplanar Non-coplanar

Colinear

Parallel Parallel

Non- Non-
parallel parallel

Concurrent Concurrent

Non- Non-
concurrent concurrent
Now it is turn, how could we calculate concurrent
forces?
 Concurrent Force system
• Most common in the human body
• Forces applied to an object to have action lines that lie at angles to each
other.
• Converge or intersect in one point
– forces are literally applied to the same point on the object or that forces applied
to the same object have vectors that intersect when extended in length (even if
the intersection is outside the actual segment or object).
• The net effect, or resultant, of concurrent forces appears to occur at the
common point of application (or point of intersection).
• Any two forces in a concurrent force system can be composed into a single
resultant force with a graphic process known as composition by
parallelogram (two) or polygon (more than 2).
 Concurrent force system: Parallelogram
• to determine the resultant of two coplanar but noncollinear
forces.
– combine several component vectors into one resultant vector.
• The resultant vector can be found by drawing a parallelogram
based on the magnitude and direction of the two component
force vectors.
 Concurrent force system: Parallelogram
• Two vectors are considered.
• The two vectors and their common point of application or point of intersection
form two sides of a parallelogram.
• The parallelogram is completed by drawing two additional lines at the
arrowheads of the original two vectors (with each new line parallel to one of the
original two).
• The resultant has the same point of application as the original vectors and is the
diagonal of the parallelogram.
• If there are more than two vectors in a concurrent force system, a third vector is
added to the resultant of the original two through the same process.
– The sequential use of the resultant and one of the original vectors continues until all the
vectors in the original concurrent force system are accounted for.
 Concurrent force system: Parallelogram

A. Schematic representation of the pull of the anterior capsule (AcLf) and posterior capsule (PcLf) on the leg-foot
segment.
B. Determination of the direction and relative magnitude of the resultant (capsule-on-legfoot [CLf]) of concurrent
forces AcLf and PcLf, through the process of composition by parallelogram.
C. The resultant force CLf has been added to the leg-foot segment, with a magnitude equivalent to that of GLf WbLf.
 Concurrent force system: Parallelogram
• Force magnitude
– Calculate using trigonometric function (cosine law)
– requires knowledge both of the actual magnitudes of the two
composing vectors and of the angle between them
 Concurrent force system: Parallelogram
• Given
– PcLf and AcLf each have a magnitude of 51 N
– The vectors are at a 60º angle to each other
• Draw the parallelogram
• Use the cosine law to find the length of the side opposite a known angle
once we identify the triangle of interest and the angle of interest
– β= 180 -60 = 120
• Substitute in the equation (PcLf and AcLf= 51, Cos 120)
– CLf=PcLf2 + AcLf2 - 2(PcLf)(AcLf)(cos β)
• CLf = 88 N.
 Concurrent force system: Parallelogram
• The component force vectors, F1
and F2 (black solid arrows), are
generated by the pull of the flexor
digitorum superficialis and
profundus as they pass palmar
(anterior) to the
metacarpophalangeal joint.
• The diagonal, originating at the
intersection of F1 and F2,
represents the resultant force (R).
Parallel Force system
 Parallel Force system
• Two or more parallel forces are applied to the same object.
• The torque generated by each force is determined by multiplying
the magnitude of that force by its distance (MA) from the axis of
rotation
• The torque generated by a force of constant magnitude may
change if the force is moved closer to or farther from the point of
rotation.
• The torque attributed to a force of constant magnitude with a fixed
point of application on an object can change if the reference point
(axis or point of rotation) is changed.
 Parallel Forces system: Resultant
• Add all torques together
• Consider the direction of torque (clockwise or counter
clockwise)
– Negative torque that tends to produce a clockwise rotatory motion,
whereas a positive torque tends to produce counterclockwise.
• The resultant force will have the same magnitude as the sum
of the original two forces
• The resultant force will create the same torque as the sum of
the torques of the two composing forces.
 Parallel Forces system: Resultant
• If F1 (5 N) and F2 (3 N) are composed into a new force, F1-2:
– The new resultant will have a magnitude of 8 N (3 N + 5 N).
– The torque of F1-2 would be the sum of the torques of F1 and F2: TF1-2 =(0.25
m)(5 N)+ (0.12 m)(3 N) = 1.61 Nm
– The point of application of F1-2 can be determined by solving for its MA now that
we know the torque and the force: MAF1-2 =1.61 Nm/8 N=0.20 m
– Consequently, F1 and F2 can be represented by force F1-2 that has a magnitude of
8 N and is located 0.20 m from the point of rotation.
 Parallel Forces system: Resultant
• If F1 (5 N) and F2 (3 N) are composed into a new force, F1-2:
– The new resultant will have a magnitude of 8 N (3 N + 5 N).
– The torque of F1-2 would be the sum of the torques of F1 and F2: TF1-2 =(0.25
m)(5 N)+ (0.12 m)(3 N) = 1.61 Nm
– The point of application of F1-2 can be determined by solving for its MA now that
we know the torque and the force: MAF1-2 =1.61 Nm/8 N=0.20 m
– Consequently, F1 and F2 can be represented by force F1-2 that has a magnitude of
8 N and is located 0.20 m from the point of rotation.
 Parallel Forces system: Resultant
• T= (0.25 m)(-5 N) + (0.12 m)(-3 N) + (0.12 m)(7 N)
• T= - 0.77 Nm
• A net rotation in a clockwise direction with a magnitude of 0.77
Nm.
 Parallel Force system
To calculate force you must first draw a detailed free-body diagram of the
force system, including the all force components.

Then torque can be calculated using on of the following formulas:

•Torque =Lever Arm x Fy (or Force sin)
•Torque = Force (Fm) x Moment Arm
Parallel Force system
Parallel Force system
 Force couples

When an isolated force that does not pass Two forces of equal magnitude applied to the
through its CoM is applied to the block, a block in opposite directions constitute a force couple
combination of rotatory and translatory motion and will create rotation about a point midway between the
of the block will occur (general motion). forces if both points of application are free to move.
 Force couple
• Two or more muscles simultaneously produce forces in different linear
directions, although the resulting torques act in the same rotary direction
• Two forces that are
– equal in magnitude
– opposite in direction
– applied to the same object at different points.
• A force couple will always produce pure rotatory motion of an object (if there are
no other forces on the object).
• The strength of rotation produced by a force couple is known as torque (T), or
moment of force
• Torque is a product of the magnitude of one of the forces and the shortest
distance (which always will be the perpendicular distance) between the forces:
T (F)*(d)
Force couple

Side view of the force-couple formed between two

representative hip flexor muscles (sartorius and iliopsoas) and
back extensor muscles (erector spinae) as they contract to tilt
the pelvis in an anterior direction.
The internal moment arms used by the muscles are indicated by
the black lines.
The axis of rotation runs through both hip joints.
 Definition: Force vector composition
Resultant force

Linear forces Concurrent forces Parallel forces

• Algebraic sum. • Resultant force vector is the • add torques contributed by each
diagonal of the rectangle created force (wit their appropriate signs)
by both horizontal and vertical
force and their parallel lines .
• The magnitude of the resultant
force from two perpendicular
forces can be calculated with the
use of the Pythagoras’ theorem
• its direction can be calculated
with the use of trigonometry:
ratios or sin/cosine rules.
 Torque or Moment of Force
• When a force is applied to an object that is not on line with the
center of the object, the force will create a torque that tends to
rotate the object.
• Torque =
force magnitude * perpendicular distance from the center of rotation
Parallel Force system
 Objectives
• Define important force-related terminologies
• Revise basic trigonometry functions and Pythagoras theorem
• Describe how you can quantify force vectors mathematically
and graphically
• Describe how to draw free body diagram
• Explain various force systems in biomechanics
• Calculate force in various force systems
• Identify body machines
 Body machines
• Body is a biomechatronic system
– Sensors, cables, controller, actuators
• The musculoskeletal system could be
considered as a simple mechanical machine
 Body machines
• Body is a biomechatronic system
– Sensors, cables, controller, actuators
• The musculoskeletal system could be considered as a simple
mechanical machine
• General function of body machines:
– To provide mechanical advantage
– Load/effort or load divided by effort
– Ideally using a relatively small force, or effort to move a much greater
resistance
 Body machines
• Machines function in four ways
– Balance multiple forces
– Enhance force in an attempt to reduce total force needed to
overcome a resistance
– enhance range of motion & speed of movement so that resistance
may be moved further or faster than applied force
– alter resulting direction of the applied force
 Body machines
• Levers
• Wheels & axels
• Pulleys
Levers
 Levers
• Lever: Simple machine that operates according to principle of
torques
• Torque: The turning effect of a force
T = Fd
• Levers are used to alter the resulting direction of the applied force
• A lever is a rigid bar (bone) that turns about an axis of rotation or
fulcrum (joint)
• The lever rotates about the axis as a result of a force (from muscle
contraction)
• The force acts against a resistance (weight, gravity, opponent, etc.)
 The mechanical advantage (MA)
• The ratio of the internal moment arm to the external moment arm.
• Depending on the location of the axis of rotation, the first-class
lever can have an MA equal to, less than, or greater than one.
• Second-class levers always have an MA greater than one (has
mechanical advantage).
– Lever systems with an MA greater than one are able to balance the torque
equilibrium equation by an internal (muscle) force that is less than the
external force (produce less force or effort).
• Third-class levers always have an MA less than one.
– In order to balance the torque equilibrium equation, the muscle must
produce a force much greater than the opposing external force.
d How can you change torque?
1. Change F
2. Change d
3. Change direction of F

F
d Optimal direction = 90
degrees

F
 Function of Levers
• Two functions:
1. Force
2. Speed/ROM
F R
F R
 Components of a Lever System
• Lever: Rigid bar
• Fulcrum: Axis of rotation/fixed point
• Force:
– Applied force (F)
– Resistance force (R)
• Moment arm: d
– Applied force
– Resistance
 More Concepts
• Mechanical advantage
– Levers designed for force
• Mechanical disadvantage
– Levers designed for speed/ROM
F R

Mechanical advantage or disadvantage?

How does mechanical advantage affect

movement of the lever?
Advantage: Small effort moves
big resistance

Disadvantage: Big movement

required to move resistance a
small distance
 First Class

F R

F A R
 First Class
• Designed for speed and range of motion when the axis is closer
to the force
• Designed for strength when the axis is closer to the resistance

F R

A A
Advantage or disadvantage?
First Class
 First Class

F • Neck extension
• Erector spinae and
Splenius
First Class
 First Class

• Elbow extension
• Triceps

R
First Class
Mechanical advantage or disadvantage

(R) – Resistance force

(F) – Applied force

(A) – Axis of rotation/fulcrum
 Second Class

R F

A R F
Second Class
 Second Class

A • Plantar flexion
• Gastrocnemius and Soleus
 Second Class

R
F A
R
Second Class
Mechanical advantage or disadvantage?

Not many in the body

 Second Class

• Designed more for force

 Third Class

F R

A F R
Baseball, tennis?
Third Class
 Third Class

• Elbow flexion
• Biceps brachii and
Brachialis

R
Third Class
Third Class
Third Class
Third Class
Mechanical advantage or disadvantage?

Many of these in body

In general, is the human body
built for force application or
speed/ROM?
 FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIP PRACTICAL
CLASS ARRANGEMENT ARM MOVEMENT
DESIGN TO AXIS EXAMPLE
HUMAN EXAMPLE

1ST F-A-R Resistance arm Balanced Axis near Seesaw Erector

and force arm in movements middle spinae neck
opposite extension
direction
Speed and Axis near Scissors Triceps
range of force
motion

Force Axis near Crow bar

(Strength) resistance

2ND A-R-F Resistance arm Force Axis near Wheel Gatroc and
and force arm in (Strength) resistance barrow, soleus
same direction nutcracker

3RD A-F-R Resistance arm Speed and Axis near Shoveling Biceps
and force arm in range of force dirt, catapult brachii
same direction motion
 Factors In Use of Anatomical Levers
• A lever system can be balanced if the F and FA equal the R and
RA

F
 Balanced

Force Arm Resistance Arm

R
F

A
Balance with More Force

Force Arm Resistance Arm

R
F

A
Balanced with Less Force

Force Arm Resistance Arm

R
F

A
 Factors In Use of Anatomical Levers
• A lever system can become unbalance when enough torque is
produced
• Torque is the turning effect of a force; inside the body it caused
rotation around a joint.
• Torque = Force (from the muscle) x Force Arm (distance from
muscle insertion from the joint)
 Practical Application
• Force is produced by the
muscle
• FA the distance from joint

Resistance
Force
(i.e. axis or folcrum) to
insertion of the force
• Resistance could be a
weight, gravity, etc.
• RA the distance from joint
to the center of the
resistance
 Examples
1. How much torque needs to
be produced to move 45 kg
when the RA is 0.25 m and
the FA is 0.1 meters?

Resistance
• Use the formula F x FA = R Force

x RA
• Note: A Newton is the unit of force
required to accelerate a mass of one
kilogram one meter per second per
second.
 Example 1

• F x 0.1 meters = 45 Kg x 0.25 meters

• F x 0.1 kg = 11.25 Kg-meters
• F = 112.5 Kg

RA = 0.25
FA = 0.1

?
45

A
 Example 2: Increasing the FA
2. What if the FA was increased to 0.15 meters?
• F x 0.15 meters = 45 Kg x 0.25 meters
• F x 0.15 = 11.25 Kg-meters
• F = 75 Kg

RA = 0.25
FA = 0.15

?
45

A
 Example 3: Decreasing the RA

3. What if the RA was decreased to 0.2 meters?

• F x 0.1 meters = 45 Kg x 0.2 meters
• F x 0.1 = 9 Kg-meters
• F = 90 Kg

RA = 0.2
FA = 0.1

?
45

A
 Summary
• The actual torque needed to move a given resistance depends
on the length of the FA and RA
• As the FA increases or RA decreases, the required torque
decreases.
• As the FA decreases or RA increases, the required torque
increases.
 Levers Continued
• Inside the body, several joints can be “added” together to
increase leverage (e.g. shoulder, elbow, and wrist.
• An increase in leverage can increase velocity
 Lever Length

• Where is the velocity or speed the greatest; at

S’ or Z’? Z’

S’

S Z

• How can this principle be applied to tennis?

 Lever Length

• A longer lever would

increase speed at the
end of the racquet
unless the extra
weight was too great.
Then the speed may
actually be slower.
levers
 Wheels & Axels
• Used primarily to enhance range of motion & speed of
movement in the musculoskeletal system
– function essentially as a form of a lever
• When either the wheel or axle turn, the other must turn as
well
– Both complete one turn at the same time
 Wheels & Axels
• Center of the wheel & the axle both correspond to the fulcrum
• Both the radius of the wheel & the radius of the axle correspond
to the force arms
• If the wheel radius is greater than the radius of the axle, then, due
to the longer force arm, the wheel has a mechanical advantage
over the axle
– a relatively smaller force may be applied to the wheel to move a relatively
greater resistance applied to the axle
– if the radius of the wheel is 5 times the radius of the axle, then the wheel
has a 5 to 1 mechanical advantage over the axle
 Wheels & Axels

• Forces applied to the wheel

amplifies force
• This appears during ball
throwing
• Allows the shoulder to throw
things far away and fast
without much effort
 Wheels & Axels
• • Ex. resulting in greater range of motion & speed is with upper
extremity in internal rotators attaching to humerus
– humerus acts as the axle
– hand & wrist are located at the outside of the wheel when elbow is
flexed 90 degrees
– with minimal humerus rotation, the hand & wrist travel a great
distance
– allows us significantly increase the speed at which we can throw
objects
 Wheels & Axels

• Allows the thoracic cage to

twist easier
 Wheels & Axels
• Calculate mechanical advantage of a wheel & axle by
considering the radius of the wheel over the axle
• Mechanical advantage (MA)= radius of the wheel / radius of
the axle
Wheels & Axels
 Pulleys
• Single pulleys function to change effective direction of force
application
• Mechanical advantage = 1
• Pulleys may be combined to form compound pulleys to
increase mechanical advantage
• Each additional rope increases mechanical advantage by 1
Pulleys
 Pulleys
• • Ex. lateral malleolus acting as a pulley around which tendon
of peroneus longus runs
– As peroneus longus contracts, it pulls toward it belly (toward the
knee)
– Using the lateral malleolus as a pulley, force is transmitted to plantar
aspect of foot resulting in eversion/plantarflexion
 Concurrent force system: Parallelogram
• The component force vectors, F1
and F2 (black solid arrows), are
generated by the pull of the flexor
digitorum superficialis and
profundus as they pass palmar
(anterior) to the
metacarpophalangeal joint.
• The diagonal, originating at the
intersection of F1 and F2,
represents the resultant force (R).