Basic Concepts in Chemistry

CHM 117

Prescribed Text Book:

Chemistry & Chemical reactivity
Kotz, Treichel and Townsend 10th Ed.
Chapter 1

Chapter 1, Section 1.3 to 1.7, Page 6 to 27 (10th ed.)

Dr N Nombona
Notes: These notes are NOT a summary of the section in the
prescribed Text book. You have to study from the text book.

The aim of these notes are:

• To give you access to some selected diagrams and tables
during lectures, in order to be able to add the explanation
and interpretation while going.
• To have the selected printed questions (exercises) available.
There will not be time to rewrite them during lectures. The
calculations will be done in class.
• To create some structure for the lecture, link the text book
content and forming a unit.

Print out the notes BEFORE the lectures and bring it with you
(4 slides per page will do). You can also download it on a tablet
1
 What is Chemistry?
Definition: Chemistry is the study of matter and its
changes from one substance to another.
Chemistry is central to all sciences and overlaps
with physics, biology, geology, and astronomy.
Learning about chemistry teaches you about the
benefits and risks associated with chemicals and
will help you to be an informed citizen and make
intelligent choices concerning the world around you.
Chemistry teaches you to solve problems and
communicate with others in an organized and logical
manner.
 Chemistry and Its Methods
• Hypothesis:
A tentative explanation or prediction based on experimental
observations.

• Law:
A concise verbal or mathematical statement of a behavior or a
relation that seems always to be the same under the same
conditions.

• Theory:
A well-tested, unifying principle that explains a body of facts and
the laws based on them. It is capable of suggesting new hypotheses
that can be tested experimentally.
 Basic Concepts in Chemistry
1-1 Chemistry and its methods (P3)
Read
1-2 Green Chemistry (P5)
Levels of matter
 Investigate
MACROSCOPIC WORLD
– what we see
 To understand the world
of PARTICLES – which
we can’t see.
 We use SYMBOLS to
describe these worlds
with.
 Basic Concepts in Chemistry
1-3 Classifying matter (Kotz P6)
• What is “matter”? When is matter pure?
A PURE SUBSTANCE versus A MIXTURE

Atoms of
element

Molecules
of compound

Identical units Units differ

Basic Concepts in Chemistry
Some elements of the Periodic Table
Element = only one type of atom

Some Elements  can be distinguished by colour at state at rt

 Basic Concepts in Chemistry
A MIXTURE of
2 elements

Iron and sulphur mixture

A COMPOUND

Iron pyrite – chemical compound

FeS2
Basic Concepts in Chemistry
MIXTURES

elements or
compounds
which
CAN’T be
physically
separated

A heterogeneous mixture contains visibly

different substances or phases.
A homogeneous mixture is a uniform
mixture where you can’t otherwise tell
that there are multiple phases.
 Basic Concepts in Chemistry
A COMPOUND
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a compound
(PURE!)
 Basic Concepts in Chemistry
Classification of Matter
• Classify according to its physical state
– Gas
– Liquid
– Solid
• Classify according to its composition
– Element
– Compound
– Mixture
 Basic Concepts in Chemistry
1-3 Classifying matter (Kotz P6)

Kotz P9

Kotz & Treichel P8

 Basic Concepts in Chemistry
Properties of matter (Kotz P13)

1. Qualitative 2. Physical 3. Extensive

versus versus versus
Quantitative Chemical Intensive (does
(Table 1.1) amount matter?)

Temperature?
Mass?
Volume?
Density?
 Basic Concepts in Chemistry
Properties of matter
Qualitative vs Quantitative
•Deals with descriptions.
•Data can be observed but
not measured.
•Colors, textures, smells,
tastes, appearance, beauty,
etc.
•Qualitative → Quality
•Deals with numbers.
•Data which can be
measured.
•Length, height, area, volume,
weight, speed, time,
temperature, humidity, sound
levels, cost, members, ages,
etc.
•Quantitative → Quantity
 Indicate whether the following statements are
qualitative or quantitative

The substance is a red liquid

Qualitative

The substance has a melting point of 34 °C

Quantitative

It is a mixture of three substances

Both
15
 Basic Concepts in Chemistry
Properties of matter
Physical properties – can be observed and measured without changing
the composition of a substance

𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬
𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 =
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞
 Basic Concepts in Chemistry
Properties of matter
Chemical properties – indicates how readily a substance can chemically
react with another substance to change its chemical make-up.

Signs of a chemical reaction

1. Colour change
2. Temperature change
3. Bubble (gas) formation
4. Solid formation
5. Odour
 Basic Concepts in Chemistry
Properties of matter

Extensive vs Intensive
Properties that DO depend on Properties that DO NOT
the amount of substance depend on the amount of
present. substance present

Mass, Color , odor, hardness,

weight, melting/freezing point, boiling point,
volume, density,
length malleability, luster
Basic Concepts in Chemistry
1-6 Question 15 (Kotz P21a)

A piece of turquoise is a blue-green solid; it has a

density of 2.65 g/cm3 and a mass of 2.5 g.

(a) Which of these observations are qualitative and

which are quantitative?

(b) Which of the observations are extensive and

which are intensive?

(c) What is the volume of the piece of turquoise?

Basic Concepts in Chemistry
Question 17 (Kotz P21a)
Which observation below describe chemical properties?
1. Sugar is soluble in water

2. Water boils at 100 °C

3. Uv light converts O3 to O2

4. Ice is less dense that water

Basic Concepts in Chemistry
Question 29 (Kotz P21b)

Categorise these as an element, a compound or a mixture

1. Sterling Silver

2. Carbonated mineral water

3. Tungsten

4. Asprin
Basic Concepts in Chemistry

Which physical state of water has the highest

kinetic energy?
• ice at − 4 °C
• liquid water at room temperature (25 °C)
• steam at 115 °C
Basic Concepts in Chemistry

1. 2. 3.

Which of the following might best describe

the particulate nature of a gas such as
helium, He?
 1

 2

 3
Basic Concepts in Chemistry

Mineral water is…

• an element.
• a compound.
• a heterogeneous mixture.
• a homogeneous mixture.
Basic Concepts in Chemistry

Which of the following is NOT an element?

• hydrogen
• lithium
• iron
• water
• silver
Basic Concepts in Chemistry

Which of the following is NOT a compound?

• table salt
• water
• chlorine gas
• ammonia
• sugar
Basic Concepts in Chemistry

Which one of the following is a chemical change?

• The metallic layer in some mirrored sunglasses
reflects sunlight.
• The color of the dye in a red shirt left in the sun
fades over time.
• A crystal of table salt (NaCl) shatters when struck
with a hammer.
• Water boils at 70 °C on top of Chomolungma (Mt.
Everest).
 Tools of Quantitative
Chemistry

Chapter Intersection Let’s Review (P 22-43)

Do at home: Read P22-43 thoroughly for understanding

Study Table 2 (P24)
Study Questions 35,37,39,43,47,49,51,61 (from P43 a-)
Study Polyatomic ions (Table on ClickUP/Study guide
P17)
1. Units of Measurement (P23)
Measurements are reported based on a modified metric
system. The decimal system is used. This is called the
International system of units, SI.
SI units are derived from base units, i.e. Nanometer –
prefixbase unit nanometer, nm = 1 billionth of a meter.
SI base unit and
Physical Quantity
abbreviations
Length meter (m)
Mass Kilogram (kg)
Time second (s)
Temperature kelvin (K)
Electric Current ampere (A)
Luminous Intensity candela (cd)
Amount of Substance mole
 1. Units of Measurement (P23)
A measurement is a precise value which expresses "how
much." All measurements need units. Without a unit, a
measurement has no meaning.
A unit is a specific quantity selected as a standard against
which other measurements of the same kind are made.
The kilogram is losing weight!!
The International Prototype Kilogram (IPK) or
“Le Grand K,” made in the 1880s, is a bar of
platinum-iridium alloy kept in a vault near
Paris.

“The idea is to replace the single master

kilogram with something based on physical
constants, rather than an artefact that could
be damaged accidentally”
32
Measuring equipment in chemistry

33
1. Units of Measurement (P23)
A measurement always has a certain degree of
uncertainty (depending on the instrument) See Section
on significant figures (P33).

Value measured?
DEF: For all digits: a measured quantity + the uncertain
one included = called “significant figures”.
 Temperature and energy scale
Two temperature scale are common: Celsius (°C) and kelvin (K).

Kelvin is not (°K)

∆T is the same for both
units

Energy Units used are Joules (J)

1 J = 1kg.m2/s2.
kJ(often used) = 1000 J
calorie (cal) is also used
1cal = 4.184 J
Calorie(capital letter C) = 1000 cal
= kcal
 Length, Area and Volume

Remember:
1cm3 = 1 mℓ, 1dm3 = 1ℓ, 1m3 = 1000ℓ, 1km3 = 1x1012ℓ

36
Volume
Volume (Derived units)
LxWxH
= m x m x m = 1m3

Volume: 1L is often used instead

of a bigger 1m3.
1L=1dm3=1000 ml=1000 cm3
Derived units are expressed by multiplication and division of
base units. Can be used as equivalent statements.

mass kg
Density = 
volume m 3

Slide 38
 Tools of Quantitative Chemistry
2. Making measurements (P29)
• Precision
- how many measurements of the same quantity agree
• Accuracy
- agreement of measurement with accepted value of
quantity
Precise but not accurate Not precise and not accurate

Precise and accurate

How repetitive /close to one another? Precision

How close to the accepted /true value ? Accuracy
Experimental error
error in measurement = expr determined – accepted value
Percent error = error in measurement/accept x 100 %
• Standard deviation – equation page 31 Ed 9
 Tools of Quantitative Chemistry
Lebo Andrew Thabo
19.95 mL 21.15 mL 18.20 mL
20.05 mL 21.00 mL 20.15 mL
19.80 mL 21.10 mL 21.45 mL
Average:
19.93 mL 21.08 mL 19.93 mL
Average of the total group of 30 students given: 20.00 mL
Question:
Most accurate set of values? Most precise set?
Lebo – Precise and accurate Which average is most
Andrew – Precise and not accurate accurate?
Thabo – Not precise but accurate
Tools of Quantitative Chemistry
3. Mathematics of Chemistry (P32)
Exponential or scientific notation
• Comfortable for very big or small numbers. The mass
of the earth is about
5 973 600 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg
5.9736×1024 kg
Moving Right to Left = positive exponent
• An electron’s mass is about
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 00091 kg.
9.1×10−31 kg
Moving Left to Right = negative exponent
In science there are two kinds of numbers.
Exact and the inexact (non exact) numbers
Exact numbers - values are known exactly

There are two kinds of exact numbers:

Counted numbers
3 apples and 8 molecules (not measured)
Defined numbers
1000 grams in 1kg
12 eggs in a dozen
Both have infinite /unlimited numbers of significant figures
Inexact numbers– are values with a degree of uncertainty
obtained by measurements
Obtained using measuring devices. Have a degree of
uncertainty – (number of significant figures depend
on the instrument used.
Electronic analytical balance – measures
mass to the nearest (± 0.0001g)
If it weighs object of mass 2.2405g

This means: mass = 2.2405 ± 0.0001g

± : shows that there is some uncertainty in the
last digit.
Can be reported as 2.2405 g or 2.2406 g or
2.2404 g

Significant figures = digits of measured quantity that are

exact plus one digit that is inexact
 Tools of Quantitative Chemistry
Significant figures: Rules for determining the
number of significant figures (P35/39)
1. Nonzero integers always count as sf’s.
2. Leading zeros are never sf’s (0.02).
3. Captive zeros are always sf’s (1.002).
4. Trailing zeros: significant only if number is
written with a decimal point.
200. (3 sf) 200.0 (4 sf) 20000 (1 sf)
5. Exact numbers have unlimited number of sf’s
– Never limit the no. of sf’s in calculation.
Tools of Quantitative Chemistry
How many sf’s are there in the following #’s?
30 075

4.004 0030

78 001 000
0.000 339
84.10000
100 000 000
100. 000 000
 Tools of Quantitative Chemistry
Significant figures:
When expressing a value in scientific notation,
number of significant figures should stay the same
No of significant figures

0.00266 2.66 x 10-3

0.3400 3.400 x 10-1
45800 4.58 x 104
560.0×105 5.600×107
 Tools of Quantitative Chemistry

• Significant figures: In Calculations

Which term will be the one limiting the

accuracy of the calculation?

 A calculated result can be no more precise

than the least precise data used...
 Tools of Quantitative Chemistry
• Significant figures: For Addition and Subtraction
Limiting value –measurement with least
amount of values to the right of the decimal!!
12.11
18.0 59.21 – 18.8722
+1.013
31.123 Round off 31.1

Is it 5 or over? Then add 1 to the value on the left and

drop the rest on the right. If not, leave it but still drop the
values on the right!
Example: 1081 – 7.25
 Tools of Quantitative Chemistry
• Significant figures: For Multiplication and division
Limiting value –measurement with smallest
amount of significant figures!!
4.56 x 1.4 = 6.384
Round off
6.4
Three Limiting: two
significant significant figures
figures Two significant
figures

Example: 8.315 ÷ 298

Rounding a numerical value means replacing it by a value that
is equal but has a simpler representation.
Replacing 23.4476 with 23.45

Rules of rounding off:

• CASE A
The last figure kept should be unchanged if the first figure
dropped is less than 5.
If only one decimal is to be kept, then 6.422 becomes 6.4
• CASE B
The last figure kept should be increased by 1 if the first figure
dropped equal or greater than 5.
If only two decimals are to be kept, then 6.4872 becomes 6.49
 When changing between normal number to scientific
notation, the number of significant figures must be the same
0.00266 = 2.66 x 10-3 0.3400 = 3.400 x10-1 4580 = 4.580 x 103
When changing between scientific notation to normal
number, the number of significant figures must be the same
2.50 x 10-3 = 0.00250 5.6000 × 104 = 56000

Significant figures are all digits of a measured quantity

observed by the device
The greater the number of sf the greater the certainty.
Multiplying and Dividing
(4.52 x 10-4) ÷ (3.980 x 10-6) = 0.0000000001(use a calculator)

3 sf 4 sf

Limiting
1.00 x 10-9 (3sf)

Adding & Subtracting Significant figures

Limiting term – one with least number of decimal places!
12.11 + 18.0 + 1.013 = 31.123 (Use a calculator)

2 dp 1 dp 3 dp

31.1 (1 decimal place)

Limiting (least decimal places)
Solve:
5.892 ÷ 6.10 1081 – 7.25 12.7 x 11.2 108 ÷ 7.2
= 0.966 (3sf) = 1074 (no dp) = 142 (3 sf) = 15 (2 sf)
12.01 cm + 17.3 cm + 0.11 133 g – 2.2 g
= 29.4 cm (1dp) = 131 g (no dp)

Calculate and only round off the final answer.

Remember the BODMAS rule. Count significant figures
step by step.

5.698 (1.25  6.0) 4

= 4.8 x 10
8.745 10 4
 Significant figures in mixed calculations
Solve the following mixed calculations:
(1.0042 – 0.0034) x 1.23 (1.0042)(-0.0034)(1.23)
= 1.23 = -0.0042

(1.0042)(0.0034) ÷ 1.23
= 0.0028

(4x7)+(2x3)
= 34 ……???? Sf????
= 3x101

(5x8)+(7x9)
= 103 ……???? Sf????
= 1x102
The conversion of units from one
dimensional unit to another.
Dimensional analysis is used for
such conversions.
number in original unit requested unit number in new unit
X =
1 original unit 1
Conversion factor

Equivalent statement: 1μm = 10-6 m CF are 10 6

m 1 m
and 6
1 m 10 m

femto pico nano micro milli centi deci BASE kilo mega giga tera peta
f p n  m c d UNIT k M G T P
1 fg = 1 pg = 1 ng = 1 g = 1 mg= 1 cg = 1 dg = 1g= 1 kg = 1 Mg = 1 Gg = 1 Tg = 1 Pg =
10-15 g 10-12 g 10-9 g 10-6 g 10-3 g 10-2 g 10-1 g 100 g 103 g 106 g 109 g 1012 g 1015 g

Know them!!
 Equivalent statements
Equivalent statements have to have equal quantities. It can be
known, it can be the ratio, or be stated). Each equivalent
statement can lead to two conversion factors.
1 inch = 2.54 cm
7 days = 1 week
1 dozen = 12
Jewellery contains 18%(by mass) of gold:18g gold =100g
jewellery
The price of 1kg of red peppers is R2.39:1 kg peppers = R2.39
Speed = 120km/hour. 120km = 1hour
Density = 14.5 g/1cm3. 14.5 g =1cm3

12
OR
1dozen
57
 Application of conversion factors – single step
Express 450 m in micrometers (μm) Desired unit

Starting unit
106 m 1 m
ES: 1μm = 10-6 m CF are or
1 m 106 m

If a woman has a mass of 115 ℓb, what is her mass in grams?

ES:1 ℓb = 453.6 g
 Summary for single step conversions
Identify measurement given and asked
Identify the appropriate equivalent statement?
Write down 2 appropriate conversion factors for each; make your choice
Multiply given measurement with the factor to give desired unit.

A rattlesnake is 2.44 m long. How long is the snake in cm?

a. 2440 cm b. 244 cm c. 240 cm d. 24.4 cm

If the thickness of the skin fold at the waist indicates an 11% (by
mass) body fat, how much fat is in a person with a mass of 86 kg?
59
If the thickness of the skin fold at the waist indicates an 11% (by
mass) body fat, how much fat is in a person with a mass of 86
kg?
 Dimensional Analysis - multistep
Often, two or more conversion factors are required to obtain the
unit needed for the answer.

How many cm in 2 miles?

Given: 1 mile = 5.280 ft ; 1 ft = 12 inch; 1 inch = 2.54 cm

3 x 105 cm (1 sf)
 Dimensional analysis - multistep

Express 3.5 pm in km

Convert 19.32 g/cm3 to kg/m3

1cm = 10-2 m
(1cm)3 = (10-2 m)3
1cm3 = 10-6 m3
= 1.932 x104 kg/m3 (4 sf)
If a space shuttle can travel at 17000 miles per hour,
how many meters per second does it travel. 1mile =
1.609 km.
Density : Express 6.547 g/cm3 in pg/µL Tip: 1cm3 =1ml
Ans:6.547 x 109 pg/µL
The density of air at ordinary atmospheric pressure and 25oC is
1.19 g/L. What is the mass, in kilograms, of the air in a room
that measures 3.8m x 4.2m x 2.5m?
Ans: 47 kg  please check all my answers
An individual suffering from high cholesterol level in her
blood has 285 mg of cholesterol per 100 mL of blood. If the
total blood volume of the individual is 5.3 L, how many
grams of total blood cholesterol does the individual contain?
Ans:15 g cholesterol
The size of a farmer’s land is 2.459 mile x 1.75 mile. Molybdenum
sulphate has to be added to the ground in a ration of 7.5 mg.m−2. The
fertilizer used, contains 65% molybdenum sulphate. Calculate the mass
of fertilizer (in kg) required for this land.
1 mile = 1760 yards, 1mile = 1.609 km. 1 yard = 3 feet, 1 feet = 12
inches, 1 inch = 2.54 cm
 Tools of Quantitative Chemistry
1. A value is expressed in another unit. The magnitude (size) of
the value is not changed!
2. The significant figures should also stay the same.
3. Identify the measuring unit GIVEN and ASKED
4. Equivalent statements or Ratio’s given??
5. Do NOT change the ratio –check at end!! Keep value and unit
together!
6. Determine the 2 applicable conversion factors; make your
choice.
7. Multiply given unit (and value) with factor to obtain desired
unit.
8. Remember to write units in ALL steps!!
 Derived units conversions
Area : Express 2549 mm2 in m2

1mm = 10-3 m
(1mm)2 = (10-3 m)2
1mm2 = 10-6 m2 or

Volume (mixed)
Express 0.085 L in cm3 1ml= 1cm3 and 1L =1dm3
Ans: 85 cm3
Express 5.0 cm3 in m3
Ans: 5.0 x 10-6 m3
The volume of a wooden block is 6.30 inch3. This is equivalent
to how many cm3? 1 inch = 2.54 cm
Ans:103 cm3
69
3.55 ml x = 48.3 g mercury

70
 Derived units conversions

The distance from the earth to the moon is 2.4 x 105 miles and
the Concorde flies at 2400 km/hr . How many seconds would it
take to fly to the moon on the Concorde? 1 mile = 1.6093 km
Ans:5.8 x 106 s
In days = 6.7 days

The average speed of a nitrogen molecule in air at 25 oC is 515

m/s. Convert this speed to miles per hour. 1 mile = 1.6093
km
Ans: 1.15 x103 miles/hour

The human body is about 80% (by mass) of water. What is the
mass in g, of a person whose body contains 65 kg water?
8.1 x 10 4 g body mass
71