BUILDING PHYSICS I

ARC 218. Building Physics I

Building physics can be defined as the ‘applied science that studies the hygrothermal, acoustical
and light-related properties of building components’ building areas and building assemblies.
Their knowledge is imperative to design high-performance buildings that are healthy,
comfortable, durable, energy-efficient, affordable and, therefore, eco-efficient.

Building engineering physics relates to the energy performance of buildings and their indoor
and outdoor environments. By properly understanding and applying building engineering
physics, it is possible to develop high performance buildings that are comfortable and functional,
and to minimize the environmental impacts of their construction and operation.

The principal aspects of building engineering physics include:

 Thermal performance.
 Acoustics.
 Air movement.
 Climate.
 Construction technology.
 Building services.
 Control of moisture.
 Lighting.

The benefits of building engineering physics include:

 Capital cost reduction: Better design decisions and reduced design fees.
 Operating cost reduction: Energy efficiency, resulting in lower energy bills and lower exposure
to energy price rises.
 Creative design focused on real life building performance rather than compliance.
 Occupant satisfaction: High performance buildings can result in better productivity and comfort
of the occupants.

ARC 218. Building Physics I

1. THERMAL PERFORMANCE

Thermal performance is a measure of the thermal conductivity of materials or assemblies of

materials. Thus, materials which are regarded as having a good thermal performance are those
which also tend to be good insulators, ie they do not readily transmit heat. In contrast, materials
with a poor thermal performance tend to be better conductors of heat and therefore will allow
more heat to pass through, say from a warm building to a cooler external environment.

In summer when external temperatures can be much hotter outside than inside, the reverse is true
– a building with poor thermal performance overall will allow more heat to pass through – and
so will be hotter inside – than one with a good thermal performance.

The thermal performance of the building fabric – which is simply an arrangement of materials
adjacent to or near each other – is directly affected by criteria such as seasonal and temperature
changes; daily diurnals (ie, the difference between highest and lowest temperatures in 24 hours),
the amount of solar gain and shading, incoming and outgoing heat radiation, water and moisture
absorption, air movements and pressure differences.

Thermal performance has become a critical consideration in the design of buildings. This is
because current building regulations aim to conserve fuel and minimize carbon emissions from
space heating by limiting the heat lost from a building to the external environment. However, it
should be noted that embodied carbon is not regarded as an aspect of thermal performance.

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1.2 Measuring thermal performance

Conductivity

Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. In considering conductivity in relation to

the building fabric, the following equation tends to hold:

High conductivity materials = low thermal resistance = low thermal performance = poor
insulator

Low conductivity materials = high thermal resistance = high thermal performance = good
insulator.

The units of thermal conductivity are W/(m.K)] (SI units) .

Thermal conductivity (λ = lambda value) is measured by the amount of heat flow (Watts)
through a meter squared of surface area over a temperature difference of 1K per meter of
thickness. However, it is more convenient to measure and compare the thermal performance
(or insulation properties) of materials by using the thermal resistance value ‘R’ – a measure of
thermal resistance rather than thermal transmission. Thermal resistance is the reciprocal of
thermal conductivity.

U-values

The transmission rate of all the layers of a construction from the inside to the outside is called a
U-value. U-values are used to gauge the thermal performance of constructions ie assemblies of
materials such as cavity wall constructions.

U-values (sometimes referred to as heat transfer coefficients or thermal transmittances) measure

how effective elements of a building's fabric are as insulators. That is, how effective they are at
preventing heat from transmitting between the inside and the outside of a building.

The lower the U-value of an element of a building's fabric, the more slowly heat is able to
transmit through it, and so the better it performs as an insulator. Very broadly, the better (ie,
lower) the U-value of a building's fabric, the less energy is required to maintain comfortable
conditions inside the building.

Typical U-values

U-values are measured in watts per square metre per degree Kelvin (W/m²K). For example, with
a double-glazed window with a U-value of 2.8, this means that for every degree difference in
temperature between the inside and outside of the window, 2.8 Watts will be transmitted every
square metre.

Typical U-values are shown below for the purposes of comparison only:

ARC 218. Building Physics I

  Solid brick wall: 2W/m²K.
 Cavity wall with no insulation: 1.5W/m²K.
 Insulated wall: 0.18W/m²K.
 Single glazing: 4.8 to 5.8 W/m²K.
 Double glazing: 1.2 to 3.7 W/m²K depending on type.
 Triple glazing below: 1W/m²K.
 Solid timber door: 3W/m²K.

Air tightness

Air tightness is another measure of the overall thermal performance of a building. Even if it is
constructed with materials of high thermal performance, a building will have an overall
compromised thermal performance if it fails on air tightness tests and has a high rate of air
leakage (defined by as the '...uncontrolled flow of air through gaps and cracks in the fabric of a
building).

defines airtightness as ‘…a general descriptive term for the resistance of the building envelope to
infiltration with ventilators closed. The greater the airtightness at a given pressure difference
across the envelope, the lower the infiltration.’

ARC 218. Building Physics I

2. BUILDING ACOUSTICS

Building acoustics is the science of controlling noise in buildings. This includes the
minimisation of noise transmission from one space to another and the control of the
characteristics of sound within spaces themselves.

Building acoustics are an important consideration in the design, operation and construction of
most buildings, and can have a significant impact on health and wellbeing, communication and
productivity. They can be particularly significant in spaces such as concert halls, recording
studios, lecture theatres, and so on, where the quality of sound and its intelligibility are very
important.

Building acoustics can be influenced by:

 The geometry and volume of a space.

 The sound absorption, transmission and reflection characteristics of surfaces enclosing the
space and within the space.
 The sound absorption, transmission and reflection characteristics of materials separating spaces.
 The generation of sound inside or outside the space.
 Airborne sound transmission.

ARC 218. Building Physics I

  Impact noise.

Characteristics of sound
Sound intensity is measured in Decibels (dB). This is a logarithmic scale in which an increase of
10 dB gives an apparent doubling of loudness.

Sound pitch is measured in Hertz (Hz), the standard unit for the measurement for frequency. The
audible range of sound for humans is typically from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, although, through
ageing and exposure to loud sounds the upper limit will generally decrease.

As well as intensity and frequency, sound also transmits information. For example, music or
speech, transmit information which people may perceive differently from other sounds.

Reverberation time
The ‘reverberation time’ of a space changes the way the space ‘sounds’ and can affect the
intelligibility acoustic information. A high reverberation time can make a room sound muffled,
loud and noisy. Rooms designed for speech typically have a low reverberation time, whereas a
higher reverberation time can add depth, richness and warmth to music.

The reverberation time of a room is defined as the time it takes for sound to decay by 60 dB after
an abrupt termination. It is linked to the total quantity of soft treatments and the volume of the
room.

Sound absorption
Sound absorption is the loss of sound energy when sound waves come into contact with an
absorbent material such as ceilings, walls, floors and other objects, as a result of which, the
sound is not reflected back into the space. Acoustic absorption can be used to reduce
reverberation times.

Absorbent materials are sometimes categorised from A to E, where A is highly absorbent and E
is almost fully reflective.

Sound absorbers can be divided into three main categories:

 Porous absorbents, such as fibrous materials or open-celled foam.

 Resonance absorbents, which consist of a mechanical or acoustic oscillation system, such as
membrane absorbers.
 Single absorbers such as tables, chairs or other objects.

ARC 218. Building Physics I

Sound insulation
Sound transmission paths can be interrupted by sound insulation and by blocking air paths. The
sound insulation of a single leaf of a material is governed by its mass, stiffening and damping.

The sound insulation across a good conventional, lightweight, office to office construction is
typically in the order of 45 dB Dw. This means that if the sound level in the source room is
around 65 dB (a typical level for speech), the sound level in the adjacent room, the receiver
room, will be approximately 20 dB (barely audible).

If sound levels are increased in the source room however, to 75 dB (raised voice), sound levels
within the adjacent room will also increase to around 30 dB (audible). Sound insulation therefore
describes the level of sound lost across a partition and not the level of sound within an adjacent
room.

Dw represents the sound insulation between rooms on-site. Rw represents the lab tested sound
insulation of an element making up a partition wall/floor type. Standards achieved in labs may
not be possible on site because of the quality of workmanship and due to sound ‘flanking’
acoustic elements, that is, travelling around them through an easier path, rather than only directly
through them as under lab conditions.

Noise nuisance
Building acoustics can help to mitigate the effects of noise disturbance which can have negative
effects on health, wellbeing and general quality of life.

Noise pollution:

 Environmental noise – which includes noise from transportation sources.

 Neighbour noise – which includes noise from inside and outside buildings.
 Neighbourhood noise – which includes noise arising from industrial and entertainment
premises, trade and businesses, construction sites and noise in the street.

This can be an important consideration for the location, design and construction of new
developments.

ARC 218. Building Physics I

3. Lighting

The term ‘lighting’ refers to equipment, the primary purpose of which, is to produce light. This
is typically some form of lamp. However, lighting can also refer to the use of natural light to
provide illumination.

Light can be defined as being the electromagnetic radiation that exists within a certain portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum. In terms of 'visible light', i.e. that which enables the sense of sight,
it is the part of the spectrum that can be detected and seen by the eye.

The level of light on a surface is described as ‘Illuminance’ and is measured in lux (lx), where
one lux is equal to one lumen per square metre (lm/m²) and a lumen is the SI unit (International
System) of luminous flux, describing the quantity of light emitted by a lamp or received at a
surface.

Illuminance
Illuminance is ‘The level of light on a surface; measured in lux (lx). Previously called the
illumination value. It can be used as a reference measurement of the performance of a lighting
system as related to the activity.'

It is measured in lux (lx), the ‘...SI unit (the International System of Units) of illuminance or
amount of light on a surface. One lux is equal to one lumen per square metre (lm/m^2)’ where a
lumen (lm) is the ‘...SI unit of luminous flux, describing the quantity of light emitted by a lamp
or received at a surface.’

Average illuminance is ‘The illuminance averaged over a specific area. In practice, this may be
derived either from an average of the illuminances at a representative number of points on the

ARC 218. Building Physics I

surface, or from the total luminous flux falling on the surface divided by the total area of the
surface’

Maintained illuminance is ‘Illuminance at the time when maintenance is expected to take place.
Most values of illuminance that are quoted as applicable to a store, eg 500-1000 lx, refer to this
value. The time taken to reach the maintained illuminance level would depend on the lamp types
and application’.

Lux
In physics, lux (symbol lx) is a standard unit used as a measure light intensity (illuminance, or
illumination). It is the intensity with which a surface is illuminated and is part of the SI system of
measurement.

Typically:

 A bicycle lamp may produce 10 lm

 A 100W incandescent light bulb 1,700 lm
 A 150W tungsten spot lamp 2,000 lm
 A 140W sodium street lamp 13,000 lm

The illumination of a surface S that is 1m x 1m will be 1 lux (or 1 metre-candle) when a lamp of
1 candela (see below for definition) is placed one metre away from it. In other words, 1 lux of
light intensity is spread over the 1m2 surface of S which will be equal to 1 lm/m2).

A light source producing 1,000 lm that is 1m away from a surface of area 1m2 produces an
illuminance on the surface of 1,000 lux. When the same light source is applied to an area of
10m2, the illuminance level is one tenth of the original, or 100 lm. Lighting larger areas requires
greater intensity light sources…or more bulbs.

A 100W incandescent light bulb produces 1,700 lumens and is regarded as sufficient for general
domestic and task lighting applications.

The candela (cd) is a unit of source intensity used in the specification of lighting and can be
thought of as being equal to one large domestic candle. Examples are:

 A torch bulb (not LED) = 1 candela (emits one lumen of light flux)
 A 60W tungsten bulb = 50 candela
 A single fluorescent tube = 400 candela

ARC 218. Building Physics I

Colour appearance
Colour appearance refers to the ‘…visual sensation correlated with the ‘warmth’ or ‘coolness’
of the light emitted by a lamp. The metric used to characterise the colour appearance of the
light emitted by a light source is the correlated colour temperature (CCT), expressed in Kelvin
(K). Warm white light is produced by lamps having a colour temperature below 3,000 K (reddish
hues), whereas 4,000 K and above (bluish) is cool and cold white light. The colour appearance
is quite separate from the colour rendering of the lamp.’

Colour rendering is ‘The ability of a light source to show surface colours as they should be,
usually in comparison with a tungsten or daylight source. Measured on the colour rendering
index (CRI) scale. A value of 0 means it is impossible to discern colours at all, and a score of
100 means no colour distortion. For most indoor lighting applications a value of at least 80 is
recommended.’

ARC 218. Building Physics I

4. Moisture in buildings

Moisture is the presence of water, often in small or even trace amounts. Moisture can be found in
water vapour, condensation, and in or on the fabric of a building and can cause damp resulting in
problems such as staining, mould growth, mildew and poor indoor air quality, and so on.

The common sources of moisture in buildings include:

 Condensation.
 Penetrating damp.
 Leakage from pipes, tanks, drains, and so on.
 Rising damp.
 Building defect, e.g. lack of adequate roof space ventilation, faulty retrofit installation,
application of paint or plaster that affects the breathability of the building element, and so on.
 Indoor moisture sources, e.g. cooking, bathing, washing, hot tubs, indoor swimming pools, and
so on..

Moisture levels can be reduced through a number of measures:

 Natural or mechanical ventilation.

 Use of de-humidifiers or air conditioning units.
 Insulation of cold surfaces, such as pipes.

ARC 218. Building Physics I

  Increasing air temperature.
 Removing sources of moisture such as drying clothes and ensuring vented tumble dryers are
appropriately vented to the outside.
 Mending leaking pipes, wastes and overflows.
 Eliminating rising damp and penetrating damp.
 Introducing moisture barriers such as vapour barriers, damp proof membranes, and so on.

Absolute humidity

Absolute humidity is the total mass of water vapor present in a given volume or mass of air. It
does not take temperature into consideration. Absolute humidity in the atmosphere ranges from
near zero to roughly 30 grams per cubic metre when the air is saturated at 30 °C (86 °F).

Absolute humidity is the mass of the water vapor, divided by the volume of the air and water

vapor mixture.

The absolute humidity changes as air temperature or pressure changes, if the volume is not fixed.
This makes it unsuitable for chemical engineering calculations, e.g. in drying, where temperature
can vary considerably. As a result, absolute humidity in chemical engineering may refer to mass
of water vapor per unit mass of dry air, also known as the humidity ratio or mass mixing ratio
(see "specific humidity" below), which is better suited for heat and mass balance calculations.
Mass of water per unit volume as in the equation above is also defined as volumetric humidity.
Units should always be carefully checked. Many humidity charts are given in g/kg or kg/kg, but
any mass units may be used.

The field concerned with the study of physical and thermodynamic properties of gas–vapor
mixtures is named psychrometrics.

Relative humidity

Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the equilibrium
vapor pressure of water at a given temperature. Relative humidity depends on temperature and
the pressure of the system of interest. The same amount of water vapor results in higher relative
humidity in cool air than warm air. A related parameter is that of dew point. The relative
humidity or of an air-water mixture is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor
in the mixture to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water over a flat surface of pure water at a
given temperature

ARC 218. Building Physics I

Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage; a higher percentage means that the air-
water mixture is more humid.

Relative humidity is an important metric used in weather forecasts and reports, as it is an

indicator of the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog. In hot summer weather, a rise in relative
humidity increases the apparent temperature to humans (and other animals) by hindering the
evaporation of perspiration from the skin. For example, according to the Heat Index, a relative
humidity of 75% at air temperature of 80.0 °F (26.7 °C) would feel like 83.6 °F ±1.3 °F (28.7 °C
±0.7 °C).[11][12]

Specific humidity

Specific humidity (or moisture content) is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the
air parcel.[13] Specific humidity is approximately equal to the mixing ratio, which is defined as the ratio of
the mass of water vapor in an air parcel to the mass of dry air for the same parcel. As temperature
decreases, the amount of water vapor needed to reach saturation also decreases. As the temperature of
a parcel of air becomes lower it will eventually reach the point of saturation without adding or losing
water mass.

ARC 218. Building Physics I