English Syntax: Some Basics

Words

- Words are classified on different parameters.

o Parts-of-Speech: Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Determiner,
Pronoun, Conjunction, Interjection, Quantifiers, ETC.
o Some words undergo change/modification in their form:
 either to form/derive new words: go -> go-er, do -> un-do/re-do, boy
-> boyish, ETC. (Derivational process, word-formation rules)
 OR, to show grammatical/syntactic relations/functions in a
sentence: go -> goes/going/gone/went, boy -> boys, boy’s, ETC.
(Inflectional process, grammatical operation rules)
 Derivational process: go -> go-er, do -> un-do/re-do, do-er
o Some words do not undergo any change (remain invariant) across all the
positions they occur in a sentence: the, a, also, too, on, in, ETC.
o Words are classified into Lexical Category and Functional Category.
 Lexical Category: are dictionary words and have descriptive
meanings (denote objects/concepts, ETC.). They are also called
Open-Class as new words can be easily added/coined.
 Examples:
o Nouns (book, pen, house, boat, etc)
o Verbs (eat, read, write, see, do, etc)
o Adjectives (good, tall, small, smart, wise, etc)
o Adverbs

 Functional Category: are grammatical/functional words with

grammatical meaning, do not describe objects/concepts ETC but
function to reflect/carry grammatical relations, ETC. Also, called
closed class: new member not easily added.
 Examples:
o Determiners (a, an, the)
o Quantifiers (one, two, three, some, all, few, etc)

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 o Inflections (tense, aspect, mood, auxiliaries, GNP
agreement markers, etc.)
 He is going home.
 I wish he were here.
 He writes well.
 He will go there.

{Explanation:

 The boy/the tall boy/the very tall boy

 Will he go there?
 The very tall boy will go there.
 The he will go there.
 The very he will go there
 The very tall he will go there
 }
o Complementizer (that, if, whether, etc)
 I know that he will do it.
 I wonder if/whether he can do it.
o Prepositions (in, on, etc): prepositions are sometimes
categorized under LC.

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Syntactic constituents

- Words exist/occur in dictionary (also called Lexicon) with their listed

meaning(s)
- When words occur in a sentence, they do not occur in isolation but in a
connected form: as a syntactic/grammatical unit
- Words form a syntactic unit or occur as part of a syntactic
unit/group/family.
- The units (larger than isolated words, may consist of a single word or
several words) are formed by grammatical/structural relations and behave
like a single indivisible element in and in the formation of a sentence: are
called PHRASE
- Phrase is a syntactic constituent and is the outcome/result of interaction
between words and grammar (rules).

Types of Syntactic constituents

- Phrases: are the basic building blocks and further form bigger syntactic
constituents: clauses and sentences.
- Clause (a type of bigger phrase consisting of a verb and its subject)
- Sentence (a type of still bigger phrase, a complete clause in the sense of
grammar and meaning, final/ultimate/end of phrase formation-expansion)

Phrase Types

- Noun Phrase (NP)

o [Boys] are intelligent.
o [These boys] will talk to [those girls].
o [The intelligent boys] are honest.
o [All the intelligent boys] are punctual.
o [We] saw [a rainbow] in [the sky].
o [They] consider [him] [a wise person]
o [The book that [I] bought yesterday] is very useful. (complex NP:
contains a clause inside it)
{Explanation: Relative clause

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 o Relative clause: restrictive and non-restrictive
o Restrictive: My brother who lives in Delhi is a doctor.
o Non-restrictive: My brother, who lives in Delhi, is a doctor.
o Give more examples of NPs.
o A Noun Phrase (NP) is formed by a NOUN and the Noun is the HEAD
of the noun phrase (NP) that it forms. The other words that may
(optionally) occur inside a noun phrase (NP) are: adjectives,
determiners, possessives, demonstratives, quantifiers, relative clause,
ETC.

o [Boys] are coming.

o [The boys] are coming.

o [A boy] is coming.

o [The boy] is coming.

o *Boy is coming.

o [Water] is falling.

o [The water] is falling. [The water] in/from your glass is falling.

-
o Pronouns are also NPs, pronouns replace an NP (not a noun) in a
sentence.
o Boys are intelligent.
o They are hard-working too.
o [Those boys] are intelligent.
o [They] are hard-working too.
o *Those they are hard-working
[The tall boys] are absent.
[They] will come the next week.
*The tall they …………..

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- Verb Phrase (VP)
o [NP They(3person-plural)] [VP smile(3person-plural)].
o [NP S/He(3person-singular)] [VP smiles(3person-singular)].
o The boy(3person-singular) has(3person-singular) come.
o The boys(3person-plural) have(3person-plural) come.
I person: I, we
I smile. I am/was smiling.
We smile. We are/were smiling.
II person: you
You smile. You are/were smiling
(All of) you smile. You are smiling.
III person: She/he/it, they
[She/he] smiles. She/he/it [is/was smiling].
[They] are smiling.

o They [are smiling]. (a single verb: verb and auxiliary)

o The boys [are eating [rice]]. (verb plus NP)
o They [gave him a pen]. (verb plus NP-NP)
o The girls [will talk to the boy]. (verb plus PP-Preposition Phrase)
o The girls [will talk to the boys in the garden]. (verb plus PP-PP)
o They [know that they are not fools]. (verb plus finite-clause]
o All of them [want to sing a song today in the afternoon near the bank of
the Ganges]. (verb plus non-finite-clause)
o Give more examples of VPs.

- Preposition Phrase (PP)

o I saw him [in the garden].
o They are playing [in the room].
o We are moving [towards the north].
o The books are kept [on the table].

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 o Give more examples of PPs.
o In a PP, P(preposition) is the HEAD and an NP is the complement.

- Adjective Phrase (AP)

o They think they are [very intelligent]. (very: intensifier)
o We did not find a book [much more useful] than this. (more: intensifier,
much: intensifier/degree marker words)
o More examples …

- Adverb Phrase (ADVP)

o He moved here [very slowly].
o We have to go there [quite immediately/urgently].
o More examples …

- Tense Phrase (TP): A clause/sentence is actually a TP

o [All the students will attempt a few questions].
o [I like [to come to the class on time]].
o [I like [you to come to the class on time]].
o (all the verb phrases are covered with/by a TP)
o More examples ….
o A clause/sentence may contain one/more clause(s)/sentence(s) inside
it.

- Complementizer Phrase (CP)

o I know [that you are smart].
o [Is he coming]? He is coming. Is he is coming
o [What did you do yesterday]?
o I wonder [why some students are still absent]].
o [TP I feel [CP that [TP there will be rain today]]].
o Interrogative/question sentences/clauses are CPs.
o More examples …..

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Complement: is the obligatory part of a phrase, without which the
phrase/clause/sentence is not complete.

Verbs: Intransitive, Transitive and Ditransitive

All verbs take a subject. But all verbs do not necessarily take an object.

Intransitive verbs: take no object (only subject):

Examples:

I smile (all the time). He smiles (for no reason). You smile (please when they
arrive and you welcome them). Please smile (for a few seconds).

Go, come, sleep, walk, ETC.

Transitive verbs: Take an object (must take an object).

Eat, know, see, write, buy, ask, want, like, play, learn, bring, hear, listen to,
carry, pass, order, book, ETC.

He writes a poem/an essay/ a letter/ it/. He will write that.

I know ….. I know that. He knows it. They know you.

Ditransitive verbs: Take TWO objects.

Examples:

send, give, take, buy, lend, bring, tell, sell, pass, order, gift, put, mail, write,
book, keep, ETC.

He gave me a book. [a book is the direct object and me is the indirect object]

He will send a letter to you. [a letter is the direct object and to you is the
indirect object]

Objects are generally called complement. A complement can be NP (noun

phrase), PP (preposition phrase), TP (tense phrase) or CP (complementizer

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phrase). All the transitive and ditransitive verbs take a complement (transitive
verbs take one complement and ditransitive verbs take two complements).

For example:

I know you/it/the man. [you, it, the man: NP]

I know about you/it/the man/ this matter. [about you, about it, about the man,
about this matter: PP]

I know that you are smart. I know who you are going to see. I do not know
whether you will come tomorrow.

[the highlighted parts-that you are smart, who you are going to see, whether
you will come tomorrow: CP]. In these sentences: CPs are
subordinate/dependent clauses.

Want:

*I want

I want [this book].

I want to go. To go: clause (non-finite clause)

I like [to swim].

I ask [you] [a question].

I ask [you to be punctual].

[the highlighted parts- to go there, to swim, to be punctual: TP]. In these

sentences: TPs are subordinate/dependent clauses.

Adjuncts are additional/extra/optional elements/components/members of a head.

Adjuncts are Adverbs or adverbials

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Complement vs Adjunct

Complement: Obligatory/essential

Adjunct: Additional/optional/extra

I want to go to the market.

Complement (1): to go

Adjunct (1): to the market

I want to go to the market to buy fruits to eat in the morning tomorrow.

Complement (1): to go

Adjuncts (5): to the market, to buy fruits, to eat, in the morning, tomorrow

I went to the market to buy fruits to eat in the morning tomorrow.

Complement (0):

Adjuncts (5): to the market [PP], to buy fruits [TP], to eat [TP], in the morning [PP],
tomorrow [NP]

Head of a Phrase

- Phrases are headed internally, that is, the head of the noun phrase (NP) is a
noun (N), and the head of a verb phrase is a verb (V) and so on.

- A phrase has one and only one head. that is, a (single) phrase cannot have
multiple heads.

- The head is the obligatory (must) component in a phrase

- A phrase that is headed by a lexical category is a lexical phrase (e.g. NP, VP)

- A phrase that is headed by a functional category word (D, T, C) is a functional

projection (e.g. DP: Determiner Phrase, TP: Tense Phrase, CP:
Complementizer Phrase)

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 - A lexical phrase is covered by a functional phrase

- [TP [VP]]

- [DP [NP]] The boy

Determiner is the Functional Category with respect to the Noun (Phrase) as

Tense is the Functional Category with respect to the Verb (Phrase).

D -> N (+/- definiteness)

T -> V (+/- Time/tense)

Boys are taking breakfast.

The boys are taking breakfast.

[TP [DP the [NP boys]] [VP are taking [DP [NP breakfast]]]]

I want to go.

I wanted to go.

I will want/like to go.

I saw a boy. I bought a book.

I saw the boy. I bought the book.

Therefore: every NP is within a DP and every VP is within a TP.

Head

Verb: Arguments and Adjuncts

Arguments are essential component(s)/part(s) required by a head

(verb/noun/adjective/Preposition, etc). In other words, arguments are obligatory
element/component/member.

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Arguments: Subject and object, Spec-ifier and Comp-lement

Adjuncts are additional/extra/optional elements/components/members of a head.

Adjuncts are Adverbs or adverbials

Specifier vs Complement

Subject argument: Specifier

Object argument: Complement

I write a book.

Arguments (2) are: I and a book

Specifier: I

Complement: a book

I gave you a pen.

Arguments (3) are: I, you and a pen

Specifier: I

Complements: you, a pen

I want [a pen].

Arguments (2) are: I and a pen

Spec: I

Comp: [NP a pen]

[I want] [to go]. [I want] [you to go].

Arguments (2) are: I and to go

Spec: I [NP]

Comp: to go [TP], you to go [TP]

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I inquired about you. They inquired [about the matter]

Arguments (2) are: I and about you

Spec: I

Comp: about you [PP]

I know that you are smart. I know you. I know about you. I like to sing. I like this. I like
that you are on time.

Arguments (2) are: I and that you are smart

Spec: I [NP]

Comp: [that [you are smart]] [CP]

Complement vs Adjunct

Complement: Obligatory/essential

Adjunct: Additional/optional/extra

I want to go to the market.

Arguments (2) are I and to go

Adjunct (1): to the market

I want to go to the market to buy fruits to eat in the morning tomorrow.

Arguments (2) are I and to go

Adjuncts (5): to the market, to buy fruits, to eat, in the morning, tomorrow

I went to the market to buy fruits to eat in the morning tomorrow.

Arguments (1): I

Adjuncts (5): to the market [PP], to buy fruits [TP], to eat [TP], in the morning [PP],
tomorrow [NP]

I went to the market [so that I can buy some fruits].

Adjuncts (2): to the market [PP], so that I can buy some fruits [CP]

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[That you are smart] is known to all.

[To go there] is not easy.

He writes …..

He writes a letter on a paper with a pen in the morning to express his desire to go
home to see his family.

He sleeps.

Eat:

The boy will eat a cake.

The boy will eat a cake {in the morning}.

EAT: EATER, EATEE

EAT (the boy, a cake)

Smile:

He smiles.

He smiles {very enthusiastically}.

SMILE: SMILER, -

SMILE (He, )

Give:

They gave me a pen.

GIVE: GIVER, RECEIVER, OBJECT OF GIVING (SOMETHING to GIVE)

GIVE (they, me, a pen)

Adjective:

Proud, jealous

I am [proud [of you]].

They are [jealous [of you]]

Grammar/Syntax (structure of sentences) is autonomous / independent of meaning.

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Clause

- A phrase that contains a verb (phrase) with the subject

- A finite clause standing on its own (not dependent/subordinate is a (simple)
sentence
- Mono-clausal sentences are simple sentences.

o I am happy.
o You are studying English Syntax

- A construction consisting of more than one clause and joined by a conjunction

(and, but, or) makes a coordinate sentence. The clauses are not dependent
(they can stand on their own if the conjunction is dropped/deleted).

o I am here and he is still missing.

o You can go there but you may not see him.
o You can go there. You may not see him.

- A construction consisting of more than one clause including

dependent/subordinate clauses make a complex sentence.
o I know that you are smart
 I know (main clause), that you are smart
(dependent/subordinate/complement clause)

Clause Types: Finite clause vs Non-finite clause

o Finite clause: a clause with the verb with tense and agreement
o Finite clause can stand on its own (independently)
o Only a finite clause can be the main/principal clause
o I am happy. You are happy. He is happy. They are happy.
o They were happy.
o We will do it.
o [I know [that we will do it]]. (complex sentence)

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I want [to go [to buy foods]] to quench my hunger to stay healthy and to live a
long life and (to) prepare a healthy meal for the family so that we all will be
happy.

I wanted to go to buy foods.

I will like/want to go to buy foods.
He wants to go to buy foods.
They want to go to buy foods.

They eat [rice] [every day] [in the morning] [for the last many years].

They eat [rice] [to keep healthy].

He knows [that he will not go to the class tomorrow]. CP: (a main clause plus
a subordinate clause)

CP complement clause:
He knows (that) it will rain tomorrow. CP
He knows how to sing (a song). CP
He knows how to do it. CP
*He knows to do it. *TP
He knows it/me/you. NP
He knows about it/me/you. PP

TP complement clause:
*He wants how to sing (a song). CP
*He wants how to do it. CP
He wants to do it. TP
He wants it/me/you. NP
?He wants about it/me/you. PP
[To-Head the market- NP]. PP

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The complement of PP is NP.
Like: TP, NP
He likes [to go].
He likes the weather.

Inquire: PP, *NP, CP, *TP

He inquires [about the crime].
*He inquires the crime.
He inquires from the man about the plane.
He inquires whether/if the plane is on time.
*He inquires to go there.

Wonder: CP, *NP, PP, *TP

We wonder whether/if it will rain tomorrow.
We wonder why he said that. CP
*We wonder him/it/this.
He wonders about the situation. PP
She wondered about why her friend acted like that. PP
*She wonders to go there.

Look: PP, AP, *TP, NP,

He looks into the matter.
He looks nice.
*He looks to go there.
He looks the same as he did ten years ago.
He knows everyone in the class for many years.

The verb in English sentence: agrees with the subject in number and person:
Agreement
He (3p.sg) eat-s (sg.present) rice. He ate(sg.past) rice. He will eat(sg.future)
rice.
They (3p.pl) eat-(pl) rice.
I (1p.sg) am(1p.sg) eating rice.
We (1p.pl) are(1/2/3.p.pl) eating rice.
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 English Verb Form:
Verb + tense(present-past-future) + Agreement (person-number of the
subject)

I want that you should go to the market.

I know/knew/will know that you can go to the market.

[I want/wanted/will want] [you to go to the market].

Finite Non-finite
He wants him
[I want/wanted] [to go].: I want/wanted: Finite clause, to go: Non-finite clause
[I like/liked] [to sing].
[He wants/wanted] [to go/sing].

Finite clause: verb (with tense-agreement)

Non-finite clause: verb (without tense-agreement)

- Non-finite clause: a clause with the verb without tense and

agreement
o A non-finite clause cannot stand on its own.
o It is always a dependent/subordinate/embedded clause.

o [She wants] [to sing a song].

o She wanted to sing a song.
o She will like to sing a song
o They do not like me [for doing this].

In spite of my coming here, I could not meet him.

After going there I saw him.
I saw him.
After going there

To go there
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 To see, to go, to write
To-Verb
Verb-ing

I am going there.
He is going there.
He was going there.
They were going there.

Non-finite:
To-Verb: to go, to come, to write, to, see, to send, to
ask, etc

Verb-ing: eating is healthy, burn-ing train

Ing: verb-ing: he is com-ing

Walking is healthy

He knows that he will do it. [he will do it is finite

complement clause]

He wants to do it. [to do it is non-finite complement clause]

I will go so that I will buy fruits. [I will buy fruits is finite

adjunct clause]

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I will go to buy fruits. [to buy fruits is non-finite adjunct
clause]

Finite complement clause:

I have decided that I will study today.

I think that I have nothing in my mind right now.

My mother ordered /said to/told/asked me that I

cannot/should not go to the movie.

Non-finite complement clause:

My mother ordered /said to/told/asked/wanted me not to go

to the movie.

Finite adjunct clause:

I went to market [so that I can buy some books].

I have booked tickets [so that I can visit my parents.]

Non-Finite adjunct clause:

I went to market [to buy some books].

I have booked tickets [to visit my parents].

Complement clause vs adjunct clause

Complement clause: Finite clause as well as non-finite

clause

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Adjunct clause: Finite clause as well as non-finite clause

Clause Types: Main clause vs Subordinate clause

- Main clause: also called independent or principal clause

o Main clause is always a finite clause
o When a sentence contains more than one clause, one of the clause is
(and acts) as a main clause, in relation to the other clause which is a
subordinate clause

o [I trust] that the students are sincere.

- Subordinate clause: also called dependent or embedded clause

o Subordinate clause can be either a finite clause or a non-finite clause
o When a sentence contains more than one clause, one of the clauses is
(and acts) as a main clause and all the other clause(s) is/are
subordinate clause(s).

o I trust [that the students are sincere]. (finite)

o I trust [the students to be sincere]. (non-finite)

Clause Types: Complement clause vs Adjunct clause

- Complement clause: the object of the verb is a complement clause
o Obligatory part of the verb phrase
 I like [sweets]. (Object is an NP)
 I like [to smile]. (object is a clause): non-finite complement
clause
o Certain verbs take an object only in the form of a clause
 I wonder [whether it will rain today]. Finite complement clause
o Complement clause can be either a finite clause or a non-finite clause
 I want [you to buy a book]. (non-finite complement clause)
 I want [that you should buy a book]. (finite complement clause)

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 - Adjunct clause: the non-object part of the verb phrase
o Non-obligatory (additional) part of a verb phrase

 I went to market [to buy fruits].

 Go: went: I go now,
 Buy: I buy fruits from the market.
o Adjunct clause can be either a finite clause or a non-finite clause
 I went to market [so that I could buy some fruits]. (finite adjunct
clause)
 I walk to keep myself healthy. (non-finite adjunct clause)

Clause and Phrase

- Clause is also a phrase, a big(ger) phrase, an extended/expanded phrase

- Clause is a phrase that contain necessarily a verb phrase including its subject
- Clause is a bigger phrase containing more than one phrase
- A clause is always finally (upper-most) headed by a functional head (functional
phrase)

Sentence Type

- Simple sentence
o Simple indicative sentences: The sky is blue. The park is empty.
o Simple imperative sentences: Come on time. Please close the door. Do
not tell lies.
o You are coming tomorrow. Are you coming tomorrow? (Yes/No
Question) (Aux Fronting)
o He goes home. He smiles. Does he smile? (‘Do’ support)
o What are you looking in the mirror?
- Complex sentence: embedding of clauses
o Complex sentences consist of a main/matrix/principal clause and one or
more embedded subordinate/dependent clause

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 o E.g. WE know that the earth moves around the sun. The children saw
that the sky was blue. I wonder whether you believe that the children
know that the sky is blue.
- Compound: conjoining of clauses
o You live in Jaipur and they live in Kolkata. Sita wore a red sari and
Radha a blue one.
You may not like the course but you must study it sincerely. Either you
pay attention in the class or go out to play in the playground.
- Compound-complex sentence:
o I know that they are absent in the class but I also know that they have
gone to participate in a meeting.

Syntactic Relations

- Arguments (essential components) vs Adjuncts (additional/extra components:

adjuncts are modifiers)
- Complements (Object Arguments) vs Adjuncts (non-object, non-argument,
modifiers)
- Specifier (Subject position in a phrase structure) vs Complements (object
position in a phrase structure)

Non-finite Clause (in italics)

- Non-finite participial clause [ V+ing]

o I saw him looking himself in the mirror.
o On hearing his name, he looked back
o Telling lies is not a smart thing to do.
- Non-finite infinitival clause [To+v1]
o I want to see you all in the class.
o To be fool others is to be fool self.
o I would like you all to be responsible.

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