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The significance of First Nations peoples as historical actors in Canadian History.

As european colonist like Jaques Cartier and Samuel De Champlain travelled to what

they believed was Asia, they encountered societies and communities of first nations peoples.

These groups inhabited the land and lived off of it all throughout canada, however these colonists

believed the land to be up for grabs despite the families thriving off the land. From that moment

on a struggle between first nations, European settlers, colonist began and lasted for thousands of

years leaving indigenous people in the dust. With their help with Early settlement and trading,

the founding of New France, early Canadian diplomacy and empire, military aid in seven years'

war, and the founding of Halifax, these people played crucial roles in shaping the land and the

country into what we know today as Canada.

1534 Jaques Cartier travelled to New France where he encountered Mi’Kmaq peoples

and was interested in trading iron goods for fur which marks the beginning of the fur trade. This

trade continued on with the Huron-Wendat and Algonquin peoples who were instrumental in the

fur trade enterprise which served as the financial pillar for this colony. 1 Their expertise in

hunting and trading created beneficial alliances with French settlers, assisting them to negotiate

their way around North America's extensive wilderness. In return for European goods like metal

tools, firearms, and textiles, they supplied furs that were highly coveted in Europe.

These colonists had religious intolerance and superiority against indigenous societies and

believed they could colonize “heathens from all parts of the world”. 2 The indigenous held an

important place within New France's religious sphere. Missionaries from Jesuit order such as

Jean de Brébeuf and Isaac Jogues attempted to convert Indigenous populations into adhering

1 Lecture, “First Nations and Early Encounters” 11 September 2023

2 Lecture, “First Nations and Early Encounters”.
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Christianity by setting up missions among Indigenous settlements. 3 This interaction between

French colonists and native people significantly influenced New France's cultural fabric

including its economic structure along with religious ethos.

In 1605 a new settlement was established in port royal and Mi’kmaq people allowed and

were willing to help europeans to settle in the area. In other areas of Quebec Inuit and Tadoussac

people agreed to french settlement in the area and even had the upper hand against europeans but

decided against it however after an English raid in 1629, Inuit are angry with Champlain but play

a big role in shaping the political landscape of Quebec in the 17th century.4 Numerous French

colonists established connections with Indigenous females, giving rise to a unique Métis

demographic. In addition, Native populations had a significant impact on the culinary practices

of the French by introducing novel food items like corn, squash and beans; these eventually

became main parts of their diets.5 As more people settled in Acadian territory around port royal

Mi’kmaq people acted as intermediaries between europeans and other indigenous societies as

well as a military force because of their knowledge of the land and different military techniques.6

However, as acadian society became to develop french and english found themselves using

indigenous knowledge of the land for their own benefits and used the names of certain places and

locations as their own.

Indigenous played a pivotal role in the formation of diplomatic relations by French

colonial policies in North America after the Treaty of Utrecht. French overseas colonists

3 Lecture, “New France” 18 September 2023.

4 Greer, Allan. 2017. The People of New France. The University of Toronto Press.
5 Greer, Allan. 2017. The People of New France. The University of Toronto Press.

6 Lecture, “New France”.

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recognized the importance of exploiting the complex networks of these colonies.7 The French

government was keen, on utilizing the expertise of these specialists as emissaries to establish control

over this territory. However the coureurs de bois often pursued their priorities and objectives within

this region sometimes contradicting policies set by Frances colonial administration. Nevertheless

despite not being agents enforcing imperial rule their actions inadvertently expanded French influence

throughout the vast expanses of the unofficially controlled Hudson Bay watershed.8 The French

government was eager to leverage these specialists' knowledge as imperial emissaries for

asserting dominion over this territory. However, the coureurs de bois sought out their own

priorities and objectives within this region often undermining official policies set by France’s

colonial administration.9 Nevertheless, despite failing to completely secure them as faithful

agents enforcing empire rule; they inadvertently expanded French influence throughout the

extensive reaches of Hudson Bay watershed unofficially. 10

Indigenous communities supported coureurs de bois and back country specialists through

trade, exploration, cultural exchange and its encounters or conflicts. Such encounters helped

shape the historical trajectory of French influence in the region, trade, and land discovery.

Aboriginal communities greatly influenced the establishment of Halifax and the mapping in

various ways. Notably, although Mi'kmaq people already lived in the area, Mi'kmaq resistance to

British colonization continued to form Halifax Their continued resistance forced the British to

7
Berthelette, Scott. "New France and the Hudson Bay Watershed: Transatlantic Networks,
Backcountry Specialists, and French Imperial Projects in Post-Utrecht North America,
1713–29." The Canadian Historical Review 101, no. 1 (03, 2020), 6
8
Berthelette, 25
9
Berthelette, 7
10
Berthelette, 23
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accept it as amended treaties is necessary to ensure cooperation with the Mi'kmaq.11 Moreover,

Nova Scotia served as a territory of imperial contact and competition with Aboriginal people Its

importance and availability are often misrepresented in Halifax maps which fail to account for

their spatial distribution follow the application. 12 Regardless of attempts at marginalizing or

completely disregarding Indigenous presence, these groups displayed considerable military force

alongside geographic control which left a memorable mark. This influential power exhibited by these

groups is evident within cartographic depictions even when faced with British efforts aimed at

dominating or downplaying Mik’maq involvement in Nova Scotia.13 Therefore, it becomes

abundantly clear how profound the effects exerted by Native Americans have been in relation to both

founding Halifax along with its map-making process considering intricate dealings coupled dynamic

relationships between colonial settlers originating from Britain overall versus local natives residing

there.

The seven year war, also known as the Indian war holds significance in history as Indigenous groups

played a crucial role, in its development and outcome. Pierre de Rigaud employed tactics by forming alliances

with the Indigenous peoples. One significant setback for the British was their failure to establish an alliance

with the Hudanashone people, which gave the French forces an advantage.14 They leveraged their

understanding of the landscape and local conditions to stage unexpected assaults on British

troops. These methods proved successful against conventional European warfare approaches,

adding to the overall dynamic nature and uncertainty that characterized this war. Later in 1760

11
Lennox, Jeffers. "An Empire on Paper: The Founding of Halifax and Conceptions of Imperial
Space, 1744-55." Canadian Historical Review 88, no. 3 (09, 2007), 23
12
Lennox, 23
13
Lennox, Jeffers. "An Empire on Paper: The Founding of Halifax and Conceptions of Imperial
Space, 1744-55." Canadian Historical Review 88, no. 3 (09, 2007), 20
14 Lecture, “The Seven Years War”, 25 September 2023.
Emma Asta 261145046

the Treaty of Peace and Friendship, was constructed as an effort to secure peace in the region

because of British’s insecurities of the outcome of the war. 15 The Mi’Kmaq peoples had

continued conflict during the period of Acadian Expulsion, therefore, they want to fight against

the british to hopefully change the outcome of the war. Mi’kmaq and other indigenous nations

have seen their french allies will not be able to change the outcome therefore they sign the treaty

as a means of securing peace in exchange for trading rights. However, they did not clearly

understand the agreement made regarding seeding land to the british, so the the new settler

population was not welcomed or properly agreed upon.16 The Mi’kmaq population had a

complex involvement in the Seven Years' War, affecting military tactics, adding to the

unpredictable nature of the battle, and molding diplomatic and geopolitical conclusions. Their

engagement left an enduring imprint on historical narratives and interactions between Indigenous

tribes and European authorities across the continent.

The indigenous footprint left on Canadian Society is important but not always evident

throughout history, as many war efforts and diplomatic measures were supported or supplied by

the multiple indigenous communities of the time. These people were main actors throughout

history as British and French colonists stole their land and other European settlers lived on it then

and now. It is important as Canadians we understand and credit those who fell victim to

imperialists when lending a hand or showing kindness and we recognize their accomplishments

as imperative subjects of Canadian History.

15 Lecture, “The Seven Years War”.

16 Lecture, “The Seven Years War”
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Bibliography

Berthelette, Scott. "New France and the Hudson Bay Watershed: Transatlantic Networks,

Backcountry Specialists, and French Imperial Projects in Post-Utrecht North America,

1713–29." The Canadian Historical Review 101, no. 1 (03, 2020): 1-1–26.

doi:https://doi.org/10.3138/chr.2018-0094.

https://proxy.library.mcgill.ca/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/new-

france-hudson-bay-watershed-transatlantic/docview/2521462449/se-2.

Greer, Allan. 2017. The People of New France. The University of Toronto Press.

Lecture, “New France” 18 September 2023.

Lecture, “First Nations and Early Encounters” 11 September 2023

Lecture, “The Seven Years War”, 25 September 2023.

Lennox, Jeffers. "An Empire on Paper: The Founding of Halifax and Conceptions of Imperial

Space, 1744-55." Canadian Historical Review 88, no. 3 (09, 2007): 373-412.

doi:https://doi.org/10.3138/chr.88.3.373.

https://proxy.library.mcgill.ca/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-

journals/empire-on-paper-founding-halifax-conceptions/docview/36902537/se-2.
Emma Asta 261145046