Topics

1.Asexual Reproduction in
lower organism

DR.SACHIN H.RAUT
.
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

ASEXUAL SEXUAL

A single parent is involved. Two parents (a male and a female)

No formation or fusion of Formation and fusion of gametes

gametes
Involves mitotic division Involves meiosis

Individuals are genetically identical Individuals show variation i.e.

i.e. clone offspring

*
 Fragmentation
 Fission- (a) binary (b) multiple
 Budding
 Spore formation
 Vegetative propagation

*
Fragmentation
Fragmentation : Multicellular organisms can break into fragments due to
one or the other reasons.
. These fragments grow into new individuals.
e.g. Spirogyra
Ex. Amoeba
●

*
Ex. Entamoeba
●

Zoospores in
Chlamydomonas
*
Ex. Yeast
●

*
Ex. Fungi(Mucor)
●

*
 Runner- oxalis
 Sucker- mint
 Tuber- potato
 Offset- water hyacinth, pistia
 Bulb- onion, garlic
 Rhizome- ginger
 Bulbil- agave
 Leaf buds- Bryophyllum

*
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM-
CLASS XII BIOLOGY *
Artificial method of vegetative propagation
 Cuttings: It is simple ,easy and cheap method of vegetative
reproduction.
 Numerous plant species are propagated by stem cuttings, Root cutting
and leaf cutting.
 Stem cutting :The small piece of any vegetative part of a plant having one
or more buds is used for propagation viz. Stem cutting - e.g. Rose,Hibiscus.
Leaf Cuttings:
Leaf cuttings are used almost exclusively for a few
indoor plants. Leaves of most plants will either
produce a few roots but no plant, or just decay.
Root Cuttings:
• Root cuttings are usually taken from 2- to 3-year-old
plants during their dormant season when they have a
large carbohydrate supply.
 Grafting
 Grafting is a horticultural technique whereby tissues
from one plant are inserted into those of another so
that the two sets of vascular tissues may join together.
 This vascular joining is called inosculation.
 Rooted part of plant is called stock
 Plant part inserted on the stock is called scion
 The technique is most commonly used in
commercially grown plants for the horticultural and
agricultural trades.
SIGNIFICANCE
 Easy and cheaper method.
 Increase the productivity .
 Rapid propagation method.
 Genetically similar plants(Clones)
 Quality of plants can be produced.
 Banana,Pineapple,Grapes etc….can be propagated
 Topics
1.Part of flower.
2.Structure of male
gametophyte
 FLOWER
 Modified shoot
 Develops from floral primordia
 Primordia develop first into floral bud and then into a flower.
 Reproductive part of plant
 Androecium: is male reproductive whorl, consists of stamens.
 Gynoecium : is female reproductive part of flower, consists of carpel(S).
Parts Of Flower
 Stamen
 Male reproductive unit.
 Consists of two parts- fillament and anther
 Fillament is attached to thalamus or petal.
 A typical angiosperm anther is bilobed.
 Each lobe have two theca i.e. dithecous.
 Each anther contains four microsporangia
located at the corners, two in each lobe.
 Microsporangia become pollen sacs and are
packed with pollengrains
Structure Of Anther (Microsporangium)
Each microsporangium consist of pollen wall & Microsporangium
Structure Of Anther
A) Pollen wall consist of
following layers
1.Epidermis :Outermost layers protect
the pollen and help in dehiscence of
anther to release pollen.

2.Endothecium:it is inner to the

epidermis consist of single layer. Cell
show characteristics fibrous
thickenings of callose.at maturity it
help in a dehiscence.

3.Middle layers: 1 to 3 layers

surrounded to the pollen sac. It
degenerate after maturity.

4.Tapetum : The innermost layer is which

is multinucleated, with dense
cytoplasm; it nourishes the
developing pollen grain.
Microsporangium (Pollen sac)
The centers of each microsporangium
contain diploid sporogenous tissues (2n).
 The cell of this tissue may undergoes mitosis to
form microspore mother cell(2n).
 MMC undergoes meiosis to form four haploid
microspores (n) the process is called
microsporogenesis.
 These microspores,unicelular, uninucleate .
 Pollen Grain (Male Gametophyte)
 Pollen grain is unicellular, uninucleate,spherical , haploid structure.
 Pollen grain surrounded with two pollen wall layer is called sporoderm.
 The outer exine inner thin intine.
 Exine- made up of sporopollenin which provide resist against physical
and biological decomposition.
 It has prominent apertures called germ pores, where sporopolenin is
absent.
 Intine- It is thin, continuous layer, made of cellulose and pectin.
 a

 Pollen grain cytoplasm is surrounded by plasma membrane.

 Mature pollen grain has 2 cells-
(i) vegetative cell (ii) generative cell.
 Vegetative cell- bigger, abundant food reserve, large irregular
nucleus.
 Generative cell- small, spindle shaped with dense cytoplasm and a
nucleus, floats in vegetative cell cytoplasm.
 generative cell divides mitotically into 2 haploid male gametes.
Development of male gametophyte
 The microspore is the first cell of the male
gametophyte.
 The development of male gametophyte is
endosporic and takes place at two stages
 1)Before pollination in pollen sac : in the
pollen sac sporogenous cell directly act as
microspore mother cell (2n).
 MMC undergoes meiosis to form four
haploid tetrad microspore(n) the process is
called microsporogenesis.
 Each microspore(n)is uninucleate structure,
it undergoes unequal mitosis to form a
larger vegetative and a smaller generative
nucleus.
 At this 2 celled stage, the pollens are
liberated from the anther.
2) After pollination on the stigma
 After successful pollination pollen grain
deposited on the stigma.
 Only self-compatible pollen grain allow for
germination.
 During pollen germination pollen grain
absorbs moisture and swells to form pollen
tube.
 The intine grows as pollen tube through the
germ pore.
 In the pollen tube pollen cytoplasm ,
vegetative cell and generative cell migrated
simultaneously.
 After reaching the pollen tube towards
embryo sac the generative cell divides
mitotically to form two haploid male gamete.
 Topics
1.Stucture of anatrous ovule.
2.Development of female
…gametophyte
Female gametophytes
 Female reproductive whorl of flower is gynoecium (Pistil).
 Individual member of gynoecium is called carpel .
 Typical carpel has three parts viz, ovary, style and stigma.
 In seed plants, the ovule is the structure that gives rise to and contains
the female reproductive cells.
 It consists of three parts: The integument, the nucellus
(megasporangium), and the female gametophyte (formed from a haploid
megaspore) in its center.
Anatropous ovule
The ovules become completely inverted during development so that
the micropyle lies close to the hilum.
 Structure of anatropous ovule
Each ovule consist of Stalk and Body
a) Stalk : Each ovule is attached to the inner
wall of the ovary (placenta), by a slender
stalk, called funicle.
 The point of attachment of ovule to its
funicle is called hilum.
 b)Body: funicle bear major swollen part
of ovule at the tip is called body of the
ovule .It consist of following parts
1)Nucellus : is a main body of the ovule is
formed by inner central mass.
 It consists of parenchymatous cells.
 Each mature ovules the nucellus serves to
cover and provide nutrition to the embryo
sac (female gametophyte).
 a

 2.Chalaza: The basal pat of nucellus ,it give rise to the

integument. This end of the ovule is called chalazal end.

 3.Integuments: Externally the nucellus is covered by one or

two protective covers arise from the chalazal end is called
integuments.
 When only one integument is present, the ovule is called
unitegmic, two integuments, it is called bitegmic very rarely
tri-tegmic.
 Angiospermic ovule are generally bitegmic .
 Outer integument give rise to the testa and inner tegmen in
the seed.

4.Micropyle:The integument leave the narrow opening at the

terminal end of nucellus is called micropyle and end is
called micropylar end

Embryo sac:
In mature ovules, the embryo sac consist of
07 cell 8 nucleated structure.
01 egg cell (n), 02 synergid cells, 03 antipodal cells and 01
secondary nucleus(2n)
 Development of female gametophyte
 In the micropylar region of the nucellus, usually a single
hypodermal cell gets differentiated from archesporial cells.
 Archesporial cell directly act as megaspore mother
cell(MMC).
 Megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis and forms four
haploid megaspores.
 In most of the angiosperms, out of these 4 megaspores, 3 get
degenerate towards chalazal end (to provide more
nourishment to the remaining one).
 Function megaspores undergoes trice mitosis to form 7 cell 8
nucleated structure.
 1) Egg apparatus(Micropyle end):Larger egg cell(n) and 2
lateral synergids.
 2) Secondary nucleus(2n): present in the center.
 3) Antipodal cell: 03 cells present towards chalazal end
 Topics
1.Type of pollination.
a. Self pollination
b. Cross pollination.
2.Agencies of cross pollination
Pollination:

 Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from anther to

the stigma (of a pistil) is called pollination.
 It is of two main types:
 (i) self-pollination and
 (ii) Cross-pollination.
Self Pollination and their type:
 (A) Self pollination:
 Transfer of pollen from anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower (or flower of
same plant) is called self pollination. Self-pollination can be two types, autogamy and
Geitonogamy.

 (1) Autogamy:
 It is a type of self-pollination that is found only in bisexual flower. In this case, the
stigma of a flower is pollinated by its own pollen. Autogamy occurs by three methods.

 (a) Homogamy:
 When anther and stigma of a flower become mature at the same time,
 called homogamy. Ex-Catharanthus (Vinca) Mirabills (four O’clock plant)

 (b) Cleistogamy:Some flowers are self pollinated even before the opening of flower.
Such condition is called cleistogamy. Ex- Oxalis,Arachis hypogea, Commelina, Viola
etc. 11 is best contrivance for self pollination.

 (c) Bud Pollination:In this case the pollination occurs in the bud stage. The sex organs
develop before the opening of bud, thus internal pollination takes place. Ex- Pea, Wheat,
Rice etc.
self Pollination:

 (2) Geitonogamy:
 In this type of pollination, the pollen grains of one
flower are transferred to the stigma of another flower
in same plant or genetically similar plant.
.
Advantages and disadvantage of self Pollination:
 Advantages of pollination:
 (a) It maintains purity of the species, by preserving all the parental
characters
 (b) It is used to obtain pure-line characters (homozygosity) during
breeding experiments.
 (c) Plant does not have to depend on pollinating agencies.
 (d) Only a small number of pollen grains are required
 (e) Self-pollination strengthens the better characters of the plant.

 Disadvantages of self pollination:

 (a) It does not eliminate bad characters from the race.
 (b) Vigour and vitality of the race decreases, as there is no hybrid
vigour.
 (c) Immunity to diseases decreases.
 (d) Ability to adapt according to changing environment decreases.
 (e) No role in evolution.
Cross pollination/Allogamy:

 Transfer of pollen grains from the

anther of the flower of one plant to the
stigma of the flower of other plant by
the help of agents is known as cross
pollination.

Types of cross Pollination
 Cross pollination are two type a)Xenogamy& b) Hybridization
a) Xenogamy:
'Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
different flower of different plant belonging to the same
species.e.g-Papaya.
b) Hybridization: 'Transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma of different flower different plant
belonging to the other or sub species.
e.g-Different variety of cottons
self Pollination:

 (2) Geitonogamy:
 In this type of pollination, the pollen grains of one
flower are transferred to the stigma of another flower
in same plant or genetically similar plant.
.
Advantages and disadvantage of self Pollination:
 Advantages of pollination:
 (a) It help to eliminate bad characters from the race.
 (b) Vigour and vitality of the race increases, as there is hybrid
vigour.
 (c) Immunity to diseases increases.
 (d) Ability to adapt according to changing environment
increases.
 (e) Role in variation and evolution.

 Disadvantages of self pollination:

 (a) It does not maintains purity of the species, by preserving all
the parental characters
 (b) It is not used to obtain pure-line characters (homozygosity)
during breeding experiments.
 (c) Plant depend on pollinating agencies.
 (d) Large number of pollen grains are required
Anemophily(Wind pollination) Pollination
by Wind or air is known as Anemophilly.

Adaptation :
 Plants produces enormous
amount of pollen to increase
chances of pollination.
 Flowers with well exposed stamens.
 Large feathery stigma to trap air-
borne pollengrains.
 Most wind pollinated flower
contains single ovulee.g. corn cob.
 Pollen grains are light and non-sticky,
sometimes winged.
 Well exposed anther.
 Large feathery stigma.
 Flowers arranged as inflorescence.
Hydophilly pollination Pollination by Water is known
as hydrophilly. a

Adaptation :
 This type of pollination is very
rare, about 30genera, mostly
monocot.e.g Vallisneria, Hydrilla
and Zostera.
▪ Pollen grains released into the
surface of water and carried to
the stigma by air current as in
Vallisneria.
▪ In sea grass the flowers remained
submerged.
▪ Pollen grains are long, ribbon like and
carried passively inside the water
▪ Pollen grains are protected from
wetting by mucilaginouscovering.
Insect Pollinated(Entomophily)  a
Pollination take place with the help of insects.
(75-80%pollination is achieved)

Adaptation :
 Large
 Brightly coloured and showy.
 If flowers are small, grouped into
inflorescence.
 Highly fragrant
 Produce nectar
 Sticky pollen and stigmatic surface
 Provide rewards to animal pollinator
such as nectar, food (pollen) or
provide safe place for laying eggs.
Birds Pollinated (Ornithophily) a
Pollination take place with the help of Birds.

Adaptation :
 Flowers are usually brightly coloured,
large and showy.
 They secrete profuse, dilute more
amount nectar.
 Flowers are funnel shape and petals
are thick.
 Pollen grains are sticky and spiny.
 Flowers are generally without
fragrance, as birds have poor sense of
smell.
Bats Pollinated (Chiropterophily) a

Pollination take place with the help of Bats.

Adaptation :
 Flowers are dull coloured
with strong fragrance.
• They secrete abundant
nectar.
• Flowers produce large
amount of edible pollen
grains,
e.g.Anthocephalous
(kadamb tree), Adansonia
(Baobab tree),
Kigelia (Sausage tree).
 Topics
1. Out breeding devices(contrivances).
2.Pollen - Pistil Interaction.
3.Artificial hybridization.
Outbreeding devices(contrivances)
 1. Uni-sexuality or Dicliny:
 Often uni-sexuality is of great help in the success of cross-
pollination. Plants bearing unisexual flowers are dioecious (e.g.
Cannabis, papaya). It is best contrivance for cross pollination.

 2. Self-sterility or incompatibility:
 Some plants, such as Passiflora, Potato, Malva Abutilon show
self-incompatibility, because in these plants pollen grains from
an individual flower cannot fertilize its own ovules as these
pollen-grains fail to germinate on stigma of the same flower.
 Self- sterility in plants is under genetic control which prevents
the ovules being fertilized by pollen from the same plant.

3.Prepotency :
 Pollen grains of other flowers germinate rapidly over the stigma
than the pollen grains from the same flower, e.g. Apple.
4. Dichogamy
 It refers to the device when in some bisexual flowers
stamens and carpels of a flower do not mature at the same
time.

 Dichogamy is of two types:

 (i) Protandry:
 When anthers mature much earlier than the carpels of a
flower, e.g., Sunflower, Tagetes, Jasminum, Foeniculum
etc.
 (ii) Protogyny:
 When carpels of flower mature much earlier than its
anthers, e.g. Rose, Ficus benghalensis, Polyalthea (Ashok)
etc.
5. Heterostyly:
 Sometimes due to great disparity in the length of style
and stigma, effective self pollination is not possible,
e.g., Primula, Lathynis, Oxalis etc.

 6. Herkogamy :
 In some cases, the homogamous flowers adapt
 some unusual devices for successful cross-pollination.
For instance, in caryophyllaceous flowers, the stigma
grows much beyond the limits of stamens so that its
own pollen-grains fail to read its own stigma.
 In Calotropis, the corolla act as hood in between and
androecium and gynoecium.
 Pollen pistil Interaction
▪ All the events – from pollen deposition on the stigma until pollen tubes enter
the ovule – are together referred as pollen-pistilinteraction.
▪ Pollination does not guarantee the transfer of the right type of pollen grain to
the right type of stigma.
▪ The pistil has the ability to recognize the pollen whether it is compatible or
incompatible.
▪ If it is right type the stigma allow the pollen to germinate.

▪ If it is wrong type the stigma rejects the pollen, preventing germination.

▪ The ability of the pistil to recognize the pollen by continuous dialogue mediated
by chemical like Boron,Inositoland sucroselevel.
▪ Following compatible pollination, the pollen grain produce pollen tube through
one of the germ pore.
Pollen pistil Interaction
Artificial hybridization
Artificial hybridization :
 It is one of the major approaches used in the crop
improvement.
 Only the desired pollen grains are hand pollinated and
used for fertilization.
 This is accomplished through emasculation and
bagging procedure.
 Topics
Event of fertilization.
1.Pollen on the stigma .
2.Entry of pollen tube into the ovule.
3.Entry of pollen tube into embryo sac.
4.Double fertilization and triple fusion

.
Events of fertilization
 Pollen on the stigma .

 Entry of pollen tube into the ovule.

 Entry of pollen tube into embryo sac.

 Double fertilization and triple fusion

Events of fertilization
Pollen on the stigma
 In nature, a variety of pollens fall on the receptive
stigma, but all of them do not germinate and bring out
fertilization.
 The receptive surface of the stigma receives the
pollen.
 If the pollen is compatible with the stigma it
germinates to form a tube.
Events of fertilization
Entry of pollen tube into the ovule
 There are three types of pollen
tube entry into the ovule.
 Porogamy: when the pollen
tube enters through the
micropyle.
 Chalazogamy: when the
pollen tube enters through the
chalaza.
 Mesogamy: when the pollen
tube enters through the
integument.
Events of fertilization
Entry of pollen tube into embryo sac
 The pollen enters into embryo sac directly into one of
the synergids.
 The growth of pollen tube towards the ovary, ovule
and embryo sac is due to the presence of chemotropic
substances.
Events of fertilization
Double fertilization

 FertilizationThe fusion of male and female gamete is

called fertilization.

 Double fertilization:Both the male garnet present in

pollen tube utilizes in fertilization process of
angiosperm is known as double fertilization.
 It is the Unique characteristic feature of angiosperms.
 It was first observed by Nawaschin (1898) in Fritilaria
and Lilium.
Events of fertilization
Double fertilization
 . Double fertilization involves two types of fusion
–
 a. Syngamy (fusion of egg cell and one male gamete)
and
 b. Triple fusion (fusion of remaining male gamete and
two proper nuclei).
.
Events of fertilization
Double fertilization
 (1) Syngamy: One of the two sperms goes to fertilize the
egg cell. This fusion is called syngamy.
 It results in the formation of zygote, which gives rise to
proper embryo.

 (2) Triple fusion: The remaining sperm now fuses with

the two haploid polar nuclei (present in the centre of
embryo sac).
 This fusion is called as triple fusion (as three nuclei i.e.,
one male gamete and 2 polar nuclei, are fused).
 It results in the formation of triploid endosperm nucleus.
 Endosperm serves to provide nutrition to the developing
embryo.
Events of fertilization
Significance of Double fertilization
 It is a unique feature of angiosperms. It ensures that
the parent plant invests a seed with a food store, only
if the egg is fertilized.
 The diploid zygote develops into an embryo which
consequently develops into a new plant
 The triploid PEN develops into nutritive endosperm
tissue.
 It restores the diploid condition by fusion of haploid
male gamete with haploid female gamete (i.e. through
syngamy).
 It also helps to avoid polyembryony
 Topics
Post fertilization changes.
1.Development of endosperm
a .Free nuclear endosperm.
b. cellular endosperm
c. Helobial endosperm
2.Development of Embryo.(Dicot and monocot)

DR.SACHIN H.RAUT
.
Post fertilization changes.
1.Development of endosperm
Events of endosperm and embryo development,
maturation of ovule into seed and ovary into fruit, are
collectively termed as post-fertilization events.
Endosperm:
Development of endosperm takes place before the
embryo development.
Primary endosperm cell divides repeatedly to form a
triploid endosperm.
Cells are filled with reserve food material and are
used for the nutrition of the developing embryo.
Depending upon the mode of development,03
types of endosperms are recognized
Types of Endosperms
 Three types of endosperm formation has been
reported in the angiosperms:
 (1) Free nuclear type.
 (2) Cellular type.
 (3) Helobial type
1 )Free Nuclear Endosperm:
 In this type ,the primary endosperm nucleus undergoes free
nuclear division(Karyokinesis),but Wall formation does not
followed(Cytokinesis).
 The large number of free nuclei suspended in to cytoplasm,
they arrange at the periphery and later on wall formation
occur around these nuclei
 It is most commen type of endosperm and found in
Mangifera, Malva, Cannabis etc.
(2) Cellular endosperm.
 In this type , primary endosperm nucleus undergoes
repeated karyokinesis (Nuclear division) and
cytokinesis (Wall formation) right from the beginning
to fom cellular endosperm.
 It is mostly found in dicots.

 3)Helobial Endosperm
 It is an intermediate type between the nuclear and the cellular.
 The first division of the primary endosperm nucleus results in the
chambering of the embryo sac.
 The micropylar part of the sac is usually larger than the chalazal part.
 The endosperm nucleus in the micropylar chamber undergoes several
free nuclear divisions, while nucleus in the chalazal region either
remains undivided or undergoes only a few divisions, (e.g., Eremurus,
Vallisneria..)
Post fertilization changes
Development of Embryo in Monocot Plants
 The oospore divides to form a Proembryo which is a
filament consisting of three cells, a large Basal Cell, a
Middle Cell and a Terminal Cell.
 The basal cell is present towards micropylar end.
 It enlarges in size forming most of the suspensor.
z
 The middle cell undergoes repeated transverse and
vertical divisions thus differentiating few suspensor
cells, radicle, plumule and hypocotyl.
 The terminal cell also undergoes a number of
divisions in various planes and forms a single
cotyledon
Post fertilization changes
Development of Embryo in Dicot Plants
 The fertilized egg or oospore greatly enlarges in size,
elongates and divides transversely into a suspensor
cell (towards the micropylar end) and an embryonal
cell (towards the middle of the embryo sac).
 As the development proceeds, the suspensor cell
further divides and forms a 8 to 10-celled suspensor
which pushes the developing embryo into the food
storage tissue, endosperm.
 The lowermost cell of the suspensor, which is called
hypophysis, undergoes more divisions to form the
radicle.
Post fertilization changes
Development of Embryo in Monocot Plants
Post fertilization changes

 The embryonal cell also divides; the first division is

longitudinal followed by one more longitudinal at
right angle to the first and the other transverse
forming an octant (8-celled proembryo).
 This is followed by a periclinal division thus forming a
16-celled octant structure.
 The development further proceeds, the free end of the
developing embryo becomes ,spherical ,heart-shaped
and finally it form horse shoe shape embryo.
 Finally ,it et differentiated to form an embryonal axis
with plumule, radical and two cotyledons .
 1

a
 Topics
1. Seed and Fruit Development
2.Significance of seed and fruit formation
3.Apomixis .
4.Parthenocarpy
5. Polyembryony .

.
Development of seed
 The seed formation finishes the process of plant
reproduction.
 The mature ovule develops into the seed.
 A typical seed contains a seed coat, cotyledons,
endosperm, and a single embryo .
 Seed sometimes consists of two distinct coverings, a
typical outer seed coat, the testa and the inner thin,
membranous tegmen.
Development of Dicot seed
 The storage of food reserves in angiosperm seeds differs between
monocots and dicots.
 The two cotyledons in the dicot seed also have vascular
connections to the embryo.
 Dicot seed are two types 1) Endosporic and 2) Non endospoic,

 In endospermic dicots, the food reserves are stored in the

endosperm.
 During germination, the two cotyledons therefore act as
absorptive organs to take up the enzymatically released food
reserves.
 E.g. Tobacco , tomato , and pepper

Development of Dicot seed
 Non-endospermic dicots :The triploid endosperm
develops normally following double fertilization, but
the endosperm food reserves are quickly remobilized
and moved into the developing cotyledon for storage.
 E.g- Pea, Ground nut etc..
Development of Monocot seed
 Monocot seed consist of following parts
 Seed coat:
 It is the outer brownish layer of the grain.
 In this, seed and fruit wall are fused together called as Hull.
 Endosperm:
 It comprises the major part of grain and is filled with reserve food.
 It is composed of two regions: outer single layered aleurone layer, mainly made up of
aleurone protein and inner starchy endosperm.
 It is separated from embryo by a layer called epithelium.
 Embryo:
 It contains a single lateral cotyledon called scutellum and embryo axis with plumule and
radicle are at its two ends.
 Root cap protects the tip of radicle.
 Radicle is surrounded by a protective sheath called coleorhizae.
 Plumule is also protected by a covered sheath known as coleoptile.
Formation of fruit
 Fruit is a ripen overy.
 fruits may be true or false.
 (i) True Fruits:
 A true fruit or eucarp is a mature or ripened ovary, developed
after fertilization, e.g., Mango, Maize, etc…
 (ii) False Fruits:
 A false fruit or pseudo-carp is derived from the floral parts other
than ovary, e.g., peduncle in cashew-nut, thalamus in apple,
pear etc..
Significance of seed and fruit formation :

 Fruits provide nourishment to the developing seeds.

 Fruits protect the seeds in immature condition.

 Seeds serve as important propagating organs (units) of

plant.

 Seeds and fruits develop special devices for their dispersal

and thus help in the distribution of the species.
Apomixis
 It is phenomenon of formation of embryo(s) through
asexual method of reproduction without formation of
gametes and the act of fertilization.

 Apogamy:In apomixis, when a gametophyte organ or

cell produces embryo like structure without
fertilization.
 Apospory: When diploid sporophyte cell produces a
diploid gametophyte without undergoing meiosis is
called apospory, e.g. Orange, Mango.
Categories of apomixis
 Recurrent apomixis : In this type, the embryo sac generally rise
either from an archesporial cell or from some other part of the
nucellus.
 e.g. Taraxacum

 Non-recurrent apomixis : In this type, megaspore mother cell

undergoes usual meotic division and a haploid embryo sac is
formed.
 e.g. Nicotiana.

 c. Adventive Embryony :
 In this type, embryos may develop from somatic nucellus or
integuments along with normal zygotic embryo. It is common
in Mango, Orange, Lemon, etc
 Parthenocarpy
 This term is coined by Noll (1902).
 It is the condition in which fruit is developed without
the process of fertilization.
 It occurs naturally in some varieties of Pineapple,
Banana, Papaya, etc.
 Indole-3 Acetic Acid responsible for formation of
Parthenocarpy in this plant
 Polyembryony
 It is the development of more than one embryos, inside the seed
and the condition is described as polyembryony.
 Polyembryony increases the chances of survival of the new
plants
 Polyembryony may be true or false depending upon whether
many embryos arise in the same embryo sac or in different
embryo sacs in the same ovule.

 Adventive polyembryony: Embryo develop directly from the

diploid cell of nucellus and integuments as in Citrus.
 Cleavage polyembryony: zygote proembryo sometimes
divides (cleaves) into many parts or units
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