ECE 6382 C

Fall 2022
David R. Jackson

Notes 6

Branch Points and Branch Cuts

Notes are adapted from D. R. Wilton, Dept. of ECE

1
 Preliminary

Consider: f ( z ) = z1/ 2 z = r eiθ

=z 1/2
(=
re ) iθ 1/2
r eiθ /2

Choose: z = r= 1 θ = 0: z1/ 2 = 1

θ = 2π : z1/ 2 = −1

θ = 4π : z1/ 2 = 1

There are two possible values.

2
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

Consider what happens if we encircle the origin:

z1/2 = r eiθ /2 r =1

r
B C
A
x

Point θ z1/ 2
A 0 1
We don’t get back the same result!
B π +i
C 2π -1
3
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)
iθ /2
Now consider encircling y z 1/2
= re
the origin twice:

r =1
r
D B C
A
x
E

Point θ z1/ 2
Recall: z p/q has q distinct values
A 0 1 (if p and q have no common factors).
B π +i
C 2π -1
We now get back the same result!
D 3π -i
E 4π +1 Hence the square-root function is a
double-valued function.
4
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

z1/2 = r eiθ /2

Next, consider encircling a

y
θ increasing
point z0 not at the origin. B z0

θ decreasing
x

Unlike encircling the origin, now we return to the same result!

5
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

The origin is called a branch point: we are not allowed to encircle it if

we wish to make the square-root function single-valued.

In order to make the square-root function single-valued and

analytic in the domain, we insert a “barrier” or “branch cut”.

The function z1/2 is analytic

Branch cut off of the branch cut.

Here the branch cut is chosen to lie on the negative real axis (an arbitrary choice).
6
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

We must now choose what “branch” of the function we want.

z = r eiθ z1/2 = r eiθ /2

y
−π < θ < π
Branch cut This is the “principal” branch
(the MATLAB choice*).

x
z =1
⇒ z1/ 2 = 1
Note : Re ( z1/ 2 ) > 0

Note: MATLAB actually uses -π < θ ≤ π.

The square-root function is then defined on the negative real axis (though it won’t be analytic there): −1 =i
7
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

Here is the other branch choice.

z = r eiθ z1/2 = r eiθ /2

Branch cut π < θ < 3π

x
z =1
⇒ z1/ 2 = −1

8
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

Note that the function is discontinuous across the branch cut.

z = r eiθ z1/2 = r eiθ /2

Branch cut z → −1, θ → π −π < θ < π

⇒ z1/2 → i
x
z =1
z → −1, θ → −π
⇒ z1/ 2 = 1
⇒ z1/2 → −i

9
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

The function z1/2 is analytic off of the branch cut.

w = z1/2
y dw 1 −1/2
= z
dz 2
Branch cut

10
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

The shape of the branch cut is arbitrary.

z = r eiθ
y
z1/2 = r eiθ /2
−π / 2 < θ < 3π / 2

x
z =1
Branch cut z1/ 2 = 1

The second branch is

3π / 2 < θ ≤ 7π / 2.
11
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

The branch cut does not have to be a straight line.

In this case the branch is determined by requiring that the

square-root function change continuously as we start from a
z = r eiθ specified value (e.g., z = 1).

z1/2 = r eiθ /2 (This means that the angle θ changes continuously.)

z = −1 z=i
z1/2= eiπ /4= (1 + i ) / 2
z 1/2
=i
x
z =1
Branch cut z1/2 = 1 (⇒ θ = 0)

z = −i
z1/2= e − iπ /4= (1 − i ) / 2
12
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

Branch points usually appear in pairs; here one is at z = 0 and

the other at z = ∞ as determined by using ζ = 1/ z and then
examining the function at ζ = 0.

w z= 1 / ζ =
= 1/2 1/2 1 − iθ ′/2
r′
e ( ζ = r ′ e iθ ′
)

We get a different result when we encircle the origin in the ζ plane

(θ ′ changes by 2π) , which means encircling the “point at infinity” in
the z plane.

Hence the branch cut for the square-root function connects the origin
and the point at infinity.

13
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

Consider this function:

(z − 1)
1/ 2
f (=
z) 2

What do the branch points and branch cuts look like for this function?

14
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

( z 1) ( z − 1) ( z + 1) ( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) )
1/ 2 1/ 2
f ( z ) =− = =
2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2

y
There are two branch points (four if we
include the branch points at infinity).

1
x
−1

There are two branch cuts: we are not allowed to encircle either branch point.
15
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)
Geometric interpretation

( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) )
1/ 2
f ( z) = = w11/ 2 w1/2 2
1/ 2

y
w1 = z − 1 = r1 eiθ1
z
w2 = z − ( −1) = r2 eiθ2
r2
r1
θ2 1 θ1
x
−1
To make the function
unique, we agree on what
the angles θ1 and θ2 are at
one particular point.

f ( z) = ( r1 eiθ1 /2 )( r2 eiθ2 /2 ) Example: For z = 2, choose θ1 = θ2 = 0.

(2 1/2
= + 2 ) 16
Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

(z − 1) ( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) )
1/ 2 1/ 2
f ( z) = =
2 1/ 2

1
x
−1

We can rotate both branch cuts to the real axis.

17
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

(z − 1) ( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) )
1/ 2 1/ 2
f ( z) = =
2 1/ 2

The two branch cuts “cancel”.

1 x >1
x
−1 w1 = z − 1 = r1 e jθ1
w2 = z − (−1) = r2 e jθ2

Both θ1 and θ2 have changed by 2π if we encircle both branch points.

Note that the function is the same at the two points shown.
18
Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

(z − 1) ( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) )
1/ 2 1/ 2
f ( z) = =
2 1/ 2

y Note:
We are allowed to encircle both branch
points, but not only one of them!

1
x
−1

An alternative branch cut.

19
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)

(z − 1) ( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) )
1/ 2 1/ 2
f ( z) = =
2 1/ 2

Example:
y

4 3 2 1 1
x
5 6 7
−1

Suppose we agree that at the point #1, θ1 = θ2 = 0. This should uniquely

determine the value (branch) of the function everywhere in the complex plane.

Find the angles θ1 and θ2 at the other points labeled.

20
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)
(z − 1) ( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) )
1/ 2 1/ 2
f ( z) = =
2 1/ 2

y Part (a): Proceed counterclockwise from point 1.

4 3 2 1 1
x Point θ1 θ2
5 6 7
−1
1 0 0
2 π 0
For example, at point 6:
3 π 0
( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) ) π π
1/2
f ( z) =
1/2
4
(
=z −1e ( )( z +1e )
i π /2 ) i ( 2π /2 ) 5 π 2π
π 2π
(( i ) z − 1 ) ( ( −1) z + 1 )
6
=+
7 2π 2π
=
−i z − 1 z +1
21
 Branch Cuts and Branch Points (cont.)
(z − 1) ( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) )
1/ 2 1/ 2
f ( z) = =
2 1/ 2

y Part (b): Proceed clockwise from point 7.

(θ1 = θ2 = 0 at point 7)

4 3 2
1 1
x Point θ1 θ2
5 6
−1 7

1 − 2π − 2π
2 −π − 2π
For example, at point 6:
3 −π − 2π
( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) ) −π −π
1/2
f ( z) =
1/2
4
(
=z −1e ( )( z +1e )
i −π /2 ) i ( 0/2 ) 5 −π 0
−π
(( i ) z − 1 ) ( ( +1) z + 1 )
6 0
=−
7 0 0
=
−i z − 1 z +1
22
 Sommerfeld Branch Cuts

Arnold Sommerfeld (1868-1951)

Sommerfeld branch cuts are the most common choice

in dealing with radiation types of problems, where
there is a square-root wavenumber function.

23
 Sommerfeld Branch Cuts (cont.)

( z − 1) = ( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) )
1/ 2 1/ 2
f ( z) = 2 1/ 2

The first branch is defined by:

First branch: Re f ( z ) ≥ 0
( x 2 − 1)
1/ 2
Second branch: Re f ( z ) ≤ 0 = x 2 − 1, x >1
E.g. , f ( 2 ) = + 3
y

Sommerfeld branch cuts

=xy 0 and x2 < 1
1
x
−1 We can also say:
First branch: f =
( z) z2 −1
Second branch: f ( z ) =
− z −1 2

24
 Sommerfeld Branch Cuts (cont.)
Proof:
We first solve for the “boundary curve” where Re(f (z)) = 0.

Set Re f ( z ) = 0
First branch: Re f ( z ) ≥ 0
⇒ f ( z) =
imaginary
Second branch: Re f ( z ) ≤ 0
⇒ f ( z) =
2
real < 0
⇒ ( z 2 − 1) =
real < 0 f ( z) = (z 2
− 1) =
1/ 2
( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) )
1/ 2 1/ 2

⇒ (( x + iy ) − 1) =real < 0
2

⇒ ( x 2 − y 2 − 1) + i ( 2 xy ) =
real < 0
=
⇒ xy 0 and x2 − y2 < 1 ⇒ x2 < 1 =
( for y 0)

As long as we do not cross this hyperbolic contour, the real part of f does not change.
Hence, the entire complex plane must have a real part that is either positive or negative
(depending on which branch we are choosing) if the branch cuts are chosen to lie along
this contour (i.e., the Sommerfeld branch cuts).
25
 Sommerfeld Branch Cuts (cont.)
(z − 1) = ( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) )
1/ 2 1/ 2
f ( z) = 2 1/ 2

If the branch cuts are deformed to the hyperbolic choice, the gray area disappears.

y First branch

Re f ( z ) > 0 Re f ( z ) > 0

1
x
−1
Re f ( z ) > 0
Re f ( z ) > 0
Re f ( z ) < 0

26
 Sommerfeld Branch Cuts (cont.)
Application: electromagnetic (and other) problems involving a wavenumber.

=
kx (k − k
2
0 z)
2 1/2 Note: j is used here instead of i.

or − j (k − k
kx = 2
z 0 )
2 1/2
(The – sign in front is an arbitrary choice here.)

Im ( k z ) The first branch is chosen in order to

have decaying waves when kz > k0.

Im k x < 0 Im k x < 0
kx = − j kx
k
Re ( k z )
−k
The entire complex plane (using
Im k x < 0 Im k x < 0 the first branch) now corresponds
to decaying waves (Im (kx) < 0).

27
 Riemann Surface

A Riemann surface is a surface that combines the

different sheets of a multi-valued function.

It is useful since it displays all possible values of

the function at one time.

(his signature)

Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866)

28
 Riemann Surface (cont.)

The concept of the Riemann surface is first illustrated for

f (z) = z 1/ 2
z = r eiθ

The Riemann surface is really two complex planes connected together.

The function z1/2 is analytic everywhere on this surface

(there are no branch cuts), except at the origin. It also
assumes all possible values on the surface.

Consider this choice:

Top sheet: −π < θ < π (11/ 2 =

1)
Bottom sheet: π < θ < 3π (11/ 2 =−1)
29
 Riemann Surface (cont.)
The angle θ changes smoothly on the surface!
x
Top
y
D
B

Bottom
D B

y
The width of the escalator is
Side view collapsed to zero here.
Top view
B D
x
“Escalator”
D B (where branch cut used to be)
30
 Riemann Surface (cont.)
This figure shows going around a branch point twice.

Top sheet Branch point

3D View

“Escalator”
(where branch
cut used to be)

Bottom sheet
Note:
We are not allowed to jump from
one escalator to the other!
31
 Riemann Surface (cont.)
This figure shows going around a branch point twice.

y Top View
Connection between sheets
(escalator)

r=1
r
D B C
B A E
x
D

Point θ z1/ 2
A 0 1
B π +i z = reiθ
C 2π -1 f (=
z ) z=
1/2 θ /2
( 1) ei= eiθ /2
D 3π -i
E 4π +1 Note: 4π is the same as 0 for this function.
32
 Riemann Surface (cont.)

f ( z ) = z1/ 2 y
The square root function is analytic on
and inside this path, and the closed line
integral around the path is thus zero.

y
The square root function is discontinuous
on this path, and the closed line integral
around the path is not zero.
C

33
 Riemann Surface (cont.)

f ( z ) = z1/ 2

The 3D perspective makes it more clear that the integral around this closed path
on the Riemann surface is zero. (The path can be shrunk continuously to zero.)

34
 Riemann Surface (cont.)
Top sheet:

f (=
z) (z − 1)
1/ 2
2 Defined by θ1 = θ2 = 0 on real axis for x > 1

1
x
−1

( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) )
1/ 2
f ( z) =
1/ 2

There are two sets of up and down “escalators” that now connect
the top and bottom sheets of the surface.
35
 Riemann Surface (cont.)

f (=
z) (z − 1)
2 1/ 2

y f (z) = + 3
Top sheet

1 z=2
x
−1
f (z) = − 3
Bottom sheet

( z − 1) ( z − ( −1) )
1/ 2
f ( z) =
1/ 2

The angle θ1 has changed by 2π as we go back to the point z = 2.

36
 Riemann Surface (cont.)

f (=
z) (z − 1)
2 1/ 2
C1 , C2 are closed curves on the Riemann surface.
The integral around them is not zero!
(The paths cannot be shrunk to zero.)

Escalators y C1 , C2 are
closed curves.
C1

C2
1
x
−1

Escalators

37
 Riemann Surface (cont.)

Sommerfeld (hyperbolic) shape of escalators

(z − 1)
1/ 2
f (=
z) 2

Top sheet : Re f ( z ) > 0

y Bottom sheet : Re f ( z ) < 0

1
x
−1

38
 Riemann Surface (cont.)
Application to leaky modes:

ψ ( x, z ) = Ae − jk z e − jk x
z x
Leaky modes are improper
(exponentially increasing away from the structure)

Note: j is used here instead of i.

k z = complex propagation wavenumber of mode

β − jα ,
kz = β > 0, α > 0 (forward wave)

In the air region: k x2 + k y2 + k z2 =

k02
x
(assume ky = 0)

( β x − jα x ) + ( β − jα ) = z
2 2
k02
Leaky mode radiating in air

Imaginary part: β xα x = − βα

Assume: β x > 0 Conclusion: αx < 0 (improper!)

39
 Riemann Surface (cont.)
ψ ( x, z ) = Ae − jk x e − jk z
x z

( k02 k z2 ) − j ( k z2 − k02 )
1/ 2 1/ 2
k x =− =

k x =β x − jα x =vertical propagation wavenumber of mode

Choose Sommerfeld (hyperbolic) shape of escalators.

Im ( k z )
Top sheet : Im k x < 0
Bottom sheet : Im k x > 0
Top sheet: surface-wave wavenumber
Bottom sheet: leaky-wave wavenumber
k0 SW
Re ( k z )
− k0 LW

Leaky waves have a field that

increases vertically (αx < 0).
40
 Other Multiple-Branch Functions

f (=
z ) z=
1/3
r1/3 eiθ /3 3 sheets

f (=
z ) z=
4/5
r 4/5 ei 4θ /5 5 sheets

( z ) z=
f= p/q
r p / q eipθ / q q sheets

( z ) ln(
f= = z ) ln ( r=
eiθ ) ln ( r ) + iθ Infinite number of sheets

π (ln r +iθ )
( )
π
π π ln z
f ( z=
) z= e ln z
= e = e = eπ ln r eiπθ

Infinite number of sheets

The power is an irrational number.

41
 Other Multiple-Branch Functions (cont.)

Riemann surface for ln (z)

Note: There are no escalator pairs here: as we keep going in one direction
(clockwise or counterclockwise), we never return to the original sheet.

x y

Infinite # of sheets
x
42