Lord Quantumapproachtime 2015

A QUANTUM APPROACH TO TIME AND ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Author(s): ROBERT G. LORD, JESSICA E. DINH and ERNEST L. HOFFMAN

Source: The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 40, No. 2 (April 2015), pp. 263-290
Published by: Academy of Management
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® Academy of Management Review
2015. Vol. 40, No. 2, 26&-290.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amr.2013.0273
A QUANTUM APPROACH TO TIME AND

ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
ROBERT G. LORD
JESSICA E. DINH
Durham University
ERNEST L. HOFFMAN
University of Akron
Prevailing perspectives on time and change often emphasize the forward movement
of time and the relative stability of attributes, an emphasis that fosters theories of
organizational evolution as a linear progression of a past that moves to the present
that moves to the future. While useful in many respects, this perspective obscures the
uncertainty of emerging organizational phenomena, and it offers little insight into the
rare and unpredictable events that change the course of history. To address these
concerns, we draw on quantum mechanics and quantum probability theories to
present a quantum approach to time and change as a framework for understanding
organizational complexity and the common decision-making errors that lead to orga-
nizational failures within uncertain environments. This perspective also explains how
organizations (or societies) can experience unforeseen potentialities that radically
change their development by conceptualizing the future as existing in a state of
potentiality that collapses to form the present based on the dynamics of system
constraints. Our theory has broad implications for organizational theory and research,
as well as management practice.
You can never plan the future by the past Time can be measured objectively, but it is the
(Edmund Burke).
subjective and intuitive aspects of time that may
Learn from the past, set vivid, detailed goals for be most critical in understanding how time relates
the future, and live in the only moment of time to organizational processes. Subjective time is
over which you have any control: now (Denis
central to individual sensemaking (Hemes & Mait-
Waitley).
lis, 2010) and cultural sensemaking (Zerubavel,
In the last two decades organizational schol- 2003), which use both cognitive and emotional
ars have recognized the importance of time in schema to connect (or separate) even the distant
understanding organizational processes (An- past to (from) the present and create anticipated
cona, Goodman, Lawrence, & Tushman, 2001). In trajectories leading to the future. Intuitive pro-
fact, the ability to control various aspects of cesses provide a basis for understanding the flow
time, such as the structure of time, the subjective of time as a feed-forward process, where the past
experience of time, how one thinks about time, flows into the present and then into the future.
and the entrainment of events through time This conceptualization of time is a generalization
(Bluedorn & Jaussi, 2008; Sonnentag, 2012), is
from how one physically moves through one's
thought to underlie effective leadership, group,
physical environments, such as moving forward
and organizational dynamics. However, per-
from one's present location to another location. It
haps the most important issue for individuals
also reflects the structure of human memory sys-
and organizations is to devise ways to control
tems, which use remembered experiences (i.e., ep-
their future, and this is related to how we con-
isodic memory) as a basis for projecting into the
ceptualize and use time.
future (Kaplan & Orlikowski, 2013; Suddendorf &
Corballis, 2007).
Because we understand change and adapta-
We thank Jerome Busemeyer, Mark Hall, Paul Hanges,
tion in terms of a subjective flow from the past to
Gerald Hodgkinson, Julian Marewski, Aron Polos, and three
anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on previous the present, we naturally conceptualize the fu-
drafts of this manuscript. ture as an extension of ongoing longitudinal
263
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264 Academy of Management Review April
trajectories, guided that by thisan

mentalevolution from th
reversal of a basic assumption
past to the present and extending
guiding organizational science andto the fut
intuitive
This view supports individual and collective reasoning can help us overcome limitations
sensemaking (Ibarra & Barbulescu, 2010; Weick,from commonsense beliefs about development
1995), and when the future departs substantiallyand causality (Sherover, 2003) and narratives
from this trajectory, organizational scholars, asthat connect the past to the present (Taleb, 2010).
well as managers, are motivated to explain it The future offers many potentialities, which we
and build relevant theory. However, organiza- define as alternative states and possible out-
tional scholars have increasingly recognized comes that could occur but have not yet occurred
that discontinuous change cannot be antici- because, to be actualized, they require the en-
pated easily from a narrow focus on the events actment of individual, social, and environmen-
that occurred in the present or the past (MacKaytal events that are often serendipitous.2 As such,
& Chia, 2013; Plowman, Baker, Kulkarni, Solan- many sets of unrealized potentialities (also re-
sky, & Travis, 2007). In fact, the world often ferred to as a superpotentiality state in quantum
changes in ways that are unforeseeable and nottheory; Greene, 2004) cannot be easily envi-
easily anticipated (Taleb, 2010), since it involvessioned or pursued from a perspective that be-
the emergence of new states (e.g., movement gins by considering the present or past. Rather,
from despair to optimism, from munificence to they can be better appreciated by starting with
scarcity, from failure to success), new capacities an unconstrained future with many possible
(e.g., skills, creativity, adaptability), and new outcomes and realizing that its flow into the
resources (e.g., social capital) that previously present can be influenced by many individual,
did not exist or had no comparable analogue. collective, and environmental factors that guide
Such unanticipated change tends to be ex- unfolding, organizing processes.
plained in terms of the functioning of complex We maintain that this perspective has a nat-
systems (Uhl-Bien & Marion, 2009) or, alterna-ural affinity to quantum probability theories de-
tively, as a consequence of turbulent environ- rived from quantum mechanics (Greene, 2004,
ments characterized by "relentless chance, en- 2011), which also begin with an undefined state,
vironmental circumstance, and unintended and it offers an innovative approach for under-
consequences" (MacKay & Chia, 2013: 221). standing the unfolding of complex organiza-
In this article we develop a different perspec- tional phenomena. Although this approach to
tive on time and the nature of individual and
understanding process can be seen as a far cry
organizational processes, which, we argue, fromhasthose advocated in the social sciences, we
great relevance to the issue of how futures un-
note that the application of quantum theories to
fold and can be influenced. We propose social that thephenomena is not entirely foreign, having
challenges of understanding organizational beenfu-
applied to early philosophical teachings
tures and the dynamism of unfolding events on general existence and the state of being (see
over time can be addressed, in part, by undoing Bakken & Hernes, 2006, and Epperson, 2004, for a
the dominant tendency to view a forward flow of summary of Alfred North Whitehead's process
time based on a past that leads to the future (i.e., philosophy). However, because the focus and
past - > future). Instead, we advocate efforts to contribution of our article is not to elaborate on
mentally reverse the arrow of time to emphasize these existential or philosophical consider-
a future that flows into the present (i.e., future - > ations, we direct readers interested in these is-
present), which is a view that has not received sues to other sources (see Bakken & Hernes,
sufficient attention (e.g., Kaplan & Orlikowski, 2006; Epperson, 2004; Whitehead, 1978).
2013). Perceptually, this shift is analogous to be-
ing in a train looking out the window and seeing
the distant horizon flow toward one's present
location, even though one knows it is the train 2 We note that potentialities are similar to affordances,
that is moving toward the horizon.1 We maintain which Gibson (1986) defined as possibilities that exist in
one's environment and that become available upon action.
However, potentialities refer to a more general state contain-
ing a set of undefined alternative outcomes that exist simul-
1 We thank an anonymous reviewer lor suggesting this taneously and that become defined only upon enactment in
perceptual analogue of our reasoning. a specific context.
2Ū15 Lord, Dinh, and Hoffman 265
tices, and (3)

In developing our phenomena of interest (e.g., person-
perspective, we
ories that wereality, attitudes, values, cultures, strategies)
developed over existth
century in the independent
physical of our attempts to measure them. b
sciences
been consideredWe did not set out to challenge such assump-
sufficiently by
tions but, rather, that
science. We maintain gradually realized
by that ques-
inte
tum theory withtioning such
a taken-for-granted
view of assumptions
the fu
helped us
into the present, weunderstand
can organizational and psy-
revolutio
chological processes in new andlinking
ception of the processes useful ways. t
Our hope is that explicitly
velopment of events, acknowledging this
offering th
issue at the outset will help
greater understanding and readers inperhap
a similar
trol of the future, as well as an enhanced under- manner.
standing of change processes. In the following sections we beg

This combined approach, which we label a ing our natural understanding of
quantum approach to time and change (QATC), pare this with a very different un
has at least three principal advantages. First, a the unfolding of actual experienc
QATC provides a novel perspective for theory brought forth by quantum theori
building in organizational science by emphasiz- address the theoretical, methodological, and
ing that the future is often qualitatively differentpractical implications of a QATC for organiza-
from the present or past. As such, it provides antional science.
understanding of dynamic organizational phe-
nomena, considering how organizational life,
and life in general, can change by developing in TIME. ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS.
many different ways as individuals and collec- AND UNCERTAINTY
tives interact with their environment. Quantum
Commonsense Approaches for Understanding
theory can represent multiple interacting paths the Flow of Time
through time and, thus, can represent the com-
plexity of change in ways that more conven- Unique to humans is the striking ability to
tional models cannot (e.g., Markov models; see travel through time, psychologically departing
Busemeyer & Bruza, 2012). from the present to consider events in the future
Second, a QATC is grounded in quantum (Buckner & Carroll, 2007; Kaplan & Orlikowski,
physics, which offers a diverse set of research2013; Sherover, 2003; Suddendorf & Corballis,
tools and concepts that could supplement exist-2007). Individuals frequently traverse the tempo-
ing tools for studying dynamic change in orga- ral boundaries of thè present to consider the
nizations. It has the potential to build on in- glimmering hopes and dangers hidden in the
sights provided by qualitative, process-oriented future (Dane & George, 2014). The advantage of
descriptions of organizational change that em- these mental activities is that they allow one to
phasize the role of context in guiding organizing forecast what the future may be based on one's
processes (see Langley, Smallman, Tsoukas, & prior experiences and intrinsic desires (Dane &
Van de Ven, 2013), while simultaneously devel- George, 2014; Seligman, Railton, Baumeister, &
oping a precise conceptual and mathematical Sripada, 2013). It can also assist in forming so-
representation for incorporating context into cial inferences, anticipating the intentions and
predictions of outcomes. beliefs of others (Buckner & Carroll, 2007), and
Third, many of the ideas that we address chal-formulating one's own expectations and goal-
lenge fundamental assumptions regarding the directed behavior (Seligman et al., 2013). The abil-
nature of change that have guided organiza- ity to accurately forecast the future is so critical
tional science. Such assumptions operate at the that humans have developed extensive neural
level that Alvesson and Sandberg (2011) have networks dedicated to the storage, access, and
characterized as field assumptions because integration of existing memory in order to simu-
they undergird entire fields of study. These in- late the possibilities that may arise tomorrow (Gil-
clude the assumptions that (1) time should be bert & Wilson, 2007). Indeed, it may be humans'
conceptualized as flowing from the past to the natural ability to forecast that has created a
future, (2) future states can be reached from strong cognitive tendency to formulate decisions
paths grounded in the past and in existing prac- and behaviors based on a forward-moving per-
thatThis
spective of the future. create a sense of consistency (Hemes
tendency also & has b
reinforced by social-cultural
Maitlis, 2010; Zerubavel,development
2003). For example, in- an
learning (i.e., the future as moving
dividual cognitive, forward
emotional, and physical
Boroditsky & Ramscar, 2002),
states and
all have inherent it is
rhythms andadynamics
trend t
is central to many of that
today
vary acrosss time
organizational
and context (e.g., hunger, the
ries and research paradigms.
fatigue, boredom, lust, circadian rhythms), and
However, there arethesemany interactingcognitive
systems create differentfallacies
con-
that accompany prospective assessments
texts that allow different thoughts and individ-of th
future (Dane & George,ual behaviors
2014; to Seligman
emerge (Dionysiou &et Tsoukas,
al., 201
They occur as humans form
2013; Read erroneous
et al., 2010). Similarly, complexityassum
tions based on what theories
has have been used to describe
occurred the behav- negle
while
ing what may have occurred. In such
iors of groups and organizations instanc
(Uhl-Bien &
prospective errors canMarion, 2009), which are understood
manifest to fluctuate
as forecasting b
ases that unduly influence rapidly and often decision making
unpredictably (e.g., Crawford an
behavior in ways that & LePine,
fail 2013;
to Klarner & Raisch, 2013;for
account Langley the
certainty and nonlinearity of realistic
et al., 2013) as contexts organi
change and as organiza-
tional events (Arrfelt, tional Wiseman,
processes take on& Huit,
different 2013;
features or Ma
Kay & Chia, 2013). Several examples demonstr forms. Yet variations across time within individ-
this. For example, the ual and organizational systems
bankruptcy are typically ig-
of several Am
ican automobile companies nored because (e.g.,
of theoreticalGeneral
or methodological
Moto
Chrysler) in 2009 illustrates oversights (Kozłowski, theChao, Grand, Braun, &
culmination
global market conditions Kuljanin, 2013;
and Vancouver
the & Weinhardt, 2012),
failure of or
nizational decision makers obscuring theto richness of organizational
forecast phe-
changin
consumer preferences nomena. for Variations
morearefuel-efficient
also ignored because ve
cles. Forecasting biases they are seen as manifest
also errors, rather than resulting
in every
decision-making errors, from such
phenomenaas that in
should be explained
the tendency
make optimistic self-predictions scientifically. with respect
saving money or future However, performance
qualitative research has demon-(Heizer
Dunning, 2012; Koehler, stratedWhite,
the complexity & inherent in organiza-
John, 2012), a
in hindsight biases where tional systemsaccurate
and the need for more adequate
projection
are inhibited because of limitations in one's abil- explanatory systems. For example, Plowman et
ity to objectively remember prior information. al.'s notable study (2007) described how a culmi-
In brief, a wide body of research suggestsnation that of seemingly small events and existing
although there is a biosocially grounded ten- preconditions at a dying institution, Mission
dency for humans to infer the future by extend- Church, helped radically shift the organization's
ing the past, prospective cognitions are suscep- structure and image. Specifically, they de-
tible to processing failures because they are scribed how a small event (i.e., a meeting of five
often based on salient nonrepresentative mem- to six relatively inactive churchgoers to orga-
ories and experiences and are made in abstrac- nize a charity event) initiated a chain of events
tion without reference to context (Dane & that disrupted existing patterns of behavior
George, 2014; Gilbert & Wilson, 2007). Aswithin de- the organization and the community,
scribed in the following section, there arethereby many encouraging innovation and the rein-
advantages in considering an alternative view vention of the church. Importantly, high uncer-
of the flow of time. tainty, defined as the inability to accurately
predict outcomes resulting from the lack of
information (Milliken, 1987), accurately char-
An Alternative Conceptualization of Time and
acterizes Mission Church's change, as well as
Organizational Uncertainty
the change trajectories of many of today's or-
Organizational events and events occurring ganizations (see MacKay & Chia, 2013). In fact,
within individuals manifest very differently at for many organizations the strategic allocation
different points in time (Hoffman & Lord, 2013), of resources to nurture high-potential business
even though there is a tendency for humans and subsidiaries is challenging simply because or-
societies to subjectively represent time in ways ganizational decision makers cannot foresee the
2015 Lord, Dinh, and Hoffman 267
market conditions, economic trends, and soci- seem to have both particle and wave properties
etal factors that may aggregate to impact the (e.g., light and magnetism; Feynman, Leighton,
survival of one subsidiary over another (Arrfelt & Sands, 2010/1965; Rae, 2005). For example, elec-
et al., 2013). Such observations reinforce our ar- trons appear to travel across time and space not
guments that events unfold probabilistically in as specific particles with precise trajectories but
the future in ways that forward-based prospec- as waves that occupy multiple locations. This is
tion cannot explain. because the precise location of an electron is
Meanwhile, for almost a century the field of generally unknown, and it can appear in an
quantum physics and quantum mechanics has infinite number of places in space upon mea-
been able to model the complexity and uncer- surement (Greene, 2004). As such, the movement
tainty in the movement of various entities, in- of an electron through space is better repre-
cluding subatomic particles and the universe, sented by a "smeared" trajectory, rather than a
by using an intensively scrutinized mathemati- single line that would indicate a predictable
cal formalism (Greene, 2004, 2011). We believe trajectory as used in classical probability theory
that this way of thinking and representing pro- (see Figure 1).
cesses can be extended to understanding how More precisely, the variable movement of an
human systems construct the future. In the fol- electron through space can be depicted mathe-
lowing sections we describe our QATC perspec- matically by abstract, algebraically derived
tive, which implies that real-life organizational probability wave functions (i.e., mathematical
processes follow a different logic in the flow of representations of likely possible outcomes),
time, a different set of probability laws, and a shown graphically as waves that indicate
mathematical formalism based on quantum me- where the electron should be at a particular
chanics that can better account for complexities point in time. Such a probability wave is shown
endemic to human and organizational systems.
in Figure 2. In this figure the probability of find-
ing an electron at a particular position in-
ÃQÃTC creases with the height of a particular hill com-
pared to the surrounding plane. Central to this
Quantum Physics and Probability
Wave Functions
figure is that probability waves are character-
ized by a high degree of uncertainty in knowing
Quantum physicists describe a fundamental where an electron will be when it moves
through space. However, when a physicist
property of matter and energy, which is that they
FIGURE 1
Comparison Between (a) Classical Probability Theory and (b) Quantum Probability Theory for
Representing the Predicted Outcomes of Physical and Psychological Phenomena As They Trave
Across Time
FIGURE 2 arguments of quantum theories and develop

Probability Wave Function of an Electrontheir theoretical application to organizational
Traveling Through Space science. We also describe the mathematical for-
malism of quantum theories in the Appendix.
Probability Waves and Social Systems

Using probability waves as a metaphor for
organizational processes, we propose that the
amount of certainty in knowing where a partic-
ular particle is located at a point in time can be
generalized to understanding how social sys-
Note: The probability of an electron being at any position
tems create a specific, experienced reality at a
is proportional to the height of the wave at that point.
particular point in time when they, too, are
guided by processes that are functionally repre-
sures an electron's position, constraints im- sented by probability waves. This reasoning
posed by the measurement process cause its suggests that there are many possible outcomes
probability wave to collapse, allowing the phys- that can be represented and enacted since the
icist to depict the electron at a specific, single future exists in a state with many potentialities.
location. This phenomenon may also be ob- Quantum physics defines such a state as a su-
served when organizational scholars measure peipotentiality (or superposition) state, in which
constructs at one or multiple discrete points in many possibilities are in an indefinite state but
time, where measurements are subject to con- have the potential to occur when influenced by a
straints inherent in the measurement tools they specific context. However, when conjoined with
use (Feldman & Lynch, 1988; Harrison & a particular context, this superpotentiality state
McLaughlin, 1996). This explanation accounts will collapse because of experienced con-
for why there is higher certainty in knowing straints to create a specific experienced reality,
exactly where an electron is, or what organiza- much like an electron appearing in a defined
tional constructs are, upon measurement than position in space upon measurement.
prior to measurement (Feldman & Lynch, 1988; This perspective also suggests that the pres-
Greene, 2004; Harrison & McLaughlin, 1996). ent (and our soon to be experienced past) was
The principles of quantum theory have broad selected by the confluence of multiple events
applications beyond the domain of subatomic and processes that occurred across many levels
particles. Recently, they have been applied to in relevant individual, group, and organization
understanding the influence of context on deci- systems. For instance, the interaction of a spe-
sion making and the creation of cognitive con- cific social unit (e.g., individuals), a particular
cepts (Busemeyer & Bruza, 2012; Busemeyer, context (i.e., setting), and a particular technol-
Pothos, Franco, & Trueblood, 2011; Gabora, ogy (i.e., form of interaction) could be understood
Rosch, & Aerts, 2008), to understanding the as cre-
working simultaneously together to guide the
ation of consciousness and how individual cog-way people construct the present through their
nitive processes change over time (Hameroff actions.
& In this way alternative pasts could have
Penrose, 2014), and to theorizing regardingeasily
the happened had any of these elements
existence of alternate realities that parallelbeen
ourdifferent.
own in the universe (see Greene, 2004, 2011). To account for these observations, our QATC
These applications not only demonstrate the ro- perspective proposes that the future flows to-
bustness of quantum mathematics for modeling ward the present and eventual past as a wave of
diverse phenomena (Greene, 2004; Pothos & interacting potentialities - most of which are not
Busemeyer, 2013) but also suggest that future directly experienced and are only realized
psychological and physical phenomena do not through careful retrospection, such as counter-
emerge from a single past. Rather, they are se- factual thinking . Counterfactual thinking in-
lected from an infinite set of potential realitiesvolves reconsidering the past and examining
that are best represented by probability waves. how situational factors or one's behavior could
In the following sections we describe the key have been different, leading to different out-
comes. For example, over the globe. Although

missing this chain of develop-
an a
minutes mightments leadseems likeonea logical progression
to menta when
many possible viewed ways retrospectively,
one most people
couldwould not ha
the gate five minutes earlier and, ideally, to have foreseen these changes in the 1970s, and
build some of these ways into one's routine to they reveal only some of the many potentialities
avoid missing a future flight. Thus, a crucial that were available in the coming future. From a
issue for individuals, groups, organizations, and QATC perspective, the challenge for both orga-
societies is to use processes like counterfactual nizational leaders and organizational science is
thinking to understand how a present is se- to recognize that these potentialities exist and to
lected from many different potential alterna- understand how alternative potentialities can
tives that once existed in the future, rather than be created.
how the past leads to one future state. Like driv- A crucial issue in understanding change is
ing through a city with many streets, there are how and why some potentialities develop as the
infinitely many routes and destinations, but we future approaches the present, whereas others
only experience the route taken. Alternative po- fail to emerge. As explained in the following
tentialities could be illustrated by a good road section, we maintain that the selection of one
map, which would enable the driver to retro- possible alternative occurs as constraints in hi-
spectively consider the other routes that coulderarchically organized systems attenuate some
have been taken. However, there is no map forpotentialities while enhancing others. These
navigating organizational futures since the met- constraints interact with each other and with
aphorical roads that carry organizational pro- inputs from organizational processes to create
cesses forward have not yet been constructed by attiactois (i.e., points of stability created by re-
human actions. A QATC addresses this issue by inforcing systems that channel processes in def-
adopting a process-oriented perspective that at- inite and consistent ways) for interpretation and
tempts to understand how different presents are behavior. However, we believe that these
actively created. This perspective can, therefore, spaces are hard to find because (1) they tend
help unleash creativity and optimism for under- emerge between multiple layers of hierarchi-
standing how potentialities are realized by cally nested systems as superpotentiality states
highlighting the role of proactive change and collapse to create new realities; (2) they are cre-
emphasizing that many potentialities are al- ated by factors that organize processes and,
ways available, which is less evident when we thus, are one step removed from events and be-
adopt an entity-guided view of the past. haviors; and (3) looking backward leads to a
description of behaviors and events in entity
terms, a tendency that is exaggerated by lan-
Creating the Present from Multiple Futures
guage that better suits entity than process ex-
The creation of novel futures from a QATC can planations (Hemes & Maitlis, 2010).
be illustrated by a historical example. The de- Returning to the previous Intel example can
velopment of microprocessors at Intel in the illustrate these three points. First, the collapse
early 1970s occurred as a response to serendip- of spaces to create new realities such as micro-
itous events, not as a planned product develop- processors reflected a process involving sets of
ment. Microprocessors emerged from a creative available resources (e.g., knowledge, financial
and elegant engineering solution to a custom- resources, and human capital) found at the con-
er's request at Intel in 1969 to produce a different junction of specific customers and engineering
type of memory chip. This new design created groups at Intel, and, later on, it involved the
an emergent bottom-up strategy that interacted entire organization and the market systems sur-
with other events so that in less than a decade rounding Intel. Thus, the creation process in-
Intel changed from a memory chip producer volvedtoactiôns
a at boundaries of multiple sys-
microprocessor powerhouse, and it led Intel to tems. Over time, these resources interacted in
exit the memory chip market in 1985 (Hazy, 2008). unforeseeable ways to produce new products
Microprocessors, in turn, allowed the develop- and resources that eventually created a new
ment of PCs, laptops, smartphones, the internet,identity for Intel. Further, although the historical
and social media so that people, markets, and progression of Intel's development could be de-
social institutions could be closely connected all scribed easily as a sequence of events, it is more
difficult to describe ofthe dynamicunderlying

homeostasis in open systems processe
theory
that were involved (Katz in &creating these
Kahn, 1978). In the following dynam
section we
changes. This is because provide aa description
more of pro-
detailed examination of how
cesses required the development organizational system dynamicsof and new explan
stability
atory principles and are the useandof
both created an within
maintained abstract
a QATC sys
tem to model their flow framework and by payinginteraction
attention to the nature of (Haz
2008). Hence, consistent constraintswith our theory
using a multilevel secondperspec- poin
process descriptions were one step removed tive. We also address how processes can com-
from events and behaviors. Third, language nat- bine serendipitously and interactively to realize
urally focuses on the description of stable enti- some of the alternative potentialities that the
ties (nouns), rather than describing the pro- future can offer.
cesses (verbs) used to create these entities
(Hemes & Maitlis, 2010; Purser & Petranker,
QATC AND DYNAMIC
2005). This is problematic because processes ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS
evolve continuously and may be understand-
able only once they have become defined and A general limitation of many organizational
are available for retrospection. In other words, theories is that they examine processes at one
the underlying processes and outcomes of orga- level independently from the next level and at
nizational change may remain unclear at any only one time period, rather than explaining
point existing prior to the present as the future how multilevel organizational phenomena dy-
moves forward to continually shape the present. namically unfold over time. However, social sys-
There is also an important sociological factor tems exist as a conglomerate of many smaller
associated with looking backward that makes subsystems that function semi-autonomously
future potentialities harder to see. As Eaton, Vis- within a grander scale (Contractor, Wasserman,
ser, Krosnick, and Anad (2009) document, control & Faust, 2006; Simon, 1981; Sytch & Tatarynow-
over others and institutions tends to peak in icz, 2014; Weick, 1976). A QATC can be applied at
one's mid-forties, but futures are often created any of these levels, which will change the cali-
by younger individuals. Thus, looking backward bration of time from milliseconds at lower levels
emphasizes the skills and preferences of a gen- to months or years at higher levels. But it is
eration that will have less influence in the fu- between and at the junctures of these different
ture. For example, Schmidt (2014) notes that systems that the processes fostering or retard-
leadership in virtual teams is different than it is ing the development of new potentialities are
in face-to-face teams, but he also emphasizes most critical. This is because it is at these con-
that younger individuals, who are more familiar nections and junctures that the emerging out-
with virtual relations via experiences with puts of processes at one level are transformed
Facebook, Google Hangouts, or Twitter, are into an input that is meaningful at another level.
more adept at virtual teams. He predicts that as To demonstrate, it is well known that com-
these individuals become more numerous in the plexity in systems depends on their hierarchical
workforce, how work is done will change,nature new (Aime, Humphrey, DeRue, & Paul, 2014;
potentialities will be created, and the nature of & Klein, 2000; Simon, 1981), where the
Kozłowski
virtual leadership processes will change. linkages between system levels are often repre-
Because it emphasizes potentialities in the sented as constraints (Dinh, Lord, & Hoffman,
future, a QATC perspective implies that radical 2014; Freeman & Ambady, 2011; Read et al., 2010).
nonlinear change should be a common, un- Some constraints are momentary, such as emo-
avoidable occurrence, as illustrated by our pre- tions, goals, or cognitions. They are imple-
vious descriptions of sociological (Schmidt, 2014) mented by fast processes, and they may dissi-
and technology-related (Hazy, 2008) change. pate rapidly from an environment after being
However, we maintain that organizational and created. Other more enduring constraints, such
institutional systems also resist change, which as knowledge, relational ties, and even the mor-
helps explain why many potentialities are never phology of one's body, can influence the emer-
pursued. In effect, organizational systems may gence of events over longer periods of time. Con-
ebb and flow stochastically around changing sequently, the evolution of psychological and
set points (attractors), as described by the notion organizational phenomena can occur over dif-
ferent levels and FIGURE time 3 period

cesses that require
Internal and External Transitory
millisecon and Enduring
weeks, and/or Constraints
years Operating at Individual,
to be
Dyad, co
Whether these Group, andphenomena
Organizational Levels of Analysis a
alized as ongoing processes or
stable entities also depends o
key constraints and the level
> Internal constraints
focused. Because higher-level systems gener- O
^ Enduring constraints
ally change more slowly than lower-level sys- § ; Formal & informal social connection |
tems, higher-level constraints generally chan- •2 Climate & culture
nel emergent lower-level processes in one S Transitory constraints
direction or another, thereby allowing some po- Collective knowledge & skills
g
J? Collective goals & visions
tentialities to develop while others never mate-O Organizational networking systems i
rialize. However, lower-level systems must ag-
gregate their outputs over multiple cycles to
align with the slower cycling rhythm of higher-
level systems, and this aggregation can some-
i' SS Internal constraints !
Enduring constraint
times move the entire system to new states. For s """ ļ Social network struct
example, individual selective attention pro- ^ I Group heterogeneity & dem
cesses can be constrained by higher-level men- Transitory constraints
Group prototypes & routines
tal schemata, such as goals or social perception Group requisite complexity
categories, but higher-level mental schemata Transactive memory system !
can also be changed by the interaction of bot-
tom-up processing systems like motivations and
emotions. Such dynamics affect one's assess- ,ł 4) f
4) f
ment of potentialiaties because, as Johnson- j| Internal constraints

Laird (1983) maintained, we know reality from 'g Enduring constraints
the mental models we construct. Interpersonal relationship quality
Transitory constraints
Figure 3 provides an illustration of the types Interpersonal trust
of hard and soft constraints that organizational Relational schémas
researchers postulate operate at individual, dy- Idiosyncratic deals
adic, group, and organizational levels. Addi-

tional levels of analysis (e.g., societal, environ-
ļ r
mental) could also be considered, but here we % Internal constraints

focus on these four to provide a simpler basis for Enduring constraints
theorizing. The influence of top-down multilevel ^ Morphology of body
Jj* i Self-concept, requisite complexity
processes is demonstrated in research that % ' Brain systems, attentional capacity
shows how such internal constraints as the eth-
1* ; Transitory constraints
ical culture created at the company level for U.S. ^ Sensory processing
Embodied cues, emotions
soldiers in Iraq cascaded downward to create
an external constraint that affected the ethical i Working self-identity, sensemaking j
Cognitive biases
culture at the platoon and then the squad level
(Schaubroeck et al., 2012). Similarly, internal
constraints created by dynamic processing sys-
tems related to cognition, embodiment, and
emotions can collectively mold the interpreta- 2005). In a general sense, some constraints may
tion of encountered stimuli, creating meaning be subject to explicit description, such as iden-
that is aggregated across time or people to pro- tity or social norms (Schultz & Hernes, 2013),
duce higher-level outcomes, such as interper- while others operate automatically, such as how
sonal cognitions, feelings of trust, or group re- an active mental schema affects access to re-
sources (Dinh et al., 2014; Lord, Hannah, & lated information (Bargh, Chen, & Burrows,
Jennings, 2011; Smith-Jentsch, Kraiger, Cannon- 1996). Also, as one moves downward in this fig-
Bowers, & Salas, 2009; Sy, Côté, & Saavedra, ure, processes operate on faster time scales.
It is important to note the role

fect the translation of futureof the into
potentialities conn
tions in Figure 3, which an experienced
provides
reality. a medium
cross-level integrative Whenprocesses.
interpreted using a QATC, Thesethis figure
conn
tions can be manifested suggests that
as the the
actualization of constraints
physical tech
ogies (e.g., internet, social media), materials reflects the entanglement (i.e., interdependen-
(e.g., infrastructure, transportation), and network ces among entities and context) of a state and
characteristics (e.g., network structure, density)context such that emergent events that have no
that affect how organizational systems and or- analogue in the past can form - a principle re-
ganizational members interact. They also refer ferred to as the principle of noncompositionality
to less tangible connections that exist intraper- (described further in the Appendix). This princi-
sonally and interpersonal^, such as an individ- ple suggests that novel outcomes can emerge
ual's mental structure and his or her interper- when future potentialities collapse to create a
sonal relational networks. These connections singular event at a particular level. However,
not only permit the transmission and diffusion radical change isn't expected to be continually
of information but also provide a mechanism created because attractors channel processes in
allowing recursive feedback loops to modify the a consistent way since past information is
structural characteristics and the functioning of loosely maintained within attractors. Thus, at-
participating units and individuals within the tractors can gradually evolve over time as new
network (Dourish & Mazmanian, 2013). Although phenomena are experienced, and they can also
we have drawn these connections as being hi- serve to organize actions or guide the recon-
struction of past memories (Hemes, 2014; Mc-
erarchical and seemingly stable to maintain
Clelland, McNaughton, & O'Reilly, 1995).
parsimony in Figure 3, it is important to note
The influence of attractors is shown in several
that each connection may have multiple end
notable examples. For instance, goal orienta-
points that can change over time as new and old
connections are created or dissolved.
tions, which function as emergent attractors
formed from a "massively interconnected" set of
Our application of quantum theory maintains
higher- and lower-level goal constructs (DeShon
that it is the operation of external constraints
& Gillespie, 2005), channel thoughts and actions
from higher-level systems and internal (horizon-
in terms of goal relevance (Johnson, Chang, &
tal) constraints from systems at the same level,
Lord, 2006). Similarly, enduring organizational
along with the connections among these levels,
processes have been described by Lok and De
that constrain encountered potentialitiesRond to cre-
(2013), who show how highly institutional-
ate attractors and, if these constraints are suffi-
ized processes were maintained over long peri-
cient, to cause potentialities to collapse as the ods of time because deviations were contained
future moves toward the present. For example, through maintenance work by organizational
an encounter with coworkers around the coffee
members. It is important to note, however, that
machine may have no potential to activatethe men-
recursive dynamics among multilevel pro-
tal schema with respect to leadership, so lead- cesses can cause the potentialities of local and
ership may be in an inactive state. However, globalinstates to collapse in unforeseen ways,
a different context, such as an organizational which shifts the positioning of attractors. In this
meeting to address an impending crisis, there is way the contoured surface of probability waves
the potential for leadership to emerge as access as seen in Figure 2 continually changes over
to an individual's leadership (or followership) time, thereby affecting the potentialities avail-
self-views influences the granting or claiming of able to an organization.
leadership for oneself or others (DeRue & Ash- In short, Figure 3 illustrates how events at any
ford, 2010). In this latter situation the aggregated chosen level are a function of the internal con-
effects of contextual constraints, individual constraints within that level and the external con-
straints, and horizontal constraints from other straints from higher- or lower-level contexts.
actors can affect whether the interpretation ofFurther, each juncture of systems is a nexus for
an individual's actions will coalesce around a understanding how the future flows into the
common social meaning, such as being per- present. When these multilevel considerations
ceived as a leader. This is just one of many waysare combined with a QATC perspective, the re-
that constraints identified in Figure 3 could af-sulting framework provides insight for under-
standing how was on change at an organizational

internal and level, but it
exte
acting at multiple could reflect onlylevels
a few seconds if ourset
focus was lim
processes emerge on the emergence
at of individual-level
a particula mental
eral, weak constraints constructs or emotions. foster gr
tal change, whereas Considered in the context of Figurecons
strong 4, a QATC
stability and periodic discontinuous change. highlights several critical issues for social sci-
This framework also addresses how lower-level ence. From an ontological perspective, under-
outputs cumulate to affect higher-levels systems standing how the present came about may re-
in a way that is sensitive to quantum theory's quire insight into how it may have materialize
understanding of the flow of time. from many different alternative possibilities, a
process that is difficult to achieve, as we previ-
TIME. PROBABILITY WAVES, AND
ously described. In addition, Figure 4 represent
ORGANIZATIONAL UNCERTAINTY
this uncertainty in a way that is not as clear
without the tools of quantum theory, which sug
gest a transition from a superpotentiality state
It is easiest to grasp the nature of time-related
change by looking at snapshots of different to a definite state and a reconceptualization of
probability waves organized across time rather the flow of time as a future that moves into the
than a continually changing probability wave. present (F - > P). Also, the representation in Fig-
Such a representation is provided in Figure 4, ure 4 is tied to the notion that phenomena in
which shows probabilities at each time in terms dynamic systems emerge subject to internal and
of attractor regions (hills) that are defined by external constraints, and this conceptualization
sets of internal and external constraints. This helps us understand how actions and events in
figure shows five time slices from a local or the present can project at least some distance
global system, where time is also a dimension. into the future (P - > F) through their effects on
It suggests that as time moves forward from the process constraints.
distant future toward the present, some con- In other words, stability comes not from endur-
straints become solidified as different contexts ing attributes but from the way that those attri-
are experienced, which causes the surface butes of the act upon constraints, thereby channeling
probability wave to evolve continuously, becom- emerging processes. Habit, for example, is not
ing more definite based on the presence of an spe-
entity but, rather, a pattern of behavior that
cific contexts and the constraints in these con- reoccurs in a certain context because the pro-
texts. Thus, one could think of Figure 4 as cesses generating behavior operate similarly in
reflecting hypothetical time slices showing that context (Barsalou, Niedenthal, Barbey, &
what the probability wave would look like if it Ruppert, 2003; MacDonald, 2008). Change, then,
were measured at a particular time.3 This depends on altering those channeling pro-
change is reflected in terms of fewer but highercesses. For example, chronic eating habits can
hills as one moves from the left to the right of be disrupted by factors as simple as eating with
this figure and as potentialities become re- a nondominant hand, because they shift the un-
stricted to more likely states. What Figure 4 rep- derlying process generating behavior from an
resents, then , is a guide for theorizing about the automatic to a more conscious process (Neal,
future and how it can become the present as Wood, Wu, & Kurlander, 2011).
constraints change . In terms of clock time. Fig-
ure 4 could involve months or years if our focus IMPLICATIONS FOR THEORY, RESEARCH
METHODS, AND PRACTICE
3 One advantage of a quantum theory perspective is that On a general level, a QATC framework and
probability waves can evolve over time while still in an feed-forward models (FFMs) both share an ap-
indefinite state (Busemeyer & Bruza, 2012), whereas modelspreciation for understanding process, which is
of evolution based on classical probability theory (e.g., evident in qualitative-based research (e.g., Mac-
Markov models) explain evolution in terms of moving from
Kay & Chia, 2013; Plowman et al., 2007). How-
one definite state to another. Thus, quantum theory better
enables the continuous interactions among various con- ever, as a conceptual framework, a QATC
straints as the future approaches the present to change framework provides a counterpoint to the typi-
potentialities that have never been realized. cal FFMs of organizational change and individ-
FIGURE 4
Changes in Probability Waves Through Time Beginning in an Indeterminate Superpotentiality
State to a Definite State As the Probability Wave Is Acted Upon by Internal and External
Constraints
ual development because it emphasizes the in- able or consistent. Instead, beginning with an
fluence of unrealized potentialities, which may undefined future recognizes the significance of
be useful in guiding theory generation. Exhibit uncertainty
1 and the existence of future alterna-
provides a comparison of these two models, tive potentialities. This difference can be seen
highlighting the many differences between the easily by comparing the first and last panels of
two perspectives. In the following sections we Figure 4. Here the flow of time from a future to a
use Exhibit 1 as a structure for understanding present acknowledges that constraints them-
the theoretical and methodological implications selves may be dynamic, shaping concepts such
of a QATC framework compared to tradi- as meaning and mental categories "on-the-fly"
tional FFMs. (Barsalou, 1983). Thus, quantum theory's empha-
sis on context and evolving processes can be
particularly helpful, especially when a process
Theoretical Implications of a QATC Framework
like sensemaking is understood as an enacted,
Direction of time and the nature of concepts.ongoing
A endeavor where the meaning attached
QATC framework offers several new grounding to the environment is discovered by and depen-
assumptions for organizational research. First, dent on a person's iterative interactions with his
or her environments (Gabora et al., 2008; Gibson,
it is useful to conceptualize the future as flowing
into the present, which can be represented 1986;
byHemes & Maitlis, 2010; Weick, 1995).
the evolution of probability wave functions Further,
as a transition from an undefined future
various types of constraints are encountered to an experienced present naturally emphasizes
and interact. As does Hemes (2014), a QATC the process of creation by individuals and col-
perspective emphasizes the temporality oflectives, pro- whereas a past and present to future
cesses. By reversing the arrow of time, it implies perspective starts with unit attributes (e.g., or-
that the present is continually created byganizationalthe climate or culture) and examines
conjoining of various constructs where the their
na-effects on processes. Process views and
ture of concepts - including attitudes, emotions, their emphasis on patterns and dynamics are,
beliefs, and group and organizational struc- therefore, more fitting as a theoretical frame-
tures - all reflect the translation of a superpo- work for understanding change than is a focus
tentiality state into a defined state at a particu- on enduring attributes of individuals or systems
lar time and context. (Hemes, 2014; Langley et al., 2013). This is not to
One advantage of beginning with an unde- say that focusing on the enduring attributes of
fined future for understanding how systems individual and organizational entities should be
change is that we do not start with the assump- abandoned, particularly when they exhibit very
tion that organizational processes are predict- little variation as ascertained from longitudinal
2015 Lord, Dinh , and Hoffman 275
EXHIBIT 1
Theoretical, Methodological, and Practical Implications of a QATC and FFM
Theoretical Implications
1. Direction of time and the nature of concepts
A QATC conceptualizes the future as flowing into the present into the past (i.e., F P - > P), whereas an FFM
perspective conceptualizes the past as leading to the present to the future (i.e., P - > P - > F).
2. Representation of event probabilities
A QATC is process focused and recognizes the potentialities available to interacting organizational units, whereas
an FFM perspective emphasizes stable entities and thereby limits potentialities that are considered.
3. Relation among micro and macro multilevel systems
A QATC suggests that the interconnections among multilevel systems are critical to the dynamics of organizational
phenomena. These interconnections also challenge efforts to achieve organizational ambidexterity. An FFM
perspective more often attends to local processes occurring independently in one or another level.
Methodological Implications
1. Alternative possibilities
A QATC implies that methodological approaches based on FFM perspectives that include meta-analyses and those
dependent on a single sampling distribution are limited in predicting future behaviors or adding insight on
dynamic individual, group, and organizational processes.
2. Quantum probability theories
A QATC recognizes that new probability axioms and mathematical formalisms may be needed to better represent the
creative combination of constructs through noncompositional processes involving the entanglement of states and
contexts.
3. Dynamics of organizational processes

A QATC stresses the continual involvement of multilevel interactive processes originating from indiv
and organizational levels of analysis in influencing organizational phenomena. Quantitative methodol
including quantum probability theories and computational modeling are available, consistent with Q
4. Emergence of concepts
A QATC emphasizes that organizational and cognitive concepts may exist in a superpotentiality state t
influenced by measurement procedures. An FFM perspective suggests that organizational and cognitive
exist in a predefined state not likely to change with measurement procedures.
Practical Implications
1. Decision making and forecasting biases
A QATC suggests that techniques such as prospection and counterfactual thinking, when they enable
limit the consideration of alternative potentialities, can offset or prevent decision-making biases cre
forward tendencies when the past is generalized to predict the future.
2. Creation of new futures
A QATC offers insights on the creation of new futures as multiple potentialities are explored and the innovations
they uncover diffuse through social systems. In contrast, an FFM would represent futures as branching from the
present, thereby suggesting fewer potentialities.
3. Conflict between intuitive beliefs and abstract representations
Competition between a QATC and FFM perspective may result in conflicting strategies for organizational problems
Since each influences the efficiency of decision making, individual differences in the dependency of intuitive
versus abstract thinking should be considered.
studies (Dinh et al., 2014). However, the recogni-is a critical strategic issue for organizational
tion that unforeseeable processes can create leadership. In contrast, an FFM emphasizes en-
new entities, as well as remain stable over time, tities that describe the past and are expected to
is an advantage of a QATC framework. Thus, a endure into the future.
QATC framework can direct attention to emer- Although beyond the scope of this article, one
gent phenomena like creativity, social capital, technique, provided by Scharmer and Kaufer
and the factors that can catalyze these phenom-(2013), facilitates understanding and influencing
ena, such as leadership (Uhl-Bien & Marion, processes. Consistent with our perspective,
2009), variability in emotional experience (Ble-these scholars argue that one needs to focus on
dow, Rosing, & Frese, 2013), and heterogeneity leading from an emerging future to successfully
among unit members (Page, 2007). Understand- address many contemporary problems. Their
ing and managing these processes, to the extentframework also emphasizes developing one's
that managing emergent processes is possible. listening capacities to foster a more encompass-
ing self; increasing collaborative, of higher- and lower-level systems idea-broaden

across many
ing efforts; and employing different temporal radically
cycles. Thus, multileveldifferen
model-
economic and social logics ing approaches instead of just
are critical for understanding how per-
petuating the ways of entities thinking that
and processes are continually generate
created, but
pressing problems. the nature of relevant constructs and the span of
Representation of event time in which probabilities.
things happen change with the Second,
a focus on the past naturally emphasizes the level of analysis. This perspective differs from
continuity of entities that are, in turn, used to those offered by FFM that promote the modeling of
describe and explain past and future events. For isolated, independent systems.
example, one might explain an individual's past Within organizational settings, a QATC can
behavior in terms of underlying personality be applied to improving organizational innova-
traits, which are then used to predict future be- tion and ambidexterity. As this research shows,
havior. The five-factor model of personality and firms have difficulty managing both exploration
the use of personality measurement scales to and exploitation (March, 1991; O'Reilly & Tush-
predict behavior would characterize such an ap- man', 2013) since different organizational units
proach. This entity view of personality leads to a have different needs and goals at different
point estimate for behavior consistent with the times, making intersystem synchronization dif-
individual's pattern of personality traits and a ficult (Davison, Hollenbeck, Barnes, Sleesman, &
probability distribution around that estimate. A Ilgen, 2012; Zaccaro, Marks, & DeChurch, 2012).
QATC, in contrast, recognizes the many potenti- Our framework adds two insights to this issue.
alities that may occur in the future, leading an First, because many future potentialities may
individual to behave quite differently. Thus, exist in an indefinite state until they are con-
there are multiple points and multiple probabil- joined with a context, they cannot be known
ity distributions around those points, as can be until they are tried out. Thus, exploration is a
seen in a probability wave distribution. fundamental part of creating entirely new and
Because events or behaviors emerge from the different futures. Second, creating some futures
interaction of context and an entity (or, as we may require the enactment of sets of constraints
have proposed, higher-level contextual con- different from those being used in the present. A
straints operating on processes that emerge at a challenge in initiating change, therefore, is to
lower hierarchical level), how this combination recognize that using techniques that solidify ex-
affects the probability of a specific outcome is tant a constraints at one or another level to exploit
critical concern. Here quantum theories can rep- present strategies may make it more difficult for
resent probabilities in ways that traditional organizations to explore alternatives and inno-
probability theories cannot, thereby offering vate. For example, vertical integration that al-
better insight for understanding how processes lows increased control of an organization's re-
operate and unfold. For example, a QATC per- sources may also reduce its capacity to explore
spective can represent how the interaction alternative strategies through actions such as
among entities can create entirely new entities outsourcing or adopting new technologies (Aime
or events, which is not easily addressed by FFM et al., 2014).
perspectives. Leaders can encourage exploration when they
Relation among micro and macro systems. Al- encourage others to do things differently, to ex-
though we recognize that scenario-based fore- periment, to think independently, and to deviate
casting (MacKay & McKiernan, 2004) and am- from normal routines (Rosing et al., 2011). Such
bidextrous leadership (O'Reilly & Tushman, actions reduce current constraints, which facili-
2013; Rosing, Frese, & Bausch, 2011) have some tates the discovery of new potentialities. In con-
of the elements that are described by a QATC, trast, Rosing et al. note that exploitation in-
our perspective goes beyond these ap- volves closing actions by leaders that reduce
proaches by suggesting that individuals are variability and solidify constraints by activities
nested within much larger systems, which con-such as developing guidelines and monitoring
strain processes, eliminate potentialities, and activities. In brief, a QATC framework suggests
cause select outcomes to emerge. We have argued that interventions that aim to increase (versus
that it is at the nexus of these nested systems that restrict) organizational innovation should con-
the present is created from the dynamic interplay sider how configurations (versus independent
variables) of microlevel often explained in terms of samplingto error mac

cre-
and entities can ating shrinkage
interact for multiple regression-based
over ti
obstruct the attainment of desired organiza- predictions. Our interpretation, though, is that it
tional outcomes. is not sampling error so much as the fact that
phenomena change, making models built on the
past somewhat outdated when applied in the
Methodological Implications of a future.
QATC Perspective
A related issue involves the inability to in-
Alternative possibilities. First, changing the clude emergent phenomena and constructs in
direction of time and using probability waves to models because they did not exist in the past.
represent time-related processes highlight the This problem may necessitate the use of com-
fact that the present represents just one poten- putational modeling methodologies, rather
tial state. Thus, the present or the past is more than static retrospective questionnaires (Koz-
predictable than the future, and expectations łowski et al., 2013). These methodological tech-
based on the past may not generalize to a future niques have become increasingly available to
that can be quite different. This idea has pro- scholars and include agent-based modeling
found methodological implications since most (e.g., Dionne & Dionne, 2008), nonlinear sto-
methodology in organizational science is retro- chastic modeling (e.g., Guastello, 2001), ge-
spectively oriented. For example, meta-analysis netic algorithms (e.g., Fernandez, Cotta, & Ce-
focuses on integrating past research based on ballos, 2008), and neural computational
the notion of point estimates and a single sam- modeling (e.g., Eliasmith, 2013; for an overview
pling distribution. Although meta-analytical of the uses and applications of computational
techniques can provide a general overview of modeling, see Kozłowski et al., 2013, and Van-
the past relationship among constructs, the sta- couver & Weinhardt, 2012).
tistical technique's approach toward aggregat- Traditional quantitative approaches, which
ing across many different contexts interferes focus on quantifying individual and organiza-
with its ability to consider the effects of context tional constructs, are also valuable, particularly
and time on the evolution of organizational when complemented with qualitative naturalis-
phenomena. tic methods (e.g., observation, interviews, expe-
Because of these limitations, we believe that rience sampling) that offer scholars an under-
meta-analytical approaches and those based on standing of how and why certain constructs vary
a single sampling distribution would have lim- in different contexts or circumstances. In this
ited value in predicting future behaviors orway in the capacity to provide a descriptive and
explaining the moment-to-moment variability detailed catalogue of organizational phenom-
observed in individual-level (Dinh & Lord, 2012; ena can complement quantitative approaches
Fleeson, 2001; Read èt al., 2010), group-level by triangulating findings and providing a
(Crawford & LePine, 2013; Smith-Jentsch et al., broader description of these phenomena (Pope &
2009), and organizational-level (Feldman & Pent- Mays, 1995). Although such methods can excel at
land, 2003; MacKay & Chia, 2013) phenomena, describing complexity in organizations and the
unless there were sufficient constraints to create contextual factors that created the experienced
stability in organizational and individual pro- reality, focusing on what has happened and
cesses. In addition, models that are overly fithow to events occurred may overemphasize the
the certain past may not accurately generalize certainty in the past, and it may underempha-
to the future, which has many potentialities size and the alternative realities that may have been
may be characterized by entities that are in dif- likely in the past, as well as the new potential-
ferent states. When the future changes dramat- ities that are offered by the future.
ically from the past, less restrictive models may Quantum probability theories. Second, quan-
have better predictive validities. For example, tum theorists would argue that under uncer-
the decision-making and forecasting literature tainty the evolution of physical and psycholog-
shows that unit-weighted combinations of in- ical phenomena more closely obeys the
puts equal or outperform multiple regression- mathematical formalisms of quantum theories
based combinations in cross-validation studies (i.e., von Neumann axioms, which are defined in
(Bobko, Roth, & Buster, 2007). Such results are terms of events projected onto spatial represen-
tations, as shown in perpotentiality the Appendix), rather

state. Like a computer monitor t
classical probability that theories (i.e.,
is turned off, features are notKolmogor
activated
axioms, which are defined on sets) that are foun- when a concept, attitude, emotion, trait, group
dational to the statistical models used in psy- climate, or organizational process is divorced
chological research (Busemeyer et al., 2011; from context. Not only are features or properties
Wang, Busemeyer, Atmanspacher, & Pothos, revealed solely through specific measurement
2Q13). Because the mathematical axioms that procedures, which can create contextual effects
guide quantum probability theories can account of their own (Busemeyer & Bruza, 2012; Hughes,
for the interactive influence of simultaneously 1989), but these individual or organizational
occurring contexts and states (Busemeyer & properties may not exist outside of a physical
Bruza, 2012; Hughes, 1989; Wang et al., 2013), context or the mental framework used by per-
applications of quantum probability theories to ceivers to create meaning (Hemes & Maitlis,
the organizational sciences may not only allow 2010; Langley & Tsoukas, 2010; Weick, 2010).
scholars to better model the organizational con- They may also change as contexts change,
text but also help overcome the limitations as- reflecting state-like, rather than trait-like,
sociated with employing artificial paradigms properties.
that subtract uncertainty from realistic phenom- This perspective seems most appropriate for
ena in psychological research (Pothos & Buse- phenomena like emotions, which align with al-
meyer, 2013). ternative states of an individual (Barsalou et al.,
Dynamics of organizational processes. Third, 2003), but it has broader application than one
we proposed that the multilevel dynamics inher- might realize, applying to traits and constructs
ent in the evolution of organizational phenom- such as leadership and trust, which may mani-
ena require a process view that examines how fest only in certain situations. Indeed, some con-
individual and group behaviors are affected by structs may be better assessed from a process
both external constraints from higher-level sys- perspective since they are continually evolving
tems like groups and organizations and lower- (DeShon & Gillespie, 2005; Gabora et al., 2008;
level internal constraints from cognitions, em- Hemes, 2014; Hemes & Maitlis, 2010), rather than
bodiment, and affect. By focusing on how from a perspective that views constructs as sta-
processes unfold over time at the nexus of sys- ble entities that can be assessed with retrospec-
tems, a QATC framework provides both quanti- tive measures. This is particularly true when the
tative and qualitative analytical approaches conjoining of a context and construct creates
that can be applied at multiple levels and new features. Here the quantum representation
across multiple time frames. Although beyond of concepts allows the states of concepts to
the scope of this article, quantum probabilitychange continually as new contexts are encoun-
theories and quantum mechanics have been tered (Gabora & Aerts, 2002).
used to understand how alternative possibili- These possibilities are rarely considered, in
ties can be created or destroyed by different part because we assume that most constructs in
interacting contexts, actors, and events over social and organizational science are stable en-
varying expanses of time. These possibilities tities (Feldman & Lynch, 1988). This view may
may be revealed best through the use of newer reflect the exaggerated stability created by an
information processing architectures that rely orientation toward the past, whereas a view of
on vector-based representations (see Buse- the future collapsing to create the present em-
meyer & Bruza, 2012, and Eliasmith, 2013). Sim- phasizes many potentialities and directs atten-
ilar to neural network modeling and symbolic tion to the processes that allow some of these
architectures, such systems can learn rules as potentialities to emerge while others remain un-
they create solutions, mimicking the type of realized. It also raises such questions as how
creative processes that, we argue, occur in alternative futures could be imagined, created,
natural systems. or redirected in ways that change emerging ex-
Emergence of concepts. Fourth, a profound im- periences. As eloquently stated by Weick, man-
plication of a QATC approach is that, for much agerial work may be akin to a poetic process -
of the time, many aspects of organizational phe- "the imaginative process of creating forms out of
nomena may exist in a form that is unknown to 'airy nothing" (2010: 102). The challenge for or-
observers because these constructs are in a su- ganizational science is to capture this creative
process, which cognitive

we perspective
maintain can also occur with cou
the
using the formalisms provided by quantum cycling of negative and positive affect over time
theory. (Bledow et al., 2013; George & Zhou, 2007), or
when members are engaged in cohesive collabor-
ative teams, since these interpersonal work con-
Implications for Practice
figurations enable members to flexibly entertain
Decision-making and forecasting biases. A multiple perspectives and work strategies. The le-
QATC perspective maintains that there are al- veraging of interpersonal relationships to acquire
ways multiple paths to the future, and some arenew perspectives and potentialities can be espe-
associated with pasts that did not occur but maycially advantageous because there are many
better characterize future situations than the types of precarious situations that confront orga-
past that did occur. This suggests that failing nizational
to decision makers - each requiring its
consider alternative possibilities may lead to own unique solution (Milliken, 1987; Wiltbank,
severe decision-making fallacies. For example, Dew, Read, & Sarasvathy, 2006). Group complex-
research has shown that hindsight (Arkes, ity, which is dynamically constructed (Hannah,
Faust, Gulimette, & Hart, 1988) and foresight bi-Lord, & Pearce, 2011; Page, 2007), may help reveal
ases (MacKay & McKiernan, 2004), which involve these potentialities. The effectiveness of prospec-
tion can be limited, however, when mental simu-
using past experiences to predict the future, are
the cause of many organizational failures and lations of the future omit essential features, such
executive decision-making errors because they as when they rely on general heuristics, are based
interfere with the ability to successfully antici-
on nonrepresentative past information like relying
pate or plan for alternative future events (e.g.,on a single salient memory, or are decontextual-
Arrfelt et al., 2013; Brown & Eisenhardt, 1999; ized by not accounting for environments (Gilbert &
Dane & George, 2014). This sense of certainty Wilson, 2007).
promotes efforts that exploit only one future pos- Creating new futures. A QATC perspective
sibility, when there are many equally probable can help one see that the future is more mal-
possibilities. These types of biases are evidentleable than one typically realizes. Taleb (2010)
when corporate decision makers make seem- describes "black swans" as unexpected, im-
ingly well-placed investments to "ensure" the pactful events that change the course of his-
future survival of their organization. As Arrfelt tory, and he explains that they are only under-
et al. (2013) demonstrate, however, these plans standable retrospectively, when new mental
may interfere with the firm's ability to grow and schemata become widely accepted because of
innovate, especially when investments fail to black swan events. Our QATC perspective of-
produce intended benefits while also consum- fers a different view, a view that helps explain
ing valuable resources. When reinforced over how black swan events can occur when one
time, prior interpretations may become "locked doesn't accept the past as given but, instead,
in" to create a rigid action pattern, labeled path considers alternative potentialities and their
dependence , that constrains the ability to craft implications for the future. As this process
adaptive solutions and strategies (Sydow, generalizes across individuals, which it does
Schreyögg, & Koch, 2009). when individuals are part of socially con-
However, decision-making biases can be nected networks, reality can eventually shift
avoided when organizational decision makers in dramatic ways, producing discontinuous
are able to recognize that alternative outcomes rather than incremental change.
are possible when planning for future events. Conflict between intuitive beliefs and ab-
This may involve the use of forecasting or stract representations. Although there is evi-
prospection to simulate possible events that can dence to suggest that forecasting the future
happen in the future. As Seligman et al. (2013) based on the past can yield effective strategiz-
argue, there is a natural proclivity for humans to ing when the recent past is generalized to an
mentally travel into the future, and this is en- anticipated proximal future (Arrfelt et al., 2013;
abled as individuals combine (and recombine) Gavetti & Levinthal, 2000), organizational deci-
memories of their past experiences to simulate sion makers are often pressed to formulate dis-
the likely occurrence of both familiar and novel tal or long-term interventions and strategies to
experiences. Prospection and the broadening of satisfy requirements that are different from
those experienced in the

or the present.
same perceiver In these
in different contexts, can i
stances a QATC perspective may be especial
define leadership differently.
valuable since it is an abstract, unrestricted To see how this process can create problems
method for thinking about how the futurefor willscholars attempting to model such a dy-
become the present. namic phenomenon, it is useful to compare per-
However, conflicts may arise when the use of
ceptions of males and females. The potential
one perspective is favored over another, partic- leader being evaluated can be a powerful con-
ularly when intuitive, experience-based per- straint on the leadership schémas perceivers
spectives are contrasted with more analytic ap- use to integrate behavioral input over time
proaches, as is often the case with views on (Brown, Marchioro, Tan, & Lord, 1998; Rosette,
climate change. In order to use a QATC perspec-Leonardelli, & Phillips, 2008; Sy et al., 2010). A
tive to guide decision making, therefore, one critical question, then, is whether the probabil-
must be able to manage the greater complexity ity of leadership emergence differs for males
and uncertainty associated with this abstract and females when they demonstrate the same
framework. Although an area for future re- pattern of behavior. To address this issue, we
search, this approach may be more acceptable need a representational system that can include
to individuals with a future rather than a past types of behavior (i.e., agentic, communal, pas-
time orientation (Shipp, Edwards, & Lambert, sive) and different perceptual schémas for
2009), individuals with greater intrapersonal males and females, and that also permits oper-
complexity (Lord et al., 2011), or individuals who ations that will estimate the relevant probabili-
can tolerate greater risk and anxiety (Hirsh, ties for emergent leaders.
Marr, & Peterson, 2012), such as those who are The issue of jointly representing different cat-
embedded within diverse, richly connected so-egorical systems is "new and unique to quan-
cial-relational networks (Lee, Bachrach, & tum theory, and it is [sic] never been raised
Lewis, 2014). within classic theory" (Busemeyer & Bruza, 2012:
32). This issue can also be thought of as an issue
of compatibility of the male- and female-
oriented leadership schema, where the term
An Application to Leadership Emergence
compatibility has a special meaning. When
Heretofore our discussion of a QATC frame- events and constructs share a common represen-
work has been abstract and general. In this sec-tational structure (or basis in quantum theory ;
tion we emphasize a specific content domain - Busemeyer & Bruza , 2012), they are deemed com-
leadership - to illustrate how principles patible , whereas incompatible events and con-
developed in quantum physics can be insight- structs require a different representational struc-
fully applied to organizational and societal ture (or basis) to be evaluated . Bias in social
issues. perceptions such as leadership may then be as-
A QATC approach to the problem of sociated modeling with perceivers having different repre-
leadership emergence. An individual is per- sentational systems.
ceived to be a leader when his or her attributes The uncertainty principle developed by
and behaviors activate a leadership-defining Heisenberger in the field of quantum physics
cognitive structure or schema in perceivers. This also can be applied to incompatible representa-
cognitive structure has been shown to be re- tion systems (Busemeyer & Bruza, 2012). Apply-
created each time it is used, subject to a variety ing this principle suggests that when a male-
of constraints both external (e.g., leader attri- oriented representational structure is used,
butes, context) and internal (e.g., momentary male leaders can be evaluated with certainty,
emotions, use of leadership versus follower but the perceiver will be uncertain with respect
schémas) to the perceiver (Hanges, Lord, & to the probability that agentic, communal, or
Dixon, 2000; Lord, Brown, Harvey, & Hall, 2001). passive females will emerge as leaders; simi-
Thus, the schema influencing leadership per- larly, when a female-oriented representational
ception is itself dynamic and can be viewed as system is used, the perceiver can evaluate fe-
an attractor that organizes and amplifies stim- male targets with certainty, but the probability
ulus interpretations (Hanges, Lord, Godfrey, & that agentic, communal, or passive males will
Raver, 2002). Consequently, different perceivers. emerge as leaders will be uncertain. This
schema incompatibility emerge.4 Quantitatively speaking, the coordi-

problem
to uncertainty nates may
of these vectors can be obtained from
help ob-
accoun
documented difficulty served data using various questionnaire
females and
ing leadershipexperimental roles researchinmethodologies
many (e.g., of
zations. Specifically, the "glass ceiling" Wang, et al., 2013).
experienced by females may, in part, reflect We thehave described the effects of one external
uncertainty that perceivers experience when constraint, the gender of a target person, on the
evaluating a female's leadership potential us- perceptual structure (which is analogous to sets
ing their dominant male-oriented leadership of basis vectors) used to understand leadership
schema. emergence. This same approach can be ex-
tended to reflect how other types of external
Using the principles and formalisms of quan-
constraints could change the way leaders
tum theory, we briefly show in Table 1 how the
emerge. For example, Lord, Foti, and De Vader
processing of leadership emergence can be rep-
(1984) showed that context (i.e., military, busi-
resented, and in the following section we pro-
ness, education, etc.) changed the nature of
vide a detailed description of how these formal-
leadership prototypes used to define catego-
isms can be implemented. Readers not
ries. More recently, Sy et al. (2010) demon-
interested in this quantum formalism should fo-
strated that the ethnicity of a target has the
cus on the concepts emphasized in the left and
same effect, and Rosette et al. (2008) showed
center columns of Table 1, whereas readers in-
that the race of a leader changes leadership
terested in a more precise representation may prototypes. These different perceptual bases
also want to reexamine Table 1 after readingcould the all be represented in an abstract N-di-
Appendix. mensional vector space in a manner analo-
Detailed application of quantum theory to gous to the representation of gender. Internal
leadership emergence. In developing a repre- constraints may also be included in this geo-
sentational model of leadership emergence, we metric space, such as the effects of a perceiv-
begin by using an N- dimensional vector space er's current emotions or goal states. In short,
(also known as a Hilbert space) that represents a what this application of a QATC shows is how
superpotentiality state. The vectors encompass- a wide variety of multilevel constraints can be
ing this state, labeled basis vectors , correspond represented in a geometric space. Operations
to specific events, such as a male (or female) in this space can then model the way a poten-
exhibiting a specific type of behavior emerging tial leader's behaviors are interpreted in a
as a leader. For example, the emergence of a group context to create an emerging reality.
male leader exhibiting agentic, passive, or com- Finally, we should stress that although this
munal behavioral patterns can be represented application emphasizes the social-cognitive lit-
as the orthogonal vectors AX, AU, and AV, erature on leadership perceptions, our frame-
whereas the emergence of a female leader ex- work is more general and could be applied to
hibiting similar behavioral patterns can be rep-
resented by a different set of orthogonal vectors, 4 In this example the male and iemale spaces are incom-
BX, BU, and BV. In addition, a normalized state patible because no common subspace can represent analo-
vector, S , which represents a general state of gous events for male and iemale targets. Further, it can be
shown (see Busemeyer & Bruza, 2012: 40-41) that the points
leadership , is also contained within the larger corresponding to the emergence of an agentic, communal, or
N-dimensional space, and this state vector can passive male leader, which involve a single vector in the
be projected onto each basis vector to indirectly male space, require a combination oi all three vectors in the
determine the probability that a male (or a fe- iemale space. Thus, when there is certainty with respect to
the male behavioral vector space, since each vector repre-
male) leader exhibiting a specific behavioral sents a diiierent collapse oi the superpotentiality state, there
pattern will emerge as a leader. This projection, is uncertainty in using the behavioral space to evaluate
then, represents the collapse of a superpotenti-iemales because all three basic vectors are involved. Simi-
ality state as it is conjoined with a specific con-larly, using the iemale behavioral space, the point corre-
sponding to the probability that an agentic, communal, or
text. For example, when S is projected onto AU,passive male will emerge involves a combination oi all
this collapse yields an amplitude that reflects three vectors in the male behavioral space. Hence, when
the probability an agentic male leader will certainty exists ior a iemale, uncertainty exists ior the male.
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many issues orandhierarchical its relevance to human existentialism. How-

level
tending these ideas ever, the application
to ofa quantum
QATC theory to the
fr
gests that new development perspectives and resolution of our subjective
cann
with certainty using perceptual schema knowledge of time may yield interesting find-
grounded in the past ; they can only be evaluated ings and may be pursued in future endeavors.
with certainty after one has shifted to a newLast, we also acknowledge that for most indi-
perceptual system . This principle may helpviduals ex- there is a substantial learning curve in
plain why people and organizations have so understanding vector-based mathematics in
much difficulty assessing new potentialities quantum theory. The upside, though, is that we
that exist in the future. have come a long way in terms of developing a
mathematical or energy-based understanding
LIMITATIONS
of changes, which can serve as helpful guide-
lines for organizational science.
No theory is without limitations, and despite
the numerous theoretical and methodological CONCLUSION
benefits that a QATC perspective affords, there
are several limitations and areas that merit fu- We proposed a quantum approach to concep-
ture consideration. First, research on quantum tualizing travel through time as a metastructur
mechanics and quantum probability theory for addressing process-related issues associ-
have only recently been applied to understand- ated with both stability and change. By revers-
ing social and psychological phenomena, such ing the arrow of time and thinking of the future
as decision making (Busemeyer & Bruza, 2012; as flowing into the present, we can conceptual-
Wang et al., 2013), consciousness (Hameroff & ize the present as being created from a super-
Penrose, 2014), and cognitive constructivism potentiality state as it is conjoined with a par-
(Gabora et al., 2008). In addition, only a handful ticular context to create an entangled present.
of scholars have begun to apply quantum for- This approach also illustrates that the future
malism and its mathematical representations to holds multiple potentialities that may each de-
understanding individual and organizational fine the present. We believe that this QATC ap-
phenomena (e.g., Eliasmith, 2013). Although it proach provides a useful framework that can
may be many years until a meaningful integra- help advance organizational theory and re-
tion of quantum theory with organizational research by offering a novel perspective challeng-
search is realized, we maintain that a QATC ing many long-standing assumptions on cer-
perspective can advance and enrich organiza- tainty, time, and processes of realizing change
tional research in many ways, and we encour- for individuals, groups, and organizations. Fur-
age its entanglement with the organizational ther, it suggests that there is greater flexibility
sciences. in how the future will unfold than many people
Second, we applied our QATC perspective realize,toin part because they have difficulty
understand organizational phenomena, rather evaluating future potentialities using perspec-
than psychological phenomena as they relate to tives grounded in the past. Finally, as our lead-
time travel. As our reviewers pointed out, nu- ership example showed, QATC also offers new
merous scholars and philosophers over the last avenues for theoretical development, and it
century have debated how human beings have raises profound quantitative and methodologi-
understood the concept of time (Mead, 1932; cal questions.
Sherover, 2003; Suddaby, Foster, & Trank, 2010;
Weick, 1995), which may also vary across di- APPENDIX: REPRESENTATION OF
verse cultural perspectives. Although our per-
QUANTUM PROCESSES
spective borrows the concept of mentally revers-
ing the arrow of time to consider a future that Vectors and Hilbert spaces. In quantum theory
collapses into the present to understand the a physical or psychological entity is represented
present and the past (Sherover, 2003), our appli- as a system within a multidimensional, mathe-
cation addressed the probabilistic nature of un- matical structure known as a Hilbert space . In
certainty in real-life phenomena, rather than the this space vectors (lines created by a point con-
philosophical question of the meaning of time nected to an origin with a pointed arrow) form
subspaces (a plane Figure 5a. In this figureby

spanned there are two general
vectors), w
define the collection of elementary outcomes types of vectors, which are represented by the
that can be generated by a system. Vector combined symbols IX>, called a "ket." Mathe-
spaces allow for rich representations of phe- matically, basis vectors (e.g., Ipi># I p2>, lp3>, . . .
nomena within a high dimensional space, and I pn>) represent the alternate elemental events
they can represent the compositional qualities and outcomes that can be obtained by a system
of natural language, as well as the meaning of representing a physical entity or a psychologi-
more complex compositions that conjoin con- cal state. Also, a state vector (I P>) is a general
structs with unique contexts (Eliasmith, 2013: state of a system (e.g., one's mental or emotional
297-299). state), which is normalized to have a length of 1.
A graphic representation of a Hilbert space When projected onto basis vectors, it yields an
that contains a few sample vectors is shown in amplitude that, when squared, is the probability
FIGURE 5
Hilbert Space and Probability Wave Representations of a Superpotentiality State and a
Collapsed State
Vector representation of a state in Vector representation of a collapsed state in
superposition in a Hilbert space a specific context
I P>
ik
|p,> lPj> |P>

'' / iPi'
' / It x/'
/ '
IPs- ' Ļs* av" / V"
(a) (b)
Probability wave representation of a Probability wave representation of a

state in superposition collapsed state in a specific context
"•X. " (d,

Note: (a) A Hilbert space containing a sample set oí orthogonal basis vectors (I Pi>, I p2>, . . . Ip5>) and a state vector (IP>) in a
superpotentiality state. The linear aggregation oí sets oí basis vectors, which represent the alternative possibilities oí a
holistic state of a physical or psychological phenomenon that may be at an individual, dyadic, group, and organizational
level, forms the Hilbert space, (b) A cross-sectional view of the Hilbert space when a state vector, I P>, is projected onto its basis
vectors as it becomes entangled with a specific context. The probability of lpx> occurring is higher than I p2> since the squared
amplitude of lpx> is greater than the squared amplitude of I p2>. (c) A probability wave representation of a state vector, I P>, in
a superpotentiality state, (d) A collapsed Hilbert space when state vector, I P>, becomes entangled with a specific context.
2015 Lord, Dińh, and Hoffman 285
of occurrence cretely, for complex

the interactive specific
processes could be e
by the basis vector. represented when ourTo example is extended to
illustra
vectors can refer include multiple
to interacting
the Hilbert possibl
spaces that
cific, observable outcomes (e.g., specific felt each represent different individual, group, and
emotions like happy and sad) that can be de- organizational states and entities. When multi-
rived from a more descriptive, nondetermined ple, interacting Hilbert spaces are considered
state (e.g., emotionality). Using these mathemat- together, systems of constraints can convolve
ical notations, as shown in Figure 5b, the prob- simultaneously to affect the global state of a
ability that a particular elemental event or out- system (as an individual, group, organization)
come will occur is determined by the projection as it travels through time. The mathematics be-
amplitude (perpendicular distance) of the state hind computing tensor products for interacting
vector (I P>) onto each elemental event con- subspaces is beyond the scope of this article
tained within the subspace (lpi>, 'p2>- • • 'Pn>)- (see Hughes, 1989).
These probabilities are often based on empiri-Noncompositionality and the nexus of hierar-
cal data, or they may result from mathematical chical levels. In terms of semantic spaces, non-
operations in Hilbert spaces. When a specific compositionality occurs when the combination
outcome does occur, it reflects a change in the of two concepts produces a qualitatively differ-
state of the system, where the indefinite state ent concept. To say that an automobile is a
(i.e., emotionality, I P>), collapses onto a definite lemon implies attributes not possessed by most
state (e.g., happy, I Pi>), which, in turn, acquires cars or most lemons, and it also drops some
specific features and qualities that can be mea- features of each (Hampton, 2013), in that we are
sured and observed. not implying that the car is yellow or reliable.
When a collapse occurs, probabilities become Compositional combination, in contrast, simply
more certain. This process is shown in Figure includes
5b all the attributes of both concepts, as in
using a vector representation, and in Figure "black
5dcat." The issue of how to conceptualize
as a probability wave , in which a contoured and represent noncompositional concepts and
surface is drawn over the projection amplitudes their underlying semantic space is complex and
extending from a state vector onto the many has a rich history (see Busemeyer & Bruza, 2012:
basis vectors composing a subspace. These fig- Chapters 5-7). It is of importance to a QATC
ures show that compared to a system in a super- because we argue that the future collapses into
potentiality state (Figures 5a and c), collapsing the present at the nexus of hierarchical levels,
systems have more definite outcomes as cer- and this process involves the construction of
tain events have higher projection amplitudes, meaning, either mentally or through organizing
which are represented as peaks in the proba- actions, by combining external and internal
bility wave in Figure 5d. In contrast, Figure 5c constraints.
shows that the probability a state vector will How meaning is created at the nexus of sys-
collapse onto a particular event is equally tems is a particularly challenging area for un-
likely across all events (i.e., the amplitudes derstanding combinations, because a common
are equal in the flat surface), and, therefore, meaning system is often absent as one crosses
retains high potentiality. hierarchical levels and time frames. For exam-
In this illustration we provided a rudimentary ple, one's self-identity creates a rich internal
example of how a single state (i.e., emotionality) framework for reacting emotionally, interpreting
has the potential to be actualized in many dif- events, and translating this interpretation into
ferent ways as it becomes conjoined with a spe- actions. However, when we cross the boundary
cific context. However, multiple states (emo- to a social system such as a dyadic relation,
tions, values, attitudes, mental schémas) and/or even though each member has a self-system, the
physical entities (e.g., people) can be simultane-collective social system does not have the same
ously experienced by larger systems, such as semantic space as each individual. Understand-
groups and organizations. Notably, these ele- ing the relational meaning of the combined
ments of organizational systems could also be identity, then, is a compositionality issue, which
represented in a Hilbert space, given quantum can explain dyadic (or group) identities. It is
theory's ability to represent interacting sub- important to understanding issues such as the
spaces (referred to as tensor products ). Con- creation of complexity in organizations because
complexity is in part Barsalou, created

L. W., Niedenthal, P. M.,from
Barbey, A., & Ruppert,
the J. in
2003. Social embodiment. Psychology of Learning and
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(Page, 2007)
produces novel outcomes.
Bledow, R., Rosing, K., & Frese, M. 2013. A dynamic perspec-
The advantage of thinking of composition
tive on affect and creativity. Academy of Management
issues in terms of a Journal quantum 56: 432-450. framework
it can go beyond intersective semantics (e.g.,
Bluedorn, A. C., & Jaussi, K. S. 2008. Leaders, followers, and
black cats) and use multidimensional Hilbert
time. Leadership Quarterly f 19: 654-668.
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Bobko, P., Roth, P. L., & Buster, M. A. 2007. The usefulness of
individual's self-relevant meaning for an event,unit weights in creating composite scores: A literature
such as the change in state of a system, could be
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bert space. These different basis vectors, in turn,
Boroditsky, L., & Ramscar, M. 2002. The roles of body and
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Brown, D., Marchioro, C., Tan, J. A., & Lord, R. G. 1998. Indi-
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Returning to our hierarchical system example, it lution in relentlessly shifting organizations. Administra-
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Robert G. Lord (robert.lord@durham.ac.uk) is a professor of leadership at Durham

Business School, Durham University. He earned his Ph.D in organizational-social
psychology at Carnegie Mellon University. His research focuses on leadership and
social perceptions, organizational complexity, motivation, emotions, and information
processing.
290 Academy oí Management Review April
Jessica E. Dinh (jessica.dinh@durham.ac.uk) is a postdoctoral researcher at Durham

Business School, Durham University. She earned her Ph.D. in industrial-organiza-
tional psychology from the University oí Akron. Her research focuses on leadership,
organizational complexity, and the sociocognitive processes that influence dynamic
organizational behavior.
Ernest L. Hoffman (elh2@zips.uakron.edu) is a doctoral candidate studying industrial-

organizational psychology at the University of Akron. He currently works as a man-
agement consultant for Personnel Research and Development Corporation (PRADCO).
His research interests include leader identity, event-level performance management,
and organizational emergence.

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A QUANTUM APPROACH TO TIME AND ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

Author(s): ROBERT G. LORD, JESSICA E. DINH and ERNEST L. HOFFMAN

A QUANTUM APPROACH TO TIME AND

trajectories, guided that by thisan

tices, and (3)

standing of change processes. In the following sections we beg

FIGURE 2 arguments of quantum theories and develop

Probability Waves and Social Systems

comes. For example, over the globe. Although

difficult to describe ofthe dynamicunderlying

ferent levels and FIGURE time 3 period

ment of potentialiaties because, as Johnson- j| Internal constraints

researchers postulate operate at individual, dy- Idiosyncratic deals

adic, group, and organizational levels. Addi-

mental) could also be considered, but here we % Internal constraints

It is important to note the role

standing how was on change at an organizational

3. Dynamics of organizational processes

ing self; increasing collaborative, of higher- and lower-level systems idea-broaden

variables) of microlevel often explained in terms of samplingto error mac

tations, as shown in perpotentiality the Appendix), rather

process, which cognitive

those experienced in the

schema incompatibility emerge.4 Quantitatively speaking, the coordi-

many issues orandhierarchical its relevance to human existentialism. How-

subspaces (a plane Figure 5a. In this figureby

|p,> lPj> |P>

Probability wave representation of a Probability wave representation of a

"•X. " (d,

of occurrence cretely, for complex

complexity is in part Barsalou, created

Dinh, J. ing backward:

Dourish, P., & Mazmanian, M. 2013. Media as material: Infor-

Ibarra, H., & Barbulescu, R. 2010. Identity as narrative: Prev-

Read, S. J., Monroe, foresight:

Robert G. Lord (robert.lord@durham.ac.uk) is a professor of leadership at Durham

Jessica E. Dinh (jessica.dinh@durham.ac.uk) is a postdoctoral researcher at Durham

Ernest L. Hoffman (elh2@zips.uakron.edu) is a doctoral candidate studying industrial-

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