Project H.O.P.E. Anaphy Lecture 6-7-10 11 and 16

Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathology LECTURE # 6, 7,
Dumangon, Junelle || November 2022

10, 11, and 16
Transcriber/s: Joseph Daniel Langres – 2MT02
Candice Rallaine Leonardo - 2MT02
Hannah Toledo – 2MT04
April Donna Jamero – 2MT02
Alaiza Esporsado – 2MT02
Disclaimer IX. Skeletal Anatomy Overview

This trans is a property of Project HOPE. i. Bone Shapes
ii. Skeletal Terminology
This is only intended to serve as a guide for you as you study iii. Bones in Adult Human Skeleton
this lesson. Please refer to the book for a more thorough X. Axial Skeleton
discussion. i. Skull
ii. Hyoid Bone
The content provided in this trans are solely for educational iii. Vertebral Column
purposes only and cannot be sold, reproduced or distributed iv. Thoracic Cage
without Project HOPE's written consent. XI. Appendicular Skeleton
i. Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb
In the event of unauthorized selling, reproduction or ii. Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb
distribution, Project HOPE reserves the right to seek all XII. Joints
remedies available by law and in equity for such violations. i. Fibrous Joints
ii. Cartilaginous Joints
iii. Synovial Joints
iv. Types of Movement
SKELETAL SYSTEM:
BONES AND JOINTS
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
COMPONENTS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
TOPIC OUTLINE
● Bones
I. Functions of the Skeletal System
o framework of the body
II. Bone Histology
● Cartilages
i. Bone Matrix
○ reduce friction and serves as model/precursor
ii. Bone Cells
for bone formation
a. Osteoblasts
● Tendons
b. Osteocytes
○ attach bone to muscle
c. Osteoclasts
● Ligaments
iii. Spongy and Compact Bone
○ attach bone to bone
III. Bone Anatomy
i. Structure of a Long Bone
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
IV. Bone Development
● Body support
i. Intramembranous Ossification
○ Responsible for bearing weight and
ii. Endochondral Ossification
is the major supporting tissue of
V. Bone Growth
the body
i. Growth in Bone Length
○ Ligaments – strong bands of
VI. Bone Remodeling
fibrous connective tissue,
VII. Bone Repair
hold bones together.
VIII. Calcium Homeostasis
● Organ protection
i. Parathyroid Hormone
○ bone is hard and protects the organ
ii. Calcitriol
it surrounds
iii. Calcitonin
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TRINITY UNIVERSITY OF ASIA – COLLEGE OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
PROJECT HARMONY AND OPPORTUNITY THROUGH PERSEVERANCE AND EXCELLENCE
Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathology Lecture 6, 7, 10, 11, and 16
○ e.g., skull encloses and o Also called osteogenesis

OSTEOCYTES o The formation of new bone by osteoblasts
protects the brain, and the
vertebrae surround the spinal  Osteocytes
o form once the osteoblasts have secreted sufficient
cord
bone matrix
● Body movement o Lacunae – spaces that house osteocyte cells within
○ contraction of the skeletal muscles the bone matrix
move the bones, producing body o Canaliculi – the cell extensions of the lacunae
movement
● Mineral storage OSTEOCLASTS
○ some minerals in the blood are
stored in bone  Osteoclasts
○ calcium and phosphate o are bone-destroying cells
● Blood cell production
 Bone resorption
○ many bones contain cavities filled
o breakdown of bone
with red bone marrow, which o we use the term reabsorption because our point
produces blood cells and platelets reference is the bloodstream
BONE HISTOLOGY  Ruffled border

● Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of the skeletal o Is a specialized reabsorption-specific area of the
system are all connective tissues membrane
● The composition of each tissue’s matrix is responsible
 As bone is broken down, the Ca2+ goes into the blood
for its characteristics
○ e.g., collagen provides flexibility but resists SPONGY AND COMPACT BONE
pulling or compression
● The matrix ground substance consists of molecules  Lamellar Bone
called proteoglycans o Mature bone
○ proteoglycans are water-trapping proteins,
which helps cartilage be smooth and resilient  Lamella
o concentric sheets or layers the lamellar bone is
organized into
BONE MATRIX
 Is about 35% organic and 65% inorganic material by
 Spongy Bone
weight o Consists of interconnecting rods or plates of bone
 The organic material consists primarily of collagen and called trabeculae
proteoglycans o Between the trabeculae are spaces, which in life
 The inorganic material consists primarily of a calcium are filled with bone marrow and blood vessels
o The surfaces of trabeculae are covered with a
phosphate crystal called hydroxyapatite
single layer of cell consisting of osteoblasts with a
o Makes the bones hard and strong
few osteoclasts.
o No osteons
BONE CELLS
 Compact Bone
OSTEOBLASTS o or cortical bone, is the solid, outer layer
● Osteoblasts surrounding each bone
o The functional unit of compact bone is an
o Are bone-building cells
osteon.
o Are responsible for the formation of bone and
the repair and remodeling of bone
o Osteoblasts produce collagen, proteoglycans, and
hydroxyapatite
Note: An osteon is composed of concentric rings of matrix
 Ossification
surrounding a central canal
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○ concentric sheets or layers Epiphy

BONE ANATOMY ○ th
● Bone formation in the fetus follows two processes:
Intramembranous ossification and endochondral
STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
ossification
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION
 A long bone is the traditional model for overall bone
● Many skull bones, part of the mandible (lower jaw),
structure
 Diaphysis and the diaphyses of the clavicles (collar bones)
o The center portion of the bone develop by intramembranous ossification
o Composed primarily of compact bone tissue, ● Centers of ossification
surrounding a hollow center called the medullary ○ the locations in the membrane where
cavity. intramembranous begins
● Fontanels
 Epiphyses
○ or soft spots, are the larger, membrane-
o The ends of a long bone
covered spaces between the developing skull
 Articular cartilage bones that have not yet been ossified
o Within joints, hyaline cartilage that covers the end of a
long bone STEPS IN INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION
 Osteoblasts within the center Osteoblasts within the
 Epiphyseal plate  Osteoblasts within the center of ossification begin
o Or growth plate, is located between the epiphysis and producing bone matrix that will surround the collagen
the diaphysis fibers of the existing connective tissue membrane. Once
the osteoblasts are embedded in the bone matrix, the
 Epiphyseal line osteoblasts become osteocytes. Many tiny trabeculae of
o When bone stops growing in length, the epiphyseal woven bone develop
plate becomes ossified  Additional osteoblasts gather on the surfaces of the
trabeculae and produce more bone causing trabeculae
 Red marrow  Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the
o Is the site of blood cell formation Chondroblasts become chondrocytes
 Cartilage model calcifies
 Yellow marrow
 Osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate into the calcified
o Is mostly adipose tissue
cartilage area from the periosteum. Primary
o In the fetus, the spaces within bones are filled with red
ossification center forms as osteoblasts produce bone
marrow. The conversion of red marrow to yellow
on the surface of the calcified cartilage
marrow begins just before birth and continues well into
 Secondary ossification centers are created in the
adulthood
epiphyses by osteoblasts that migrate into the
epiphysis.
 Periosteum
 In mature bone, spongy and compact bone are fully
o Is a connective tissue membrane covering the outer
developed
surface of a bone
 Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, th
 Endosteum
o Is a single layer of connective tissue that lines the ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
internal surfaces of all cavities within bones ● formation of cartilage begins at approximately the end
o such as the medullary cavity of the diaphysis and the of the fourth week of embryonic
smaller cavities in spongy bone ● Endochondral ossification of some of this cartilage
starts at approximately the eighth week of embryonic
BONE DEVELOPMENT development
● but this process might not begin in other cartilage until
as late as 18-20 years of age
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centers appear in the

epiphyses
5 years to 12 years in Ossification is spreading

females, 5 to 14 years in rapidly from the
males ossification centers and
various bones are
becoming ossified
17 to 20 years Bone of the upper limbs

and scapulae becoming
completely ossified
GROWTH IN BONE LENGTH
18 to 23 years Bone of the lower limbs
BONE GROWTH
and os coxas become
completely ossified
● also called endochondral growth 23 to 25 years Bone of the sternum,

● Long bones increase in length because of growth at clavicles, and vertebrae
become completely ossified
the epiphyseal plate
● Long bones grow by creating new cartilage in the By 25 years Nearly all bones are
epiphyseal plate completely ossified
● The epiphyseal plate is organized into five zones
○ the zone of resting cartilage is nearest the
epiphysis and contains slowly dividing
BONE REMODELING
chondrocytes
● a process where the bone that becomes old is replaced
○ the chondrocytes in the zone of proliferation
with new bone
produce new cartilage by dividing and forming
● In this process, osteoclasts remove old bone and
columns resembling stacks of plates or coins
osteoblasts deposit new bone
○ in the zone of hypertrophy, the chondrocytes
● has several important functions, including bone
produced in the zone of proliferation mature
growth, changes in bone shape, adjustment of the
and enlarge
bone to stress, bone repair, and calcium ion regulation
○ the zone of calcification is very thin and
in the body
contains hypertrophied chondrocytes and
calcified cartilage matrix
BONE REPAIR
○ The osteoblasts line up on the surface of the
calcified cartilage and deposit new bone matrix,
which is later remodeled.
TIMETABLE FOR HUMAN OSSIFICATION
Time period Bones affected

STEPS IN BONE REPAIR
Third month of embryonic ossification in long bones ● Hematoma formation
development beginning
○ a hematoma is a localized mass of blood
Fourth month Most primary ossification released from blood vessels but confined within
centers have appeared in an organ or a space
the diaphysis of bone ● Callus formation
○ a callus is a mass of bone tissue that forms at a
Birth to 5 years Secondary ossification
fracture site
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● Callus ossification
○ the cartilage in the callus is replaced by spongy
bone through endochondral ossification
● Bone remodeling
○ the new bone of the callus and the dead bone
adjacent to the fracture site have been
replaced by compact bone
CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
● Calcium
○ A critical physiological regulator of many
processes required to achieve and maintain
homeostasis
○ Stimulation of skeletal muscle
contraction
● Calcium moves into bones as osteoblasts build a new
○ Stimulation and regulation of cardiac
bone
muscle contraction
● Calcium moves out of bones as osteoclasts break down
○ Exocytosis of cellular molecules,
bone
including those important for neural
● Calcium homeostasis is maintained by parathyroid
signaling
hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
● Bone is a major storage site for calcium
PARATHYROID HORMONE
● Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps
● Secreted by the parathyroid gland and is essential for
determine blood levels of calcium
the maintenance of blood Ca²ᐩ levels within the
homeostasis limits
DIRECT EFFECTS OF PTH
● Bone cells
○ Increases blood Ca²ᐩ levels by exerting direct
regulatory control of osteoblasts and
osteocytes to increase formation and
activation of osteoclasts, the principal of bone-
reabsorbing cells
● Kidney cells
○ Stimulates reabsorption of Ca²ᐩ from urine in
the kidney, which reduces the amount of Ca²ᐩ
excreted in the urine
INDIRECT EFFECTS OF PTH IN THE SMALL INTESTINE

● Indirectly increases Ca²ᐩ uptake from the small
intestine through the activation of calcitriol
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CALCITRIOL SKELETAL TERMINOLOGY

● Calcitriol increases blood Ca²ᐩ levels ● Foramen
● A steroid hormone derived from vitamin D o hole
● PTH stimulates calcitriol activation in the kidney, which o ex. foramen magnum
contributes to PTH-induced increases in blood Ca²ᐩ ● Fossa
levels o depression
● Calcitriol assists PTH in the kidneys tubules by o ex. glenoid forn
preventing Ca²ᐩ removal through urine ● Process
o projection
CALCITONIN o ex. mastoid process
● Secreted from C cells in the thyroid gland when blood ● Condyle
Ca²ᐩ levels are too high o smooth, rounded end
● Rapidly lowers blood Ca² levels by inhibiting osteoclast o ex. occipital condyle
activity ● Meatus or canal
o canal-like passageway
SKELETAL ANATOMY OVERVIEW o ex. external auditory
● The average adult has 206 bones. ● Tubercle or tuberosity
● Bones are classified into the axial skeleton and the o lump of bone
appendicular skeleton. o ex. greater tubercle
● The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the skull,
the auditory ossicles, the hyoid bone, the vertebral BONES IN ADULT HUMAN SKELETON
column, and the thoracic cage. ● AXIAL SKELETON (80)
● The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the SKULL (22)
upper limbs, the lower limbs, and the two girdles. The Cranial bones (8)
term girdle, refers to the two zones where the limbs Paired Parietal 2
are attached to the body. Temporal 2
● These two zones are the pectoral girdle and the pelvic Unpaired Frontal 1
girdle Occipital 1
Sphenoid 1
BONE SHAPES Ethmoid 1
● Long bones Facial bones (14)
○ Are longer than they are wide; examples are Paired Maxilla 2
upper and lower limb bones. Zygomatic 2
○ long bones enhance their function in the Palatine 2
movement of appendages Nasal 2
● Short bones Lacrimal 2
o Are approximately as wide as they are long; Inferior nasal concha 2
examples are the bones of the wrist and ankle. Unpaired Mandible 1
o help transfer force between long bones Vomer 1
● Flat bones BONES ASSOCIATED WITH THE SKULL (7)
○ have a relatively thin, flattened shape; Auditory ossicles (6)
examples are bones of the skull and sternum Malleus 2
○ provide a strong barrier around soft organs Incus 2
such as the brain and heart Stape 2
● Irregular bones Hyoid (1) 1
o Include the vertebrae and facial bones, which VERTEBRAL COLUMN (26)
have shapes that do not fit readily into the Cervical vertebrae 7
other three categories. Thoracic vertebrae 12
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Lumbar vertebrae 5 ● It protects the brain, the spinal cord, and the vital
Sacrum 1 organs housed within the thorax.
Coccyx 1 SKULL
THORACIC CAGE (25)
Ribs 24 The skull consists of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones, a total
Sternum 1 of 22 bones.
● APPENDICULAR SKELETON (126)
PECTORAL GIRDLE (4) House and protect the brain.
Scapula 2
Clavicle 2 ● The cranial bones are connected by immovable joints called
UPPER LIMB (60) sutures.
Humerus 2 ● There are four principal sutures: (a) coronal, (b) sagittal, (c)
Ulna 2 lambdoid, and (d) squamous.
Radius 2
Carpal bones 16  Coronal- located in between the frontal and parietal
Metacarpal bones 10 bones of the skull.
Phalanges 28  Sagittal- a dense, fibrous connective tissue joint
PELVIC GIRDLE (2) between the two parietal bones of the skull.
Hip bone 2  Lambdoid - fibrous connective tissue joint on the
LOWER LIMB (2) posterior aspect of the skull that connects the parietal
Femur 2 bones with the occipital bone.
Tibia 2  Squamous - a paired bilateral cranial suture that
Fibula 2 connects the temporal and parietal bones.
Patella 2
Tarsal bones 14
Metatarsal 10
Phalanges 28
Calvaria – The top of the skull and is often removed to view the
interior or the skull.
CRANIAL BONES
The 8 bones of the cranium include (a) The frontal bone, (b) The
two parietal bones, (c) The two temporal bones, (d) The
occipital bone, (e) The Sphenoid, and (f) The ethmoid bone
AXIAL SKELETON
● The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body.
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a. Frontal bone  The tympanic part of the temporal bone has a

prominent external auditory canal, which transmits
o Is connected to the two parietal bones by the coronal sound waves toward the eardrum, or tympanic
structure. membrane.
o The frontal bone is most well-known as the “forehead”.
o It forms the roof of both the orbit of the eye and the nasal c. Petrous part
cavity.
o The superior border of each of the orbits contains a  The petrous part of the temporal bone extends inward
supraorbital foramen or notch. toward the center of the skull.
o The frontal bone also contains the frontal sinus, one of  The petrous part is a thick, bony ridge, is hollow, and
the paranasal sinuses. Internally, the frontal bone forms houses the middle and inner ears.
the anterior cranial fossa, which supports the lobes of the
brain. Internal auditory canal – is located on the posterior surface of
the petrous and is opening for a nerve controlling hearing and
Glabella- between the two orbits. balance.
b. Parietal Bone Mastoid process – This is a large, bony inferior projection that
can be seen and felt just posterior to the middle ear.
 The paired parietal bones form nearly half of the
superior portion of the skull. Mastoiditis – a bacterial infection that has an effect on the
 The two parietal bones are joined by the sagittal suture mastoid bone
and are connected to the occipital bone by the
lambdoid suture. Styloid process
 The parietal bones make up the majority of the lateral
 Projects from the lower portion of the petrous part of
portion of the skull.
the temporal bone.
c. Temporal Bone  Serves as an attachment site for three muscles
necessary for the movement of the tongue, hyoid
 The temporal bone is connected to the skull by the bone, and pharynx.
squamous sutures.
 The term temporal means “related to time”. Stylomastoid foramen
 The temporal bone is subdivided into three main
 Is located between the styloid process and mastoid
regions: (a) the squamous part, (b) the tympanic part,
process and allows for the passage of nerve-controlling
and (c) the petrous part.
facial muscles.
a. Squamous part  There are three additional important foramina on the
inferior side of the petrous part (a) jugular foramina,
 The squamous part of each temporal bone meets the (b) carotid canal, and (c) foramen lacerum.
parietal bone.
a. Jugular foramina – allow the jugular veins to carry the
Zygomatic process – extends from the squamous part anteriorly majority of the blood away from the brain.
toward the zygomatic bone of the face.
b. Carotid canal – the major entry point for blood delivery to the
Zygomatic arch - A bridge across the side of the skull. brain.
Mandibular fossa – The attachment site of the mandible. c. Foramen lacerum – an easily noticeable opening in a dried
skull at the border of the petrous part and the sphenoid bone.
b. Tympanic part
d. Occipital Bone
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 Makes up the majority of the skull’s posterior wall and Three additional paired foramina are located on either side of
base. the sella turcica: (a) the foramen rotundum, (b) the foramen
 Its most prominent feature is the foramen magnum. ovale, and (c) the foramen spinosum.
Foramen magnum – the opening where the brainstem connects

 These foramina are passageways for blood vessels and
to the spinal cord.
nerves that service the brain as well as the meninges,
protective membranes that surround the brain.
Posterior cranial fossae – support the cerebellum of the brain.
The lateral portions of the sphenoid bone: (a) form the floor of
Occipital condyles – are the points of articulation between the
the middle cranial fossa, (b) is a part of the lateral skull wall, and
skull and the first cervical vertebra. Also, this articulation allows
(c) form the posterior wall of the orbits.
us to do nodding “yes”.
Superior orbital fissure
Nuchal lines – points of attachment for several neck muscles
that move the head.
 Where cranial nerves controlling eye movement enter
the orbit.
e. Sphenoid Bone
f. Ethmoid Bone
 Although appearing to be two bones, one on each side
of the skull anterior to the temporal bone.
 Appropriately named because it is a very porous, fragile
 Is a single bone that extends completely across the bone.
skull.
 Also resembles a butterfly. Nasal septum – a large portion of the nasal cavity, as well as the
medial wall of the orbits.
Sella turcica – surrounds and protects the pituitary gland.
Ethmoidal sinuses – sinuses within the ethmoid bone.
 Within the body of the sphenoid bone are the
sphenoidal sinuses. Crista galli – is a prominent ridge of the ethmoid bone. Also, it is
an attachment site for the meninges of the brain.
Optic Canal- is located on each side of the sphenoid bone just
anterior to the sella turcica. Also, the optic canal is the Cribriform plates – each of which houses one of the two
passageway for the optic nerve to enter the brain from the eyes. olfactory bulbs that transmit signals for the sense of smell from
the nasal cavity to the brain.
Olfactory foramina – allow olfactory nerves to enter the nasal

cavity.
Perpendicular plate- a central, tiny bone plate in the ethmoid

bone.
Nasal Septum – divides the nasal cavity into right and left
halves.
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Conchae- two scroll-shaped bones. the pair of palatine bones, (7 and 8) the pair of lacrimal bones,
(9 and 10) the pair of nasal bones, (11) mandible, (12) the vomer
bone, and (13 and 14) the pair of inferior nasal conchae.
Zygomatic Bones
 Commonly known as the cheekbones, are anterior to

the sphenoid bone.
 They form part of the border of the orbits.
 Zygomatic process of the temporal bone to form the
zygomatic arch.
Maxillae
 Is anterior and inferior to the zygomatic bones, and the

two maxillae are fused in the center.
 The maxillae are two of the three jaw bones, and form
(a) the upper jaw, (b) the majority of the roof of the
Specialized regions in the skull
Paranasal sinuses
 The maxilla is called the paranasal sinuses.

 Are the openings within particular bones that open into
the nasal cavity.
ORBITS
 are cone-shaped fossae mouth, and (c) the center portion of the face.
 They are called orbits because they allow the eyes to  Each of the two maxillary bones has a palatine process.
rotate within the fossae.  These join medially to form the anterior two-thirds of
the hard palate or the roof of the mouth.
Nasolacrimal canal
Incisive foramen – is located just posterior to the front teeth
 Carrying tears from the eyes to the nasal cavity. and allows passage of blood vessels and nerves.
Nasal cavity Infraorbital foramen – passage of a facial nerve and artery.
 A rounded opening anteriorly and is separated into Inferior orbital fissure – This fissure allows the passage of
right and left halves by the nasal septum. several nerves and blood vessels to the face.
 The only visible portions of the external nose of the
dried skull are (a) the two nasal bones and (b) the Palatine Bone
maxilla.
 Have horizontal plates that fuse centrally to form the
Facial Bones posterior portion of the hard palate.
The 14 facial bones of the skull include (1 and 2) the pair of Lacrimal Bone
zygomatic bones, (3 and 4) the pair of maxilla bones, (5 and 6)
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 The smallest of the skull bones and houses the General features of the vertebrae
depression through which the nasolacrimal duct enters
the nasolacrimal canal. Vertebral body – the sold bony disk of each vertebra, supports
the body’s weight.
Nasal Bone
Vertebral arch – protects the spinal cord.
 Along with the frontal processes of the maxillae. Form
the bridge of the nose. Vertebral foramen – is occupied by the spinal cord in a living
person.
Mandible
Vertebral canal – contains the entire spinal cord and cauda
 Is the only skull bone that is freely movable relative to equine.
the other skull bones.
 It is inferior to the maxillae and attaches posteriorly to Pedicle – attach to the body.
the temporal bone via the mandibular fossae.
Lamina – forms the posterior portion of the vertebral foramen.
Vomer
Transverse process – extends laterally from each side of the
 Forms of the posterior portion of the nasal septum. arch between the lamina and the pedicle.
Spinous process – the junction between the two laminae.
Intervertebral foramina – are the locations where two

vertebrae meet.
Intervertebral notches – the pedicles of adjacent vertebrae.
Hyoid Bone
● Is important for speech and swallowing.

● Hyoid bone has the unique distinction of being the only
bone in the body not attached to another bone.
● It has no direct bony attachment to the skull, instead,
muscles and ligaments attach it to the skull.
Vertebral column
● Vertebral column performs five major functions: (a) it

supports the weight of the head and trunk, (b) it
Regional differences in vertebrae
protects the spinal cord, (c) it allows spinal nerves to
exit the spinal cord, (d) it provides a site for muscle Cervical vertebrae
attachment, and (e) it permits movement of the head
and trunk.  Are located in the vertebral column region with the
● The vertebral column usually consists of 26 bones, greatest range of motion.
called vertebrae, which can be divided into five regions:  These vertebrae support and move the head
(a) 7 cervical vertebrae, (b) 12 thoracic vertebrae, (c) 5  It is unique in that the transverse processes have
lumbar vertebrae, (d) 1 sacral bone, and (e) 1 transverse foramina through which the vertebral
coccygeal. arteries extend toward the head.
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Note: Atlas – came from the Greek mythology character “Atlas”  It can be formed from three to five semi-fused
who held the world (the head) on his shoulders. Also, the atlas vertebrae
is the C1.
Axis – allows the head to rotate and it is C2.
Thoracic Cage
 Commonly known as rib cage.

 Protects the heart and lungs within the thorax.
True ribs – directly connect in the sternum.
False ribs – They are not directly attached to the sternum.
Floating ribs – They are not attached to the sternum.
Sternum – or also known as the breastbone.

Thoracic Vertebrae
 Support the thoracic cage, which houses and protects

the heart and lungs.
 Have the longest spinous processes, which project
inferiorly.
Lumbar Vertebrae
 Support the majority of the body’s weight.
Sacrum
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 Is located between the two hip bones.
 It is formed from five separate sacral vertebrae that  The appendicular skeleton allows movement of our
begin to fuse during adolescence, resulting in a solid appendages and supports our weight in an upright
bony plate by the mid- 20s. position
Coccyx Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb
 Is commonly referred to as the tailbone.  The pectoral girdle consists of two pairs of bones that
 It is the terminal portion of the vertebral column. attach each of the upper limbs to the body.
Scapula – commonly known as the shoulder blade. Also, it is a

flat, triangular bone that can easily be seen and felt in a living
person.
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Clavicle – commonly known as the collarbone. Trochlea - Humerus articulates with the ulna.
Acromion – the tip of the shoulder. Olecranon fossa – which accommodates a portion of the ulna
that is easily felt as the point of the elbow.
Scapular spine – extends from the acromion process across the
posterior and provides attachments for some shoulder and arm  Forearm: Ulna and Radius
muscles.
Ulna – is the medial, the same side as the little finger.
Glenoid – located in the superior lateral portion of the bone,
articulates with the head of the humerus. Radius – is the lateral, the same side as the thumb.
Arm: Humerus
Wrists: Carpals
 The wrist is a relatively short region between the

forearm and the hand
Anatomical neck – immediately distal to the head, is almost

nonexistent
Note: To remember the carpal bones, here are some
Surgical neck – it is a common fracture site that often requires mnemonics to help you.
surgeries.
Straight Line To Pinky, Here Comes The Thumb.
Deltoid tuberosity – the site of attachment of the deltoid
muscle.  S- Scaphoid
 L – lunate
Capitulum – Humerus articulates with the radius.
 T- Triquetrum
Page 13 | 62
 P – Pisiform
 H – Hamate
 T- Trapezoid
 T- Trapezium
 Hand: Metacarpals and phalanges

 Five metacarpal bones are attached to the carpal
bones and make up the central portion of the hand.
 They have numbered up the one to five, starting with
the most lateral metacarpal bone, at the base of the
thumb.
Phalanges – small long bones.
Lower limb
 Includes the thigh (femur), which is the largest bone in

the body.
 Leg (Tibia and Fibula).
 Ankle (7 tarsal bones).
 Foot (metatarsal and phalanges, similar to the bones
of hands).
Pelvic Girdle
 Is made up of 2 hip bones.

 Each bone consists of an ilium, an ischium, and a pubis.
 The hip bones, sacrum, and coccyx from the pelvis.
Page 14 | 62
● or articulations are commonly named according to the

bones or portions of bones that join together.
Fibrous joint – consists of bones united by fibrous connective

tissue and allows little or no movement.
Sutures- are fibrous joints between the bones of the skull.
Syndesmoses – fibrous joints in which the bones are separated

by some distance and held together by ligaments.
Gomphoses – consist of pegs fitted into sockets and held in

place by ligaments.
Cartilaginous Joints – consist of bones united by the cartilage,

they exhibit slight movement.
Synovial joints – contain synovial fluid and allow considerable

movement between articulating bones.
Type of Movement
Flexion – bending movement that decrease the angle of the

joint to bring the articulating bones closer together.
Extension – a straightening movement that increase the angle

of the joint to extend the articulating bones.
Hyperextension – usually defines as extension of a joint beyond

180 degrees.
Plantar flexion - standing on toes.
Dorsiflexion – walking on the heels.
Abduction – away from the median.
Adduction – movement toward the median plane.
Pronation – palm is down.
Supination – palm faced up.
Eversion – turning the foot so that the plantar surface faces

laterally.
Inversion – turning the foot so that the plantar surface faces

JOINTS medially.
Rotation – turning of a structure around its long axis.
Page 15 | 62
Circumduction – occurs at freely movable joints, such as

shoulder.
Protraction – glides anteriorly.
Retraction – Glides posteriorly.
Elevation – movement of a structure in a superior direction.
Depression - movement of a structure in an inferior direction.
Excursion - movement of a structure to one side.
Opposition – a movement unique to the thumb and little finger.
Reposition – returns the digits to the anatomical position.
Reference:
Regan, J., Russo, A., Vanputte, C., (2022). Seeley's Essentials

Anatomy & Physiology (11 ed). McGraw Hill LLC.
Page 16 | 62
VI. Muscle Fiber Types

i. Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers
MUSCULAR SYSTEM: ii. Fast- Twitch Muscle Fibers
iii. Distribution of Fast- Twitch and Slow- Twitch
TOPIC OUTLINE Muscle Fibers
I. Function of the muscular System iv. Effects of Exercise
II. General Properties of Muscle Tissue
i. Contractility VII. Energy Sources For Muscle Contraction
ii. Excitability i. Adenylate Kinase and Creatine Kinase
iii. Extensibility a. Adenylate Kinase
iv. Elasticity b. Creatine Kinase
ii. Anaerobic Respiration
III. Skeletal Muscle Anatomy iii. Aerobic Respiration
i. Whole Skeletal Muscle Anatomy iv. ATP Production as Exercise Progresses
a. Skeletal muscle v. Muscle Fatigue
ii. Connective tissue coverings a. Oxidative Stress
a. Epimysium b. Inflammation
b. Perimysium vi. Muscle Soreness
c. Endomysium vii. Oxygen Deficit and Excess Postexercise Oxygen
iii. Skeletal Muscle Fiber Anatomy Consumption
a. Histology of Muscle Fibers
iv. Electrical Component Structures VIII. Smooth Muscle and Cardiac Muscle
a. Sarcolemma
b. Transverse tubules or T tubules IX. General Principles of Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
c. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum i. Muscles Names
v. Mechanical Component Structure
a. Myofibrils X. Muscles of the Head and Neck
b. Sarcomeres i. Facial Expression
vi. Actin and Myosin Myofilament Structure ii. Mastication
vii. Myosin Myofilaments iii. Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
viii. Sliding Filament Model iv. Neck Muscles
IV. Skeletal Muscle Fiber Physiology XI. Trunk Muscle

i. Excitability of Muscle Fibers i. Vertebral Column Muscles
ii. Action Potentials ii. Thoracic Muscles
iii. Muscle Contraction iii. Abdominal Wall Muscles
iv. Cross- Bridge Movement iv. Pelvic Diaphragm and Perineal Muscles
v. Muscle Relaxation
XII. Upper Limb Muscles
V. Whole Skeletal Muscle Physiology i. Scapular Movements
i. The Muscle Twitch ii. Arm Movements
a. Phases of a twitch iii. Forearm Movements
b. Type of Muscle contraction iv. Supination and Pronation
c. Monitor Units v. Wrist and Finger Movements
ii. Force of Contraction in Individual Muscle Fibers
iii. Contraction in Whole Muscles XIII. Lower Limb Movements
a. Muscle tone i. Leg Movements
b. Types of Isotonic and Isometric Contractions ii. Ankle Toe Movements
Page 17 | 62
○ Muscle shortening is forceful and

FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM muscle lengthening is passive.
Ex: Gravity pulling on a limb and the pressure of fluid in
1. Movement of the body a hollow organ such as urine in the bladder.
2. Maintenance of posture 2. Excitability
3. Respiration ● is the capacity of muscle to respond to
4. Production of body heat stimulus
5. Communication 3. Extensibility
6. Constriction of organs and vessels ● means that a muscle can be stretched beyond
7. Contraction of the heart its normal resting length
4. Elasticity
● is the ability of a muscle to recoil to its original
resting length after it has been stretched
SKELETAL MUSCLE ANATOMY

Whole Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
Skeletal Muscle
● constitutes approximately 40% of body weight
● many of the muscles are attached to the skeletal
system
○ some are attached to skin or connective tissue
sheets (striated muscle)
○ Individual Skeletal Muscles: biceps, brachii, are
complete organs
● Each muscle cells is called a muscle fiber
Connective Tissue Coverings
The layers of skeletal muscle’s connective tissue:
1. Epimysium
● forms a connective tissue sheath that
surrounds each skeletal muscle
● gradually merges with a layer of connective
tissue between adjacent muscles and
connecting the skin to superficial muscles
○ separates the muscles from nearby
sturctures
2. Perimysium
● subdivides each whole muscle into numerous
bundles of muscle fibers called fascicles
● loose connective tissues serving passageways
for blood vessels and nerves that supply each
fascicle
3. Endomysium
● delicate layer of connective tissue that
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE TISSUE separates the individual muscle fibers within
each fascicle
1. Contractility ● innermost layer
● is the ability of the muscle to shorten ● serving passageways for blood vessels and
forcefully (contract) nerves that supply each separate muscle fiber
Page 18 | 62
The protein fibers of these 3 merges at the end of most muscles

to form tendons which attach muscle to bone. Skeletal Muscle Contraction | Concise Medical Knowledge.
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Anatomy (2022). Retrieved 18 November 2022, from
● unique cells that contain hundred of nuclei just under https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/skeletal-muscle-
the cell membrane contraction/
● muscle fibers range: from 1 mm to 4 cm in length Figure 7.2
though some skeletal fibers are as much as 30 cm (1
foot)
○ large muscle = large-diameter muscle fibers
○ small, delicate muscles = many small diameter
muscle fibers
○ light and dark bands give the muscle fiber a
striated or striped appearance
● # of muscle fibers remain relatively constant after birth
○ Enlargement of muscles = increase in the size
Mechanical Component Structures
of muscle fibers
1. Myofibrils
Histology of Muscle Fibers
● bundles of protein filaments
2 main aspects to muscle contractions:
● can be found in its sarcoplasm
1. Electrical Component
● long thread-like structure, extend the entire
2. Mechanical Component
length of the muscle fiber
● The parts of a skeletal muscle fiber can be
● diameter is ⅙ that of a human hair
categorized based on their specific role in
● it is the protein filaments in the myofibrils that
muscle contraction
interact to shorten the muscle fiber during
Electrical Component Structures
contraction
1. Sarcolemma
2. Myofilaments
● cell membrane of muscle fibers
a. Actin Myofilaments (thin)
● transmits electrical impulses to the interior of
b. Myosin Myofilaments (thick)
the muscle fiber
● they are arranged into highly ordered units
2. Transverse tubules (T tubules)
called sarcomeres
● sarcolemma forms t tubules by projecting and
○ structural and functional units of
extending into the interior of the muscle fiber
skeletal muscles
● carry electrical impulses into the center of the
○ the myofilaments in the sarcomere
muscle fiber for contraction
provide the mechanical aspect of
muscle contraction
3. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Sarcomere
● highly specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum in
● joins end to end forming the myofibrils
skeletal muscle fibers that store high levels of Ca2+
● smallest portions of the muscle that can contract
○ release of Ca2+ from it is a “switch” for muscle
● has a precise boundary
contraction
● T tubules lie next to enlarged portions of the sarcoplasmic
Z disks
reticulum called terminal. cisternae
● forms a stationary anchor for actin
○ two terminal cisternae and their associated t
myofilaments
tubule form a critical muscle structure for muscle
● one sarcomere extends frome one z disk to
contraction called a triad.
the next z disk
● also contains numerous mitochondria as wells as energy-
storing glycogen granules
It is the arrangement of the actin and myosin
● together these organelles constitute the cytoplasm called
myofilaments within sarcomeres that gives skeletal muscles its
the sarcoplasm in muscle fibers
striated appearance.
Page 19 | 62
2 REGIONS tropomyosin from uncovering the

1. I bands actin attachments site in a relaxed
a. two lighter staining regions muscle, and © binds Ca2+
The relationship between troponin and tropomyosin
● contain only actin filaments thus appear lighter in determines when the skeletal muscle will contract.
staining Myosin Myofilaments
2. A band ● composed of many elongated myosin molecules
a. central darker-staining region shaped like golf clubs
● contains both actin and myosin myofilaments, except in ○ Consist of a rod portion lying parallel to the
the center of the A band myosin filament and 2 myosin heads that
● has a smaller band called the H zone extend laterally.
○ contains only myosin o Myosin head 3 important properties
○ middle of the H zone is a dark line called M ● The head binds to active sites on the
line actin molecules to form cross-bridges
■ contains delicate protein filaments to contract the muscle
that hold the myosin filaments in ● The heads are attached to the rod
place portion by a hinge region that bends
and straightens during contraction
● The heads break down ATP releasing
energy
○ part of the energy is used to
bend the hinge region of the
myosin during molecular
contraction
Neuromuscular Junction Structure
The motor neurons carry electrical signals called action
potentials in the muscle fiber, followed by muscle contraction.
The point of contact of motor neuron axon branches with the
muscle fiber is called the neuromuscular junction, or synapse.
● Consists of a group of enlarged axon terminals
that rests on a portion of the sarcolemma.
○ axon terminals
o each axon terminal is called the
Actin and Myosin Myofilament Structure presynaptic terminal
Actin Myofilaments ● Space between presynaptic terminal
● contains 3 separate proteins: actin, tropomyosin, and and the muscle fiber is the synaptic
troponin cleft.
○ each actin has an attachment site for the ● each presynaptic terminal contains
myosin filaments during contraction numerous mitochondria and many
o receptor sites for the myosin head small, spherical sacs, called synaptic
1. Tropomyosin vesicles
● long, fibrous protein that lies in the groove ○ contains the neurotransmitter
along the fibrous actin strand acetylcholine
● a muscle cannot contract until the ○ the area of the muscle fiber sarcolemma
tropomyosin moves to uncover the active sites they innervate
● relaxed muscle = tropomyosin covering it ○ the muscle cell membrane in the are of
2. Troponin the junction is called the motor end-plate,
● three subunits: (a) anchors the or the postsynaptic membrane
troponin to the actin, (b) prevent the
Page 20 | 62
● A neurotransmitter is a molecule that allows a Excitability of Muscle Fibers

neuron to communicate with its target  Action potentials travel from the brain or spinal cord along
○ released from the presynaptic cleft and the axons to muscle fibers and cause them to contract.
diffuses across the synaptic cleft to alter Electrically excitable cells, like other cells, are polarized.
the activity of the muscle fiber That is, the inside of most cell membranes is negatively
○ Can stimulate the production of an action
potential in the motor end-plate by
binding it to ligand-gated ion channels.
Sliding Filament Model

● primary function of skeletal muscle cells is to
generate force by contracting or shortening
● the parallel arrangement of myofilaments in
the sarcomere allows them to interact which
causes muscle contraction
○ described by the sliding filament
model
charged compared with the outside. Thus, a voltage
difference, or electrical charge difference, exists across each
cell membrane. This charge difference across the cell
membrane of an unstimulated cell is called the resting
membrane potential.
Oscilloscope
● a device that is able to measure the resting potential in
skeletal muscle.
○ the recording electrode is inside the plasma
membrane, and the reference electrode is
outside
Ion Channels
Phospholipid bilayer interior
SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER PHYSIOLOGY ● hydrophobic environment which inhibits the
movement of charged particles particularly ions, across
Page 21 | 62
the cell membrane; however, the basis of the electrical ● Open Na+ channels allow Na+ ions to diffuse into the
properties of skeletal muscle cells is the movement of cell. This inward movement of positive charge makes
ions across the cell membrane the membrane potential more positive (less negative)
● Two types: Leak and Gated
○ they contribute to the electrical properties of
both a resting cell and a stimulated cell
○ Leak: allow for the slow leak of ions down
their concentration gradient The Function of the Neuromuscular Junction
o specific for a particular ion Each muscle fiber is innervated by a branch of a motor
o in resting cells neuron at the neuromuscular junction. This point of contact
○ Gated: Most important in stimulated cells between the axon terminal and the sarcolemma results in an
o governs the production of action action potential in the muscle fiber.
potentials Muscle Contraction
The Resting Membrane Potential Action potentials produced in the sarcolemma of a
● the electrical charge difference in an unstimulated cell skeletal muscle fiber can lead to the contraction of the muscle
but neurons and muscle fibers contain specialized fiber. The contraction of the fiber is due to the second aspect of
components that allow them to utilize this charge muscle contraction, the mechanical component. The link
difference between the electrical and mechanical components occurs at
● more like a sprinter in starting blocks; ready to respond the triad.
at a moment’s notice
● The result of 3 factors:
○ The concentration of K+ inside the cell
membrane is higher than the outside the cell
membrane
○ The concentration of Na+ outside the cell
membrane is higher than the inside the cell
membrane
○ The cell membrane is more permeable to K+
than to Na}
Action Potentials
● occurs when the excitable cell is stimulated
● a reversal of the resting membrane potential such that
the inside of the cell membrane becomes positively
charged compared with the outside
○ occurs when a cell is stimulated
○ diffusion of ions through these channels
changes the charge across the cell membrane
and produces an action potential
● lasts from 1 millisecond to a few milliseconds and it has
2 phases: depolarization and repolarization
Repolarization
● The cell experiences a decrease of voltage due to the
efflux of potassium (K+) ions along its electrochemical
Cross-Bridge Movement
gradient. This phase occurs after the cell reaches its
● The mechanical component of muscle contraction is
highest voltage from depolarization.
called cross-bridge cycling. This rapid sequence of
● outside becomes more positive
events will cause the sarcomeres to shorten and the
Depolarization
muscle will contract.
Page 22 | 62
● The energy from one ATP molecule is required cross- Relaxation Phase
bridge cycle. Before each cycle, the myosin head is in ● Much longer than the contraction phase because the
its resting (high energy) position. concentration of Ca2+ in the sarcoplasm decreases
○ The movement of the myosin head is called slowly due to active transport into the SR.
the power stroke. (low energy position) Types of Muscle Contractions
○ The myosin head returning to its resting Isotonic contraction
position is called the recovery stroke. (high ● This type of contraction occurs when the force
energy position) generated by the muscle is greater than the constant
Muscle Relaxation load acting on the muscle.
● Occurs when acetylcholine is no longer released at the Isometric contraction
neuromuscular junction. ● Generates force without changing the length of the
○ lack of action potential →sarcolemma stops muscle, and no mechanical work is done since the
Ca2+ release from the SR → Ca2+ transported muscle does not shorten.
back to SR ● this type of contraction requires high amounts of
● As the Ca2+ concentration decreases in the sarcoplasm, energy because of the force generated by the muscle
the Ca2+ diffuses away from the troponin molecules ● this force is equal to the external load, thus the length
and tropomyosin again blocks the attachment sites on of the muscle does not change
the actin molecules. Summation is the amount of force in an individual muscle fiber.
↳cross bridges cannot reform and the muscle relaxes Recruitment is the amount of force in a whole muscle.
Thus energy is needed for both muscle contraction and Motor Units
relaxation. 3 ATP-dependent events are required for muscle Motor unit
relaxation: ● consists of a single motor neuron and all the muscle
➔ The sodium-potassium pump must actively transport fibers it innervates
Na+ out of the muscle fiber and K+ into the muscle ● an action potential in the neuron of a motor unit
fiber to return to and maintain resting membrane causes contraction of all the muscle fibers in the unit
potential. ● unique and vary in size and sensitivity to stimulus
➔ ATP is required to detach the myosin heads from the ● small=10 below muscle fiber large=100 up muscle
attachment sites for the recovery stroke. fibers
➔ ATP is needed for the active transport of Ca2+ into the Motor units in different muscles contain different numbers of
SR from the sarcoplasm. muscle fibers.
Many small units=precise control
WHOLE SKELETAL MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY Large units=coarse control
The Muscle Twitch Force of Contraction in Individual Muscle Fibers
● the response of a muscle fiber to a single action The strength of muscle contraction varies from weak to
potential along its motor neuron strong meaning muscles respond to stimuli in a graded fashion.
Phases of a Twitch Strength activities like weight lifting are possible because muscle
Lag Phase fibers can generate different amounts of force. Though this is all
● latent phase dependent on the number of cross-bridges formed.
● gap between the time of stimulus application to ● Some of the factors that increase the number of cross-
the motor neuron and the beginning of bridges would be the number of muscles, the size or
contraction length of the muscles, the frequency or strength of the
● the time which the action potential is traveling stimulus, and the degree of muscle stretch.
along the axon, the events at neuromuscular For a given muscle fiber, under the same cellular conditions, all-
junction occur and the action potential travels or-none events when the stimulus frequency is very low,
along the sarcolemma and releases Ca2+ from allowing for adequate rest. However, muscles stimulated at
the SR greater frequencies first display wave summation, followed by
Contraction Phase incomplete tetanus and finally complete tetanus.
● Ca2+ released from the SR initiates cross-bridge
formation and cross-bridge cycling
Page 23 | 62
Tetanus is when the frequency of muscle contraction is such ● more fatigue-resistant

that the maximal force of tension is generated without any ● contains large amounts of myoglobin
relaxation of the muscle. While summation is the occurrence of ○ binds O2 in muscle fibers and serves as an O2
additional twitch contractions before the previous twitch has reservoir during increased muscle activity
completely relaxed. Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers
● their myosin heads have a fast form of enzyme that
Repeated twitch contractions, where the previous twitch has breaks down ATP more quickly
not relaxed completely are called a summation. If the frequency ● less-well-developed blood supply
of these contractions increases to the point where maximum ● have very little myoglobin
tension is generated and no relaxation is observed then the ● have fewer and smaller mitochondria
contraction is termed tetanus. ● have large deposits of glycogen
Contractions in whole muscles Type IIa muscle fibers
- rely on ATP production with and without O2
Muscle tone Type IIb muscle fibers
● when the muscles stay contracted for long periods of - rely almost exclusively on ATP production without O2
time
● constant tension
● depends on motor units contracting out of phase with
one another at any point in time
Types of Isotonic and Isometric Contractions

Concentric
● the force generated by the muscle is less than the
muscle’s maximum, and the muscle begins to shorten
Distribution of Fast-Twitch and Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers
● this type of contraction is widely known as muscle
contraction ● muscles that consist mainly of fast-twitch muscle fibers
● It requires more energy compared to the other two will appear whitish
types, but this contraction generates the least force. ○ because this type has poor blood supply and
● isotonic contraction little dark-colored myoglobin
Eccentric ■ Ex: Chicken breast
● the external force on the muscle is greater than the ● muscles that contain mainly slow-twitch muscle fibers
force that the muscle can generate, thus the muscle is are darker or reddish in color
forced to lengthen due to the high external load ○ well-developed blood supply and many
● The maximal force generated by the muscle is the myoglobin
highest; however, the energy consumption is the ■ Ex: Duck breast
lowest. Human muscles exhibit no clear distinction between the two
The best example of both concentric and eccentric movements muscle fiber types. Large postural muscles of the backs and
is the biceps curl. When you curl your arm up toward your lower limbs are more slow twitch dn the upper limbs have more
shoulder, your arm muscles contract, it is a concentric fast twitch fibers.
movement. And when you lower the weight back toward your Ex: Trained sprinters- more fast twitch
waistline, your arm muscles lengthen, it is an eccentric Long distance runners- more slow twitch
movement. Athletes who perform aerobic and anaerobic exercises-
MUSCLE FIBER TYPES balanced somewhat
Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers Effects of Exercise
● contract more slowly Neither muscle fiber types may be converted into other types
○ breaks down ATP slowly cause their myosin without specialized training.
heads have a slow form of enzyme ● ATP production without O2 i.e weightlifting increases
● have a better-developed blood supply muscular strength and mass and causes fast twitch
● have more mitochondria muscles to enlarge
Page 24 | 62
○ can run long distances ● produces only enough ATP to power muscle
● ATP produced with O2 increases the vascularity of contractions for 30-40 secs
muscles and causes slow twitch muscles to enlarge Exercise is not usually exclusively limited to one type if ATP
more production, such as anaerobic respiration
○ increase the speed at which someone runs ● produces far less ATP than other pathways but can
Hypertrophy=muscle increases in size produces ATP in the matter of a few seconds
Atrophy= muscle decreases in size 1st step: Glycolysis
New nucleiare added to muscle fibers because small satellite  one glucose molecule is broken down into two
cells near skeletal muscle fibers increase in number in response molecules of pyruvate which is then converted to
to exercise and then fuse with skeletal muscle fibers. lactate
ENERGY SOURCES FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION ● it was believed that the product of anaerobic
Skeletal muscle fibers produce ATP through four respiration was lactic acid
processes: ● real one is alternate chemical form of lactic acid,
1. Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and one adenosine the conjugate base, lactate which is a critical
monophosphate (AMP) by the enzyme adenylate metabolic intermediate
kinase Aerobic Respiration
2. Transfer a phosphate from a molecule called creatine ● requires O2 and breaks down glucose to produce ATP,
phosphate by the enzyme creatine kinase front ADP to CO2, and H2O
form ATP. ● occurs mostly in the mitochondria and is much more
3. Anaerobic production of ATP during intensive short- efficient than anaerobic respiration
term exercise. ● makes almost twice the amount of ATP than anaerobic
4. Aerobic production of ATP during most exercise and respiration
normal conditions. ● supplies 95% pf the total ATP required by a cell and
Adenylate Kinase and Creatine Kinase provides enough ATP for hours of muscle contraction
They are the enzymes inside muscle fibers that help quickly as long as O2 is readily available
produce small amounts of ATP Muscle Fatigue
● add 15 secs to contraction beyond the initial 5- Fatigues is a temporary state of reduced work capacity.
6 seconds Without fatigues, muscles fibers would be worked to the point
Adenylate Kinase of structural damage to them and their supportive tissues.
● also known as myokinase Mechanisms underlying muscular fatigues:
● transfers one phosphate from ADP to a second ADP, 1. Acidosis and ATP depletion due to either and increased
resulting in one ATP and one AMP ATP consumption or a decreased ATP production.
Creatine Kinase 2. Oxidative stress, which is categorized by the buildup of
● The extra ATP accumulated when the muscle is at rest excess reactive oxygen species
is utilized in muscle fibers to transfer a phosphate from 3. Local inflammatory reactions
the ATP to a small protein synthesized by muscle fibers a. Physiological contracture- when muscles
called creatine. become incapable of either contracting or
○ the transfer of the phosphate creates the relaxing
molecule creatine phosphate Muscle Soreness
o acts like a bank for high-energy
Muscle pain related to the effects of inflammatory chemicals on
phosphate
the muscle fibers.
● when ATP levels start to drop in a contracting muscle
Oxygen Deficit and Excess Postexercise Oxygen
fiber, the enzyme creatine kinase will transfer a
Consumption
phosphate to ADP, immediately producing ATP
Oxygen Deficit
Anaerobic Respiration ● the lag time between when a person begins to exercise
and when they begin to breathe more heavily because
● does not require O2
of the exercise
● involves the breakdown of glucose to ATP and lactate
Excess Postexercise Oxygen Consumption
Page 25 | 62
● the lag time before breathing returns to its pre-exercise Insertion – The end of the muscle attached to the bone
rate once exercise stops undergoing the greatest movement.
SMOOTH MUSCLE AND CARDIAC MUSCLE ● The part of the muscle between the origin and the
● Smooth muscle cells are small and spindle-shaped, insertion is the belly.
usually with one nucleus per cell. They contain less ● The specific body movement a muscle contraction
actin and myosin than skeletal muscle cells, and the causes is called the muscle’s action.
myofilaments are not organized into sarcomere. As a ● Muscles are typically studied in groups called agonists
result, smooth muscle cells are not striated. and antagonists.
● Smooth muscle is under involuntary control, whereas
Prime over- If one muscle plays the major role in accomplishing
skeletal muscle is under voluntary motor control.
the desired movement.
● Smooth muscle is also autorhythmic.
● Smooth muscle cells are organized to form layers.
Fixators- Muscles that hold one bone in place relative to the
Most of those cells have gap junctions and specialized
body while a usually more distal bone is moved.
cell-to-cell contacts, which allow action potentials to
spread to all the smooth muscle cells in a tissue. Muscle Names
● Cardiac muscle cells are long, striated, and branching,
with usually only one nucleus per cell. The name of a specific muscle is based on one or more of its
● The actin and myosin myofilaments are organized into characteristics. The following are seven common characteristics
sarcomere, but the distribution of myofilaments is not used to name muscle: (a) Location, (b) size, (c) shape, (d)
as uniform as in skeletal muscle. orientation of fascicles, (e) origin and insertion, (f) number of
● As, a result, cardiac muscle cells are striated, but not as heads, and (g) function.
distinctly striated as skeletal muscle.
● Cardiac muscle exhibits limited anaerobic respiration.  Location
Instead, it continues to contract at a level that can be
sustained by aerobic respiration and consequently does Pectoralis: Muscle in the Chest.
not fatigue.
● Cardiac muscle cells are connected to one another by Gluteus: Muscle in the Buttock.
specialized structures that include desmosomes and
gap junctions called intercalated disks. Brachial: Muscle in the arm.
● Intercalated disks – they allow action potentials to be
 Size
conducted directly from cell to cell.
Note: Smooth muscle and Cardiac muscle is under involuntary
Gluteus maximus: the largest muscle of the buttock.
control and is influenced
Gluteus minimus: the smallest muscle of the buttock.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE ANATOMY
Longus: long
The majority of our muscles extend from one bone to another
and at least one joint. At each end, the muscle is connected to  Shape
the bone by a tendon.
Deltoid: triangular muscle
Tendons take o many forms. They can be (a) long and ropelike,
(2) broad and sheetlike (called aponeuroses), or (c) very short. Quadrate or Quadratus: triangular muscle.
Retinaculum- A band of connective tissue that holds down the Round: Round muscle.
tendons at each wrist and ankle.
 Orientation of fascicles
Origin- The most stationary, or fixed, end of the muscle.
Page 26 | 62
A rectus (straight, parallel) muscle has muscle fascicles running MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND NECK
in the same direction as the structure with which the muscle is Facial Expression
associated, whereas the fascicles of an oblique muscle lie at an ● In humans, facial expressions are important
angle to the length of the structure. components of nonverbal communication.
Occipitofrontalis – Muscles that raise the eyebrows.
 Origin and insertion Orbicularis Oculi – Muscles around the eyes.
Orbicularis Oris –Muscles around the mouth.
The sternocleidomastoid has its origin in the sternum and Buccinator – is in the walls of the checks.
clavicle and is the insertion in the mastoid process of the Zygomaticus – This is the muscle that elevates the upper lip and
temporal bone. The brachioradialis originates in the arm corner of the mouth that causes Smiling.
Levator labii superioris – This is the muscle that accomplished
(brachium) and inserts onto the radius.
sneezing.
Depressor anguli oris - This is the muscle that accomplished
 Number of heads frowning and pouting.
The Biceps muscle has two heads.
The Triceps muscle has three heads.
 Function
Abductors and adductors are the muscles that cause that type
of movement.
Mastication
● The four pairs of muscles for chewing.
● - Also, they are some of the strongest muscles in the
body.
○ Temporalis (1)
○ Masseter (1)
○ Pterygoid (2)
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
The tongue is very important in mastication and speech.
Intrinsic Muscle – These are located entirely within the tongue

and change their shape.
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Extrinsic Muscle – Located outside the tongue but is attached to Neck flexors – originate on the anterior surface of the vertebral
and moves the tongue bodies.
Swallowing involves a number of structures and their associated Neck extensors – originate on the posterior surface of the
muscles, including vertebral bodies.
 Hyoid muscles Sternocleidomastoid – The prime mover of the lateral muscle

 Soft palate group, is easily seen on the anterior and lateral sides of the
 Pharynx (Throat) neck.
 Larynx (voice box)
 Hyoid muscles
The hyoid muscles are divided into the suprahyoid group and
infrahyoid group.
Suprahyoid: Superior to the hyoid bone.
Infrahyoid: Inferior to the hyoid bone.
Note: When the suprahyoid muscle holds the hyoid bone in

place from above, the infrahyoid muscles can elevate the larynx.
When we swallow, muscles elevate the pharynx and larynx and

then constrict the pharynx. Especially, pharyngeal elevators and
pharyngeal constrictors.
Pharyngeal elevators- elevate the pharynx.
Pharyngeal constrictors – constrict the pharynx from superior to

inferior, forcing the food into the esophagus.
TRUNK MUSCLES
Include those that move (a) the vertebral column, (b) the
thorax, (c) the abdominal wall, and (d) the pelvic diaphragm and
perineum.
Vertebral Column Muscles
In humans, the maintenance of erect posture is due to every

strong back muscle.
● Erector spinae –a group of muscles on each side of the

back that is primarily responsible for keeping the back
straight and the body erect.
● Deep back muscles – Located between the spinous and
Neck Muscles transverse processes of adjacent vertebrae.
● The deep neck muscles include Neck flexors and Neck Thoracic Muscles
extensors.
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The muscles of the thorax are involved almost entirely in the and (c) the transversus abdominis muscles.
process of breathing.
● External Intercostals – elevate the ribs during

inspiration.
● Internal Intercostals – depress the ribs during forced

expiration.
● Diaphragm – Accomplished during quiet breathing in

the thorax.
Pelvic Diaphragm and Perineum
The pelvis is a ring of bone with an inferior opening that is

closed by a muscular floor, through which the anus and the
urogenital openings penetrate.
Pelvic diaphragm – is also called the pelvic floor.
The pelvic diaphragm consists of the (a) coccygeus muscle and

(b) levator ani.
 Perineum –A diamond shaped in the Pelvic diaphragm.

 Urogenital triangle – anterior half of the perineum.
 Anal triangle – Posterior half of the perineum.
Abdominal Walls Muscles
The anterior abdominal body wall muscle and flex and rotate
the vertebral column, compressing the abdominal cavity, and
holding in and protecting the abdominal organs.
Linea Alba
 This tendinous area of the abdominal wall.

 Consists of white connective tissue rather than muscle.
UPPER LIMB MUSCLES

Rectus Abdominis
The muscles of the upper limb include those that attach the limb
 Straight muscle and have each side of the linea alba.
and pectoral girdle to the body and those in the arm, forearm,
Tendinous intersections and hand. The upper limb is primarily conn
 Cross the rectus abdominis at three or more locations, Scapular Movements

causing the abdominal wall of a lean well-muscled
Sected to the body by the muscles (a) the trapezius, (b) the
person to appear segmented.
levator scapulae, (c) the rhomboids, (d) the serratus anterior
Note: From superficial to deep, these muscles are (a) the and (e) pectoralis minor.
external abdominal oblique, (b) the internal abdominal oblique,
Trapezius- forms the upper line from each shoulder to the neck.
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Serratus anterior – It is the first eight or nine ribs that can be Deltoid – muscle attaches the humerus to the scapula and
seen along the lateral thorax. clavicle and is the major abductor of the upper limb.
Arm Movements
The pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi muscle attach the arm
to the thorax.
Pectoralis major – adducts the arm and flexes the shoulder. It

can also extend the shoulder from a flexed position.
Latissimus dorsi – medially rotates and adducts the arm and

powerfully extends the shoulder
Rotator cuff muscle – stabilizes the shoulder joint by holding

the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity during arm
movements, especially abduction.
Forearm Movements
Triceps brachii – the primary extensor of the elbow, occupies

the posterior compartment.
Biceps brachii - the anterior compartment.
Brachialis – the primary flexors of the elbow.
Brachioradialis – This is actually a posterior forearm muscle,

that helps flex the elbow.
Supination and Pronation
Supinator – palm is up
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Pronator – palm is down
Wrist and Finger Movements
Flexor carpi – muscle flex the wrist.
Extensor carpi – muscle extends the wrist.
Flexor digitorum - flexion of the fingers.
Extensor digitorum – an extension of the fingers.
Intrinsic hand muscles - nineteen muscles that are located

within the hand.
Thigh Movements
Interossei muscle – located between the metacarpal bones, is
responsible for the abduction and adduction of the fingers. Iliopsoas – the anterior muscle that flexes the hip.
7.11 LOWER LIMB MUSCLES Gluteal muscle – the posterior and lateral hip muscles.
The muscles of the lower limb include that located in (a) the hip, Tensor fasciae latae – it tenses a thick band of fascia on the
(b) the thigh, (c) the leg, and (d) the foot. lateral side of the thigh called the iliotibial tract.
Gluteus maximus – extends the hip and abducts and laterally

rotates the thigh, contributing most of the mass that can be
seen as the buttocks.
Gluteus medius – abducts and medially rotates the thigh,

creating a smaller mass just superior and lateral to the maximus.
Leg Movements
Quadriceps femoris – the primary extensors of the knee.
Sartorius – the longest muscle in the body, it is called “Tailor’s

muscle”.
Hamstring muscles – responsible for flexing the knee.
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Adductor muscle – adducting the thigh.
Ankle and Toe Movements
Gastrocnemius – the superficial muscle of the posterior

compartment of the leg.
Soleus – form the bulge of the calf.
Calcaneal tendon – Also, known as the Achilles tendon. Muscles

are flexors and are involved in plantar flexion of the foot.
Fibularis muscles – lateral muscle of the leg.
Intrinsic foot muscles – include twenty muscles located within

the foot. These muscles all work to move the toes.
Reference:

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IV. Other Organs with Endocrine Functions

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
TOPIC OUTLINE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
I. Endocrine System
 Endocrine System
i. Chemical Communication o composed of endocrine glands and
specialized endocrine cells located
a. Types of Chemical Signals
throughout the body
 Hormones
ii. Endocrine System Functions
o chemical messengers secreted by these glands and cells
iii. Types of Hormones into the bloodstream
o Hormones then travel through the general blood
a. How Hormones Work circulation to target tissues or effectors.
o The target tissues have receptors for a specific
b. How Hormones Cause hormone.
Change o Hormones produce a particular response in the target
tissues.
c. How Hormones are
Regulated CHEMICAL COMMUNICATION
TYPES OF CHEMICAL SIGNALS
d. Regulation of Blood
Hormone Levels  Intracellular
o produced in one part of a cell and move to
e. Hormone Receptors and another part of same cell
Mechanisms of Action  Intercellular
o released from one cell and bind to
f. G-Protein Activation
receptors on another cell
 Autocrine
II. Pituitary Glands and Hormones
o released by cells and have a local effect on
i. Hypothalamic Control of the same cell type
Anterior Pituitary Gland o e.g., eicosanoids (released in response to
inflammation)
ii. Hypothalamic Control of the  Paracrine
Posterior Pituitary Gland o released by cells that affect other cell
types in close proximity
iii. Hormones of the Pituitary Gland o e.g., somatostatin (inhibits insulin
secretion)
a. Anterior Pituitary  Neurotransmitter and Neuromodulators
Hormones o secreted by nerve cells
o e.g., nervous system function
b. Posterior Pituitary
 Pheromones
Hormones
o Secreted into environment and modify behavior and
physiology of other individual in same species
III. Endocrine Glands and Hormones
o e.g., women and menstrual cycles
 Hormones and Neurohormones
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o Secreted into blood and bind to receptors on target HOW HORMONES WORK
tissues
o e.g., epinephrine and insulin 1. Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands directly
into bloodstream
2. Hormones travel to all parts of the body
3. Hormones (key) bind to receptor site (lock) on target

tissue
4. Response occurs
HOW HORMONES CAUSE CHANGE
 Hormones can cause change by:
o Alter cell activity of target tissues by increasing or

decreasing cell’s normal processes
o Change permeability of cell membrane by opening or
closing ion channels
o Synthesis of proteins
HOW HORMONES ARE REGULATED
 Blood Levels of Chemicals (Humoral)

o Blood-borne chemicals can directly stimulate the
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM FUNCTIONS release of some hormones.
o Humoral refers to body fluids, including blood
● Regulation of metabolism o e.g., blood glucose levels (insulin)
● Control of food intake and digestion
● Modulation of tissue development  Nervous System
● Regulation of ion levels o Following action potentials, neurons release a
● Control of water balance neurotransmitter into the synapse with the cells that
● Regulation of cardiovascular function produce the hormone
● Control of blood glucose and other nutrients o e.g., epinephrine and fight-or-flight response
● Control of reproductive functions
● Stimulation of uterine contraction and milk release  Hormonal
● Modulation of immune system function o Hormone release can also be controlled by other
hormones
TYPES OF HORMONES
o It occurs when a hormone is secreted that, in turn,
stimulates the secretion of other hormones.
● Water-Soluble Hormones
o The same three types of stimuli (humoral, neural, and
o Include proteins, peptides, and amino acids hormonal) can stimulate or inhibit hormone release.
o Most common type of hormone
REGULATION OF BLOOD HORMONE LEVELS
o e.g., growth hormone, antidiuretic, prolactin
Two major mechanisms maintain hormone levels in the blood

● Lipid-Soluble Hormones
within a homeostatic range:
o Include steroids and eicosanoids
 Negative Feedback
o e.g., luteinizing hormone, androgen
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o The hormone’s secretion is inhibited by the hormone o When the hormone binds to the receptor, it turns on
itself once blood levels have reached a certain point intracellular enzymes that ultimately cause the
o More common. response dictated by the hormone-receptor interaction
o They act in two ways:
 Positive Feedback
o Altering the activity of G-proteins on the inner surface
o The hormone’s secretion caused further stimulation of of the cell membrane
the source leading to more hormones released o Directly altering the activity of intracellular enzymes
o results to the production of molecules called second
HORMONE RECEPTORS AND MECHANISMS OF ACTION messengers
 Specificity  Second Messenger

o A hormone can stimulate only the cells that have the o A molecule produced inside a cell once a hormone
receptor for that hormone binds to its membrane-bound receptor
o A second messenger, such as cyclic adenosine
 Receptor Site phosphate (cAMP), then activated specific cellular
o The portion of each receptor molecule where a processes inside the cell in response to the hormone
hormone binds
o Has specificity: allowing only one hormone to bind to it
o Some hormones, such as epinephrine, can bind to a
“family of receptors that are structurally similar.
o This specificity is due to molecular shape and chemical
characteristics
 Lipid-Soluble Hormones
o Bind to nuclear receptors due to their lipid solubility
and small molecular size, allowing to easily pass
through the cell membrane
 Nuclear Receptors
o Can also be located in the cytoplasm but then move to G-PROTEIN ACTIVATION
the nucleus when activated
o When hormones bind to nuclear receptors, the  G-Proteins
hormone-receptor complex interacts with nuclear DNA o Consist of 3 subunits
to regulate specific gene transcription o The G-proteins are so named because one of the
subunits binds to guanine nucleotides
o G-proteins, after several consequential actions, interact
with adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that converts ATP to
 Water-Soluble Hormones Camp
o Bind to membrane-bound receptors o cAMP binds to protein kinases and activates them
o Polar molecules and cannot pass through the cell
membrane  Protein Kinases
o Enzymes that, in turn, regulate the activity of other
 Membrane-Bound Receptors enzymes
o Proteins that extend across the cell membrane, with o depending on the other enzyme, protein kinases can
their hormone-binding sites exposed on the cell increase or decrease its activity
membrane’s outer surface
 Phosphodiesterase
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o an intracellular enzyme that breaks down cAMP and

thus results in no further cell stimulation Anterior Posterior
PITUITARY GLANDS AND HORMONES
 Pituitary Gland 1. Growth Hormone 1. Oxytocin

o Small gland in brain called the master gland
o Also known as Adenohypophysis
o Controlled by the hypothalamus
2. Adrenocorticotrophic 2. Antidiuretic
o Divided into 2 regions:
Hormone (ACTH) Hormone/
Anterior pituitary gland
Posterior pituitary gland Vasopressin
o Secretes at least 6 hormones
HYPOTHALAMIC CONTROL OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY

GLAND 3. Thyroid-Stimulating
Hormone (TSH)
 The anterior pituitary gland synthesizes hormones
under control of the hypothalamus
 Neurons of the hypothalamus secrete: 4. Gonadotropic
o Releasing Hormones Hormone (FSH, LH)
Stimulate the production and secretion of a specific hormone
o Inhibiting Hormones 5. Melanocyte-

Stimulating Hormone
Decrease the secretion of a specific anterior pituitary hormone (MSH)
HYPOTHALAMIC CONTROL OF THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY

GLAND
6. Prolactin
 The posterior pituitary gland stores and releases

hormones produced by neuroendocrine cells in the
hypothalamus
 The two hormones released from the posterior
ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES
pituitary are:
 Growth Hormone
o antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
o Target tissues: most tissues
o Function: stimulates growth of bones, muscles, and
o oxytocin
organs
HORMONES OF THE PITUITARY GLAND o Abnormalities:
Too much GH causes gigantism
Too little GH causes pituitary dwarfism
Acromegaly – rapid growth of bone and muscles due to
excess growth hormone
 Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

o Target tissues: thyroid gland
o Function: regulated thyroid gland secretions
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o Abnormalities:  Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges (goiter) o Target tissues: kidneys
o Function: conserve water
Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks o Abnormalities: Diabetes insipidus
o Low ADH
 Gonadotropin Hormone o Kidneys produce large amounts of dilute
o Luteinizing Hormone (LH) for females (watery) urine
o Can lead to dehydration and thirst
Target tissue: ovaries
ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND HORMONES
Functions: promotes ovulation and progesterone production
 Thyroid Gland – one of the largest glands; requires iodine
o Luteinizing Hormone (LH) for males to function; secretes thyroid hormone and calcitonin.
Target tissue: testes

 Thyroid Hormones – secreted by follicular cells.
Target tissues: most tissues.
Functions: production of sperm and testosterone
Functions: regulates metabolic rates and is needed for
o Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) for females growth.
Abnormalities:
Target tissue: follicles in ovaries
Functions: follicle maturation and estrogen secretion Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism
o Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) for males
Target tissue: seminiferous tubules (testes) Low thyroid hormones High thyroid hormones
Function: sperm production

Decreased metabolism Increased metabolism
o Prolactin
Target tissues: mammary glands and ovaries

Weight gain, reduced Weight loss, increased
Functions: milk production appetite, fatigue appetite, nervousness
 Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)

o Target tissue: melanocyte in the skin
o Functions: stimulate melanin production in Low temp. and pulse Higher temp. and pulse
melanocytes
 Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH) Dry, cold skin Warm, flushed skin

o Target tissue: cells of adrenal cortex
o Function: stimulate production of certain
corticosteroids
Myxedema in adults Graves’ disease (leads to
POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES goiter)
Cretinism in infants
 Oxytocin
o Target tissue: uterus
 Calcitonin – secreted by parafollicular cells
o Function: increases uterine contraction during labor
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 Target tissues: bone and some other tissues o Abnormalities:

 Function: reduces blood calcium level when high by  Hypoadrenalism (failure of adrenal cortex to produce
inhibiting osteoclasts adrenocortical hormones)
o Addison’s disease –hyponatremia, hyperkalemia,
 Parathyroid Gland sluggishness, weak muscles
 Hyperadrenalism
o Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) o Cushing ’s syndrome – abnormal secretion of cortisol
o Target tissues: bones and kidneys. and androgens; buffalo torso (deposition of fat in the
o Functions: regulates blood Ca2+ levels (more thoracic and upper abdominal region); moon face
than calcitonin) by increasing it in the blood. (edematous face)
o If Ca2+ is low, then osteoclasts break down
bone matrix and less Ca2+ is lost in urine.  Pancreas – a mixed gland with an exocrine portion
o If Ca2+ is high, then osteoclasts don’t break (acinar cells secrete digestive enzymes) and an
down bone matrix and more Ca2+ is lost in endocrine portion (pancreatic islets/Islets of
urine. Langerhans which are dispersed throughout the
exocrine portion of the pancreas)
 Adrenal Gland – the adrenal glands are two small
glands located superior to each kidney; each adrenal o Islets of Langerhans – consist of three cell types, each
gland has an inner part, called the adrenal medulla, and of which secretes a separate hormone; these three
an outer part, called the adrenal cortex; the adrenal hormones regulate the blood levels of nutrients,
medulla and the adrenal cortex function as separate especially glucose
endocrine glands o Alpha cells – secrete glucagon
o Beta cells – secrete insulin
 Adrenal Cortex: o Delta cells – secrete somatostatin
o Aldosterone – type of mineralocorticoid (glomerulosa)
o Target tissues: kidneys  Insulin (beta cells)
o Functions: regulate ion balance; causes Na+ o Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue
and H2O to be retained and K+ to be secreted; o Functions: regulates blood glucose levels (lowers it);
indirectly involved with blood pressure and after a meal, glucose levels are high and insulin is
blood volume secreted; extra glucose is stored in the form of
glycogen
 Cortisol – type of glucocorticoid (fasciculata) o Abnormalities: Diabetes mellitus (caused by too little
o Target tissues: most insulin or faulty insulin receptors) – symptoms are
o Functions stress hormone; increases breakdown of fat hyperglycemia and 3P’s (exaggerated
and protein for energy uses; reduces inflammatory and appetite/polyphagia), excess urine/polyuria, excessive
immune responses thirst/polydipsia, fatigue
 Androgen  Glucagon (alpha cells)

o Target tissues: most tissues (reticularis) o Target tissues: liver
o Functions: secondary sexual characteristics (males); sex o Function: regulated blood glucose levels; between
drive (females) meals, glucose levels drop and glucagon is secreted;
glucagon allows glycogen to be broken down into
 Adrenal Medulla glucose
o Epinephrine/Norepinephrine
o Target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat  Testes
cells o Testosterone
o Functions: released as part of fight-or-flight o Target tissues: most tissues
response
Page 38 | 62
o Functions: aids in sperm and reproductive organ

development and function
 Ovary
o Estrogen/Progesterone
o Target tissues: most tissues
o Functions: involved in uterine and mammary
gland development and menstrual cycle
 Pineal Gland
o Melatonin
o Target tissues: hypothalamus
o Functions: play a role in onset of puberty and
controls circadian rhythms; light affects its
function
OTHER ORGANS WITH ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS
 Heart – ANP
 Skin – Calcitriol
 Liver – Erythropoietin, Angiotensin II, Calcitriol, IGF-1,
Hepcidin
 Kidneys – EPO, Angiotensin, Calcitriol
 Stomach & Intestines – Enteric Hormones
 Placenta – Estrogen, Progesterone, other pregnancy
hormones
Reference:

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 Transport of regulatory Molecules

 The blood carries many of the hormones and enzymes
BLOOD that regulate body processes from one part of the body
to another
TOPIC OUTLINE
 Regulation of pH and osmosis
I. Functions of Blood  Buffers which help keep the blood’s pH within its
normal limits of 7.35-7.45, are found in the blood. The
II. Composition of Blood osmotic composition of blood is also critical for
maintaining normal fluid and ion balance.
III. Plasma
 Maintenance of body temperature

IV. Formed Elements
 As blood flows through areas of the body that are
V. Preventing Blood Loss metabolically active, the heat generated by the
metabolism harms the blood
VI. Blood Grouping
 Protection against foreign substances
VII. Diagnostic Blood Tests  Certain cells and chemical in the blood constitute an
important part of the immune, protecting against
pathogens, such as certain microorganisms, as well as
some toxins
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD  Clot formation

o When blood vessels are damaged, blood clotting
 Blood has always fascinated humans, and throughout protects against excessive blood loss
history, they have speculated about its function
 “The Essence of Life” because the uncontrolled loss of COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
it can result to death.
 The heart pumps blood through blood vessels that  Blood is a type of connective tissue that consist of a
extend throughout the body liquid matrix containing cells and cell fragments
 The total blood volume is about 4-5 liters in the
BLOOD HELPS MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS IN SEVERAL WAYS:
average adult female and 5-6 liters in adult male.
 Blood makes up to 8% of the total body weight.
 Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products
o Blood acts as a major transport medium in the body

due to the many substances that move into and out of
the body
o Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs and is carried in
the blood to the lungs
o Carbon dioxide, produced by cells, is carried in the
blood to the lungs, from which it is expelled.
 Transport of processed Molecules

 Many substances must be processed at multiple sites in
the body. A substance may be produced in one organ
or tissue, enter the blood and move to a new location
where it is modified
Page 40 | 62
PLASMA
(250 - 400) Thousands
 The liquid matrix

 (55%) of the total blood
FORMED ELEMENTS White Blood Cells Neutrophils – 60% - 70%
 The cells and cell fragments (5-10) Thousands Lymphocytes – 20% - 25%
 (45%) if the total blood
Monocytes – 3% - 8%
Eosinophils – 2% - 4%
Plasma
Basophils – 0.5% 1%
(Percentage by weight)
Red Blood cells

Proteins (58%) Albumins 58%
(4.2-6.2) Million
Globulins 38%
Fibrinogen 4%
PLASMA
Water (38%)
 It is a pale-yellow fluid that consists of about 91%

water, 7% proteins, and 2% other components
Other Solutes (4%) Ions
PLASMA PROTEINS INCLUDE:
Nutrients
 Albumin
Waste Products o Makes up 58% of the plasma, though osmotic pressure
of blood results primarily from Na+ and Cl+
Gases
 Globulins
Regulatory substances
o 38% of the plasma proteins
o In addition, some globulins are clotting factors, which
are necessary for the formation of blood clots.
 Fibrinogen
o Also, a clotting factor that constitutes 4% of the plasma
Formed Elements proteins. Activation of clotting factors results in the
convention of the fibrinogen to fibrin.
(Number per cubic mm)
o Fibrin- a threadlike protein that forms blood
clots.
o Serum- is a plasma without clotting factors
Platelets
COMPOSITION OF PLASMA
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FORMED ELEMENTS
 45% of the total composition of blood.

Water - Acts as a solvent and
suspending medium for THE FORMED ELEMENTS INCLUDE:
blood components.
 Red Blood Cells (RBC) or Erythrocytes
 White Blood Cells (WBC) or Leukocytes
 Platelets or Thrombocytes
Proteins - Maintain osmotic
pressure
RED BLOOD CELL (RBC) OR ERYTHROCYTES
- Destroy foreign
 Are the most abundant of the formed elements
substances
 Red Blood Cells constitute nearly 95% of all the formed
elements
- Transport molecules
o Note: Red Blood Cells are 700 times more numerous
- Form clots than WBC and 17 time more numerous than platelets
WHITE BLOOD CELL (WBC) OR LEUKOCYTES
Ions - Involved in osmotic  The remaining 5% of the volume of the formed

pressure elements
- membrane potentials PLATELETS OR THROMBOCYTES
-Acid-Base balance
 Cell fragments
PRODUCTION OF FORMED ELEMENTS

Nutrients - Sources of energy and HEMATOPOIESIS
“Building Blocks” of more
complex molecules  Is the process that produces formed elements
 After birth, hematopoiesis is confined primarily to red
bone marrow, but some WBC is produced in Lymphatic
tissues
Gases - Involved in aerobic
respiration
HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELLS OF HEMOCYTOBLAST

Waste products - Breakdown products of
o All formed elements of blood are derived from a single
protein metabolism
population
TWO TYPES OF INTERMEDIATE:

Regulatory substances - catalyze chemical 1. MYELOID STEM CELL
reactions
o Most of the formed elements are derived
2. LYMPHOID STEM CELL
o Give rise to Lymphocytes (A type of WBC)
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RED BLOOD CELL (RBC)  Composed of WBC and platelets

 A thin, white, layer of cells between plasma and RBC
o Disk-shaped, with edges that are thicker than the
center of the cell AMEBOID
o Biconcave shape
o No Nucleus  Movement through the tissues
o Contains Hemoglobin, which colors the cell red  The cell projects a cytoplasmic extension that attaches
o Transports O2 and CO2 to an object
o RBC lives for about 120 days in males and 110 days in
females WHITE BLOOD CELL FUNCTION:
 Globin- Protein Chain o Protect the body from microorganisms and pathogens
 Heme- A red pigmented molecule o Remove dead cells and debris from the tissues by
 Note: Each heme contains one iron atom, which is Phagocytosis
necessary for the normal function of the hemoglobin
 Note: females need more dietary iron than males THREE TYPES OF GRANULOCYTES
because females lose iron as a result of menstruation
 Neutrophils
CARBONIC ANHYDRASE  Basophils
 Eosinophil
 Found primarily inside RBC, catalyzes a reaction that
converts carbon dioxide and water into hydrogen ions NEUTROPHILS
and a Bicarbonate
o The most common type of White Blood Cell
LIFE HISTORY OF RBC o Have call cytoplasmic granules that stain with both
acidic and base dyes
 About 2.5 million RBCs are destroyed every second o Their nuclei are commonly lobed
o Lobes varying from two to four
PROERYTHROBLASTS o Neutrophils remain in the blood for 10-12 hours
 Which give rise to the red blood line BASOPHILS
ERYTHROPOIETIN (EPO) o The least common of all WBC

o Large cytoplasmic granules that stain Blue or purple
 Primarily by the kidneys with Basic dyes
 Stimulates red bone marrow to produce RBC o Basophil release histamine and other chemicals that
promote inflammation
BILIRUBIN o They also release heparin, which prevents the
formation of clots
 A yellow pigment molecule
EOSINOPHIL
WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBC)
o Contains cytoplasmic granules that stain bright red with
 Spherical cells that lack hemoglobin eosin, an acidic stain
 WBC are larger than RBC o They often have a two-lobed nucleus
 Has nucleus o Involved in the inflammatory response associated with
allergies and asthma
BUFFY COAT o Also, involved in destroying certain worm parasites
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TWO TYPES OF AGRANULOCYTES PLATELET PLUG FORMATION

1. LYMPHOCYTES
o Is an accumulation of platelets that can seal up a small
o Smallest WBC break in blood vessels.
o Consist of only a thin, sometimes imperceptible ring o Important in maintaining the integrity if the blood
around the nucleus vessels of the cardiovascular system because small
o Production of Antibodies and other chemicals tears occur in the smaller vessels and capillaries many
times each day.
2. MONOCYTES
PROCESS OF PLATELET PLUG FORMATION
o The largest White blood Cell
1. Platelet adhesion
MACROPHAGE
o Platelets stick to the collagen exposed by
o After monocyte leave the blood and enter, they enlarge blood vessel damage
and become Macrophage o Most platelets adhesion is mediated through
Von Willebrand Factor, a protein produced
PLATELETS and secreted by blood vessels endothelial cells
o Minute fragments of the cell 2. Platelet release chemicals, such as ADP and
Thromboxane, which bind to their respective receptors on
PLATELETS OR THROMBOCYTES the surface of other platelets, activating the platelets
o They are produced in the red bone marrow from large  Fibrinogen Receptors- as platelets become activated,
cell they express surface receptors
o Which can bind to fibrinogen, a plasma protein
PREVENTING BLOOD LOSS
LOSS OF BLOOD IS MINIMIZED BY THREE PROCESSES: 3. Platelet Aggregation
 Vascular spasm o Fibrinogen forms a bridge between the

 Platelet plug formation fibrinogen receptors of numerous platelets,
 Blood clotting resulting in a platelet plug
VASCULAR SPASM 3. BLOOD CLOTTING OR COAGULATION
o Is an immediate but temporary constriction of the  Results in the formation of a clot

blood vessels that results when smooth muscle
within the wall of the blood vessels contracts CLOT
o These constrictions can close small blood vessels
completely and stop the flow of blood through  A network of threadlike
them
FIBRIN
THROMBOXANE
 Protein fibers
 Derived from certain prostaglandins  That traps blood cells, platelets, and fluid
ENDOTHELIAL (EPITHELIAL) CLOTTING FACTORS
 Cell lining blood vessels release the peptide endothelin  The formation of a blood clot depends on a number of
proteins found within the plasma
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CLOT FORMATION IN THREE STAGES  Clots are dissolved
1. Prothrombinase production PLASMINOGEN
o The chemical reactions necessary for blood clotting can  An inactive plasma protein
be started in two ways (a) inactive factors, (b)
Chemicals, such as Thromboplastin PLASMIN
2. Thrombin production  The active form
o Prothrombinase converts an inactive clotting factor TISSUE PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR

called prothrombin, to its active form, thrombin
 Released from surrounding tissues that stimulate the
3. Fibrin production
Conversation of plasminogen and plasmin
o Thrombin converts the plasma protein fibrinogen to

fibrin
CONTROL OF CLOT FORMATION

ANTICOAGULANTS
 Which prevent clotting factors from a forming clot

under normal conditions
THROMBUS
 An attached clot
EMBOLUS
BLOOD GROUPING
 A thrombus that breaks loose and begins to float TRANSFUSION
through the circulation
 Transfer of blood or blood components from one
individual to another
INFUSION
 The introduction of fluid other than blood
ANTIGEN
 The surface of the RBC that has molecules
CLOT REACTION AND FIBRINOLYSIS ANTIBODIES

CLOT REACTION
 Plasma that includes protein
 Begins to condense into a mole compact structure
through a process AGGLUTINATION
FIBRINOLYSIS  The clumping of the cells
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HEMOLYSIS
 The rupture of the RBC COMPLETE BLOOD COUNT
 Is an analysis of blood that provides much useful

information
BLOOD GROUPS
ABO GROUPS RED BLOOD COUNT
 System is used to categories human blood  4.6-6.2 million RBC for male
 Two types of antigen:  4.2-5.4 million RBC for female
o Type A Antigen
o Type B Antigen ERYTHROCYTOSIS
 An overabundance of RBC leading to increase blood

viscosity
ANEMIA
 An abnormally low hemoglobin measurement
HEMATOCRIT
 Percentage of the total blood volume that composed of

RBC
DONOR
WHITE BLOOD COUNT
 The person who gives blood
 Measures White Blood Cell
RECIPIENT
LEUKOPENIA
 The person who receives the blood
 Lower White Blood Cell
RH BLOOD GROUP
LEUKOCYTOSIS
 Named after the first study of the rhesus Monkey
 Abnormally high White Blood Cell

HEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF THE NEW BORN BABY
LEUKEMIA
 Any Anti-Rh antibodies produced by the mother may
cause the placenta and destroy fetal RBC
 Cancer of red marrow characterized by the production
of much White Blood Cell
DIAGNOSTIC BLOOD TESTS
TYPE AND CROSSMATCH
DIFFERENTIAL WHITE BLOOD CELL
 Blood typing determines the ABO and Rh Blood groups

of a blood sample  Determines the percentage of each type of White
Blood Cell
 Crossmatch- tests for agglutination reactions between
the donor and recipient blood
CLOTTING
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 Platelet count and prothrombin time measurement

determine the blood’s ability to clot
BLOOD CHEMISTRY
 Composition of material dissolved or suspended in

plasma
Reference:

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FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM INCLUDES THE

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM FOLLOWING:
TOPIC OUTLINE
INGESTION AND MASTICATION
I. Functions of the digestive
system  Ingestion is the consumption of solid or liquid food
through the mouth and mastication is chewing
II. Anatomy and Histology of
the Digestive PROPULSION AND MIXING
System
 Propulsion is the movement of food from one end of
III. Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and
the digestive tract to the other. While mixing is the
Esophagus
movement of food back and forth in the digestive
tract.
IV. Stomach
DIGESTIVE AND SECRETION
V. Small Intestine
 Digestion is the breakdown of large organic molecules

into smaller molecules. While secretion is the addition
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
of liquids, enzymes, and mucus to the ingested food.
 The digestive system, with the assistance of the
ABSORPTION
circulatory system, is a complex set of organs, glands,
and ducts that work together to transform food into
nutrients for cells  The movement of molecules out of the digestive tract
 Enzymes in the digestive system break the particles and into the blood or lymphatic system
down into very small molecules, which are absorbed
into the blood and transported all over the body ELIMINATION
 The removal of undigested material, such as fiber from

food, plus other waste products from the body as
feces.
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 The digestive system consists of the digestive tract or

gastrointestinal tract, plus specific associated organs
THE SPECIFIC PORTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT INCLUDE
 The Oral Cavity (Mouth)

 The Pharynx (Throat)
 The Esophagus
 The Stomach
 The Small and Large Intestines
 Anus
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SPECIFIC ASSOCIATED ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM  In most parts of the digestive tract it consists of (a) an
ARE THE: inner layer of circular smooth muscle and (b) an outer
layer or longitudinal smooth muscle
 Salivary gland
ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The Liver
 The Pancreas
 It is made of the nerve and plexuses of the submucosa
o Because the digestive tract is open at the mouth and
and muscularis
anus, the inside of the tract is continuous with the
outside environment, and food entering the digestive
THE SEROSA OR ADVENTITIA
tract may contain not only useful nutrients but also
indigestible components such as fiber, or harmful
 Is the outermost layer of the digestive tract
materials such as bacteria.
 It is composed of the (a) peritoneum, which is a smooth
o The oral cavity and the esophagus are lined with
epithelial layer, and (b) its underlying connective tissue
stratified epithelium, which protects them from the
abrasion of chewing and swallowing
ADVENTITIA
o The stomach and intestine are lined with columnar
epithelium, which is specialized for the secretion of
 The connective tissue layer
digestive fluids and absorption of nutrients
PERITONEUM
DIGESTIVE TRACT CONSISTS OF FOUR MAJOR TUNICS OR
LAYERS:  A membrane, a sheet of smooth muscle that lines the

abdominal pelvic cavity and surrounds the abdominal
 The Mucosa organs
 The Submucosa
 The Muscularis
 The Serosa or an Adventitia
THE MUCOSA
 Is the innermost tunic and it consists of three layers: (a)

the inner mucous epithelium, the innermost layer, (b)
the lamina propria, which is loose connective tissue,
and (c) the muscularis mucosae, a thin outer layer of
smooth muscle.
THE SUBMUCOSA
 Lie just outside the mucosa

 It is a thick layer of loose connective tissue connecting VISCERAL PERITONEUM
nerves, blood vessels, and small glands
 The serous membrane that covers the organs
PLEXUS
PARIETAL PERITONEUM
 Extensive network of the nerve cell
THE MUSCULARIS  The serous membrane that lines the wall of the
abdominal cavity
 Lie just outside of the submucosa
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PERITONITIS  The oral cavity or mouth is divided into to regions: (a)

the space between the lips or cheeks and the teeth,
 Is a potentially life-threatening inflammation of the and (b) the oral cavity proper, which lies the teeth and
peritoneal membranes houses the tongue
LIPS, CHEEKS, AND TONGUE

LIPS
 Lips are muscular structures, formed mostly by the

orbicularis Oris muscle
 The outer surfaces of the lips are covered by skin
 The keratinized stratified epithelium of the skin
becomes thin at the margin of the lips
CHEEKS
 The cheeks form the lateral walls of the oral cavity

 Located within the cheeks are the buccinators muscles,
which flatten the cheeks against the teeth
 The lips and cheeks are important in the process of
MESENTERIES
mastication
 Are parts of the peritoneum that hold the abdominal C. TONGUE

organs in place and provide a passageway for blood
vessels and nerves to the organs
 The tongue is a large, muscular organ that occupies
most of the oral cavity
MESENTERY IS ALSO APPLIED SPECIFICALLY TO PARTICULAR
 The major attachment of the tongue is in the posterior
MESENTERIES:
part of the oral cavity
 The anterior part of the tongue is relatively free except
 The mesentery associated with the small intestine is for an anterior attachment to the floor of the mouth by
called mesentery proper a thin fold tissue called the frenulum
 The mesentery connecting the lesser curvature of the  The tongue is a major sensory organ for taste, as well
stomach to the liver and diaphragm is called the lesser as of the major organs of speech
omentum
 The mesentery connects the greater curvature of the TEETH
stomach to the transverse colon and posterior body call
called the greater omentum  There are 32 teeth in the normal adult mouth, located
in the mandible and maxillae
OMENTAL BURSA
 The teeth can be divided into four quadrants: (a) right
upper, (b) left upper, (c) right lower, and (d) left lower
 Create a cavity or pocket  In adults, each quadrant contains (a) one central, (b)
one lateral incisor, (c) one canine, (d) first and second
RETROPERITONEUM
 Other abdominal organs that have no mesenteries
ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX, AN ESOPHAGUS

ANATOMY OF THE ORAL CAVITY
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premolars, and (e) first, second, third molars CEMENTUM
o The surface of the dentin in the root
PULP CAVITY
o The center of the tooth is a hollow space called the

pulp cavity
PULP
o Consists of blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue
ALVEOLI
o The teeth are held in place within pockets in the bone
GINGIVA OR GUMS
WISDOM TOOTH
o Moist stratified squamous epithelium
 The third molars
PERIODONTAL LIGAMENTS
PERMANENT TEETH OR SECONDARY TEETH
o Secure the teeth in the alveoli by embedding into the

 The teeth of adults
cementum
PRIMARY TEETH OR DECIDUOUS TEETH

DENTAL CARIES OR TOOTHE DECAY
 Also called as milk or bay teeth, which are lost during o It is the result of the breakdown of enamel by acids
childhood produced by bacteria on the tooth surface
EACH TOOTH CONSIST OF THREE REGIONS: ENAMEL
CROWN  In non-living and cannot repair itself
o The crown is the visible portion of the tooth PERIODONATL DISEASE
NECK
 Is inflammation and degeneration of the periodontal
ligaments, gingiva, and alveolar bone
o It is the small region between the crown and the root
PALATE AND TONSILS
ROOT
PALATE
o It is the largest region of the tooth and anchors it in the  Or roof of the oral cavity, separates the oral cavity from
bone of the maxillae and mandible the nasal cavity and prevents food from passing into
the nasal cavity during chewing and swallowing.
DENTIN
Note: the palate consists of two parts: (a) the hard palate and
o The bulk of the tooth is formed by a living, cellular, (b) the soft palate.
calcified tissue
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HARD PALATE  An inflammation of the parotid gland caused by a viral

infection, Mumps in an adult male involve the testes
 Is the anterior part and contains bone and can result in sterility.
SOFT PALATE SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND
 Is the posterior part and consists of skeletal muscle and  Produce more serous than mucous secretions.
connective tissue
SUBLINGUAL GLANDS
UVULA
 The smallest of the three paired salivary glands,
 Is a posterior extension of the soft palate. produce primarily mucous secretions.
TONSILS SALIVA
 Are located in the lateral posterior walls of the oral  Is composed of fluid and proteins and has three main
cavity, in the nasopharynx, and in the posterior surface functions. (a) It helps keep the oral cavity moist, which
of the tongue. is needed for normal speech and for dissolving food
particles so they can be tasted, (b) it has protective
SALIVARY GLANDS functions, and (c) it begins the process of digestion.
 The normal daily rate of saliva secretion varies from
 There are three major pairs of salivary glands: (a) the
approximately 0.5L to 1.5L.
parotid gland, (b) the submandibular glands, (c) the
sublingual glands. SALIVARY AMYLASE
 Breaks the covalent bonds between glucose molecules

in starch and other polysaccharides.
SALIVA HAS SEVERAL FUNCTIONS:
 It prevents bacterial infections in the mouth by washing

the oral cavity with a mildly antibacterial enzyme,
called lysozyme.
 Saliva also neutralizes the pH in the mouth, which
reduces the harmful effects of bacterial acids on tooth
enamel.
 The neutralization effect of saliva prevents the
ulceration and infection of the oral mucosa and caries
SALIVA (cavities) formation in the teeth.
 Produce by the salivary glands. MUCIN

 Saliva is a mixture of serous (watery) and mucous fluids
and has multiple roles.  A proteoglycan that gives a lubricating quality to the
secretions of the salivary glands.
PAROTID GLAND
MASTICATION
 The largest of the salivary glands.
MUMPS
Page 52 | 62
 Breaks large food particles into small ones, which have  Is tipped posteriorly, so that the opening into the larynx
a much larger total surface area than a few large is covered.
particles would have
PERISTALTIC WAVES
PHARYNX
 Muscular contractions of the esophagus.
 Also, known as throat, which connects the mouth with
the esophagus, consists of three parts: (a) the STOMACH
nasopharynx, (b) the oropharynx, and (c) the ANATOMY OF STOMACH
laryngopharynx.
 The stomach is divided into four regions: (a) the cardiac
 Only the oropharynx and laryngopharynx carry food to
part, (b) the fundus, (c) the body, and (d) the pyloric
the esophagus.
part.
ESOPHAGUS  The esophagus opens into the cardiac part of the
stomach at the gastroesophageal opening.
 The part of the stomach to the left of the cardiac part.
 Is a muscular tube, lined with moist stratified
squamous epithelium that extends from the pharynx to  The fundus, is actually superior to the cardiac opening.
the stomach.  The largest part of the stomach is the body, which
 It is about 25 cm long and lies anterior to the vertebrae turns to the right, creating a greater curvature and a
and posterior to the trachea within the mediastinum. lesser curvature.
 The body narrows to form the funnel-shaped pyloric
ESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTERS part of the stomach.
 The pyloric part opens into the small intestine and is
 Located at the upper and lower ends of the esophagus, surrounded by the pyloric sphincter.
respectively, regulate the movement of food into and  The muscularis layer of the stomach is different from
out of the esophagus. other regions of the digestive tract in that is consists of
three layers: (a) an outer longitudinal layer, (b) a
CARDIAC SPHINCTER middle circular layer, and (c) an inner oblique layer.
 The lower esophageal sphincter. RUGAE
SWALLOWING  The large arranged folds in the stomach.
 Also, known as deglutition, can be divided into three GASTRIC PITS

phases: (a) the voluntary phase, (b) the pharyngeal
phase, and (c) the esophageal phase.
o During the voluntary phase, a bolus, or mass of
food, is formed in the mouth. The tongue pushes
the bolus against the hard palate.
o The Pharyngeal phase of swallowing is controlled
by a reflex. This phase is initiated when a bolus of
food stimulates receptors in the oropharynx to
elevate the soft palate.
o Esophageal phase of swallowing is responsible for
moving food from the pharynx to the stomach.
EPIGLOTTIS
Page 53 | 62
CHIEF CELLS
 Produce pepsinogen, a precursor of the protein-

digesting enzyme pepsin.
SECRETION OF THE STOMACH

CHYME
 Semi-fluid mixture
STOMACH SECRETIONS FROM THE GASTRIC GLANDS

INCLUDE FOUR SUBSTANCES:
 Hydrochloric Acid – Produces a pH of about 2.0 in the

stomach.
 Pepsin – Converted from its inactive form called
pepsinogen.
 Mucus- forms a thick layer, which lubricates the
epithelial cells of the stomach wall and protects them
from the damaging effect of the acidic chime and
pepsin.
 Intrinsic factor- binds with vitamin B12 and makes it
more readily absorbed in the small intestine.
 The mucosal surface forms numerous tube-like.
STOMACH CAN BE DIVIDED INTO FIVE GROUPS:
 surface mucous cells

 mucous neck cells
 parietal cells
 endocrine cells
 Chief cells.
SURFACE MUCOUS CELLS
 These are found on the inner surface of the stomach

and lining the gastric pits
MUCOUS NECK CELLS
 These produce mucus.
PARIETAL CELLS
 These produce hydrochloric and intrinsic factors.
ENDOCRINE CELLS
 These produce regulatory hormones and paracrine

signal molecules.
Page 54 | 62
 During the cephalic phase, the stomach secretions are

initiated by the sight, smell, taste, or thought of food.
 During the gastric phase, partially digested proteins
and distention of the stomach promote secretion.
 During the intestinal phase, acidic chime in the
duodenum stimulates neuronal reflexes and the
secretion of hormones that inhibit gastric secretions by
negative-feedback loops. Secretin and cholecystokinin
inhibit gastric secretion.
MOVEMENT IN THE STOMACH
 Mixing waves mix the stomach contents with the

stomach secretions to form chyme.
 Peristaltic waves move the chyme into the duodenum.
Increased motility increases emptying.
 Distention of the stomach increases gastric motility.
Neutral and hormonal feedback loops from the
duodenum inhibit gastric motility. Cholecystokinin is a
major inhibitor of gastric motility.
HEARTBURN OR GASTRITIS
 Is a painful or burning sensation in the chest usually

associated with an increase in gastric acid secretion
and/or a backflush of acidic chime into the esophagus.
REGULATION OF STOMACH SECRETIONS
 Parasympathetic stimulation, gastrin, and histamine SMALL INTESTINE

increase stomach secretions. ANATOMY OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
Page 55 | 62
 The major function of the small intestine is the  The mucosa and submucosa form a series of circular
absorption of nutrients. folds that run perpendicular to the long axis of the
 Most absorption occurs in the first and second portions digestive tract.
of the small intestine, although some absorption also
occurs in the third portion of the small intestine. VILLI
 Small intestine is about 6 meters long and consists of
three parts: (a) the duodenum, (b) the jejunum, and (c)  Tiny, fingerlike projections of the mucosa form
the ileum. numerous villi
 The duodenum nearly completes a 180-degree arc as it
LACTEAL
curves within the abdominal cavity.
 Part of the pancreas lies within this arc.  Blood capillary network and a lymphatic capillary.
 The common bile duct from the liver and the
pancreatic duct from the pancreas join and empty into MICROVILLI
the duodenum.
 Most of the cells composing the surface of the villi have
numerous cytoplasmic extensions, called microvilli.
THE MUCOSA OF THE SMALL INTESTINE IS SIMPLE

COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM WITH FOUR MAJOR CELL TYPES:
 Absorptive cells – which have microvilli, produce

digestive enzymes and absorb digested food.
 Goblet cells – which produce a protective mucus
 Granular cells – which may help protect the intestinal
epithelium from bacteria.
 Endocrine cells – which produce regulatory hormones.
 The epithelial cells are located within the tubular

glands of the mucosa, called intestinal glands or crypts
DUODENUM of Lieberkühn, at the base of the villi
 Is about 25 cm long DUODENAL GLANDS
JEJUNUM  Open into the base of the intestinal glands.
 Is about 2.5 m long and makes up two-fifths of the total PEYER PATCHES
length of the small intestine.
 Lymphatic nodules are common along the entire length
ILEUM of the digestive tract, and clusters of lymphatic
nodules.
 Is about 3.5 m long and makes up three-fifths of the
small intestine. ILEOCECAL JUNCTION
THE SMALL INTESTINE HAS THREE MODIFICATIONS THAT  The site where the ileum connects to the large
INCREASE ITS SURFACE AREA TO ABOUT 600-FOLD: intestine.
CIRCULAR FOLD
ILEOCECAL SPHINCTER
 The ring of smooth muscle.
Page 56 | 62
ILEOCECAL VALVE ● can remove sugar from the blood and store it in the form of
glycogen; it can also store lipids, vitamins, copper, and iron
 Which allows the intestinal contents to move from the though the storage is short-term.
ileum to the large intestine, but not in the opposite The four lobes:
direction. 1. Right lobe
2. Left lobe
SECRETIONS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE 3. Caudate lobe
4. Quadrate lobe
 Mucus protects against digestive enzymes and stomach
acids. The right and left lobes are separated by falciform ligament.
 These enzyme groups include (a) peptidases, and (b)
disaccharides. Porta- the gate through which blood vessels, ducts, and nerves
o Peptidases – digest protein. enter or exit the liver.
o They break the peptide bonds in
proteins to form amino acids. Hepatic artery- delivers oxygenated blood to the liver
o Disaccharidases – digest small sugars,
specifically disaccharides. Hepatic portal vein- carries nutrient-rich blood from the
 Chemical or tactile irritation, vagal stimulation, and digestive tract to the liver
secretin stimulate intestinal secretion.
Hepatic veins- where blood empties into the superior vena cava
MOVEMENT IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
● The liver is divided into hepatic lobules.
 Mixing and propulsion of chyme are the primary ○ hexagone shaped regions surrounded by
mechanical events that occur in the small intestine. connective tissue septa and defined by a
o A secretion introduced into the digestive tract or portal triad at each corner and a central vein
into food within the tract begins in one location. o the hepatic portal vein
o Segments of the digestive tract alternate o the hepatic artery
between contraction and relaxation. o the hepatic duct
o Material in the intestine is spread out in both
Hepatic cords- string of cells that readiate out from the central
directions from the site of introduction.
vein of each lobule like the spokes of a wheel
o The secretion or food is spread out in the
digestive tract and becomes more diffuse.
● composed of hepatocytes (functional cells of the liver)
PERISTALTIC CONTRACTIONS
Hepatic sinusoids- blood channels in the spaces between the
hepatic cords
 Proceed along the length of the intestine for variable
distances and cause the chyme to move along the small ● lined with very thin, irregular squamous endothelium
intestine.
Bile canaliculus- cleft like lumen that lies between the cells
SEGMENTAL CONTRACTIONS within each cord
 Are propagated for only short distances and mix

intestinal contents.
LIVER AND PANCREAS

Anatomy of the Liver
● largest internal organ of the body and is about 1.36 kg
● located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, tucked
against the inferior surface of the diaphragm
Page 57 | 62
Bile produced by the hepatocytes flows through the bile

canaliculi toward the hepatic triad and exits the liver through
the hepatic ducts.
Anatomy of the Pancreas

● composed of both endocrine and exocrine tissues
● located behind the stomach and is retropineal
○ the head is nestled within the curvature of the
duodenum.
○ the body and tail extend to the spleen
Endocrine part:
o consists of pancreatic isletsm or islets of
Langerhans
o produce the hormones insulin and glucagon
Functions of the Liver which are important in the controlling the
● plays a crucial role in metabolism blood levels of nutirents such as glucose and
● processes nutrients and detoxifies harmful substances from amino acids
the blood Exocrine part:
● produces 600-1000 mL of bile every day  a compound acinar gland
o has no digestive enzymes  Acinar cells within the acini produce digestive enzymes
o neutralizes stomach acids and emulsifies lipids  flows from the pancreas to the small instetine; forms
Bile salts- emulsify lipids the pancreatic duct
Bilirubin- common bile pigment o joins the common bile duct at the
Gallstones- may form if the amount of cholesterol secreted by duodenal papilla and its secretions
the liver becomes excessive and is not able to be dissolved by empty into the duodenum
the bile salts. Functions of the Pancreas
● The liver can turn nutrients into more usable ● secretions include bicarbonate ions and digestive
substances. enzymes called pancreatic enzymes
● Many of the blood proteins such as albumins, ○ Bicorbonate ions neutralize the stomach acid
fibrinogens, globulins, and clotting factors, are that enters the small intestine
synthesized in the liver and released into the blood. o this neutralized acid is required for
the function of pancreatic and small
intestine enzymes
o also prevents stomach acid from
damaging the duodenum
Page 58 | 62
Major protein-digesting enzymes: ● is the proximal end of the large intestine where it joins
 Trypsin with the small intestine at the ileocecal junction
 Chymotrypsin ● located in the lower right quadrant of the abdomen
 Carboxypeptidase ● a 6 cm sac
o they continue the protein digestions that ● appendix is attached to it
started in the stomach Appendicitis
Pancreatic amylase continues the polysaccharide digestion that o inflammation of the appendix that usually occurs
began in the oral cavity because of an obstruction
Also pancratic enzymes: lipase, nucleases (degrades DNA and o secretions from the appendix cannot pass through the
RNA to their component nucleoids) obstruction=enlargement and pain
o Symptoms:
o sudden abdominal pain
o slight fever
o loss of appetite
o constipation or diarrhea
o nausea and vomiting
o if the appendix burst, the infection can spread
throughout the perineal cavity causing peritonitis with
life-threatening results
o treatment: appendectomy (surgical removal of the
appendix)
Colon
● 1.5-1.8 m long
Parts:
 Ascending colon
LARGE INTESTINE
Anatomy of the Large Intestine  Transverse colon
● portion of the digestive tract extending from the iloceal  Descending colon
junction to the anus  Sigmoid colon
Parts:
 Cecum Crypts
 Colon o straight, tubular glands, mucosal lining of the colon
which contains many mucus-producing goblet cells
 Rectum
 Anal canal
o The longitudinal smooth muscle layer of the colon does
o 18-24 are required for material to pass through the
not completely envelop the intestinal wall but forms
large intestine compared to the 5 hours in the chyme
three bands called teniae coli.
Rectum
● straight, muscular tube that begins at the termination
of the sigmoid colon and ends at the anal canal
Anal canal
● the last 2-3 cm of the digestive tract
● ends at the anus
● has a smooth muscle layer thicker than the rectum and
forms the internal anal sphincter at its superior end
● external anal sphincter is formed by skeletal muscle
Hemorrhoids
○ while in the colon, chyme is converted into
o Enlarged rectal/hemorrhoidal veins that supply the anal
feces
canal
Cecum
o May cause pain, itching, or bleeding around the anus
Page 59 | 62
o Can be treated by changed in diet or medications Monosaccharides are absorbed by intestinal epithelial cells.
Functions of the Large Intestine ● Liver cells convert different monosaccharides into
● feces formation glucose, which leaves the liver and is distrubuted
● defecation throughout the body
Mass movements ● rate of glucose transport is influenced by insulin
o large parts of the colon undergoing several strong ○ w/o insulin, glucose enters most crlls very
contractions every 8-12 hours slowly
Defecation reflex
o consists of local and parasympathetic reflexes
o Local reflex: weak contraction
o Parasympathetic reflex: responsible for
most the of defecation reflex
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT

Digestion
 the breakdown of food to molecules that are small
enough to be absorbed into the blood
o Mechanical digestion
- Breaks large food particles into smaller ones
o Chemical digestion
- Uses enzymes to break covalent chemical
bonds in organic molecules
Ex: carbohydrates → monosaccharides

lipids → fatty acids/monoglycerides
proteins→amino acids
Absorption
● begins in the stomach
● small, lipid soluble materials like alcohol and aspirin can
diffuse through the stomach epithelium and to the Lipids
blood ● insoluble or only slightly soluble in water
● most absorption occurs in the duodenum and jejunum; ● triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and fat-soluble
some in the ileum vitamins
Transport Saturated fats
● requires carrier molecules and includes facilitated o Have only single bonds between carbons of fatty acids
diffusion, cotransport and active transport which both o Solid at room temp
require energy to move molecules across the intestinal o Found in meat, dairy, eggs, nuts, oils
wall
Carbohydrates Unsaturated fats
● consist primarily of starches, cellulose, sucrose, and o Have double bonds between carbons of the fatty acids
small amounts of fructose, and lactose o Liquids at room temp
Polysaccharides-larger carbohydrates that consist of many o Fish and plant-based oils
sugars linked by chemical bonds
Salicary amylase-begins the digestion of carbohydrates in the Lipase
mouth where digestion continues until the food is well mixed o Secreted by the pancreas, digests lipid molecules
with acid, which inactivates salivary amylase o Cannot efficiently digest lipds alone
● carbohydrate digestion is resumed in the duodehum by
pancreatic amylase Emulsification-bile salts transform large lipid droplets into much
○ turns them into disaccharides smaller liquids droplets
Page 60 | 62
Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), High-density lipoprotein (HDLs)
Proteins
● chains of amino acids
● found in most animal and plant products we eat
Pepsin
o A protein-digesting enzyme secreted by the stomach
o Breaks down large proteins into smaller, individual
polypeptides
Water and Minerals
● In the small intestine, other enzymes called peptidases,
● 92% is absorbed by the small intestine
further break down small peptides into tripeptides,
● 7% in the large intestine
dipeptides, or single amino acids
● 1% leaves the body in feces
○ peptidases are bound to microvilli of the small
● water can move in either direction through osmosis
intestine
across the wall of the digestive tract
Page 61 | 62
References:
https://www.imaios.com/en/e-Anatomy/Anatomical-
Parts/Sagittal-
suture#:~:text=The%20sagittal%20suture%20is%20a,Sagitta%2C
%20meaning%20%22arrow%22.
https://www.imaios.com/en/e-Anatomy/Anatomical-
Parts/Lambdoid-
suture#:~:text=The%20lambdoid%20suture%20(or%20lambdoid
al,from%20its%20lambda%2Dlike%20shape.
https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/squamous-
suture
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-hierarchical-
structure-of-muscle-an-active-contracting-material-A-skeletal-
muscle_fig1_306334643
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsomega.9b00973
Ayisha Qureshi, I. (2022). SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY - ppt video
online download. Retrieved 18 November 2022, from
https://slideplayer.com/slide/4452266/
Resting Membrane Potential | Biology for Majors II. (2022).

Retrieved 18 November 2022, from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-
biology2/chapter/resting-membrane-potential/
Summary of the events of contraction and relaxation in a

skeletal muscle fiber. (2022). Retrieved 19 November 2022,
from
https://higheredbcs.wiley.com/legacy/college/tortora/0470565
101/hearthis_ill/pap13e_ch10_illustr_audio_mp3_am/simulatio
ns/hear/contraction_relaxation_skeletal_muscle_fiber.html
https://www.getsmidge.com/pages/how-digestion-works
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-dutchess-
ap1/chapter/anatomy-of-organs-of-the-digestive-system-and-
their-functions/

Page 62 | 62

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Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathology LECTURE # 6, 7,

Dumangon, Junelle || November 2022

Disclaimer IX. Skeletal Anatomy Overview

○ e.g., skull encloses and o Also called osteogenesis

BONE HISTOLOGY  Ruffled border

○ concentric sheets or layers Epiphy

centers appear in the

5 years to 12 years in Ossification is spreading

17 to 20 years Bone of the upper limbs

● also called endochondral growth 23 to 25 years Bone of the sternum,

TIMETABLE FOR HUMAN OSSIFICATION

Time period Bones affected

INDIRECT EFFECTS OF PTH IN THE SMALL INTESTINE

CALCITRIOL SKELETAL TERMINOLOGY

a. Frontal bone  The tympanic part of the temporal bone has a

Foramen magnum – the opening where the brainstem connects

Olfactory foramina – allow olfactory nerves to enter the nasal

Perpendicular plate- a central, tiny bone plate in the ethmoid

 Commonly known as the cheekbones, are anterior to

 Is anterior and inferior to the zygomatic bones, and the

Specialized regions in the skull

 The maxilla is called the paranasal sinuses.

Nasal cavity Infraorbital foramen – passage of a facial nerve and artery.

Spinous process – the junction between the two laminae.

Intervertebral foramina – are the locations where two

Intervertebral notches – the pedicles of adjacent vertebrae.

● Is important for speech and swallowing.

● Vertebral column performs five major functions: (a) it

Axis – allows the head to rotate and it is C2.

 Commonly known as rib cage.

True ribs – directly connect in the sternum.

False ribs – They are not directly attached to the sternum.

Floating ribs – They are not attached to the sternum.

Sternum – or also known as the breastbone.

 Support the thoracic cage, which houses and protects

 Support the majority of the body’s weight.

Coccyx Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

Scapula – commonly known as the shoulder blade. Also, it is a

 The wrist is a relatively short region between the

Anatomical neck – immediately distal to the head, is almost

 Hand: Metacarpals and phalanges

Phalanges – small long bones.

 Includes the thigh (femur), which is the largest bone in

 Is made up of 2 hip bones.

● or articulations are commonly named according to the

Fibrous joint – consists of bones united by fibrous connective

Sutures- are fibrous joints between the bones of the skull.

Syndesmoses – fibrous joints in which the bones are separated

Gomphoses – consist of pegs fitted into sockets and held in

Cartilaginous Joints – consist of bones united by the cartilage,

Synovial joints – contain synovial fluid and allow considerable

Flexion – bending movement that decrease the angle of the

Extension – a straightening movement that increase the angle

Hyperextension – usually defines as extension of a joint beyond

Plantar flexion - standing on toes.

Dorsiflexion – walking on the heels.

Abduction – away from the median.