Science Cells Unit B

October 9, 2023 3:01 PM

• States 3 things:
• All living things consist of cells
• All cells come from pre-existing cells
• Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of life

• Cells come in many different sizes, shapes and functions

• Cell theory applies to all living things, regardless of anything

Creation of The Cell Theory

• There are 4 Scientists who helped develop the cell theory:
• Mr. Schleiden
• T.Schwann
• R.Virchow

The Word Cell, Comes from cellulose

Anton Van leeuwenhook was the father of microscopy

• Transpiration: Process which plants lose lots of water from leaf/stem

• Scientific Name for a nerve cell: Neuron

Photosynthesis Chemical and Word Equation

• Word Equation:
Water + Carbon dioxide (in the presence of sunlight) = glucose + oxygen \
• Chemical Equation
H2O + CO2 (In the presence of sunlight) = C6H12O6+O2

Cellular Respiration
• Occurs in All living things
• Series of chemical reactions that breaks down glucose to produce ATP which is Energy for the Body to Use
Word Equation
• Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy/ATP

Spontaneous Generation
• Belief that living things come from non living things
• Mr. Redi Proved Spontaneous Generation isn't real
• He Stated that all living things come from parents/living things

• Shows That Maggots didn’t originate from meat (in this case this also applies to other living things)
• When he placed a cloth above the meat (Gauze covered Jar) There were no Maggots on the Meat, but on the Gauze, Proving Living
things don’t come from non living things, because the fly's didn’t have access to the meat either.

Characteristics of Living Things

• Living Things grow in size as they get older, reproduce and are able to repair worn/damaged parts
• Living things require energy (e.g. plants from sunlight and animals eat plants or other animals for energy)
• Living things respond to changes in their environment as animals try to escape from predators & plants grow roots in directio n of
moist soil
• Living things have a lifespan as they have a life cycle, they eventually get old and die
• Living things produce Waste that is unusable/unwanted materials released to the environment

Plant and Animal Cells

Organelles in Plant and Animal Cell
• organelle: a small structure
found within a cell; performs a
specific function in a cell
• Cytoplasm: watery/jelly-like substance found in a cell, usually used for transport or chemical reactions
• Cell membrane: part of cell that surrounds and holds cell contents, controls movement of substances in and out of a cell

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 • Nucleus: control center in a cell, contains genetic information that directs all of the cells functions
• Chromosomes: located in the nucleus of a cell, contains genetic info about a cell, (chromatin material is turned into chromosomes
during cell division)
• Vacuoles: membrane surrounded storage compartment in a cell, stores food, water or other materials
• Golgi Body/ Apparatus (Animal Only): stores and packages proteins produced by the ribosomes
• Ribosomes: tiny organelles that produce protein needed for growth, repair and reproduction of the cell
• Mitochondria: Organelles that produces energy for the cell by combing sugar and oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water
• Lysosomes: organelles that clean the cytoplasm by releasing digestive proteins which break harmful substances and large particles the
cell then can use for growth & repair
• Endoplasmic Reticulum: Series of folded membrane which helps with transportation of materials in the cytoplasm
Organelles in Plant Cells ONLY!
• Cell wall: rigid structure that surrounds, protects and supports the cell *made of cellulose*
• Chloroplast: site of photosynthesis in a plant cell, they absorb sunlight, carbon dioxide and water to create food
• Dictyosomes: has the same role as the Golgi apparatus/ body in a plant cell
• Plastids are also in plant cells (example of plastid= chloroplast)
Plant Cells are green due to the chlorophyll that is present in chloroplasts. Plant Cells also have a cell wall and cell memb rane!

• (Diagram of a Animal Cell, all labeled

Cell Movement
• Cells move in two different ways: Flagella or Cilia
• Flagella: tail-like structures that propels a cell in its environment
• Cilia: hair like projections that propel a cell or move the substances around it

• Flagella is Often found on bacterial cells as cilia is often found on cells in the lungs and intestines of animals

Advances in microscopy
• Compound microscope: microscope that uses beams of light to create a magnified image
• Electron microscope: microscope that has more magnifying power and uses beams of electrons to create a magnified image
The image of electron microscopes can only be seen with a computer as it doesn’t use visible light. Instead computers create the image
known as a electron micrograph that is viewed instead

• Electron microscopes are helpful because they allow scientists to see cells in more detail
• Some organisms that can be seen with a electron microscope are:
• Mitochondria, Ribosomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), Golgi Body/ Apparatus and Lysosomes

The two types of electron microscope; TEM and SEM

• Two commonly used types of electron microscopes are the Transmission electron microscope (TEM) and the Scanning electron
microscope (SEM)
Differences of SEM and TEM microscope
Similarities: SEM (Scanning Electron TEM( Transmission
Microscope)
• Both are types of Electron microscopeelectron microscope)
• Lenses are • Lenses used
not magnetic are magnetic
Some Benefits of Electron
• Heavy Metals or microscopy are:
Dyes can be used to • Allowed advances in
stain specimen detecting diseases
• Electrons that are • As electron beam • Viruses and bacteria can
be easily spotted and
reflected or scattered passes, electrons
treated
are used to create the reflect and change
• Defects and anomalies in
image of the direction, the electrons cells organelles can be
specimen, which is 3D that pass through spotted
produce a electron
micrograph
Some Disadvantages of
• Only exterior of • 2D Image Only
Electron microscopy are:
Specimen can • Specimen may have to
• Large machines

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 • Requires training

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 electron
Some Disadvantages of Electron microscopy are: micrograph
• Large machines
• Only exterior of • 2D Image Only
• Requires training
Specimen can • Specimen may have • Very expensive
be viewed to be killed to get the
• Specimen doesn’t need image Some places where electron
to be killed • Thin slice of specimen microscopes are used are:
• Requires less is needed, Requires • Forensics,nanotechnolgy, and
preparation more Preparation time mining
time
Cell Membrane
• General gatekeeper of a cell
• Cell Membrane regulates homeostasis
• Cells keep a stable environment inside them with homeostasis
• Selectively permeable membrane: membrane allowing certain substances to pass through it
• Made up of 2 layers of fat particles, which proteins are embedded,
• Some proteins act as channels, opening and closing pathways and which materials can pass through the cell
• Generally most small particles such as oxygen cells can easily pass through the membrane
• Larger particles however cannot pass as easily

Diffusion
• Movement of particles from area of higher to lower concentration
• Facilitated Diffusion: Is diffusion but requires transport proteins to happen
• A example of diffusion can be a air freshener, where the particles are moving from the are of high concentration( the Freshen er) to a
area of lower concentration (in this case the air)
• These particles will keep moving until they are even dispersed

Concentration Gradient

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 • Shows the difference of concentration between two areas of a substance
• The difference in concentration affects the direction the particles are moving between the two areas
• An example can be with particles going across the cell membrane/selectively permeable membrane
• As particles keep moving they keep going until the gradient decreases both areas reach a equilibrium (or Equal amount of conc entration
in both areas)

• Diffusion also plays a important role in how living things obtain energy and get rid of wastes
• (!!THIS IS ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF DIFFUSION!!)
• E.g. In our bodies, tiny blood vessels in your muscles (capillaries) carry oxygen -rich cells to each muscle cell
• Oxygen then diffuses from blood cells in the capillaries (highly concentrated area) to the muscle cells (less concentrated)
• Once in the muscle cell, the oxygen is used as energy
• Results in the concentration of the muscles always being lower than the concentration in the capillaries (oxygen is used for the
muscle to contract)
• At the same time wastes such as Co2 (carbon dioxide) are produced inside the muscle cells, creating a buildup of wastes in th e
cells, creating a area of higher concentration in them

• Because of how diffusion works, the particles diffuse from the muscle cell(high concentrated area) to the blood (lower concen
tration area)
• This exchange Happens all the time, also means its important to have constant supply of oxygen -rich blood
• Allows diffusion to continue

Osmosis. A important type of diffusion

• Osmosis: diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a area of higher to lower water
concentration/solute concentration
• Osmosis can only happen when a concentration gradient is present and if there is a selectively permeable membrane!
• An example of Osmosis can be this:

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•

• In this example we see how, there are lower protein particles in side A rather than side B but also that in side A there are more water particle s
than side B
• In these stages it shows how the water is moving from a area from high concentration (SIDE A) to a area of lower concentration (SIDE B)
• It does this until again, equal concentration of water particles is present in both areas
• The arrows represent the movement of water, in the first diagram we can see there are more arrows showing the movement of particles to the
right than the left, because move particles need to be moved.
• In the second figure its shown how now the water particles is going and increasing the water particle count in side B and decreasing in side A
• In the 3rd figure its shown that because there is a equal amount of arrows going left and right (2 each) it shows that how both sides have
reached equal concentration or equilibrium in the concentration gradient, water then passes through both sides at a equal rate
• Differences in Osmosis and Diffusion Some Similarities of Diffusion and Osmosis are
• Both require concentration gradient to
Osmosis Diffusion • occur Both are types of Passive Transport
• Diffusion of water • Movement of • Both are important processes in living
particles across a particles from a • things Both are processes of Diffusion
selectively area of higher
permeable to lower There Are 3 types of Osmotic Solutions
membrane concentration (IMPORTANT!!!)
• Needs a • Does not need • Isotonic: Equal (water moves in and
Selectively a selectively out of the cell at a equal rate,
permeable permeable nothing is changed)
membrane to membrane to • Hypotonic(Hypo/Hippo) (Water
happen occur moves into the cell making it swell and
get fat, it can eventually burst or
• e.g. Plants uses • E.g. Air freshener rupture
osmosis to take scent filling a • Hypertonic (Like a Raisin) (Water
water from the room leaves the cell and goes out, making
ground for the cell shriven up and look like a
stability raisin)
Differences of Passive and Active
Transport
Active Transport Passive
Transport
• Requires cellular • Does not
energy require cellular
• Required for energy
transportation of • Happens from
molecules such area of higher to
as sugars lower
• Happens from concentration
region of lower • Slow Process
to higher area of
concentration
• • Required for the
Different types of
active transport transportation of
are exocytosis and small molecules
endocytosis such as water

• Rapid Process • Different types

of passive
transport are:
Osmosis,

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 diffusion and
facilitated diffusion

How Turgor Pressure Happens in Osmosis

• Plant Cells have a large central vacuole that takes most space of the cell
• Plant roots absorb water from surrounding soil and transports it to cells in the plant needing water
• This water is then stored in the vacuole, when a cell needs water, the water is taken from the vacuole to give to other parts in the cell
• Causes lower concentration in water in the cytoplasm and therefore a increase in the concentration of solutes
• If the concentration of solutes in the plant becomes higher than the concentration outside, water moves into the plant by osmosis

Turgor Pressure in Osmosis

• When plant roots absorb water, it causes a sudden influx of water inside of the central vacuole and cytoplasm, causing the cell to
exert pressure on the cell wall which causes swelling, which is turgor pressure
• Turgor Pressure: outward pressure exerted on a cell by cell contents after water enters the cell by osmosis
• After plant cells become "Turgid" They are all pressing tightly against each other, this causes the plant to be upright and stiff, whereas when
water leaves the plant it loses its turgidness and becomes wilted

• Osmosis is important to understand in farming and horticulture

• An example can be how fertilizers should be given in small amounts to plants as when the nutrients are added it increases the
concentration of solutes but lowers the concentration of water in the soil compared to the concentration in the plant roots
• As a result water moves from the plant roots (higher concentration) to the soil by osmosis

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

• In diffusion, solutes will move down the concentration gradient
• Sometimes cells would need to move non-dissolved particles/large amounts of material across the cell membrane. This in the form
of Exocytosis and Endocytosis

Endocytosis
• Endocytosis: process in which a cell moves large amounts of material/non-dissolved particles into its cytoplasm from the outside environment
• Phagocytosis: form of endocytosis in which a cell (amoeba) uses its pseudopods to move non dissolved particles(bacterium) into its
cytoplasm from the outside environment,

• After the Amoeba takes in the bacterium, it is enclosed in a food vacuole/contractile vacuole. Chemicals are then released which break
down the bacterium into energy the cell can utilize
• Phagocytosis is often considered "cell eating" as many cells use phagocytosis to obtain nutrients from the outside environment
• There are other uses for phagocytosis in cells, how in white blood cells phagocytosis is used to remove harmful bacteria and
unwanted particles from the outside environment

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Exocytosis
• Exocytosis: process which large amounts of material/undissolved particles are moved from a cells cytoplasm to the outside environment
• Exocytosis is basically the reverse process of Endocytosis
• Another thing to note, although a vacuole can hold food and store it, it also stores waste which the cell uses exocytosis to remove it.
• During exocytosis a vacuole containing the wastes fuses with the membrane to open and release's its stuff into the outside environment

• Another example of when exocytosis is used in a cell is when objects/materials are to big to move out of the membrane by diffusion, a cell then
can use exocytosis to help move the objects out of its cytoplasm
• Exocytosis also plays important roles in other important biological processes
• An Example can be in our bodies, when our cells release chemicals into our blood stream using exocytosis (the outside environment is
the blood stream), most cases these chemicals are proteins that travel through the blood stream to other parts of the body, where these
proteins are packaged by the Golgi apparatus
• To release these proteins to go to other parts of the body, exocytosis is used to release the proteins into the
bloodstream(outside environment) to other parts of the body

Classifying Organisms

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• Organism: living system with parts that work together to carry out the processes of life
• Unicellular organisms: an organisms made of only one cell
• Multicellular organisms: and organisms that is made up of more than one cell
• Vertebrate: an animal with a backbone
• Invertebrate: an animal without a backbone

• Almost all unicellular are so small they can only be seen with a microscope
• Examples of multicellular organisms can be Humans, Dogs etc.
• Organisms are classified into 5 groups: plants , animals, fungi, protists and bacteria

Plants
• Plants are multicellular organisms, Such as grasses, flowers are plants
• All plants make their own food by Photosynthesis
• Plants can live in water or on land such as the Elodea which is a plant that lives in the water

Animals
• Animals are also multicellular organisms
• Animals can be divided into 2 Categories: Vertebrates and Invertebrates
• Examples of Invertebrates can be a spider, snail
• Examples of Vertebrates can be a Moose, Humans, Blue Jay

Fungi
• Fungi: organisms that usually obtain their food/nutrients from decaying or dead matter (such as animals)
• Fungi cant preform Photosynthesis
• Fungi mostly absorbs nutrients with their roots
• Most Fungi are Multicellular, however some are unicellular
• Some Examples of Fungi can be: Bakers Yeast, Mushrooms

Protists
• Protists: organism that is not plant or animal but shares features from both, they can be multicellular but are usually unicellular
• Protists are mostly found in wet or moist areas such as ponds
• Most Protists have all of the organelles of a common animal cell
• Some protists however can be plant like as they can have chloroplasts and be able to preform photosynthesis
• Protists that are animal like need to consume food from their environment
• An example of a Animal Like Protist can be Amoeba
• An example of a plant like protist can be the Volvox

Bacteria
• Bacteria: most basic of all unicellular organisms
• Lacks a Nucleus
• Some types of Bacteria group into bacterial colonies
• An Example of Bacteria can be E.coli (Escherichia coli)
Explanation (dumbed down, only use for understanding)
• The anal pore can be similar to how the anus functions in the
• All living things can be classified into groups based on their characteristic s,
h uman body, helping release waste from itself
• This method of classification helps scientists organize and understand t h e d i v e r s i t y o f l i f e o n a r th
• T h e C i l i a h e l p s p r o p e l t h e paramecium
Unicellular organisms • The Oral Groove is like a mouth somewhat, being the main
entrance for food to enter
Nutrition • The food Vacuole stores food in the paramecium, and
is digested which makes energy the cell can use
• Most unicellular organisms live in bodies of water (its easier for o r g a n i s•m sUtsoi nmg odvi fef )u s i o n the nutrients in the vacuole diffuse from its
• Most of them often obtain nutrients by eating other organisms membrane to the cytoplasm
• Some are plant like and some types of bacteria can preform photosynthesis for getting their food
• Other micro-organisms such as fungi and bacteria Interact with each other to get nutrients
• An example can be lichens, which form from the interaction with a fungus with alga

Paramecia
• Unicellular organisms, usually found in aquatic areas/environment
• Animal-like protists, they feed on bacteria & algae
• Covered with cilia that beat in unison, creating water currents moving it towards a food source
• Oral groove of paramecium also contains cilia, which create currents drawing the food into a cavity
• Once entered the food is enclosed in a contractile vacuole, where its digested
• Remaining waste material removed from anal pore
• As food vacuole travels in cell, nutrients are diffused through the vacuole membrane into the cytoplasm

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Amoeba
• Another animal like protist, also moves to find food
• Utilizes phagocytosis to feed on organisms

Process of Phagocytosis in more detail

• Pseudopods extend over the food (bacterium)
• Encloses the bacterium in a contractile vacuole
• Chemicals are then released into the vacuole,
breaking down the bacterium for energy the
cell can use
• Then exocytosis is utilized to release wastes
out of the cell
• Food particles are able to diffuse into
cytoplasm of the cell from the vacuole

Gas Exchange
• Most organisms need oxygen to survive
• Chemical reactions allow organisms to obtain energy from food, use oxygen and release carbon dioxide as a waste product
• Means there must be a steady exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide out of the cell
• In unicellular organisms, oxygen diffuses out of the cell once the concentration of carbon dioxide is higher in the cell than outside
• Some micro-organisms however, including some bacteria and fungi can survive without oxygen such as yeast, making it very
useful in some industries

Responding to the Environment

• Humans are able to detect changes in the environment using their five senses (hear, sight,smell,touch.taste and feeling)
• Unicellular organisms however don’t have this ability
• Instead they sense their surroundings around them in other ways
• Some bacteria can detect chemicals in their environment such as sugar and move towards it
• Photosynthetic protists like the euglena can detect light using special sensors
• All organisms are able to respond to their environment in some way or sense it

Movement and Locomotion

• Movement is a change in the shape or figure of all or part of an organism, it’s a characteristic of all living things
• Locomotion: movement that takes an object from one place in its environment to another, it’s a characteristic of animal -
like protists and some bacteria but not plants of fungi
• Unicellular organisms move in two ways, Movement and Locomotion
• Movement is achieved using pseudopods, such as the amoeba use pseudopods to obtain nutrients (phagocytosis)
• Locomotion allows an organism to change its position in the environment
• Unicellular organisms utilize cilia and flagella to achieve locomotion by creating currents in the environment, which can mov e
the cell in different directions
• Unicellular organisms generally live in bodies of water, so they depend on flagella, cilia and pseudopods for their survival

Multicellular Organisms
• Multicellular organisms have more working parts than unicellular ones
• Multicellular organisms use all of their cells to preform life processes and meet their needs

Cell Specialization
• All multicellular organisms start as a unicellular one (Single cell)
• However when the cell divides (cell division) the new cells stay close to each other instead of moving away
• Number of cells formed defines the size of the organism
• As the number of cells increase each cell becomes more efficient at its specific function within the organism
• In multicellular organisms groups of cells are specialized to preform one specific function
• A example can be in a city, where a mechanic is good at fixing cars, meaning you would go to a mechanic to fix cars, but not
treat sick people
• In the same way different cells are specialized at doing a specific function, meaning not every cell is trying to do the same job,
they each preform excellent in their specific function
• Another example can be with your heart, Your heart is good at pumping blood, but not good at digesting food
• When Cells work together to preform one specific function, they become more efficient in doing it

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Cell Differentiation
• Cell differentiation is the process by which a cell become specialized to perform a specific function.
• As soon as a cell has been differentiated, it performs a very specific function within an organism.
• An example is a muscle cell which are differentiated with cells that contract, they are specialized to work with other muscle
cells to move certain body parts.
• The 4 main differentiated cells are muscle cells, epithelial cells, fat cells and nerve cells

Tissues, Organs and Organ Systems

• In multicellular organisms, differentiated cells are organized based on the function they preform

Tissues
• Tissue: a group of differentiated cells that work together to preform a specific function
• The 4 types of basic Tissue are: epithelial, muscle, connective and nervous tissue
• Blood is a example of connective tissue
• In humans epithelial tissue can be found covering the external surfaces of the body, and lining of the surfaces of structures such
as the mouth,heart,liver and eyes
• In plants, tissues made from thin-walled plant cells are mostly found in parts of the plant that carry water and nutrients
• Tissues made from thick-walled plant cells are found in parts of the plant that provide structure

Organs
• Different tissues form larger structures, such as the heart, skin etc. These are known as organs
• Organ: two or more tissues that work together to preform one or more functions
• An example of a organ can be skin, which is the largest organ in the human body and is made up of epithelial tissue ,connecti ve,
nerve and fat tissue
• The Skin provides both structural and a barrier that protects internal structures from the outside environment and being damaged
• Other animal organs are: stomach,brain,lungs,heart,liver,intestines,eyes

Organ Systems
• Organs never work alone
• Two or more organs working together to preform a related function is a organ system
• Organ System: a group or organs that work together to preform related functions
• An example of a organ system can be the digestive system, which is made up of several organs which are the mouth,
esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small and large intestines and anus, All these organs preform one general function which is to
dige st food and take out wastes in the body
• Organ systems often overlap and share organs, an example of this can be the circulatory and respiratory systems which both
us e the lungs
• Organ systems are also interdependent, for example all organs need contact with the brain to function properly
• Organ Systems in animals are the circulatory, respiratory, digestive, musculoskeletal and nervous systems
• Plants have two major Organ Systems, The Root and shoot system
• The Shoot system in plants helps transport water and nutrients
• The Root system in plants helps get water from the soil

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Human Organ Systems

• Humans are made up of several tissues, organs and organ systems.
• The human organ systems all work together to perform specific tasks which are important for life
Circulatory Respiratory Digestive System Musculoskeletal Nervous System
System System System
Major Function • It transports • It exchanges • It breaks down • It proves • It responds to
nutrients, the oxygen food into small structural the different
dissolves gases and carbon particles, called support to changes in the
such as dioxide nutrients. the body internal and
oxygen and • This happens • This can be • It protects external
carbon dioxide between transported by the internal environment
• Also Transports blood and the circulatory body parts of the body
wastes to and the external system to all from the • It coordinates
from individual environment the cells in the outside all the functions
cells in the body environment in other organ
organisms • It also plays a systems
role in
movement
and
locomotion
Major Organs • Heart • Lungs • Mouth • Bones • Brain
• Blood Vessels • Windpipe • Esophagus • Muscle • Spinal Cord
• Blood Vessels • Stomach • Sensory Organs
• Liver (eyes, ears, nose
• Pancreas and taste buds)
• Small and
large intestines
• Anus
Major tissues • Epithelial • Epithelial • Epithelial • Epithelial • Epithelial
• Muscle • Muscle • Muscle • Muscle • Nerve
• Nerve • Nerve • Nerve • Nerve • Connective
• Connective • Connective • Connective • Connective

Multicellular organisms meeting their needs

• Living things have to meet their needs everyday
• Almost all multicellular organisms, from small-large have these needs
• In the photo it shows how both a bear and a cat need food everyday and more specifically fish

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Systems Working Together

• Its important for all systems in multicellular organism to work
• E.g. oxygen and nutrients are things cell needs to survive and the digestive, respiratory and circulatory systems work togeth er to
meet this need
• Circulatory system pumps oxygen and nutrient rich blood to all cells of body which they use and oxygen to make energy
• During the process cells release carbon dioxide as waste product
• The carbon dioxide then diffuse put of the cells of the body and into blood cells which are then transported to the lungs
by the circulatory system where carbon dioxide can then be exhaled
• An example can be a chain, which is only as strong as its weakest link, such as how a organism is only as strong as its weake st
system
• Such as the circulatory system depends on least two other organ systems (respiratory and digestive system) to preform its
rol e properly
• If one system isn't working well, the whole organism can be affected

Nutrition
• Animals are unable to make their own food and must eat other animals or food that comes from living things to obtain nutrient s
• Food material must be broken down into nutrients the cells of the body can absorb and use for energy

Nutrition in Humans
• In humans, food is taken and broken by a digestive system, made of specialized organs and tissues
• It starts when food enters the mouth, when its broken down into pieces by the teeth, which cells in the mouth release chemica ls
which also help break down the food
• The food is the swallowed into the esophagus, which has muscle cells, lining it helping the food go down to the stomach
• The stomach again releases chemicals which break down the food even more, the muscle cells in the stomach then contract
and relax moving the food into the intestines
• In the intestine nutrients are absorbed into the blood vessels of the circulatory system and is transported to other parts of
the body
• Undigested food is passed out of the Anus as waste
• The nutrients are used by the cell for energy and pass wastes into the blood for removal from the body
• These wastes pass through the kidneys and are eliminated as urine
• Each cell involved in this process has a special function necessary for digestion

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 Nutrition in the Earthworm
• The earthworm has a small mouth leading to a pharynx which helps earthworms such food in
• The esophagus then pushes food into the crop, a organ which moistens and stores food
• A specialized stomach called the gizzard, containing particles of sand and gravel helps break down tough foods
• In the intestine, chemicals further break down food into nutrients that can be absorbed into the cells of the body
• Undigested food is passed through the anus as waste

Earthworm Human
• Contains • Contains
gizzard, lots of
• humans more
don’t have, accessor
humans y organs
have all
other
organs
Nutrition in Plants • Has
• Plants cant hunt for food as animals do Teeth
• They instead obtain nutrients from their environment
• Plants use their roots to absorb water and nutrients from
the soil
• Special tube like tissues called xylem and phloem vessels are present in plant cells
• Xylem Vessels: system of tubes in a plant that transports water and minerals from the roots to the shoots and leaves
• Phloem vessels: system of tubes in a plant that transports nutrients such as dissolved sugars from the leaves to the rest of
the plant
• When water is absorbed by the xylem vessels its carried up to the leaves of the plant
• The leaves then use the sunlight, carbon dioxide and water to make food by photosynthesis
• Excess sugars are sent to the stems and roots for storage

Gas Exchange
• Small multicellular organisms use diffusion to obtain oxygen
• E.g. the earthworm uses its moist skin to exchange gases with the outside air
• Some aquatic organisms like fish pass oxygen-rich water through gills, where it then diffuses into blood capillaries
• Most land animals use lungs for gas exchange, in all cases oxygen is absorbed from the environment, and carbon dioxide
is removed from the blood
• The dissolved gases are transported in the blood

Gas Exchange in Vertebrates

• In humans air inhaled through the mouth and nose and passes into the trachea
• A flap-like structure in the trachea opens when you breathe btu closes when your swallowing food, preventing food entering
your lungs which causes choking
• Air travels down the trachea into the lungs
• In the lungs tubes called bronchi branch off into smaller tubes called bronchioles
• At the end of each bronchiole have round sacs of alveoli, where gas exchange occurs
• The walls of the alveoli are only one cell thick allowing oxygen to diffuse out of the cells of the alveoli and into the blood cells
• The circulatory system transports the oxygen rich blood cells into the rest of the body
• As blood circulates in the body, oxygen diffuses out of blood cells and into cells of the body
• In the same way, carbon dioxide diffuses out of the body cells and into the blood cells which are then carried to the alveol i
• Carbon dioxide diffuses out of BC's and into the alveoli
• The carbon dioxide then travels through the bronchioles, bronchi and trachea which then its removed from your body when you
exhale

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• However not all vertebrates exchange gases in the same way

• Such as frog which when underwater, its skin becomes permeable to water and gases
• Blood vessels in the cells of the moist outer skin allows oxygen to diffuse from the water into the bloodstream
• In the same way carbon dioxide diffuses from blood cells into the water
• Oxygen then diffuses into the bloodstream from the lungs
• On land, a frog uses lungs similar to humans for gas exchange, air is forced into the lungs by a gulping motion,

Gas Exchange in Plants

• Plants have special tissues containing stomates which are used for gas exchange
• Stomates: microscopic pores that control movement of gases and water vapour in and out of the plant
• Stomates usually found on the bottom surface of a leaf, but can also be found in other parts of the plant including the stems

Responding to the Environment

• All vertebrates and some invertebrates have a complex nervous system
• Nerve cells are highly specialized to process and transmit information
• Nervous system responds to factors in the environment such as temperature my sending signals through the nerve cells,
or to neurons, to organs
• Theses signals are then sent to the brain where they are processed and a response is initiated
• An example can be a cat when it sees a saucer of milk
• Information from the cats eyes travels from nerve cells to the brain which then the brain decides if it wants the milk
• If it does the brain will send a signal to the muscles in the cats limbs and the cat moves to the saucer of milk and drinks i t
• Every time a organisms responds to change in its environment, a long chain of messages travels through the nervous system

Plant Responses to the Environment

• Plants are also able to respond to their environment
• E.g. specialized cells in the leaves of trees detect decrease in sunlight as winter arrives
• Chloroplasts then reduce production of green chlorophyll
• As existing chlorophyll is broken down, other colored particles are revealed making the red or orange colored leaves we see d uring
fall as they eventually die off
• In the spring the increased sunlight and warmer temperatures promote the production of new leaves holding large amounts of
chlorophyll, returning the green color to leaves

Locomotion and Movement in Vertebrates and Invertebrates

• Muscles and bones work together to allow vertebrates to move around

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 • Human musculoskeletal system is made up of more than 200 bones that supports hundreds of muscles in the body
• The contraction of muscles is controlled by signals from the nervous system
• Muscles also play a important role in the functioning of organs
• E.g. muscle cells in the walls of the heart contract to move blood in and out of the heart
• Muscle cells use a lot of energy, meaning they have lots of mitochondria that converts food energy into motion
• Invertebrates animal's also use muscles to achieve locomotion but most done have bones
• The earthworm for example uses muscle contractions for locomotion
• The earthworm anchors itself to the soil with tiny hair like projections and then muscles in the body contract and expand to
pull the body through the soil

Interactions between unicellular and multicellular organisms

• Unicellular organisms benefit and harm our lives everyday
• Unicellular organisms are found in nearly every environment
• Most unicellular organisms play a important role in recycling nutrients such as fungi and bacteria which are decomposers
• They break down dead plant and animal material, releasing usable nutrient's and carbon dioxide back into the environment
• Some bacteria (Rhizobium) can help plants absorb nitrogen in the air into a material that acts like plant fertilizer, forming
a mutualistic relationship with the plant
• Other micro-organisms can be seen used in the food industry such as yeast, which is used to make bread and pastries
• Another one can be yogurt which is produced by lactic acid bacteria on milk
• Some microorganisms produce antibiotics that we could use to treat infections, such as penicillin which is made from fungus a
nd treats bacterial infections
• Some micro-organisms also live in the digestive system of multicellular organisms such as bifidobacterial, which lives in the
colon of humans and helps with digestion as they feed on food particles that pass through the intestines
• They can also produce vitamins, and help break down foods that would otherwise be indigestible

Micro-organisms and Disease

• Some micro-organisms can cause health problems such as strep throat and diarrhea
• In humans, some micro-organisms can make people temporally ill and others can cause serious diseases
• An example of a bacterial disease that killed millions was the Black death, which was caused by a bacterium called Yersinia petis
• Although the black plague is no longer common other diseases caused by micro-organisms have a impact on society today

Malaria
• Malaria is a disease caused by a micro-organism that exists today
• Malaria is caused but the unicellular protists Plasmodium falciparum
• Malaria is common in tropical regions of Africa, Asia and parts of the Americas
• In regions where poverty is widespread malaria is a big problem
• A mosquito known as the female Anopheles mosquito is the carrier of malaria which then transmits the disease from one
person to another when they bite them to suck their blood
• Treatments to malaria are available but are expensive and unavailable to most living in developing countries
• However these medications are very inexpensive in the rest of the world
• A understanding of bacterial cell activity may lead us to find cures for diseases like malaria

Cells Gone Wrong!

• Sometimes cells are unable to function properly
• This can happen for several reasons, an example can be if a organism inherited damaged genes that caused cells to fail or
environmental factors can damage cells

Diabetes
• Diabetes is caused by dysfunctional cells
• Diabetes can be inherited
• Cells in the Pancreas normally produces insulin, a chemical that helps other cells in the body absorb sugars from the blood
• There are two types of diabetes, Type 1 and 2
• Type 1 diabetes means cells in the pancreas don’t produce insulin or enough insulin, this would mean insulin would need to be
injected into the person

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 • Type 2 diabetes is worse as cells in the body don’t respond to insulin and sugar cant be absorbed
• People with type 2 diabetes must regulate their blood sugar with exercise and diet
• If uncontrolled Diabetes can lead to heart disease, blindness and kidney failure
• Most cases of diabetes are caused by obesity and lack of physical activity

Cancer
• Cancer is also caused by dysfunctional cells
• Cancerous cells quickly divide and uncontrollably form masses called tumors
• There are 2 types of tumors: Benign and Malignant tumors
• A benign tumor is a tumor that stays in one place and doesn’t normally affect the function of tissues and organs
• However in malignant tumors which is worse cancerous cells break away from the tumor, enter the blood stream and interferes
with the blood supply to health cells causing healthy cells around the tumor to die
• Cancer can be caused by chemicals like cigars or diseases or it can be inherited

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