THE FILMMAKER’S EYE

LEARNING (AND BREAKING) THE RULES OF CINEMATIC COMPOSITION

SECOND EDITION

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 THE FILMMAKER’S EYE
LEARNING (AND BREAKING) THE RULES OF CINEMATIC COMPOSITION

SECOND EDITION

GUSTAVO MERCADO

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 Front cover image: John Wick: Chapter 2 (Chad Stahelski, 2017). Courtesy of AF archive / Alamy Stock Photo

Second edition published 2022

by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158

and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2022 Taylor & Francis

The right of Gustavo Mercado to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance
with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any
electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Focal Press 2010

Library of Congress Cataloging–in–Publication Data

Names: Mercado, Gustavo, author.
Title: The filmmaker's eye : learning (and breaking) the rules of cinematic composition / Gustavo Mercado.
Description: Second edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, [2022] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021042314 (print) | LCCN 2021042315 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367898397 (hbk) | ISBN 9781138780316 (pbk)
| ISBN 9781315770857 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Cinematography. | Motion pictures--Aesthetics.
Classification: LCC TR892 .M47 2022 (print) | LCC TR892 (ebook) | DDC 777--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021042314
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021042315

DOI: 10.4324/9781315770857

Typeset and cover design by Gustavo Mercado

Original illustrations and photographs (except where indicated) by Gustavo Mercado

Publisher’s Note
This book has been prepared from camera–ready copy provided by the author

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 This book is dedicated to my parents, Julio and Maria Mercado,
whose love and respect for film continue to inspire me.

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 contents

acknowledgments XI
preface to the second edition XIII

introduction 1
finding the frame 5
image systems 11
rules of cinematic composition
& technical concepts 21

SIZES
extreme close-up 43
close-up 49
medium close-up 55
medium shot 61
medium long shot 67
long shot 73
extreme long shot 79

CONVENTIONS
over the shoulder shot 87
establishing shot 93
subjective shot 99
two shot 105
group shot 111

VII

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 split-screen shot 117
canted shot 123
overhead shot 129
inverted shot 135
emblematic shot 141
abstract shot 147
macro shot 153
zoom shot 159

DYNAMICS
pan shot 167
tilt shot 173
dolly shot 179
dolly zoom shot 185
tracking shot 191
Steadicam ® shot * 197
crane shot 203
aerial shot 209
sequence shot 215

filmography 221
image credits 227
index 229

*Steadicam® is a registered trademark of the Tiffen Company

VIII

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 acknowledgments

I would like to express my gratitude to all the individuals who helped in the preparation of this book through their kind support,
contributions, and expertise.
I am sincerely grateful to my past and present team at Focal Press: Robert Clements, Anne McGee, Dennis Schaefer, Chris
Simpson, Dennis McGonagle, Kattie Washington, Elliana Arons, Peter Linsley, Sheni Kruger, Simon Jacobs, Stacey Carter, Siân
Cahill, and the wonderful Sarah Pickles. I am especially grateful to Elinor Actipis, who provided me with invaluable guidance
and suggestions from start to finish (including a great title), took the time to nurture a first time author, and had an unwavering
commitment to preserving the original concept behind this book.
I also want to thank my colleagues in the Film & Media Studies Department at Hunter College of the City University of New York,
whose passion and dedication to studying and teaching the art and craft of film has always been a source of encouragement
and inspiration, among them: Peter Jackson, Sha Sha Feng, David Pavlosky, Renato Tonelli, Richard Barsam, Michael Gitlin,
Andrew Lund, Ivone Margulies, Joe McElhaney, Robert Stanley, and Joel Zuker. I would also like to acknowledge the support
of Hunter College President Jennifer J. Raab, Provost Vita C. Rabinowitz, Dean Shirley Clay Scott, and Film & Media Studies
Department Chair James Roman, who foster an atmosphere that encourages faculty scholarship and excellence in teaching.
I am also grateful to Jerry Carlson, David Davidson, Herman Lew, and Lana Lin at the City College of the City University of New
York, and to Ken Dancyger at New York University, who were generous with their knowledge and mentorship. Thanks should
also go to my researchers: Elvis Maynard, Lisa Chin, and Júnia Caldeira.
My reviewers provided me with wonderful suggestions and undoubtedly made this a better book than it would have been other-
wise: David A. Anselmi at the University of California Berkeley Extension, David Crossman at Ravensbourne College of Design
and Communication, David Tainer at DePaul University, and especially Katherine Hurbis-Cherrier at New York University, who
always had le mot juste whenever I needed it.
The following individuals were also extremely generous with their input and assistance during the preparation of the second
edition: Florian Ballhaus ASC, Pam Katz, Denson Baker ACS / NZCS, Claire McCarthy, Eric Steelberg ASC, Kim Sung-ho, and
Nic Sadler. I also greatly benefitted from the steadfast support of Hunter College's current administration, among them: Acting
Provost Valeda Dent, Dean Andrew J. Polsky, and Film & Media Studies Department Chair Kelly Anderson.
This book would also not have been possible without the boundless patience, support, and encouragement of my dearest wife
Yuki Takeshima, who put up with many late nights and early mornings of her husband staring at a monitor.
But I am most grateful of all to my teacher, colleague, mentor, and "brother from another mother", Mick Hurbis-Cherrier,
whose illuminating comments, ideas, and guidance were instrumental in the development of the manuscript. His teachings and
passion for cinema resonate through every page of the book you now hold in your hands.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XI

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 John Wick: Chapter 3 ‒ Parabellum. Chad Stahelski, Director; Dan Laustsen, Cinematographer. 2019.

XII

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 preface to the second edition
By most measures, ten years is a long time, but technology
advances so quickly that it feels longer. If someone had told
me in 2010 that in ten years I would shoot 4K video at up to 120
frames per second with an extended dynamic range, built-in
stabilization, with any one of three built-in lenses on a smart-
phone that would also let me edit, color correct, and add
transitions and titles, I would have thought they were crazy.
The movie industry also underwent a technological revolu-
tion during this period; in 2010, most feature films were still
being shot on 35mm film, and only a fraction on digital video.
By 2020, that proportion was completely inverted, with only
a handful of directors still shooting on film while the major-
ity of movies are shot with high-end digital cinema cameras
(like Chad Stahelski's John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum, on
the opposite page, shot with the Alexa SXT Plus and the Alexa
Mini).
The prosumer market also had game-changing de-
velopments; SD video gave way to HD and 4K, with 8K and
12K cameras already coming. Video-capable DSLRs, in their
infancy in 2010, were joined by digital cinema cameras and
a slew of mirrorless cameras, while improvements in CMOS
sensor technology made it possible to shoot with dynamic
ranges (with ISOs in the hundreds of thousands) that rival,
and in some cases surpass, 35mm film. While all of these
technological breakthroughs had immense repercussions in
the professional and independent filmmaking communities,
the DSLR revolution also ushered in another major change;
it finally made it possible for amateur filmmakers shooting
on video to use interchangeable lenses, giving them access
to the same optical aesthetics only big-budget movies us-
ing expensive equipment previously had. In just ten years,
the expectations of what commercial and independent films
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should look and sound like have been completely redefined,
especially when filmmakers like Sean Baker (Tangerine, 2015)
and Steven Soderbergh (Unsane, 2018) are shooting feature
films on iPhones. If we also consider the effect social media
platforms have had in funding, marketing, and distribution,
the picture becomes clear: it has never been easier or more
affordable to make a movie and share it with the world.
The second edition of The Filmmaker's Eye has been
completely updated to take into account all of these develop-
ments and more. Lenses in particular have been given a spe-
cial focus in the "Technical Considerations" section of every
chapter, and advice related to exposure, lighting, and pro-
duction logistics topics was revised to reflect current practice
and equipment. The entire "Rules of Cinematic Composition
& Technical Concepts" chapter was also revamped to include
extended discussions of every rule, the revival of the aspect
ratio as a more flexible narrative tool, and all of the newly
available options for shot previsualization. Additionally, every
case study was re-examined and expanded, and brand-new
shot types added.
The Filmmaker's Eye was the first book to system-
atically analyze the rules of cinematic composition while
taking into account the specific narrative contexts and tools
necessary to fully unleash their expressive power. Ten years
later, I believe this new edition is perfectly timed to inspire a
new generation of filmmakers for whom "35mm lens adap-
tors", "SD video", and "16mm film" are relics of outdated
technologies. Thankfully, although the way we make mov-
ies has changed drastically, it has not affected the rules of
composition (or how to break them) at all; they remain as
relevant today as they have been since the birth of cinema
over a hundred years ago. Here's to the next hundred years!
PREFACE XIII
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 Up in the Air. Jason Reitman, Director; Eric Steelberg, Cinematographer. 2009.

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 introduction
A group of friends and I went to see Jason Reitman’s Up in
the Air soon after it was released. Returning from the the-
atre, we discussed the movie; most of my friends liked it,
some found it a bit slow, and others thought it was a mas-
terpiece. At one point, the discussion focused on the cin-
ematography, and someone recalled how brilliant the shot
shown on the opposite page was. Regardless of our opinions
of the film, we were all in agreement about how particularly
poignant that image had been. Interestingly, we could recall
everything about the shot: its composition, when it had hap-
pened in the film, and most importantly why we all felt it was
so powerful. While there were many other interesting shots
and moments in the film, there was something special about
this image that really resonated with all of us, regardless of
how we felt about the film as a whole. What was it? Was it the
shot's composition? The actor's performance? The art direc-
tion? Or was there something else that made this specific
shot so memorable?
To understand why this shot works so well, we need
to know a bit about the context in which it appears. Lead-
ing up to this scene, Natalie (Anna Kendrick), a corporate
up-and-comer who devises a way to fire employees remotely
using webcams, was asked to join Ryan (George Clooney),
a corporate termination specialist who feels her system is
too impersonal, so she could experience what it takes to fire
people face to face. After a heart-wrenching montage of em-
ployees reacting to news of their termination, the film cuts
to this shot of Natalie sitting alone in a room full of office
chairs as she waits for Ryan. When he arrives to pick her
up he casually asks her if she is OK, but she shrugs off the
question and they leave. Now that we know the backstory, we
can better understand what makes this image so effective.
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Composition-wise, the shot does not appear to be particu-
larly complex: a long shot shows Natalie in an empty office
surrounded by office chairs. If we look closer, however, and
break down the shot into its visual elements, the rules of
composition used to arrange them in the frame, and its tech-
nical aspects, a more intricate picture emerges.
The use of a long shot (a shot that includes a sub-
ject’s entire body and a large portion of their environment) al-
lowed a large number of empty chairs to be seen clustered
around Natalie, which, given the context of the scene, suggest
the number of people she fired that day. The high angle from
which the shot was taken not only lets us see all of the chairs
in the room (if it had been taken at eye-level only the chairs
in the foreground would have been visible) but also makes
Natalie look defeated, vulnerable, and even distraught (high
angles are often used to visualize these emotions in charac-
ters). Her placement in the frame follows the Rule of Thirds,
creating a dynamic composition that gives her looking room
on the right side; however, she does not have the standard
amount of headroom for a long shot, a technique commonly
used to reinforce an unusual or awkward dramatic moment.
Additionally, her placement and comparatively small size
also make it look as if the chairs are cornering her, seem-
ingly in retaliation for the people she fired (placing her at
the center of the composition would not have conveyed this
idea); the haphazard chair arrangement could also be in-
terpreted as a visualization of the turmoil Natalie caused in
their lives that day. Every one of these compositional choices
was perfectly complemented by a precise camera to subject
distance, focal length, and aperture combination that result-
ed in a depth of field that allowed everything in the office to
be in sharp focus, ensuring the audience could concentrate
INTRODUCTION 1
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 their attention on not just Natalie, but also on everything else
sharing that space with her (if a shallow depth of field had
been used instead, the chairs in the foreground and in the
background would have been out of focus). When all of the
visual elements in the composition of this shot are consid-
ered, they reveal that, behind the corporate, no-nonsense
exterior Natalie projects, she hides an emotional side of her
personality that is deeply affected by the real human fallout
of her profession. But the beauty and dramatic weight of this
image was not achieved by mechanically applying the rules
of composition; this shot works as well as it does because
its technical elements, compositional choices, and narrative
context were considered in equal measure to communicate
a very specific idea. This brilliant moment made a strong and
lasting impression on my friends and me because it was not
just visually striking, but also narratively resonant and elo-
quent.
The Filmmaker's Eye presents an integrated ap-
proach to understanding and applying the rules of cinematic
composition, one that takes into account both the techni-
cal and narrative aspects that make shots like the example
from Up in the Air so powerful. This new method provides a
deep and discursive exploration into one of the fundamental
elements of the visual language of cinema—the shot. By
focusing on the rules of cinematic composition as they ap-
ply to each of the most widely used shots of the cinematic
vocabulary, examining the tools, techniques, and know-how
necessary to create them, and analyzing their narrative func-
tion within their respective films, we will develop a deeper,
more functional understanding about what it takes to cre-
ate visually compelling and narratively meaningful images.
But why focus on the rules of composition as they apply to
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specific shot types instead of looking at these principles in
a broader, more general sense? The answer is simple. As
the language of cinema expanded its vocabulary, the way
certain rules of composition and cinematic techniques were
applied to some shots became standardized, in the same
way certain shot sizes developed specialized narrative func-
tions (like using close-ups to showcase emotion and ex-
treme long shots to introduce locations, for instance). For
these reasons, examining how compositional rules func-
tion in a general sense could never demonstrate their full
narrative potential, since their application and execution in
cinematic storytelling is often context-specific. Only a de-
tailed analysis of each specific shot type can fully reveal the
mechanics that contributed to their becoming conventions
in the first place. These so-called "rules" are not written in
stone (and thank goodness or our art form would calcify);
they are, in fact, remarkably flexible and not only can, but
should be subverted when appropriate to create shots that
have a fresh impact and resonate in surprising or even
contradictory ways. Sometimes, analyzing the exception to
a rule can reveal a valuable lesson about why and how it
works in the first place. For this reason, every chapter in-
cludes an example where rules were purposely ignored in
creative, unexpected, and narratively compelling ways. You
will find that the old adage “learn the rules so you know
how to break them properly” works just as advertised.
This book's focus on the basic building blocks of
the cinematic vocabulary precludes a comprehensive dis-
cussion of every possible technical and aesthetic concept
related to visual composition in movies; however, key terms
shown in italics are defined in the "Rules of Cinematic
Composition & Technical Concepts" chapter. For a super-
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 lative guide to the technical aspects of film production, I ing of what makes the rules work, one that takes into ac-
highly recommend a book I was fortunate to work on as count the synergy that inevitably happens when they are im-
an illustrator and research advisor, written by my friend, plemented within a given narrative context. I sincerely hope
mentor, and colleague Mick Hurbis-Cherrier, titled Voice the case studies in this book will inspire you next time you
& Vision: A Creative Approach to Narrative Filmmaking. In are faced with the creative challenge of framing your next
many ways, The Filmmaker’s Eye book series was inspired shot.
by Voice & Vision's look at how every technical, aesthetic,
narrative, and logistical aspect behind the making of a film
can be harnessed to develop a cohesive creative vision. I
would also suggest checking out Michael Rabiger and Mick
Hurbis-Cherrier's Directing: Film Techniques and Aesthet-
ics, to get a broader sense of a director's perspective
on not just cinematic composition, but every tool at their
disposal to develop a unique artistic identity and directo-
rial style, from idea development and working with actors, to
editing techniques and distribution strategies. Lastly, for an
in-depth understanding of how master cinematographers
use lenses with the rules of cinematic composition to cre-
ate visually captivating and meaningful images, you need to
look no further than the second installment in The Film-
maker's Eye series, The Language of the Lens: The Power
of Lenses and the Expressive Cinematic Image, currently
the only book that systematically analyzes narrative lens
techniques and their storytelling applications from a film-
maker's perspective.
The Filmmaker’s Eye takes a new approach to un-
derstanding the rules of cinematic composition (and how to
break them) that goes beyond technical descriptions and
basic utilitarian narrative conventions. This is most definitely
not a “paint by numbers” recipe for shot composition; the
aim is to make you aware of the tonal impact and thematic
resonance that is possible with a more nuanced understand-

INTRODUCTION 3

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 The Godfather. Francis Ford Coppola, Director; Gordon Willis, Cinematographer. 1972.

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 finding the frame
I recently had the opportunity to attend the screening of a
short film by a beginning filmmaker. The first scene started
with a shot of a young married couple sitting on a couch,
having an increasingly heated argument. The shot was wide
enough to include most of the room, which was littered
with magazines, empty beer cans, a collection of sneakers
stashed under the couch, and movie posters on every wall
(obviously the young director’s apartment). A small table
could also be seen in the foreground of the shot, with a game
console and a stack of video games prominently displayed
on it. After the film ended, there was a Q&A session with the
director, who looked very proud of his work and eager to an-
swer questions. A man in the audience asked: “Was the guy
on the couch trying to act like Travis Bickle?” The filmmaker
look puzzled, and asked him why he was asking about Travis
Bickle. The man answered he thought the large Taxi Driver
poster right behind the actor was part of the story. “No, that
poster just happened to be there,” the filmmaker replied.
Another audience member asked: “Was he trying to scam
money from her to buy more video games?” The director
look confused. “Was she upset with him because he doesn’t
clean up?” Someone else asked. The filmmaker, obviously
frustrated by now, stopped the Q&A to explain that the scene
in question was really about the young couple trying to avoid
having their first argument since they had just gotten mar-
ried, and that he thought this should have been obvious by
the way the young man’s hand was nervously twitching as
he held his wife’s hand. The movie posters, video games,
and the messy room were not really meant to be important
parts of the scene and the story. The director was, however,
pleased when someone asked him if a shot from the end
of his film, where the couple was shown walking towards
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the camera in slow-motion, was an homage to a similar
shot from Quentin Tarantino’s Reservoir Dogs. “Yes!” He
replied. “I’m glad you caught that.” When asked about the
significance of that reference to his story, he answered:
“I thought it’d look cool,” to a still puzzled audience. The
rest of his film had the same issues the opening shot and
his homage shot had; there was a complete disconnection
between the composition of his shots and their function
within the narrative.
As it should be evident by now, the inexperienced
director's movie failed to connect with the audience because
he did not create images that supported the point of his story.
In the opening scene, he framed a visually dense shot that
was filled with information that turned out to be extrane-
ous to the narrative and ultimately prevented the audience
from understanding what it was about. By showcasing the
movie posters, the game console, the sneakers under the
couch, and the empty beer cans so prominently, he inad-
vertently ensured that the husband's twitching hand would
go unnoticed. When he composed the shot on set, he had no
problem noticing the twitching hand in the midst of all that
extra stuff, because he already knew it was a meaningful de-
tail of the scene; his audience, however, did not have this in-
formation, and the shot's composition did not communicate
it. In the last shot of the film, he successfully recreated
a composition he had seen in another film, and although
the shot briefly elicited a positive response from the audi-
ence, it later became a source of confusion when they
realized it had no meaningful connection with the story.
In both cases, the director failed to approach his story from
a cinematic perspective, ensuring that his shots effectively
visualized key plot details, themes, and core ideas—what
FINDING THE FRAME 5
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 his movie was really about. If he had considered how the
technical aspects of a shot, the rules of composition, and
narrative context can work together to create meaning, his
audience’s reaction would have been vastly different.
If you want to be an effective storyteller, it is es-
sential you identify what each shot is supposed to commu-
nicate, and exactly what should, and should not, be visible.
Once you know this, "finding the frame" that best serves
your story will become a more straightforward process. In a
way, you already do this intuitively whenever you share a per-
sonal anecdote with someone. Let us imagine that you want
to tell a friend about the time you accidentally cut someone
off while driving and became the victim of a road rage inci-
dent. You would not begin your story by describing the air
freshener hanging on your rear-view mirror, or the color
of the upholstery on your seats, or that it was a cloudy and
humid day and you had the air conditioning on; you would
edit your narrative to include only the most relevant parts,
so that your friend would get the point of your story. The di-
rector did not do this in the opening shot of his movie. While
he managed to show what was happening in that scene,
he crammed the frame with so much unnecessary visual
information that he was doing the equivalent of describing
the color of the husband's socks instead of pointing out how
uncomfortable and nervous he was while holding his wife's
hand. Your audience automatically assumes that anything
and everything included in a shot's composition is there for
a specific purpose that is directly related and necessary to
understand the story they are watching. This is one of those
narrative conventions developed over thousands of years of
visual storytelling (even early humans knew not to include
extraneous details in their cave paintings!) that continues to
TFE2.indd 6
be as crucial today as the first time it was introduced. When
applied to cinematic storytelling, this principle relates not
just to ensuring only relevant visual elements are included
in a shot, but also to considering where they are located
in the frame, their relative size to other visual elements,
and their level of visibility (how sharp or blurry they look),
among others, since these attributes will also play a role in
how an audience understands their meaning in a story.
Take a look at the shot from Francis Ford Coppo-
la’s The Godfather at the beginning of this chapter. At first
glance, it appears to have a relatively simple composition:
an extreme long shot of a car parked on a deserted road
shows someone in the backseat pointing a gun at the driv-
er, while the Statue of Liberty is visible above a bank of wild
grass in the background. The meaning of this shot seems
equally clear and direct: someone is about to be murdered
inside a car on a deserted road. In fact, this image is so
uncluttered with irrelevant details that even someone who
has never seen The Godfather would have no trouble un-
derstanding what is happening at this moment in the story.
However, a closer look reveals additional meaning being
communicated by this shot beyond the murder of a man.
If you have been paying attention and observed the shot
closely, there is a tiny detail that should have caught your
eye. If everything in the frame is supposed to be meaningful
and necessary to understand the point of a shot, then why
is the Statue of Liberty part of this composition? Is it there
simply to establish the location of the murder? Why is it so
distant and tiny in the frame? And why is it facing away from
the scene of the crime? Could any or all of these details
have a narrative purpose? Let us go back to the example
where you shared your road rage story with a friend. Do
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 you think you would have told your story differently if the
day of the incident also happened to be the very first time
you were driving on a highway? You probably would have
started your anecdote by mentioning your lack of driving
experience, or how especially nervous you felt driving a bor-
rowed car you were unfamiliar with, or how surprised you
were when you saw the person in the other car was also a
student driver. In other words, in addition to describing the
actual details of the event, you would have also contextual-
ized your narrative to reflect your subjective experience of it.
Creating expressive compositions works in the same way;
the framing of every one of your shots should reflect how
you understand the story, what you think it is really about
in a way that reflects your perspective, your idiosyncrasies,
your vision. When Coppola chose to include the Statue of
Liberty in his shot, from that particular angle, at that par-
ticular size and location in the frame, this is exactly what
he was doing; he was adding his perspective to this event
in the story, commenting on it, conveying much more than
just a murder taking place inside a car. What do you think
is the meaning behind the juxtaposition of such an instantly
recognizable symbol of the American Dream and a heinous
criminal act?
When the director of the short film used the same
shot composition from the opening of Reservoir Dogs, he
expected his audience to react to it in the same way he did
when he saw it in Tarantino's film. This was not the case,
however, because the effectiveness of the original shot was
not solely due to its composition; its narrative context was
instrumental in shaping how it was received by the audi-
ence. When that shot was shown in Reservoir Dogs, we
had already been introduced to all the characters, we had
TFE2.indd 7
learned about their personalities, their quirks, we even got
a hint of their relationship dynamics; they were not just a
bunch of guys wearing matching outfits walking in slow mo-
tion, but distinct individuals that were unique and interest-
ing. With that context established, seeing them together in
that shot while George Baker Selection's "Little Green Bag"
(whose music video Tarantino may have also been referenc-
ing) is heard on the soundtrack simply works. When the stu-
dent director used the same composition in his movie, his
audience had a reaction when they recognized the reference,
but the shot was eventually rendered meaningless once they
realized it had absolutely no connection with the story they
were watching.
A shot's composition communicates meaning not
just through the arrangement of visual elements in the
frame, but also by the narrative context in which it is pre-
sented. For instance, a high-angle shot (when the camera is
placed so it looks down on a subject) is often used to suggest
a character feels defeated, lacks confidence, or is otherwise
psychologically vulnerable; while this is a common usage of
this type of shot, you cannot simply assume that your audi-
ence will automatically infer those connotations whenever
you use a high angle. You could, for instance, also use a high-
angle shot to convey that a character is confident, assertive,
and in control, and, provided your narrative context supports
these meanings, no one in your audience would find the
composition ironic or ineffective (see page 56 for an example
of a high-angle shot used in this way). But how do you go
about deciding which story elements are a good match with
a given shot size and composition? Which context should be
matched with a given shot, and vice versa? Before you can
make a decision about where to place the camera, you need
FINDING THE FRAME 7
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 to understand exactly what should dominate the composi-
tion, what should be included and excluded from it, and what
meaning needs to be communicated by your shot beyond
showing what is contained in the frame.
A solid strategy is to first identify what your story
is really about, what its essence is, what are the recurring
core ideas around which everything else revolves. Engag-
ing stories usually have strong themes that add emotional
depth and context to everything that happens in them; your
story's themes should function like a compass that guides
your decisions about the composition of every shot in your
movie, as well as all other aspects of how your story is told,
from lighting and camerawork, to the wardrobe and loca-
tions. This is how master directors manage to create a uni-
fied vision for a story despite having to channel disparate
contributions from a multitude of creative personnel. Take
John G. Avildsen’s Rocky (1976), the story of a small-time
boxer who gets a once-in-a-lifetime chance to fight for the
heavyweight championship of the world: is this what the
movie is really about? Not by a long shot; Rocky is really
about a man who once had a lot of potential as a boxer but
lacked the discipline and drive to achieve his goals, and
because of this he sees himself as a failure. Training for the
heavyweight championship makes him realize he can still
have a chance to be somebody, to be admired instead of
ridiculed, to regain his self-respect. Gaining self-respect:
this is the core idea, the main thematic context, and cen-
tral dramatic impetus behind Rocky's story. If the unfilmed
script for Rocky landed on your desk and you were given a
once-in-a-lifetime chance to direct this movie, how would
you go about creating compositions that reflect the core
idea of “regaining self-respect"? You could, for instance,
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plot the journey Rocky takes towards regaining self-respect
so that scenes at the beginning of the film, while he is still
unmotivated to change his ways, are shot from a slight high
angle to reflect his lack of confidence and psychological vul-
nerability at this time (the conventional use of a high-angle
shot, but implemented here within a well thought-out nar-
rative context and visual strategy). As Rocky trains harder
and focuses on his goal, shot compositions could gradually
switch to using slight low-angle shots to subtly suggest his
growing self-confidence and change in attitude. This simple
decision could be enough to create compositions that reflect
your take on the story, but you could also supplement this
strategy with any of the rules of composition shown in this
book as well. What if you also use Rocky's placement in the
frame to visualize his journey towards regaining self-respect
by placing him off-center, in unbalanced shot compositions
before he makes the decision to take on the challenge, and
in more balanced framings afterwards? Or what if you use
wide-angle lenses to distort the way he looks at the begin-
ning and then shift to normal lenses as he gains confidence?
Or maybe you can use shallow depths of field to isolate him
in the frame, visualizing his desire to block out the world
around him, and then use deep depths of field when he feels
more accepted by his peers? The possibilities are endless,
since there is no formula to pair a given narrative context
with a rule of composition; that is just not how movies work
(as our director found out when he tried to recycle that Res-
ervoir Dogs shot). However, creating expressive images does
require you to have a clear vision about the embedded core
ideas, so you can design a visual strategy (your format, expo-
sure, color, lighting, lenses, and shot composition choices,
among others) that can be applied within a well-organized
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 image system (the overall visual structure of a story, covered budgetary restrictions, and many other variables that every
in the next chapter) to visualize them effectively, just as Cop- filmmaker has to deal with while making a movie. However,
pola did when he brilliantly used Hitchcock's Rule to include as long as you have a firm grasp of what you are trying to
the Statue of Liberty in his shot. communicate and understand how the rules of composition
Going back to the shot of the young couple sitting on function so you know when it is appropriate to follow or break
the couch, what could the student director have done differ- them, your shots will express your vision of the story. This is
ently? Before making any decisions about how to approach the most important step you can take to develop your own vi-
his film's visual strategy and image system, he should have sual style and voice as a filmmaker.
identified what the equivalent of Rocky's "regaining self-re-
spect" was for his own story. Doing this would have gone a
long way in helping him realize that including all those movie
posters, video games, empty beer cars, and sneakers under
the bed were distracting his audience from the point he was
trying to make with that shot. He could have then applied (or
broken) one or more rules of composition to ensure the hus-
band's twitching hand would have been showcased. For in-
stance, he could have shot the scene as a two shot (covered
on page 105) that focused our attention on the couple's faces
to then tilt down at a key moment to reveal the husband's
hand in a tight close-up (covered on page 49). Or he could
have used over the shoulder shots instead (covered on page
87) with compositions that visualized his nervousness by par-
tially cropping him (but not her) from the frame instead of fo-
cusing on his twitching hand. Or perhaps he could have used
a slightly canted shot (covered on page 123) coupled with an
excessive amount of headroom for his shots while her shots
had an even horizon and a more conventional framing. Re-
gardless of the visual strategy he would have used, the narra-
tive point he was trying to make would have come across loud
and clear. "Finding the frame" for every moment of your story
can take many forms beyond this initial approach, depend-
ing on the tools you have at your disposal, your logistic and

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 a

Oldboy. Park Chan-wook, Director; Chung Chung-hoon, Cinematographer. 2003.

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 image systems
Movies are such an intrinsic part of world culture we often
forget to consider just how unique an art form they are. In
many ways, we still do not fully understand the mechanism
that entices us to suspend our disbelief for a couple of hours
to watch a sequence of moving images in a darkened room
and take it for a true story unfolding before our eyes. Regard-
less of why they work, filmmakers and film scholars do have
an idea of how they work. At a basic level, we know the Kule-
shov effect is involved; Lev Kuleshov, a Russian filmmaker
and theorist, demonstrated that the juxtaposition of shots
can communicate a meaning that is absent from each indi-
vidual shot. His famous experiment (the details of which are
mostly anecdotal) involved showing students at the Moscow
Film School he helped co-found a series of shots that in-
cluded a close-up of a man with a neutral expression on his
face, a coffin, a bowl of soup, and a little girl. Kuleshov edited
these shots to show the same close-up of the man followed
by each of the other shots, gauging the students' opinions
about the man's acting afterwards. His students were im-
pressed by the wide range of emotions shown by the actor:
hunger when his shot was followed by the bowl of soup, sad-
ness when the coffin was shown, and joy when he saw the
little girl. Since the shot of the man had been the same every
time, it became clear the students had constructed these as-
pects of his performance in their minds. Kuleshov's experi-
ment demonstrated that the meaning of a shot is not defined
solely by its visual content when it is shown with other shots;
a new meaning, cumulative and for each image, emerges
from that assemblage. If this effect can happen simply by
bringing two shots together, could something similar take
place, on a much larger scale, when strategically sequenc-
ing the nearly 2,000 shots found in the average feature film?
TFE2.indd 11
Obviously, the answer is yes, albeit in a much more complex
form. While the Kuleshov effect demonstrates that contigu-
ous shots can produce a new meaning, the effect can also
occur between non-contiguous shots. For instance, you have
probably seen movies in which a visually striking, particu-
larly memorable image appears at the beginning of a story,
usually while introducing a key character or location, that is
then revisited towards the end; by then, however, that same
image has attained an entirely new meaning in the minds
of the audience, because it was recontextualized by all the
events that transpired since it was first shown, in the same
way the shot of the little girl made Kuleshov's students think
the man in the close-up looked happy. Recalling and com-
paring images is inherent in the way audiences understand
a visual narrative; they constantly make connections not just
from what they see within a shot, but also between shots,
whether they are shown next to each other or not.
All of the images in a film inform, contextualize, and
contribute to their collective meaning in a way that is unique
to every story, not just because every story is different, but
also because every film is told using a unique combination of
images. The unique interaction of images that happens in
every movie functions as a system—a group of interrelated
parts that work together to accomplish a goal—to tell a
story. A movie's image system can exist by design, when a
filmmaker considers the narrative possibilities it can offer to
communicate a story's themes, core ideas, motifs, character
arcs, and tone, among others, or by accident, when there is
no forethought behind the visual relationships that will inevi-
tably occur simply by showing images together. Whether they
are carefully planned or not, image systems are an intrinsic
part of the visual language of movies, and when considered
IMAGE SYSTEMS 11
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 thoughtfully and used with artistic intention, can add layers
of meaning and narrative depth to your storytelling.
Image systems can be conceived in a wide variety
of ways, but a common approach involves the strategic
repetition of imagery to create strong visual connections
throughout a movie. For instance, a shot composition used
to introduce a character could be revisited towards the
end of a story to visualize how much they have changed
as their journey ends, or a particular color could be fea-
tured at key moments across various scenes to give them
a common symbolic or associative meaning. These visual
patterns can be implemented in subtle ways, repeating
shot compositions, colors, or visual motifs only during nar-
ratively meaningful moments, or overtly, making the visual
relationships impossible to ignore, although this approach
runs the risk of preventing an audience from connect-
ing emotionally with the story. Image systems work best
when they support and add meaning and depth, and not
become the focus of a narrative. Other ways of implement-
ing image systems do not rely on repetition and are less
obvious but no less effective. For instance, a filmmaker
could use the actual or perceived distance between two
characters to chart the dynamics of their relationship, so
they look like they are farther apart when they first meet
and closer together as they get to know each other, or
gradually switch from high angles to low angles to sig-
nal that a character becomes more assertive as a story
progresses, or the looking room could be placed on the
"wrong" side of the frame only when a particular character
tells a lie. These types of implementations might be less
evident to an audience, but their effect still registers at a
certain level (some would say subliminally). Regardless of
12
TFE2.indd 12
how an image system is conceived, it is essential to apply
it consistently throughout your film for your audience to
understand its intended meaning. If you use a particular
shot composition to visualize that a character lacks con-
fidence at one point in your story, you should avoid using
that same shot composition in a context that is not meant
to communicate “lacking confidence”, because doing so
would essentially redefine the meaning of that composi-
tion within your image system. While audiences do not
consciously keep track of the way a movie's image sys-
tem is applied, an unstructured or otherwise inconsistent
implementation can dilute its narrative impact, preventing
the kind of synergy between story context and shot com-
position that makes some moments dramatically power-
ful and not just visually striking. Having a detailed, well
organized image system for your movie is not essential
or mandatory; you might not want to deal with having to
create one, choosing instead to tell your story without the
added narrative depth and visual poetry it can provide. On
the other hand, designing an image system can be a very
exciting experience that can also help you get a clearer
understanding of your story’s visual structure, not unlike
the way screenwriters use a step-outline (a short descrip-
tion of what happens in every scene of a movie) to adjust
the pacing, dramatic tension, character development, and
overall narrative flow of a screenplay. Likewise, design-
ing an image system gives you an opportunity to organize
the visual associations and overall implementation of your
visual strategy to have absolute control over how these
aspects will shape the meaning and dramatic impact of
every beat of your story, as director Park Chan-wook did
in his revenge thriller masterpiece, Oldboy.
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 Oldboy follows the plight of Oh Dae-su (Choi Min-sik), a
white-collar businessman who gets kidnapped and is then
imprisoned, seemingly without justification; during his cap-
tivity, he learns his kidnapper kills his wife and frames him
for her murder. Inexplicably, he is suddenly released af-
ter fifteen years, and ends up befriending a young woman
named Mi-do (Kang Hye-jeong) after he passes out at the
restaurant where she works; with her help, he finds out his
daughter, an infant at the time of his kidnapping, was ad-
opted and moved to Sweden years ago. He is then contacted
by the man who imprisoned him, who threatens to kill Mi-do
unless Dae-su uncovers the reason behind his kidnapping
in less than a week; if Dae-su succeeds, however, the kid-
napper promises to kill himself instead. This sets Dae-su on
a race against time to save Mi-do, with whom he develops
an intimate relationship, and exact revenge on the man who
murdered his wife and took fifteen years of his life. Eventu-
ally Dae-su uncovers that Lee Woo-jin (Yoo Ji-tae), a wealthy
man who attended the same high school as he, blames him
for the suicide of his sister, Lee Soo-ah (Yoon Jin-seo), after
Dae-su spread rumors about their incestuous relationship.
Unbeknownst to Dae-su, however, Woo-jin’s revenge has
already been consummated by the time he confronts him:
in one of the most shocking film endings in recent mem-
ory, Dae-su discovers, to his horror, that Mi-do is in fact
the daughter he thought had been adopted fifteen years ago,
and that Woo-jin’s ultimate plan was to make him commit
incest with her.
Oldboy's intricately crafted image system relies on
recurring shot compositions and imagery to give dramatic
resonance to the story's central themes, adding layers of
meaning that reward an attentive audience and invite re-
TFE2.indd 13
peated viewings as new depths, dimensions, and connec-
tions can be gleaned every time the film is revisited. One of
the features that makes Oldboy's image system so unique
and effective, however, is that, beyond using visual parallels
to enhance the emotional impact of its narrative, it is also an
essential plot element that is integrated seamlessly at key
points of the story in original and creative ways.
An example of this implementation can be seen in
one of the most prominent visual associations featured in
this film, between a painting (a variation of Flemish expres-
sionist painter James Ensor's Man of Sorrows, depicting a
tortured Christ) of a man with an ambiguous expression on
his face that Dae-su stares at during his captivity (a), and a
close-up of Dae-su seen at the end of his ordeal (b). The
painting includes an inscription that reads “Laugh, and the
world laughs with you; weep, and you weep alone” (a quote
from "Solitude", a poem by Ella Wheeler Wilcox); after he is
released, Dae-su recites this line to himself, almost like a
mantra, as if to help him remain focused on his goal. The
quote is also seen when he discovers the horrible truth be-
hind Woo-jin's revenge scheme, as he spots his reflection
in a photo album (interestingly, Wheeler Wilcox's poem was
supposedly inspired by an accidental glance of her reflec-
tion in a mirror). After Dae-su allegedly manages to erase
the memory of his incest through hypnosis, he displays an
ambiguous facial expression as he embraces his daughter;
like the man in the painting, it is impossible to tell if he is
smiling or crying, suggesting the horrendous possibility that
he still remembers the incestuous affair he was tricked into
having. But beyond this interpretation, the added visual and
thematic context provided by the painting and the poem's
quote also suggests another meaning. Throughout the film,
IMAGE SYSTEMS 13
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 c d

e f

g h

i j

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TFE2.indd 14 2/21/22 1:36 AM

 k l

m n

o p

q r

IMAGE SYSTEMS 15

TFE2.indd 15 2/21/22 1:36 AM

 s t

u v

w x

y z

16

TFE2.indd 16 2/21/22 1:36 AM

 Dae-su is shown repeatedly mimicking the expression in the
painting without being able to match its cryptic mixture of
sorrow and happiness; it is only after he endures Woo-jin's
revenge that he manages to capture its complexity, as if to
suggest that through the torment and anguish he experi-
enced he was finally able to express (and possibly even un-
derstand) the unique emotion it shows and the full meaning
of the poem's quote. His grimace in this scene would have
been heart-wrenching to watch even if we did not have this
added context, but its strategic inclusion at the beginning
and at the end of Dae-su's journey elevates the emotional
and psychological complexity of not only this moment, but
also of the entire narrative.
Another interesting implementation of Oldboy's im-
age system involves the use of visual parallels to establish
special connections between characters. For instance, right
after Dae-su is freed, he prevents a man (Oh Kwang-rok)
from committing suicide (c, d); the striking shot composi-
tions used (subjective shots taken from extreme high and
low angles) and the tension generated by the scene's context
make them especially easy to recall when they are close-
ly mirrored at the end of the film, when Woo-jin imagines
himself trying to save his sister from committing suicide
while reliving a memory of the event (e, f). Their connection
is also conveyed more subtly, in scenes showcasing minor
moments of visual exposition. For instance, when Dae-su
gets dressed before his final confrontation with Woo-jin, he
is seen buttoning a cuff in a tight close-up (g), that is giv-
en the same narrative emphasis when Woo-jin does it in a
later scene (h). These visual parallels seem to imply that,
although enemies, Dae-su and Woo-jin are very much alike
in terms of personality and demeanor, reinforcing the nar-
TFE2.indd 17
rative parallels (they both commit incest, are consumed with
exacting revenge, and spend years preparing for it) that al-
ready associate them.
Visual parallels are also used to suggest a special
connection between Dae-su and Mi-do. Before his kidnap-
ping, for instance, Dae-su is shown trying on a pair of angel
wings he had bought for her birthday (i), which she is then
shown also trying on after Woo-jin has them surreptitiously
delivered (j). After Mi-do learns about Dae-su's hallucina-
tions involving ants (k), we are shown a flashback where she
hallucinates seeing a giant ant riding an empty subway with
her (l). Later, while Mi-do is held in a room similar to the one
Dae-su occupied, she mirrors the posture of a praying child
seen in a painting (m), which recalls the way Dae-su tried
mirroring the ambiguous facial expression seen in the paint-
ing in his room (n). The repetition of imagery and actions in
these examples foreshadows Dae-su and Mi-do's kinship
leading up to its revelation, enhancing the dramatic impact
of that moment while also recontextualizing the meaning of
these scenes.
Repeated visual motifs are also used to advance
the narrative directly, as shown in a scene where Dae-su,
following clues left by Woo-jin, visits one of his old high
school classmates (Park Myeoung-shin) at a hair salon to
get information about his past. While she tries to help him,
a young woman enters the shop; Dae-su, who moments be-
fore was shown to be strangely attracted to his classmate’s
exposed knees, turns his attention to the young woman’s
knees, shown in a close-up (o); suddenly, Dae-su remem-
bers meeting Woo-jin's sister when he attended high school,
shown in a flashback that begins with a close-up of her
knees (p). This clue leads him to visit the high school, where
IMAGE SYSTEMS 17
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 he reconstructs the event and finally manages to remember
spying on Woo-jin and his sister committing incest and later
spreading rumors about them. Showing Dae-su requiring vi-
sual cues to jog his recollection reveals he did not consider
it a significant event at the time, and explains Woo-jin's need
to not only trick him into committing incest, but also force
him to investigate the reason behind his kidnapping and
imprisonment. In fact, making Dae-su recognize the fateful
consequences of his off-hand remarks is the centerpiece of
Woo-jin's scheme, and the main reason for what could be
considered a needlessly elaborate revenge otherwise.
Mirrors and reflections also play a key role in Old
boy's image system, used strategically throughout the film
to draw parallels between events and characters, to signal
key information is being disclosed, and to indicate meaning-
ful visual associations between characters and incest. For
instance, when Dae-su finds clues about Woo-jin's past at
the hair salon, a large mirror lets us see both her classmate
and him in the same shot (q). Similarly, during Woo-jin and
Dae-su's climactic final meeting, they conduct a large part
of their confrontation with the aid of a large mirror that also
lets us see both of them simultaneously (r). A large mirror
is also present in a flashback that shows Woo-jin looking on
as a hypnotist he hired (Lee Seung-shin) grooms Mi-do to
fall in love with Dae-su (s). In these scenes, the presence
of mirrors is associated with the disclosure of key narrative
information that is directly related to the Woo-jin's revenge,
but mirrors are also used to add a psychological or symbolic
context. During Woo-jin and Soo-ah's incestuous encounter,
for instance, she pulls out a hand mirror and observes him
and herself through its reflection, suggesting she derives
scopophilic as well as sexual pleasure from the act (t). This
18
TFE2.indd 18
association between deviant sexual behavior and mirrors/re-
flections is revisited during the climax of the film, when Dae-
su discovers Mi-do is really his daughter while looking at a
photo album with pictures of her growing up; at this crucial
moment, he sees his reflection in a shiny black picture that
has the same poem quote seen in the painting during his
captivity (u). The composition of this shot closely resembles
the shot of Soo-ah looking at her reflection, but rather than
pleasure, it now associates incest with revulsion and despair.
The inclusion of the poem in the black picture along with
Dae-su's reflection also momentarily recreates the painting
he tried to mimic earlier, symbolically recontextualizing it as
a mirror that foreshadowed this very moment. The associa-
tion between characters seeing their reflections and incest
is also used when Dae-su attempts to rid himself of the
memory of his own incest with the help of Woo-jin's hypno-
tist. In this scene, she asks him to imagine himself standing
in front of his reflection (which, strangely, stares back at him
as if with a will and mind of its own), and to then walk away
from it, symbolically also leaving behind his knowledge of
the incest (v).
Recurring imagery also functions to mark instances
of character growth and change. For instance, right before
his kidnapping, Dae-su is held at a police station after get-
ting arrested for public intoxication, and while waiting to
be picked up he briefly shows off a picture of his family (w).
During his final confrontation with Woo-jin, a similar com-
position is used when he shows him a picture of his sister
taken moments before her suicide (x). The key placement
of these two medium close-up shots, at the beginning and
at the end of Dae-su's journey, makes them easy to recall
and invite comparison, despite the brief amount of screen
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 time they are given. Contrasting the two versions of Dae-su
they present effectively summarizes his character arc and
the tremendous transformation he underwent on his path to
vengeance. At the police station, he looks like a typical mid-
dle-aged businessman who relies on alcohol to unwind after
work and to perhaps also drown the tediousness of an aver-
age family life (we later learn he had a drinking problem and
often fought with his wife). By the time he confronts Woo-
jin, however, he could not look more different: he seems fo-
cused, determined, even dangerous. He has essentially be-
come a new man, transformed by his ordeal, a change that
is also reflected by the blood red shirt he wears at this time
instead of the white shirt he wore at the police station. He
goes from living a seemingly inconsequential and boring life
to living one filled with purpose (revenge), from taking his
family for granted (he gets arrested on his daughter’s birth-
day) to making them the focus of his quest for retribution
(he wants to avenge his wife’s murder and eventually reunite
with his daughter), from pudgy businessman to a one-man
killing machine.
Similar shot compositions also bookend the begin-
ning and the end of Dae-su's ordeal after he is released from
captivity. Unlike the medium close-ups that visualize his
character arc, these shots rely on using highly stylized fram-
ings and virtually identical narrative contexts to make them
easy to recall and contrast. Right before Dae-su is freed,
he is visited by Woo-jin's hypnotist, who implants subcon-
scious commands to condition him to fall in love with Mi-do.
He soon wakes up on a lush field of grass that turns out to
be on the roof of a building, shown on an overhead shot (y).
Towards the end of the film, after Dae-su learns the horrible
truth behind Woo-jin's revenge, he convinces the hypnotist
TFE2.indd 19
to help him forget about his parentage of Mi-do. Afterwards,
he regains consciousness on a snowy mountain, shown in a
virtually identical composition as before (z). Since both shots
are preceded by an encounter with the hypnotist, have the
same overhead shot composition, and are set on unusual or
unexpected locations, they are easily recalled (despite be-
ing separated by the bulk of the events in the narrative), en-
suring that their purpose within the image system, to signal
that the story has come full circle and the ending is near, is
clearly communicated to the audience.
As these examples demonstrate, Oldboy's master-
ful image system greatly enhances the overall dramatic im-
pact of its story, adding layers of meaning that reward close
analysis and reveal new depths to its themes and motifs with
every viewing. One of the fundamental aspects that makes it
particularly effective, however, is how organically it reflects
the plot's narrative structure; the use of recurring imagery,
repeated actions, and mirror motifs perfectly visualize Woo-
jin and Dae-su's parallel paths of obsession and revenge
stylishly but without ever distracting the audience from de-
veloping an emotional connection with the characters' un-
forgettable journeys. This may be one of the reasons Oldboy
remains, almost two decades after its release, a visually im-
pressive cult classic with one of the most emotionally reso-
nant endings of all time.
IMAGE SYSTEMS 19
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 Director Claire McCarthy and cinematographer Denson Baker line up a shot with the Artemis Prime director's viewfinder

20

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 rules of cinematic composition
& technical concepts
THE ASPECT RATIO of a movie, meaning the ratio between
the width and height of the screen, plays a defining role in
how the rules of composition are applied when organizing
visual elements in a shot. Since the early stages of cinema,
filmmakers experimented with a variety of frame shapes,
prompted by aesthetic considerations, technological inno-
vation, as well as economic pressures; studios eventually
settled on a squarish shape in the early 1930s, which re-
mained unchanged until the introduction of widescreen as-
pect ratios in 1952. A handful of aspect ratio options became
standardized soon after, with most films using one of two
major widescreen formats ever since. The shift from cellu-
loid film to digital video reignited the exploration of the as-
pect ratio as a more active tool for the creation of cinematic
images, because it lets filmmakers easily generate virtually
any frame shape they want during postproduction. As a re-
sult, aspect ratios that had gone unused for decades are
making a comeback, and heretofore unseen ratios that offer
completely new ways to implement the rules of composition
are being used to make movies with inventive, unique visual
approaches. Figure 1 shows the most popular aspect ratios
prevalent after the shift to digital filmmaking, demonstrating
how each screen shape alters the amount of visual informa-
tion included in the frame. The widest ratio used in modern
filmmaking is 2.39:1 (originally 2.35:1 until the 1970s), called
"anamorphic" or "scope" (a); this ratio is often associated
with big-budget blockbusters ever since its introduction in
the early 1950s, when studios were desperate to attract au-
diences back into movie theaters with lavish productions that
featured exotic locations and top tier talent. The wide scope
of this ratio showcases locations and landscapes more than
characters, due to the extra room that is inevitably included
TFE2.indd 21
at the sides with most shot sizes, like in this medium close-
up of Hugh Glass (Leonardo DiCaprio), a frontiersman left
for dead in Alejandro G. Iñárritu's historical survival drama
The Revenant. Another extremely common widescreen as-
pect ratio is 1.85:1, also called “flat” (b). The slightly nar-
rower width can present characters and locations equally
well, and closely approximates the aspect ratio of HDTVs,
1.78:1 (also expressed as 16:9)(c). Bridging the gap between
the extra wide 2.39:1 and the taller 1.85:1 aspect ratios is an
increasingly popular screen shape originally developed by
legendary cinematographer Vittorio Storaro, called "Univi-
sium"; at 2:1, it can accommodate wide landscapes as well
as characters without too much extra space at the sides of
the frame, and almost completely fills the screens of HDTVs
and smartphones (d). Although the advent of widescreen as-
pect ratios all but eliminated what had been the standard
since 1932, called the "Academy ratio" of 1.37:1 (e), it has
been resurrected in a number of high profile films recently,
particularly in period-piece narratives that seek to evoke the
genre aesthetics of early films. The squarish shape of the
Academy ratio favors the presentation of characters over
locations, which can barely be included in the frame when
shooting tighter shots like medium close-ups and close-ups.
Since films are experienced in home video, computer moni-
tors, and other devices for much longer than their theatri-
cal run, some filmmakers also opt to "shoot and protect" (f)
for two aspect ratios simultaneously during production. This
technique allows 2.39:1 or 1.85:1 films to be released in
their original aspect ratio in movie theaters and in 1.78:1 for
HDTV broadcasting without the need to include black bars
to fill the empty portions of the screen. All of these aspect
ratios offer different compositional options, and also raise
RULES OF CINEMATIC COMPOSITION & TECHNICAL CONCEPTS 21
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 2.39:1 1.85:1

a b

16:9 HDTV 1.78:1 2:1

c d

1.37:1 16:9 HDTV 1.78:1 2.39:1

e
1
f

The Revenant. Alejandro G. Iñárritu, Director; Emmanuel Lubezki, Cinematographer. 2015.

22

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 a1 b

a2 c

a3 d
2

a: The Grand Budapest Hotel. Wes Anderson, Director; Robert D. Yeoman, Cinematographer. 2014.
b: The Lighthouse. Robert Eggers, Director; Jarin Blaschke, Cinematographer. 2019.
c: I Am Not Madame Bovary. Feng Xiaogang, Director; Luo Pan, Cinematographer. 2016.
d: Gretel & Hansel. Oz Perkins, Director; Galo Olivares, Cinematographer. 2020.

RULES OF CINEMATIC COMPOSITION & TECHNICAL CONCEPTS 23

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 y
certain expectations about the narratives they are used for
due to their historical backgrounds and associated genres.
Filmmakers sometimes exploit these expectations in cre-
ative ways to add layers of meaning to their stories, as seen
in figure 2; Wes Anderson's The Grand Budapest Hotel, for
instance, switches aspect ratios to match the formats that
were used during each period the story covers: 1.85:1 (a1)
for sections set in the 1980s, 2.39:1 for the 1960s (a2), and
1.37:1 for the 1930s (a3). Director Robert Eggers uses in-
stead an unconventional 1.19:1 aspect ratio that emulates
silent era movies for The Lighthouse, a psychological hor-
ror thriller that takes advantage of the claustrophobic feel
the almost completely square frame provides (b). I Am Not
Madame Bovary, a Chinese political satire directed by Feng
Xiaogang, relies on a unique 1:1 circular aspect ratio for
much of its narrative that is evocative of traditional Chinese
art, but also functions to produce a "distancing effect" that
underscores its themes (c). Another unorthodox aspect ra-
tio, 1.55:1, can be seen in director Oz Perkins' re-imagining
of the Brothers Grimm fairy tale Hansel and Gretel, Gretel
& Hansel, coupled with shot compositions that overtly ig-
nore the Rule of Thirds to create eerily beautiful imagery. As
these examples show, your choice of aspect ratio can offer
a lot more than just a window through which you share a
story, and should therefore be considered an integral part of
your visual strategy.
Once Upon a Time... In Hollywood. Quentin Tarantino, Director; Robert Richardson, Cinematographer. 2019.
24
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FRAME AXES define the two-dimensional space used for the
composition of your shots. They comprise a horizontal, or x-
axis, a vertical, or y-axis, and a third axis that denotes the
perceived depth of the frame, the z-axis. Filmmakers com-
monly employ a variety of techniques to overcome the inher-
ent flatness of the frame by emphasizing the z-axis, creating
the illusion that space extends into the frame itself. One of
these techniques can be seen in Quentin Tarantino's Once
Upon a Time... In Hollywood (figure 3), where Cliff Booth
(Brad Pitt), a colorful Hollywood stuntman, is framed against
a number of characters using the relative size depth cue
technique (examined later in this chapter). Perceived dis-
tances and movement along each one of these axes can also
be manipulated by the type of lens used, camera movement,
and lighting, among other means, to alter the visual rela-
tionship between subjects and the space around them.
THE RULE OF THIRDS is a fundamental principle of cinemat-
ic composition that has myriad applications. By dividing the
frame into thirds along its width and height, "sweet spots"
are created at the crossing points; placing important visual
elements over these spots is a common technique to cre-
ate aesthetically pleasing compositions. The horizontal lines
are also used for the placement of horizons in establishing
and extreme long shots, and the vertical lines can guide the
placement of subjects when framing two shots and over the
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 a b

c d

e f
4

a: Uncut Gems. Benny Safdie, Josh Safdie, Directors; Darius Khondji, Cinematographer. 2019.
b: Ex Machina. Alex Garland, Director; Rob Hardy, Cinematographer. 2014.
c: Flowers. Jon Garaño, José Mari Goenaga, Directors; Javier Agirre, Cinematographer. 2014.
d: Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope. George Lucas, Director; Gilbert Taylor, Cinematographer. 1977.
e: Stalker. Andrei Tarkovsky, Director; Aleksandr Knyazhinskiy, Georgi Rerberg, Cinematographers. 1979.
f: Joker. Todd Phillips, Director; Lawrence Sher, Cinematograher. 2019.

RULES OF CINEMATIC COMPOSITION & TECHNICAL CONCEPTS 25

TFE2.indd 25 2/21/22 1:36 AM

 5
shoulder shots. The most common application of the Rule of
Thirds, however, is for the creation of shot compositions that
feature proper amounts of "looking room" and "headroom"
when framing human subjects. In relatively tighter shots,
like medium close-ups, for instance, subjects are placed
over a vertical line depending on which side of the frame
they are facing: the left if they are looking towards the right,
or the right if they are looking left. This framing ensures
that they are given an empty space designed to balance the
composition by countering the visual weight of a subject’s
gaze, or "looking room". When looking room is added ig-
noring the Rule of Thirds (for instance, by placing a subject
at the center of the frame, or at the opposite side entirely,
giving them no looking room at all), a composition can feel
"static" and visually tense, which filmmakers sometimes ex-
ploit to suggest something unusual, abnormal, or danger-
ous is happening in a scene. The subject's eyes in a medium
close-up are usually lined up along the top horizontal line,
ensuring "headroom", or the spacing between a subject’s
head and the top of the frame, is properly sized. The amount
of headroom that should be included varies depending on
shot size; the general rule is that the wider the shot, the
larger it should be, and vice versa. In a medium close-up,
for instance, the top of the head should be cropped to give
a subject the right amount of headroom (despite the misno-
mer in this case), while in a medium shot it should not reach
Taxi Driver. Martin Scorsese, Director; Michael Chapman, Cinematographer. 1976.
26
TFE2.indd 26
the top of the frame. This is why the Rule of Thirds should
not be applied mechanically, but rather organically, depend-
ing not just on the shot size, but also on other aspects of the
mise-en-scène, since they can alter the perception of where
the headroom and looking room should be placed. Figure
4 shows various ways in which the Rule of Thirds can help
guide the framing of a variety of shots. In (a), from Josh and
Benny Safdie's Uncut Gems, it was used to give this char-
acter standard amounts of looking room and headroom for
a medium close-up, while in Alex Garland's Ex Machina (b),
the Rule of Thirds was subverted, placing this character's
looking room on the wrong side while also giving her an in-
sufficient amount of headroom (in this case to suggest a po-
tential danger lurking under the surface). Jon Garaño and
José Mari Goenaga's Flowers (c) shows how placing narra-
tively meaningful subjects over sweet spots (the flowers on
the table) results in an aesthetically pleasing composition,
while George Lucas' Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope (d)
demonstrates how multiple subjects can be organized in the
frame using both sweet spots and horizontal/vertical lines
simultaneously. A medium shot from Andrei Tarkovsky's
Stalker (e) and a medium close-up from Todd Phillips' Joker
(f), illustrate how different aspect ratios (1.37:1 and 1.85:1,
respectively) affect where sweet spots land on the frame,
and consequently the position and size of the headroom and
looking room for these shot sizes.
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 a b
6
HITCHCOCK'S RULE is an amazingly simple yet extremely
effective compositional principle to guide the framing of a
shot. The rule was derived from a series of groundbreaking
interviews Alfred Hitchcock gave François Truffaut that were
eventually collected in Truffaut's book Hitchcock/Truffaut.
In their talks, Hitchcock made several references to how he
varied the size of a subject in the frame according to their
emotional importance to prompt audience engagement.
This concept eventually became known as Hitchcock's Rule,
which states that the size of a subject in the frame should
be directly proportional to its importance in the story at that
moment. The more important someone or something is, the
larger the area of the frame they should occupy. This prin-
ciple can be applied whether you have only one or several
visual elements in the frame, and whether or not the rea-
son behind the visual emphasis is known to the audience at
the time. Figure 5 shows Hitchcock's Rule in action during a
scene from Martin Scorsese's Taxi Driver, when Travis Bickle
(Robert De Niro), a depressed Vietnam War veteran on a path
of self-destruction, purchases black market handguns from
an underground dealer (Steven Prince), signaling a point of
no return for his character. The significance of the handguns
and their purchase is underlined by letting them occupy the
entire bottom half of the frame, while Travis and the dealer
are cropped, slightly out of focus, and relegated to the back-
ground of the composition.
The Proposition. John Hillcoat, Director; Benoıt
ˆ Delhomme, Cinematographer. 2005.
TFE2.indd 27
BALANCED AND UNBALANCED COMPOSITIONS can make
powerful visual statements about the subtext of a scene. You
can create a purposely balanced or unbalanced composition
by taking into account that every visual element in a frame
carries with it a visual weight, and their relative size, color,
brightness, and placement can affect how they are perceived
by an audience. This concept makes it possible to compose
images that "feel" balanced when their visual weight is evenly
distributed, or unbalanced when it is concentrated in only one
area of the frame. Although the terms balanced and unbal-
anced have no inherent value judgement in terms of cinematic
composition, it is not uncommon to find balanced composi-
tions being used to convey order, uniformity, and predetermi-
nation, among other ideas. Unbalanced compositions, on the
other hand, are often relied on to communicate a sense of
uneasiness, turmoil, and tension. Despite these typical as-
sociations, the kind of ideas that can be suggested by bal-
anced and unbalanced compositions ultimately depend on
the context in which they are used; a balanced composition
can suggest "chaos" if it is properly contextualized. Figure 6
shows conventional implementations of both types of compo-
sitions, from John Hillcoat’s Australian western The Proposi-
tion. In (a), a balanced composition where almost every visual
element was arranged symmetrically in the frame instills a
sense of peacefulness and order during a Christmas dinner
between Captain Morris Stanley (Ray Winstone) and his wife
RULES OF CINEMATIC COMPOSITION & TECHNICAL CONCEPTS 27
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 a b
7
Martha (Emily Watson). However, during a scene where Mikey
(Richard Wilson), the younger brother of a wanted fugitive, is
unjustly punished for an unspeakable crime he did not com-
mit (b), a heavily unbalanced composition that places most
visual elements towards the bottom right of the frame un-
derlines the inappropriateness of the situation.
HIGH AND LOW ANGLES allow you to subtly or overtly visual-
ize a character's psychological or emotional state, and can
also help establish power relations between characters;
in scenes where characters display their emotions openly,
high-angle and low-angle shots can underline them, and in
situations where they conceal them, they can suggest or re-
veal their true feelings. A high-angle shot places the camera
above eye-level, and results in a framing that has the audi-
ence looking down on a subject. A low-angle shot, on the oth-
er hand, places the camera below eye-level, letting the audi-
ence look up at a subject. It is common to see low-angle shots
used to visualize confidence, power, and control, and high-
angle shots to suggest weakness, vulnerability, and power-
lessness, but these connotations can be subverted based on
the context in which they are presented; under the right cir-
cumstances, a high angle can suggest dominance, and a low
angle submissiveness. A frequent misuse of high- and low-
angle shots is to place the camera excessively high above or
below a subject's eye-level, which produces a very dynamic
The Lives of Others. Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck, Director; Hagen Bogdanski, Cinematographer. 2006.
28
TFE2.indd 28
but also a potentially distracting composition; unless an
overtly stylized image is needed, even a minor adjustment
in camera height is sufficient to be registered in the minds
of the audience. The two examples in figure 7, from Florian
Henckel von Donnersmarck’s The Lives of Others, demon-
strate the strategic use of a high-angle and a low-angle shot
to communicate two very different emotional states. In (a), a
slight low angle is used when a Stasi officer (Ulrich Mühe)
systematically and mercilessly questions a political prisoner
until he confesses, underlining the authoritarian and menac-
ing persona he projects during his interrogation. However,
when he monitors a raid by Stasi agents on the house of a
playwright he decided to protect at great personal risk (b), a
high angle shot visualizes the vulnerability and powerless-
ness he experiences.
DEPTH CUES let filmmakers overcome the inherent two-di-
mensionality of the frame by producing the illusion of depth
in a shot. While there are several techniques to emphasize
the z-axis of a composition, two of the most frequently used
are the relative size and subject overlapping depth cues.
Relative size depth cues function by blocking similarly sized
subjects along the z-axis of the frame, placing some in the
foreground and others in the middleground and/or back-
ground; if the audience can assume they are supposed to
be equal in size, seeing a smaller one next to a large one
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 a b
8
is perceived as the former being farther away and the lat-
ter being closer, creating the illusion of depth in the pro-
cess. Subject overlapping entails just what the name says:
the partial covering of subjects (human or otherwise) along
the z-axis of the frame. When this happens, we perceive the
blocked subject as being farther away, adding a sense of
three-dimensionality to the image. Filmmakers commonly
include something in the foreground of the frame, some-
times by placing objects that would not logically be there in
real life (even if they are completely out of focus), just to cre-
ate a sense of depth. Examples of both of these techniques
can be seen in figure 8, from Michael Bay's action thriller
The Rock. In (a), a long shot shows Frank Hummel (Ed Har-
ris), a rogue Brigadier General who wants to lead a takeover
of Alcatraz, paying tribute at his wife's grave; the long rows
of gravestones in front of and behind him function as relative
size depth cues in this case, since although we can safely
assume they all have the same exact dimensions, the ones
in the far background are noticeably smaller than the ones
in the foreground, making it seem as if they extend deep into
the frame. The medium close-up shot in (b), on the other
hand, shows how placing objects in the foreground creates
the illusion that Dr. Stanley Goodspeed (Nicolas Cage), an
FBI agent trying to stop the deployment of a chemical weap-
on, is standing somewhere in the middleground between the
chains and the wall in the background.
The Rock. Michael Bay, Director; John Schwartzman, Cinematographer. 1996.
TFE2.indd 29
FOCAL POINTS AND LEADING LINES help audiences iden-
tify the center of interest, and therefore the narrative point,
of a composition; they are created by arranging visual ele-
ments so that they naturally guide the audience's gaze to one
or more areas of the frame. Focal points can be integrated
in several ways; for instance, by having a character wear a
color that stands out against an otherwise monochromatic
composition, or by using lighting to make them stand out in
a dark environment, or by ensuring they are the only visual
element shown in sharp focus, among others. Creating lead-
ing lines involves using a location's natural or human-made
features (like shorelines, mountains, shadows, roads, or
buildings) to make their actual or implied lines point towards
a main subject, usually by arranging them so they extend
from the foreground to the background towards a character.
Examples of both techniques can be seen in figure 9, from
Claire Denis' Beau Travail, the story of Galoup (Denis Lavant),
a French Foreign Legion officer who develops a toxic obses-
sion with Sentain (Grégoire Colin), a young soldier he fears
will ingratiate himself with his Commandant. In (a), Galoup
punishes a recruit by having him dig a hole in the heat, shown
in a long shot with a frame within a frame to create a strong
focal point, leaving no doubt as to what the center of interest
in this composition is. Later, after Sentain challenges his au-
thority, Galoup exacts revenge by stranding him in the desert,
where he makes his way to a salt flat, shown in (b). In this
RULES OF CINEMATIC COMPOSITION & TECHNICAL CONCEPTS 29
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 a b
9
extreme long shot, the curve formed by the shoreline leads
our gaze towards Sentain, who is placed very close to the top
right sweet spot according to the Rule of Thirds, accentuat-
ing his uneasiness and desolation at this moment.
FOCAL LENGTH refers to the measurement from the optical
center of a lens (the point where the image is flipped and
reversed) to a camera's sensor in millimeters. This distance
is one of the main ways we classify lenses, and can always be
found engraved on a lens. The three main types of lenses in
terms of focal length are called "normal", "wide-angle", and
"telephoto". Focal length is a determinant factor in the way
perspective looks, how much of a scene can be seen, how
fast or slow movement is perceived, and the look of facial
features, among other visual characteristics. It also has a
proportional relationship with a subject's degree of magni-
fication in the frame; for instance, if you want to reduce the
size of a subject in a shot by half, you can simply switch to a
lens with half the focal length you are using (if you're shoot-
ing with a 100mm lens, you would have to switch to a 50mm
lens), and vice versa. While this might seem a very simple
way to “dial in” the size of a subject in the frame, it is impor-
tant to remember that you will also be changing what can be
seen around and behind the subject in the process, because
by changing your focal length you will also be changing the
angle of view.
Beau Travail. Claire Denis, Director; Agnès Godard, Cinematographer. 1999.
30
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ANGLE OF VIEW measures the extent of a scene a lens can
encompass across the x, y, or diagonal axes, expressed in
degrees. Angles of view are directly related to focal length;
shorter focal lengths produce wider angles of view, and lon-
ger focal lengths result in narrower angles of view. A lens'
angle of view provides a fundamental way for filmmakers to
control what is included in a shot. For instance, you could se-
lect a short focal length to expand the angle of view when you
want to include more of the environment in a shot, and when
visual elements need to be excluded, you could switch to a
longer focal length with a narrower angle of view.
FIELD OF VIEW, or the measurement across the x, y, or diag-
onal axes a lens can cover at a given distance expressed in de-
grees, has the same relationship with focal length as a lens'
angle of view: shorter focal lengths have wider fields of view
and longer focal lengths have narrower fields of view. Field
of view is not, however, exactly analogous to angle of view.
A lens' angle of view is fixed and cannot be changed, but the
field of view it can show is a flexible measurement because it
is a function of both the angle of view and the camera’s place-
ment in relation to a subject. If a camera is brought closer
when framing a subject, the field of view will get increas-
ingly narrower even though the lens' angle of view remains
unchanged. Conversely, moving a camera away from a sub-
ject will widen the field of view without affecting the angle of
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10
view. This interaction between angle of view, field of view, and
camera placement provides complete control over what can
be included in the frame, particularly in terms of the visual
relationships it allows between a subject and what is seen
in the background. Figure 10 (from Wong Kar-wai’s stylish
drama Fallen Angels) shows how filmmakers typically exploit
these elements. In (a), a wide-angle lens and a short dis-
tance to the subject (Michelle Reis) to frame her in a medium
close-up result in the inclusion of a limited amount of space
to her immediate left and right due to the narrower field of
view captured at that distance; however, you will notice that
most of the restaurant can still be seen in the background
due to this lens' wide angle of view. In (b), the longer distance
needed to frame her in a medium close-up with a telephoto
lens still results in the same amount of space being included
to her immediate left and right, despite this lens' much nar-
rower angle of view, but this time a lot less of the restaurant
is visible in the background. Note that in both examples the
subject's size remained constant in the frame by compensat-
ing for the demagnification of the wide-angle lens and the
magnification of the telephoto lens with corresponding cam-
era placements.
NORMAL LENSES are called as such because they repro-
duce perspective in a way that closely resembles human vi-
sion. They are typically preferred over wide-angle and tele-
Fallen Angels. Wong Kar-wai, Director; Christopher Doyle, Cinematographer. 1995.
TFE2.indd 31
photo lenses when shooting human subjects, especially in
close-ups, because they do not overtly distort facial features
due to the camera to subject distances they require (al-
though sometimes focal lengths slightly longer than normal
are also used because they can produce a more flattering
look). Normal lenses also do not exaggerate movement and
distances between subjects along the z-axis of the frame.
What is considered a "normal focal length", however, varies
depending on the shooting format; for 35mm still photogra-
phy, a lens with a focal length of 50mm is considered to be
normal. For Super 35 (a format that closely approximates
the sensor size used in most professional digital filmmak-
ing cameras) a 35mm lens is closer to normal. It is worth
noting that a “normal focal length” is a somewhat arbitrary
and flexible concept, and sometimes refers not to a single
focal length but to a range; also, it is possible to completely
recontextualize what is considered a normal focal length
within a story's image system.
WIDE-ANGLE LENSES have a shorter focal length and cap-
ture a wider angle of view than both normal and telephoto
lenses. Wide-angles (especially those with very short fo-
cal lengths) are not commonly used very close to a subject
because of the optical distortion they can add to faces. This
effect can be seen in figure 10, where the subject's facial
features look unnaturally warped when a wide-angle lens
RULES OF CINEMATIC COMPOSITION & TECHNICAL CONCEPTS 31
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 a b
11
is used (a), but appear more normal with a telephoto lens
(b). At very short focal lengths, wide-angle lenses can also
greatly exaggerate distances along the z-axis, making them
appear longer than they actually are; this effect can be seen
in figure 11 (a), from Kathryn Bigelow's war thriller The Hurt
Locker, where the supermarket aisle appears to recede un-
naturally far into the background. The apparent expansion of
distances along the z-axis also results in making subjects
moving towards or away from the camera look like they are
advancing at a much faster rate than they really are, one of
the reasons why wide-angles are commonly used to make
chase scenes look more dynamic and dangerous.
TELEPHOTO LENSES have a longer focal length and a nar-
rower angle of view than normal and wide-angle lenses. They
function like telescopes, magnifying distant subjects (tele
means “far”, in Ancient Greek); consequently, they capture
less of a scene, allowing you to exclude unwanted visual ele-
ments from a composition. Like wide-angle lenses, telepho-
tos can also distort facial features, though not as overtly; in
fact, slight telephoto lenses are sometimes used in lieu of
normal lenses because they can produce a more flattering
look. An example of this effect is shown in figure 10 (b) when
compared to the same subject taken with a wide-angle lens
(a). Unlike wide-angles, telephotos show a compressed per-
spective along the z-axis, making backgrounds appear to be
The Hurt Locker. Kathryn Bigelow, Director; Barry Ackroyd, Cinematographer. 2008.
32
TFE2.indd 32
closer than they really are, flattening space; this effect can
be seen in figure 11 (b), taken with a long telephoto lens that
makes the armored vehicle with the soldiers appear to be
close to the bomb disposal expert walking ahead of them,
despite being far apart. Telephoto z-axis compression also
affects the rate of movement of subjects moving towards or
away from the camera, making them look as if they are ad-
vancing at a much slower rate (an effect sometimes used to
create tension or suspense during chase scenes).
LENS SPEED refers to the light gathering performance of a
lens based on its maximum aperture (the mechanism that
regulates how much light reaches a camera's sensor), and
forms the basis to classify lenses as "fast" or "slow". A lens
with a wide maximum aperture (like f/1.4), is called "fast", be-
cause it requires less time to correctly expose an image than
a "slow" lens with a smaller maximum aperture (like f/2.8).
Faster lenses offer definite advantages over slower lenses,
like the ability to shoot in low-light situations (for instance, at
dusk) without the need to raise your camera's ISO (which can
compromise image quality), and also require less powerful
lighting fixtures, reducing equipment rental and transporta-
tion costs. Since knowing the speed of a lens is of critical
importance, the maximum aperture is always engraved on
the barrel, usually in the form of a number “1” followed by a
colon and the widest f-stop the lens supports (“1:1.4”).
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12
PRIME LENSES have a single (or "fixed") focal length, un-
like zoom lenses, which can be set within a range of focal
lengths. If image quality is the main priority, these lenses
are commonly preferred over zooms, because they have few-
er optical compromises and generally yield better contrast,
color, and sharpness (although some high quality zooms
can produce images that are nearly indistinguishable from
primes). Primes are also lighter and shorter than zooms,
because their much simpler optical designs use fewer lens
elements. Compared to zoom lenses, primes also have a
shorter minimum focusing distance (letting you get closer to
a subject to create a sense of intimacy when shooting close-
ups, for instance), and are generally faster (they have wider
maximum apertures). However, primes are more time-con-
suming to use because they have to be replaced whenever a
focal length change is needed.
ZOOM LENSES, also known as variable focal length lenses,
can be set within a range of focal lengths; because of this,
they allow changing the angle of view to reframe a shot
without having to move the camera. This is accomplished
through a complex mechanism that lets you adjust the posi-
tion of elements within the lens, effectively changing its opti-
cal center as needed. The "zoom ratio" of a zoom lens refers
to its focal length range; a 10:1 zoom ratio means that the
lens can increase its focal length 10 times, for instance, from
Mission: Impossible. Brian De Palma, Director; Stephen H. Burum, Cinematographer. 1996.
TFE2.indd 33
12mm to 120mm (from a wide-angle to a telephoto setting).
A drawback of using zooms is that their more complex opti-
cal design means they are generally slow lenses, and their
overall image quality tends to be inferior in terms of color,
contrast, and sharpness to what a prime lens of the same
focal length can produce. On the other hand, zoom lenses
can let you work much faster than primes, because it is not
necessary to spend any time switching lenses every time a
different focal length is needed. Additionally, zoom lenses al-
low you to change the focal length as you take a shot, letting
you create zoom shots (examined on page 159).
SPECIALIZED LENSES offer features that are not available
in conventional lenses, and are generally only used when a
specific optical effect is needed. The most commonly used
specialized lenses are macros, tilt-shift lenses, and split-
field diopters. Macro lenses let you get extremely close to a
subject while still maintaining sharp focus, making them ide-
al for extreme close-up work; with a macro lens, very small
details can be magnified to fill the frame, as seen in figure 12
(a), where a retinal scan of an eyeball, from Brian De Palma's
action thriller Mission: Impossible, is magnified to such a
degree individual eyelashes can be distinguished. Tilt-shift
lenses have a movable front element that allows tilting the
plane of focus from a perpendicular to a diagonal axis in re-
lation to the camera’s sensor; this allows having only one
RULES OF CINEMATIC COMPOSITION & TECHNICAL CONCEPTS 33
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 a b
13
out of two subjects at the same distance from the camera
in sharp focus, or having two subjects along a diagonal axis
(one in the foreground and the other in the background) in
focus simultaneously. A similar effect can be produced with
a split-field diopter, a half-lens attachment that turns a con-
ventional lens into the equivalent of a bifocal lens, allowing
you to have a subject in the far background and another in
the foreground in sharp focus at the same time. This effect
can be seen in figure 12 (b), where the lens was focused to
the burning car in the far background, yet the spy in the fore-
ground who triggered the explosion (Emmanuelle Béart) is
still in sharp focus.
DEPTH OF FIELD is the distance range along the z-axis in
front of and behind a subject that is considered to be within
"acceptable focus" (a format-dependent focus measurement
standard). This distance range can be manipulated to have
what is called a "deep" depth of field, where almost every-
thing in the foreground, middleground, and background of a
composition appears in sharp focus, or a "shallow" depth of
field where a reduced area around the subject is sharp while
the foreground and background are blurry. Knowing how to
control the depth of field range (near to far) is an extremely
important visual storytelling technique, because it allows
filmmakers to direct the audience's attention to selected
areas of the frame by using a shallow depth of field, or to
Apocalypto. Mel Gibson, Director; Dean Semler, Cinematographer. 2006.
34
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its entirety by using a deep depth of field. The three ways to
manipulate depth of field are through the camera to subject
distance, the lens' focal length, and the aperture setting. Ad-
justing depth of field through the camera to subject distance
works as follows: placing the camera closer to a subject re-
sults in a shorter focusing distance, which produces a shal-
lower depth of field, while placing the camera farther away
increases the focusing distance, resulting in a deeper depth
of field. A fundamental problem with this method is that by
moving the camera farther away or closer to a subject, you
will inevitably also change the shot's composition, which you
may not want to do when a specific shot size is required to
make a narrative point. Focal length affects depth of field
as follows: longer focal lengths produce shallower depths
of field, and shorter focal lengths produce deeper depths of
field. The caveat with using your lens' focal length to con-
trol depth of field is that it necessitates moving the camera
to make up for the magnification or demagnification of the
subject in the frame, and in doing so, the focal length's effect
on the depth of field is effectively nullified. For instance, if you
frame a medium close-up with a telephoto lens, the camera
will likely need to be relatively far from the subject because
of this lens' magnification, but if you switch to a wide-angle
lens, you would have to bring the camera much closer to
frame a medium close-up because of this lens' wider angle
of view and demagnification. This reduction in the camera to
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 a b
14
subject distance results in a depth of field that is practically
identical to the one produced when the telephoto lens was
used. Figure 10 shows what this relationship between focal
length, camera to subject distance, and depth of field looks
like. The medium close-up taken with a wide-angle lens (a)
appears to have a deeper depth of field than the one taken
with a much longer focal length (b), but if you look carefully
at the background of the wide-angle lens shot, you will notice
it is, in fact, blurry; since the wide-angle extends distances
along the z-axis, it makes it harder to notice it is out of focus,
while the telephoto's perspective compression makes the
blurriness of the background much easier to notice. Because
of this, while focal length does have an impact in how deep or
shallow the depth of field becomes, this is not the case when
a subject's size is kept constant in the frame. The disadvan-
tages of using the camera to subject distance and focal length
to adjust the depth of field are overcome with most filmmak-
ers' preferred method: using a lens' aperture. Wider aper-
tures (like f/1.4) produce images that have a shallow depth of
field, while smaller apertures (like f/16) result in images with
deeper depths of field. Since adjusting the aperture does not
require moving the camera or changing the focal length, shot
composition is not affected with this method; however, it does
require being able to control the amount of light available in
a scene to compensate for changes in aperture setting. For
instance, when shooting outdoors on a sunny day, it would be
TFE2.indd 35
impossible to produce a shallow depth field with a wide aper-
ture without overexposing the image; in this case it becomes
necessary to cut some light, which is usually done by using
neutral density filtration (also called "ND filters", essentially
sunglasses for lenses) with a gradation that corresponds to
the amount of extra light coming through. This is how the
two shots in figure 13, from Mel Gibson’s historical action
thriller Apocalypto, feature completely different depths of
field despite having been taken in full daylight; (a) features a
deep depth of field that shows a group of Mayan warriors led
by "Zero Wolf" (Raoul Trujillo) in sharp focus, while (b) visu-
ally isolates "Middle Eye" (Gerardo Taracena) with a shallow
depth of field produced by using a wide aperture and neutral
density filtration. Trying to obtain a deep depth of field in low-
light situations, like outdoors at night, presents the opposite
problem, since it requires a lot of extra light to compensate
for the use of a small aperture.
ISO settings identify a camera sensor's sensitivity to light;
these values are indicated following a standard created for
film stocks that was later revised for digital photography.
ISO values have an inversely proportional relationship with
the level of exposure needed to record an image at an "ideal"
brightness level; for instance, switching the ISO from 400 to
800 means the sensor will only require half as much light to
record an image at the same exposure level. Switching from
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15

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 a b
16
320 to 160 means it will need twice the amount of light instead,
due to the halving of light sensitivity. In reality, however, the
sensor's sensitivity does not really change when you select a
higher or a lower ISO; instead, the camera's signal processing
technology digitally amplifies or reduces the measured light
input. Because of this process, drastic changes in ISO setting
tend to add video noise to the image, which explains why film-
makers often avoid using high ISO values to compensate for
inadequate exposure levels when shooting in low-light situ-
ations (like outdoors at night). Instead, it is preferred to use a
camera's "native ISO" (the actual sensitivity the sensor was
designed for) to obtain the best possible quality a camera can
offer, even when it might require lighting a scene that could
be shot with just available light. Different manufacturers offer
cameras with different ISO ranges and native ISO settings;
for instance, Canon's C300 Mark III digital cinema camera
has an ISO range that starts at 100 and reaches 102,400
(expanded) with a native ISO of 800, while Sony's A7S III (a
full frame DSLR mirrorless camera) can reach a staggering
409,600 ISO (effectively making it possible to shoot outdoor
night scenes using only moonlight) and has a native ISO of
640.
PREVISUALIZATION TOOLS offer many practical benefits
during preproduction and production, and are also essen-
tial to help you develop your filmmaker's eye. Regardless
of how complex or simple they may be, all previsualization
tools perform the same basic function: they allow you to de-
TFE2.indd 37
termine what will be in and what will not be in your frame.
The most basic preview tool is always with you: your hands.
All you need to do is use your index fingers and thumbs to
form a squarish shape that approximates the aspect ratio of
your movie while blocking out the field of view outside the
frame with the rest of your fingers, as seen in figure 14 (a).
Even though it might seem just a simple hand gesture, it can
go a long way in helping you focus on the most fundamental
visual aspects of a shot, and, with some practice, it can even
let you estimate the angles of view by adjusting how far or
close to your body you hold out your hands. For a more ac-
curate visualization of your shots, a classic director's view-
finder, like Alan Gordon Enterprises' Mark Vb (figure 15 (b)),
provides far more precision. Essentially a zoom lens with
markings that correspond to a wide range of focal lengths
for different film formats, it also includes a mechanism that
masks the image according to preset aspect ratio settings.
Using a classic director's viewfinder is relatively simple; just
select the aspect ratio you will be using for your movie and
then dial in the focal length you want to preview. As you look
at your scene through the viewfinder (figure 14 (b)), you can
try other focal lengths to see how they change the angle of
view, and you can change your position to determine how
your shot's spatial relationships are affected (as explained
in the "field of view" section of this chapter). Additionally, a
classic director's viewfinder is also an invaluable tool during
location scouting, because it allows you to get an accurate
sense of a space's narrative potential by letting you see
RULES OF CINEMATIC COMPOSITION & TECHNICAL CONCEPTS 37
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 it through the actual focal lengths you plan to use. Dur-
ing shooting, a classic director's viewfinder can also save a
production crew a lot of time (a precious commodity in this
stage), because it lets cinematographers and directors lock
down camera placements in advance, minimizing the cam-
era department's downtime. While a classic director's view-
finder is an excellent tool, it does have some drawbacks.
For instance, previewing long focal lengths makes the im-
age look smaller due to its optical design, and the borders
of the frame are not always perfectly sharp. They also gen-
erally do not show very short or very long focal lengths,
and lack preview settings for the current multitude of new
digital camera formats and aspect ratios. A more advanced
type of director's viewfinder that overcomes some of these
shortcomings is a lens finder, like the Lindsey Optics Large
Format Optical Viewfinder shown in figure 15 (a). Unlike
classic director's viewfinders, lens finders let you attach the
actual lenses you will use on your camera during produc-
tion, allowing you to visualize a shot in a way that matches
exactly what the sensor will record in terms of perspective,
depth of field, optical distortion, and flaring. Lens finders
also do not reduce the image size when previewing longer
focal lengths, and some models support the newest large
and full-frame digital formats (like those used by the Arri
Alexa 65 and Sony Venice digital cinema cameras). These
advantages come with a few drawbacks. During production,
the camera crew cannot complete setting up the camera
while the lens is being used on the finder, potentially caus-
ing delays. Lens finders are also very expensive (even just
to rent), which often prevents using them any time other
than actual shooting days. Figure 16 (a) shows a recently
introduced option that combines the advantages of a lens
38
TFE2.indd 38
finder with a software-driven solution: Chemical Wedding's
Artemis Prime (here being used by cinematographer Den-
son Baker during the making of the BBC series The Lumi-
naires) lets you mount the same lenses you will use during
your shoot to a tablet running a viewfinder app with a vast
database of camera formats and lenses. After selecting your
lens and camera models, the app can reproduce a pixel-
accurate image with any aspect ratio, and can even let you
preview color grading and exposure emulations, among oth-
er functions. Additionally, the large tablet it uses to display
images makes examining the frame in detail much easier
than with standard optical lens finders or classic director's
viewfinders. A more affordable alternative, available thanks
to the compact size of mirrorless cameras, is to build your
own low-budget version of a lens finder. An example of this
setup is shown in figure 15 (c), where a compact mirrorless
camera and a zoom lens were outfitted with an ergonomic
handle and a diopter that magnifies the image and blocks
out sunlight. This solution offers the same functionality of
an optical lens finder at a fraction of the price, with the
added benefit of being able to record video during location
scouting and actor rehearsals for later review. Lastly, there
are also several digital director's viewfinder apps available
for both iOS and Android devices that offer a wide variety of
options, like the Emmy Award-winning Artemis Pro (figure
15 (e)). They function by digitally cropping or padding the
image to simulate the angle of view you would obtain given
your lens model, sensor format, and aspect ratio selections;
they are inexpensive, can be upgraded to add new camera
formats, and let you save still images (and in some cases
even video) with metadata you can use to help plan your
shoot. However, their functionality is necessarily limited by
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 your device's lens, which prevents them from accurately checked and double checked, and in a worst-case scenario
replicating the optical characteristics of the lenses you will can even grind a crew's momentum to a halt, which can end
be using during production. up costing a lot of time and money. However, the practical
advantages external field monitors provide in terms of shot
EXTERNAL FIELD MONITORS were once bulky, heavy cubes composition and obtaining the best possible image qual-
that were a chore to bring on set; today, they are lightweight, ity have made them indispensable tools in the filmmaker's
battery-powered tablets that are a ubiquitous presence in arsenal.
most film productions. Their large screens make review-
ing and adjusting nearly every technical element of the
frame, including focus, much easier (the built-in screens of
most DSLR and mirrorless cameras typically measure only
3", while external field monitors are available in sizes that
range from 5" to 19"). Higher-end models, like Atomos' Ninja
Flame (figure 15 (d)) are also high-capacity SSD recorders
capable of recording high quality video that often exceeds a
camera's recording capabilities. Additionally, they offer an
array of monitoring and production functions (some of which
your camera may already have, but are easier to evaluate on
a large external field monitor), like a vectorscope (displays
color information), a waveform monitor (measures bright-
ness levels), zebra lines (shows areas of overexposure), fo-
cus peaking (highlights areas that are in sharp focus), 1:1
pixel mapping (displays images without scaling to ensure
critical focus is achieved), aspect ratio guides, and LUT em-
ulations (color presets that help approximate your film's fi-
nal color grading looks), among others. Also, they are much
brighter than the built-in LCD screens on a typical DSLR or
mirrorless camera, making them much easier to see out-
doors during the day, as seen in figure 16 (b). While having
all of these monitoring and production tools during a shoot
can be extremely helpful, it is important to keep in mind
they can also potentially create delays if they are constantly

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 SIZES

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 Sex and Lucía. Julio Medem, Director; Kiko de la Rica, Cinematographer. 2001.

42

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extreme close-up
The extreme close-up concentrates the audience’s attention
on a tiny portion of a character or on small objects, making
it ideal for isolating minute, single visual details from the rest
of a scene. Using an extreme close-up instantly generates
the expectation that what is being shown is important to the
narrative (a classic application of Hitchcock’s Rule), which
is often exploited to instill a sense of anticipation in the au-
dience. A common strategy, for instance, involves isolating a
seemingly unimportant detail that ends up playing a critical
role later in the story. In this case, the first instance of the
extreme close-up prompts the audience to expect its sub-
ject to be significant in some way, so that, when they see it
again and its narrative purpose is revealed, it does not seem
unjustified and artificially convenient. Extreme close-ups can
also function to conceal a character's identity or the full ex-
tent of an object by withholding key visual information from
an audience, generating a sense of mystery and tension. Their
limited view of a subject, however, makes them less than ideal
to showcase emotion or nuances of behavior through a char-
acter's facial expressions or body language, except in gener-
al, almost symbolic terms. When extreme close-ups feature
an extremely small detail of an object or a character they are
called "macro shots" (covered on page 153), and are obtained
with specialized lenses that allow getting much closer to a
subject than conventional lenses. At such close distances,
they can showcase more fundamental visual characteris-
tics, like textures, colors, or patterns to the point of abstrac-
tion, but, narratively, they still function as extreme close-ups.
When used this way, their visual content might not be directly
related to the narrative, but nonetheless adds to the overall
dramatic tone or thematic context because of the abstract
qualities or associated meanings it can suggest.
TFE2.indd 43
ECU
In the example on the opposite page, from director Julio
Medem’s Spanish drama Sex and Lucía, an extreme close-
up focuses the audience’s attention on the path of a single
tear as it rolls down the cheek of Elena (Najwa Nimri), a
woman who was earlier shown having a casual sexual en-
counter with a man while swimming in the ocean under a
full moon. The sequence opens with a graphic match that
dissolves from a shot of the moon to an extreme close-up
of a pregnancy test showing a positive result; upon learn-
ing the news of her unexpected pregnancy, Elena sheds a
tear that slowly makes its way down her cheek until it falls
on the test, partially smearing it. The visual emphasis the
extreme close-up places on the tear (because of its ex-
treme magnification and the way the camera tilts down to
follow its path across her face) implies it is a key element of
this sequence, but also prevents identifying the precise emo-
tion that caused it. If a conventional close-up had been used
instead of an extreme close-up, for instance, Elena's facial
expression and the reaction it communicated would have
been the main narrative point of this moment; by exclud-
ing them, the audience can consider alternate meanings
for the extreme visual emphasis placed on the tear. When
the narrative context and highly stylized presentation of the
shots immediately preceding it are taken into account, the
connection between the tear's salt water and the ocean in
which her fateful encounter took place is easy to make, and,
by extension, also with other associated meanings, like tide
cycles, moon cycles, and menstrual cycles, all of which are
connected to the revelation of her pregnancy. The choice of
an extreme close-up to showcase the tear makes it possi-
ble to suggest that it represents all of these things to Elena,
adding a symbolic and even poetic context to this scene.
EXTREME CLOSE-UP 43
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 why it works
One of the uses of the extreme close-up is to make a strong
visual statement by concentrating the audience’s attention
on a small detail of a subject; this signals it has an im-
portant role to play in a story, even in situations when its
narrative function is left unexplained when it is shown. In
this example from Rainer Werner Fassbinder’s The Mar--
riage of Maria Braun, an extreme close-up shows a pack
of cigarettes early in the film, after it is established that
they are used as currency in Germany after the end of World
The Marriage of Maria Braun. Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Director; Michael Ballhaus, Cinematographer. 1979.
44
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War II. At this point in the story, however, the justification
for the extreme narrative emphasis this shot size provides
is not addressed. Towards the end of the film, when Maria
meets her demise because of a cigarette, the audience can
finally understand that this extreme close-up was actu-
ally foreshadowing their fatalistic importance in the story,
adding an element of inevitability to the course of her life
while symbolically commenting on the sociopolitical crisis
Germany faced during this period.
2/21/22 1:36 AM

The tight framing of an extreme close-up gives
you license to tweak your lighting to make it
more visually compelling, as long as the overall
lighting continuity established in previous shots
is maintained. The lighting in the shot that pre--
ceded this extreme close-up came from a com-
pletely different angle, but since the light quality
and general look are sufficiently similar, this
discrepancy goes unnoticed.
Although this extreme close-up contains only
a couple of packs of cigarettes, they were ar--
ranged within the frame so that they are par-
tially cropped, implying the existence of off-
screen space. This is a common strategy used
by filmmakers to add a sense of depth to a
shot's composition.
A shallow depth of field means only certain vi--
sual elements can remain in sharp focus, fur--
ther enhancing the image's visual and narrative
emphasis. This shot's focus was set to under--
line two key details: the word “Deutschland” on
the pack of cigarettes, and the raw tobacco in
the open pack. The symbolism of a tradition--
ally American brand packaged for German con--
sumption highlights an important sociopolitical
subtext explored in this film.

This cigarette is strategically placed at this
composition's focal point; the diagonals created
by the two packs naturally guide the viewer’s
eye towards it, while the shallow depth of field
isolates it from the rest of the visual elements
in the frame. Using these compositional prin--
ciples to emphasize a seemingly unimportant
object inevitably raises certain expectations
about its significance in the story.
Because an extreme close-up can reveal even
the minutest details of everything included in
the frame, it is a good idea to keep composi--
tions free of any visual elements that might
distract the audience from the main subject.
The effectiveness of this shot would be severely
diminished if the cigarettes were resting on a
newspaper instead of a white plate.

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 technical considerations
Depending on the size of the subject and the level of magni-
fication required, telephotos, wide-angles, and macro lenses
can all be used to shoot an extreme close-up. Zoom lenses
are at a disadvantage if they are used as wide-angles, how-
ever, because a zoom lens set at a short focal length has a
longer minimum focusing distance than an equivalent prime,
which can potentially prevent you from capturing very small
details. The native lenses used in smartphones make it rela-
tively easy to shoot extreme close-ups, because their shorter
focal lengths (around 4mm, equivalent to roughly 33mm in
the 35mm format) result in them having very short minimum
focusing distances (commonly less than 4 inches). In cases
where the subject is too small to be captured with conven-
tional lenses, a specialized lens, called a macro, offers an
alternative, since it is specifically designed to let you get ex-
tremely close to a subject (although there are other ways to
get similar results, examined on page 156).
At such short focusing distances, however, it can be
very difficult to keep a subject in focus because of how shal-
low the depth of field becomes; virtually any movement in
front of or behind the camera can shift the plane of focus
to an unwanted area along the z-axis of the frame. Using
smaller apertures can make things easier, provided extra
light can be added to compensate for the reduction in expo-
sure. Special care also needs to be taken when shooting sub-
jects with a lot of repetitive, fine detail (a common problem
when shooting fabrics, for instance), which can result in the
appearance of very distracting rainbow-like distortions that
shift across areas of the image, known as a "moiré effect".
Closing down the aperture can significantly reduce and even
eliminate these artifacts, but it can also compromise image
quality because it can prevent shooting with a lens' "sweet
spot" (the aperture setting that produces maximum sharp-
ness). Another option is to slightly adjust the distance to the
subject, provided footage can be previewed at full resolution
(with an external field monitor set to 1:1 pixel mapping, for
46
TFE2.indd 46
instance) to confirm the moiré has been eradicated. Whether
the subject is a detail of a person or a tiny object, lighting
should be planned and executed as carefully and thought-
fully as if you were shooting a key close-up of an actor. When
you are on set it can be easy to forget that although your sub-
ject might look tiny and even unimportant in person, it will
look gigantic and imposing when it is seen on a large screen.
The magnification in an extreme close-up not only makes a
strong visual statement about its subject, but also magnifies
any errors or inconsistencies in framing, lighting, or focusing
it may have, so it is especially important to be as technically
exacting as possible when taking these shots.
Although in some cases the tightness of the fram-
ing can preclude the inclusion of all of the lights that were
used in wider shots within the same scene, the overall
lighting continuity should be maintained to a certain degree
(meaning that you should not suddenly light an extreme
close-up using a low-key, film noirish look if the shot right
before had high-key, shadowless lighting, and vice versa).
Generally speaking, however, the greater the difference in
shot size between the shot immediately preceding or fol-
lowing an extreme close-up, the more license you will have
to add, move, or change the intensity of the lighting be-
tween shots without being too distracting or obvious. This is
especially true if the wider shots also happen to include a
lot of visual elements and/or movement in the frame, which
will make it even more difficult for an audience to notice
visual discrepancies. For instance, the extreme close-up on
the opposite page, from director Spike Lee's crime drama
Clockers, is followed by a long shot with lighting that shows
a lot more of the interrogation room where the scene takes
place. If that same lighting setup had been used for the
extreme close-up, however, the detective's reflection on the
eye would not have been as easy to spot as it is, and the key
moment of the story it communicates would not have been
as visually striking.
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 breaking the rules

The tight framing of an extreme close-up typically only lets you show a tiny detail of a subject, but in this example from Spike
Lee’s Clockers, the reflective qualities of the human eye are cleverly exploited to include much more visual information. When
detective Rocco (Harvey Keitel) interrogates Victor (Isaiah Washington) about inaccuracies in a murder confession he gave, an
extreme close-up showing his reflection on Victor's eye is shown as he tells him “I want to see what you see”, creating an em-
blematic image that visualizes his statement. Note the complex lighting needed to create this effect, from the greenish hue on
the eyelid to imply the glow of ambient light, to the purposely dark background behind the detective to make his reflection easy
to notice on Victor's pupil. Interestingly, the word “pupil” comes from “pupilla”, or “little doll” in Latin, an ancient reference to
the very phenomenon captured in this shot.

Clockers. Spike Lee, Director; Malik Hassan Sayeed, Cinematographer. 1995.

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 WALL·E. Andrew Stanton, Director; Danielle Feinberg, Jeremy Lasky, and Martin Rosenberg, Cinematographers. 2008.

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close-up
The close-up is a relative newcomer to the cinematic vo-
cabulary; before the visual language of movies was devel-
oped to include the large variety of shots we have today, early
silent films told stories almost exclusively with wide shots,
replicating the experience of watching a stage play. The in-
troduction of the close-up as a narrative tool would have a
tremendous impact not only in the way audiences connected
with characters, but also in the development of a more natu-
ralistic style of acting that departed from the exaggeration
commonly seen in the theatre. What sets the close-up apart
from all other shots is its ability to give the audience intimate
access to nuances of a character’s behavior and emotion (es-
pecially those that play across the face) that cannot be fully
appreciated in wider or even tighter shots. A close-up does
not simply showcase emotion, but the specific and unique
ways a character experiences it. The physical closeness and
intimacy of a close-up can elicit a strong emotional connec-
tion with a subject, making an audience care, empathize,
love, and even hate a character. Filmmakers routinely en-
hance this connection by using visual conventions designed
to minimize the impact of anything that can distract from
a performance; for instance, backgrounds in a close-up are
usually kept out of focus to help visually isolate a subject,
and normal or slight telephoto focal lengths are typically
preferred over wide-angle lenses to avoid distorting an ac-
tor's facial features in distracting or unnatural ways. These
conventions have been so widely adopted that it is rare (al-
though not impossible) to find a close-up of a character
that features a deep depth of field, or one taken with a lens
that overtly distorts facial features, like a fisheye lens. The
close-up's ability to motivate emotional involvement with a
character requires that it be used sparingly, or else its im-
TFE2.indd 49
CU
pact can become narratively meaningless within a film's im-
age system through overuse. For this reason, close-ups are
commonly reserved for moments when a character makes
an important decision, delivers an especially meaningful line
of dialogue, or reacts to a particularly important piece of in-
formation (the "turning points" of a story).
Director Andrew Stanton’s WALL·E, the story of a
charming little robot in charge of collecting garbage hun-
dreds of years after humans were forced to leave a con-
taminated Earth, features a classic use of a close-up during
a key moment of its story. The last of his kind, WALL·E dis-
tracts himself by keeping a collection of random artifacts he
finds during his work shifts, like spoons, lighters, and toys.
One day, he stumbles upon a tiny plant, unbeknownst to
him an incredibly significant event, since we later learn its
existence means Earth has become habitable again. This
moment of discovery is punctuated by a textbook example of
a close-up (opposite page), which, although completely com-
puter generated, features every visual convention commonly
found in them, from a shallow depth of field that blurs the
background to focus our attention on the plant's reflection
in WALL·E's "eyes", to his placement in the frame following
the Rule of Thirds to give him the proper amount of headroom
and looking room. These visual cues, along with the strategic
use of a close-up for this particular moment, unmistakably
signal to the audience they're watching a key event, even
though they are not yet aware of its actual significance. In-
terestingly, although WALL·E lacks facial features, showing
him in a close-up in this narrative context also prompts us
to read an emotion on his "face", because of the storytell-
ing expectations this shot size generates. When used in this
manner, a close-up can achieve its full narrative potential.
CLOSE-UP 49
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 why it works
In terms of eliciting an emotional connection, the close-up
is one of the most powerful shots in cinematic storytelling,
and largely responsible for our love affair with movies. When
used on a human subject, the close-up is the visual gateway
to the internal state of mind of a character; this makes it es-
pecially important to exclude from its composition any extra-
neous visual elements that can potentially distract from an
actor's performance. Depth of field, focal length, lighting,
and framing should be carefully planned to create an effect
Three Monkeys. Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Director; Gökhan Tiryaki, Cinematographer. 2008.
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of intimate closeness, as shown in this example from Nuri
Bilge Ceylan’s introspective drama Three Monkeys. In this
scene, Eyup (Yavuz Bingol), a man who agreed to take the
blame for a fatal car accident after accepting a bribe from an
influential politician, contemplates the consequences of his
actions. The complex psychological state of mind suggested
by his facial expression is difficult to pinpoint; is he hopeful?
Angry? Regretful? Only a close-up is capable of conveying
such complexity of feeling.
2/21/22 1:36 AM

While the Rule of Thirds is an excellent guide--
line for subject placement in many cases, it is
not always the “right” way of deciding where
to place a composition's focal point. In tighter
shots such as this close-up, placing his eyes on
the sweet spot according to the Rule of Thirds
(marked by this dot) would result in an awk--
ward framing that could come across as a mis--
take by the filmmaker.
Although tighter character shots can have prac--
tically no headroom to speak of, we still use the
term to denote how high or low in the frame
a subject is placed. This headroom is ever so
slightly smaller than it should be according to
the Rule of Thirds, which ended up placing the
eyes a bit high in the frame. The uneasy com--
position produced by this choice, however, sup--
ports the complex character psychology behind
this moment in a way a conventionally framed
close-up would not have been able to do.
The subject is looking towards the right side,
which determines the placement of the looking
room on this side of the frame according to the
Rule of Thirds. In most cases, simply position--
ing a subject over a Rule of Thirds vertical line
opposite the side they are facing will automati--
cally result in setting the right amount of look--
ing room.

Note how little empty space was placed on this
side of the frame compared to the larger area
on the opposite side, following the composi--
tional guidelines to give a character the proper
amount of looking room for a shot this size.
In a close-up, the eyes of your subject com--
municate a lot of emotional and psychological
information. Including eye reflections, as seen
here, helps showcase them and keeps them
from looking lifeless and unnatural. Careful
placement of dedicated eye lights or reflectors,
as well as blocking subjects to catch these re--
flections, are necessary when they are not al--
ready present.
Backgrounds are usually blurry in close-ups to
prevent any visual elements in them to distract
audiences from the emotions and nuances of
behavior displayed on an actor's face. The shal--
low depth of field commonly seen in these shots
is a product of the short camera to subject dis--
tances used, sometimes also complemented
with a wide aperture.

The emotions shown on the face of a subject
should command the composition of a close-
up; for this reason, most close-ups of human
subjects are taken with normal or slight tele--
photo lenses rather than wide-angle lenses,
which can overtly distort faces. This character's
facial features, for instance, do not look altered
in any way despite the implied physical close--
ness of the shot, because of the close to normal
focal length used.
The amount of visual information visible in the
background of a close-up can be controlled
by selecting a lens with a wider or a narrower
angle of view; however, keep in mind that using
a wide-angle lens to show more of a scene be--
hind a character can also distort facial features
in unflattering ways, and using a telephoto lens
will require placing the camera farther away to
frame a close-up due to their magnification.

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 technical considerations
Using normal or slight telephoto lenses is the norm when
shooting close-ups, although sometimes wide-angle lenses
or longer telephotos are also used to purposely distort a
character's facial features; most often, however, distortion is
avoided because it can distract from an actor's performance.
Setting lenses to wider apertures to blur backgrounds is also
common, especially when using shorter focal lengths (since
their effect on z-axis perspective can make shallow depths
of field harder to notice). When shooting indoors with artifi-
cial lighting, compensating for using a wide aperture simply
involves cutting light with dimmers, scrims, nets, or by mov-
ing lighting instruments farther away from subjects. When
shooting outdoors in daylight, using neutral density filtra-
tion, either fitted on a matte box or through your camera if it
has it, is the easiest way to cut enough light to make it possi-
ble to have a shallow depth of field. Although technically you
could also lower your sensor's sensitivity to compensate for
the extra light a wide aperture lets through, deviating greatly
from your camera's native ISO should be avoided whenever
possible since it can potentially introduce an unacceptable
amount of video noise.
A camera's sensor size can also indirectly impact
your ability to produce a shallow depth of field, but this is
due to variables related to image magnification and focus-
ing distance and not the sensor size itself. Smartphones, for
instance, make it difficult and in some situations practically
impossible to have blurry backgrounds; conversely, cameras
with full frame sensors can blur backgrounds excessively,
requiring smaller apertures to keep relevant visual details
sharp enough. While having visual elements behind a sub-
ject out of focus is expected, it is important to consider that
every degree of blurriness you use in your images will com-
municate a meaning about your character or your story. For
instance, you may want a background to be blurry enough to
keep your audience's attention centered on a subject, but not
so blurry they cannot tell where a scene is taking place.
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While showcasing details on an actor's face is the main aim
of a close-up, capturing too much of it can sometimes be
counterproductive. Depending on a subject's skin texture,
turning your camera's sharpness and detail settings too high
can result in less than optimal results, which can be particu-
larly evident in a close-up (for instance, when make up cannot
conceal an actor's less-than-perfect complexion, or when it
is less than expertly applied and becomes glaringly appar-
ent). Additionally, your lens can also exacerbate the appear-
ance of sharpness, because some optical designs enhance
contrast and resolution more than others. Because of this,
professional cinematographers almost always shoot tests
to assess, among other things, not just how a particular lens
interacts with their camera's image processing, but also to
ascertain what sharpness and detail settings will work best.
In most cases, the lighting of a close-up will show-
case nuances of behavior on an actor's face; for this rea-
son, lights are usually aimed from a direction that reveals,
and not conceals, the visual impact of facial expressions.
Another common practice involves ensuring eyes have
bright reflections on them to prevent a "dead gaze", which
can make a character look unnatural and lifeless. These eye
reflections can also be instrumental in visualizing a char-
acter's emotions, feelings, or other psychological states, by
controlling their size, shape, location, and number. Although
they are often produced by lighting that is already present,
they might also require adding special lights (called "eye
lights") or large reflectors close to the camera so they can
be seen, and actors may also need to be blocked to ensure
their eyes catch these reflections. When adding eye lights,
it is important they do not drastically alter the look of your
lighting; while close-ups allow you to tweak your setup (es-
pecially when preceded or followed by shots that are suffi-
ciently different in angle or size), lighting changes should not
be so apparent that they break continuity and distract from
the narrative point of a scene.
2/21/22 1:36 AM
 breaking the rules

If the close-up’s main function is to reveal nuances of behavior and emotion in a subject, what do you make of Marsellus’
(Ving Rhames) introduction in Quentin Tarantino‘s Pulp Fiction? The director is clearly exploiting and subverting what a close-
up is supposed to do, by purposely concealing facial features that would let audiences read this subject’s behavioral and emo-
tional cues. Instead, this close-up seems designed to generate a mysterious and threatening persona around the character
of Marsellus, and the inevitable question: what is it with the band-aid on his neck? The rest of the compositional guidelines
for a close-up (a shallow depth of field, Rule of Thirds subject placement, looking room, and headroom) were followed, and
the shot never rack focuses to the character sitting in front of Marsellus (which would have made this a conventional OTS
shot), highlighting the unconventional camera angle used.

Pulp Fiction. Quentin Tarantino, Director; Andrzej Sekula, Cinematographer. 1994.

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 Amélie. Jean-Pierre Jeunet, Director; Bruno Delbonnel, Cinematographer. 2001.

54

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medium close-up
Medium close-up shots include a character roughly from
the shoulders to almost the top of the head; this shot is
tighter than a medium shot, but slightly wider than a close-
up (as with all shots that use the human body for reference,
the cutoff points between them are not strictly defined).
Like the close-up, the medium close-up showcases facial
expressions, letting audiences catch small nuances of be-
havior and emotion; however, the slightly wider framing
also lets body language reveal hints about their demeanor
by the inclusion of the shoulders in the frame. This shot
size also incorporates some of the immediate area behind a
character, letting you suggest dramatic, symbolic, or expos-
itory connections between them by selectively including or
excluding visual elements. For this reason, although the pri-
mary function of a medium close-up is to elicit an emotional
connection with a character, you should not ignore what is
seen around your subject, how it is lit, or how sharp or blurry
it looks. You could, for instance, adjust your camera's height
so that a particularly meaningful set detail, texture, or color
(perhaps as part of the image system you created for your
movie) is clearly visible in the background. When used stra-
tegically with long shots, medium shots, and close-ups, me-
dium close-ups can also play an essential role in modulating
the dramatic intensity of a scene. A typical implementation
of this principle can be seen whenever an exchange between
characters is covered with wider shots, like long shots or
medium shots, until someone discloses an important piece
of information, at which point a medium close-up is used to
showcase a character’s reaction; this sudden visual empha-
sis signals to the audience that the revelation is especially
significant, and increases their emotional involvement with
the character at that moment.
TFE2.indd 55
MCU
Jean-Pierre Jeunet’s romantic comedy Amélie, the story of
a Parisian girl (Audrey Tautou) who one day decides to dedi-
cate herself to improving the lives of neighbors and strang-
ers alike, routinely uses medium close-ups during moments
when she selects someone to receive a random act of kind-
ness, and when she discovers something particularly mean-
ingful about their personal lives (the latter often shown with
instances of her breaking the "fourth wall" to address the
audience directly), among others. In the example on the
opposite page, Amélie has just learned a young man she
has a crush on is just as quirky and eccentric as her (he
likes to collect photographs of footprints on wet cement,
keeps recordings of funny laughs, and works at a carni-
val’s haunted house dressed as a skeleton). The medium
close-up used during this moment perfectly showcases
her reaction to this news: her devilish smile and coy body
language reveal she can hardly contain her happiness, and
a slight high angle (commonly used to indicate a charac-
ter feels physically or psychologically vulnerable) suggests
she feels self-conscious after being unable to conceal her
emotions. Her awkwardness is also visualized by a cen-
tral placement in the frame that purposely subverts the
looking room convention, indicating something unusual is
taking place. These choices are complemented with a shal-
low depth of field that blurs the background and focuses
our attention on her facial expression and body language,
while a wide-angle lens makes her head, and especially her
sparkly eyes, look larger than normal. The resulting look is
carefully designed to make us empathize and relate to her,
making the many moments like this one that appear in the
film one of the reasons audiences became so enchanted
with Amélie.
MEDIUM CLOSE-UP 55
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 why it works
Medium close-ups showcase the face and shoulders of a
character while including a sizable portion of the background,
letting you create compositions that can suggest strong con-
nections between them, as seen in this shot from Tom Tyk-
wer’s Perfume: The Story of a Murderer. In this scene, Jean-
Baptiste Grenouille (Ben Whishaw), a serial killer born with
an incredible sense of smell, releases a whiff of a special per-
fume moments before his execution; gradually, the mob that
was clamoring for his blood only moments before now sees
Perfume: The Story of a Murderer. Tom Tykwer, Director; Frank Griebe, Cinematographer. 2006.
56
TFE2.indd 56
him as a deity, and is overtaken by his mere presence. This
moment of dominance is visualized with a medium close-up
taken from a slight high angle to include a large number of
stricken people in the background, and by placing him at the
center of the frame to suggest something unusual is hap-
pening. The medium close-up also showcases the contempt
on Jean-Baptiste’s face, as well as a relaxed body language
that reveals his newly found confidence upon discovering the
supernatural power of his abilities as a perfumer.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
Although not immediately apparent, this medi--
um close-up was shot from a slight high angle,
allowing a large portion of the crowd behind him
to be included in the composition. If a close-up
had been used instead, this particular subject-
background visual relationship could not have
been communicated as effectively as it is here.
Interestingly, although high angles are typically
used to imply a character feels physically or
emotionally vulnerable, in this example it com--
municates strength and dominance, demon--
strating that the narrative context of a shot can
determine a composition's meaning.
Although the background is clearly illuminated
by full sunlight, this character does not have
any harsh shadows across his face, most likely
because a "butterfly" (a large frame fitted with
diffusion material) was placed directly above
him. This is a very common technique filmmak--
ers use whenever tighter shots of characters
are taken outdoors on a sunny day.
The standard amount of headroom in a medi--
um close-up requires that the top of a charac--
ter's head is slightly cropped (despite the mis--
nomer), as shown here. This placement results
in the character's eyes resting roughly along
the top horizontal line of the Rule of Thirds.
Although this convention is followed in most
cases, filmmakers sometimes purposely ignore
it to signal something particularly meaningful
is happening in a scene.
Subject placement does not follow the Rule of
Thirds in terms of looking room; this character
should be roughly over the right vertical line
given the direction of his gaze at this moment.
Instead, he occupies the center of the frame,
creating a static focal point that reflects his
dominance at this moment while also signal--
ing that something unusual is taking place. His
central placement also creates a strong visual
connection between him and the mob that a few
minutes earlier was calling for his execution.
The focal length used for this shot had to bal--
ance having an angle of view wide enough to
include as many of the 750 extras in the back--
ground as possible with keeping the main sub--
ject's facial distortion to a minimum, so that
both the look of disgust on his face and the
magnitude of his influence could be showcased
without distractions.
This shot's narrative point required selecting a
depth of field that would keep the background
blurry enough to ensure the audience would
focus on the character's facial expression, but
not so blurry the large number of people behind
him could not be differentiated. Shooting out--
doors on a sunny day made it relatively easy for
the filmmakers to select an aperture that would
produce the precise depth of field needed to ac--
complish this effect.
MEDIUM CLOSE-UP 57
 technical considerations
Normal and slight telephoto lenses are commonly used
when shooting medium close-ups, because they do not add
any noticeable distortion to a character's facial features.
However, sometimes wide-angles and longer telephotos are
used to give a character a somewhat stylized, or slightly un-
natural, or even completely distorted look. Lens choice can
also be guided by the need to manipulate the perception
of motion within the frame. Depending on the direction of
movement and the effect that needs to be achieved, a me-
dium close-up could be taken with a telephoto lens (for in-
stance, when trying to make a character moving along the
z-axis look like they are covering less ground than they really
are) or with an extreme wide-angle lens (to accelerate their
motion under the same circumstances).
Another factor that can determine your choice of fo-
cal length is the amount of visual information that needs to
be seen behind a character. Since a medium close-up can po-
tentially include a sizable portion of the surrounding area (as
seen in the example from Perfume in this chapter), your lens
choice might depend on the angle of view needed to include
however much or little of the background needs to be seen.
It is important to note that after a shot is framed, you cannot
simply switch lenses to see more or less behind a character
without also changing the camera's position to compensate
for the magnification or demagnification of the image the
new focal length provides. If you frame a medium close-up
with a normal lens, switching to a telephoto to exclude more
of the background will require you to move the camera farther
away from the subject to keep their size constant. While this
might not present a problem when shooting outdoors, since
you will likely have enough room to reposition the camera, it
might not be something you can do when shooting indoors in
a confined location. You may also choose a particular focal
length to control how far or how close something behind a
character appears to be, by using wide-angle lenses to ex-
tend distances along the z-axis (the technique used in the
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TFE2.indd 58
example from Perfume on the previous page), or telephotos
to compress them (as shown in the example from Léon: The
Professional on page 66). One aspect that should not be con-
sidered when selecting a focal length is how shallow or deep
you want the depth of field to be, because when subject size
and aperture setting remain constant, changes in focal length
have no effect on it.
When shooting outdoors on a sunny day, there are
several techniques to light a medium close-up (and most
character shots) depending on the time of day. For instance,
when the sun is high in the sky, it is common to use a butter-
fly (a large, collapsible aluminum frame fitted with diffusion
material) over actors to change the quality of sunlight from
hard to soft; this is done to reduce unflatteringly hard shad-
ows across faces, particularly under the eyes. This technique,
however, results in a difference in light quality between a
subject and the background, but most audiences will not
register anything is amiss, especially when using a shallow
depth of field to keep background detail out of focus. When
the sun is lower in the horizon, subjects are usually blocked
so that sunlight functions as a backlight, and a key light is
added (usually a large, powerful HMI light diffused with a but-
terfly), often while also bouncing light from the opposite side
to add texture across their faces. Although medium close-
ups include more visual information than close-ups, their
primary function is still to showcase a character's emotions.
For this reason, all of the lighting conventions we associate
with close-ups (like adding eye glints, tweaking the lighting
established in previous shots, and giving subjects a more
visually compelling look) are equally applicable to medium
close-ups. However, since backgrounds occupy more space
in these shots, they also require special attention to commu-
nicate a narrative point. For instance, lighting could be used
to highlight a meaningful object, or to reveal a texture that
adds a certain mood, or a color could be added to contribute
a symbolic meaning, among others.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 breaking the rules

Medium close-ups are typically used in combination with other shot sizes to gradually increase audience engagement when
something particularly meaningful happens in a scene. However, in Tsai Ming-liang’s What Time Is It There?, the story of a
Taipei street vendor of watches and a woman on her way to Paris who share a meaningful connection after a casual encounter,
a medium close-up is instead shown by itself, without any other shots or action to provide a dramatic context. The closeness
of the shot lets us connect with Shiang-chyi (Chen Shiang-chyi) through the raw emotions shown on her face, but we are also
kept at a distance because we are not shown exactly what is causing them. This is a common feature of most of Tsai’s work, who
chooses to emphasize the unity of unfragmented space, time, and an actor's performance over narrative clarity.

What Time Is It There? Tsai Ming-liang, Director; Benoıt

ˆ Delhomme, Cinematographer. 2001.

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 The Royal Tenenbaums. Wes Anderson, Director; Robert Yeoman, Cinematographer. 2001.

60

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medium shot
Medium shots include one or more characters from the waist
up along with a sizable portion of their surrounding area.
They are tighter than a medium long shot, but wider than a
medium close-up, which provides just enough room in the
frame to showcase a character's body language while still
being close enough to underline nuances of behavior and
emotion through facial expressions. The wider perspective of
medium shots also allows a character's costume to provide
expository information about their personality, social status,
and other character traits. When they include more than one
subject, they can also help visualize relationship dynamics
through character placement and blocking, for instance, by
placing them far apart to imply there is a conflict between
them, or by putting them closer together to suggest they are
compatible or in agreement. This is one of the reasons why
medium shots are often used for two shots, group shots, and
OTS shots. While a character is the main subject of a medium
shot, they are not visually isolated from their surroundings
(like they are in close-ups, for instance), making it possible
to create meaningful narrative connections between them.
A common practice involves framing characters so that a
meaningful aspect of a location is visible behind them in a
way that comments, informs, or reveals details about their
personality, emotional state, or attitude. Medium shots are
also very useful as transitional shots between wider, more
visually expository shots, and tighter, more intimate shots,
allowing you to gradually increase or decrease audience in-
volvement within a scene. For instance, a conversation be-
tween two or more characters could be covered with medium
shots until someone says something particularly important
or meaningful; at this point, a medium close-up or a close-up
can be inserted, adding dramatic weight to this moment. Af-
TFE2.indd 61
MS
ter this beat, the rest of the conversation could return to using
medium or wider shots. The added emphasis provided by the
tighter framing of the close-up or medium close-up works
because wider, expository shots, like medium shots, are used
initially to establish facts of the locale, characters, and spatial
relationships before a change in the dramatic direction of the
scene is introduced. Of course you could also cut directly from
long shots to close-ups, bypassing medium shots and a build
up of tension altogether; in this case, the drastic change in
shot sizes could be interpreted by the audience as an equally
drastic change in the dramatic direction of the scene.
Director Wes Anderson’s signature style is well known
for its elaborate and imaginative art direction, quirky costume
designs, and oddball characters; unsurprisingly, medium
shots that showcase these elements are used extensively in
most of his films. A typical example can be seen on the oppo-
site page, from his comedy The Royal Tenenbaums, the story
of three siblings who have a troubled relationship with their
eccentric but lovable father. In this scene, Margot Tenenbaum
(Gwyneth Paltrow), an adopted member of the family, hides
from her husband to smoke a cigarette; the relatively wide
area covered by the medium shot, coupled with thoughtful
lighting, depth of field, body language, and costume choices,
allows audiences to make strong visual connections between
her and the various items in the background (the darkroom
paraphernalia, the animal motifs on the wallpaper, the pink
telephone) that communicate a lot of expository information
about her character. The shot's frontal, symmetrical com-
position (another one of Anderson's visual trademarks) also
helps present the visually dense composition efficiently, al-
most like a catalog of parts, allowing the audience to quickly
identify every item in the frame.
MEDIUM SHOT 61
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 why it works
The relatively wide perspective of a medium shot is ideal
for establishing strong visual connections between multiple
characters, and between characters and their immediate
area. In this example from Mike Leigh’s Naked, a medium
shot showcases Johnny (David Thewlis), a well-read but mis-
anthropic homeless man who alienates everyone he meets,
snidely watching strangers as he aimlessly wanders the
Naked. Mike Leigh, Director; Dick Pope, Cinematographer. 1993.
62
TFE2.indd 62
streets of East London. The shot's deceptively simple compo-
sition manages to visualize how Johnny sees himself—above
everyone else—by placing him a few inches higher than the
passersby, as well as the consequences of his toxic attitude,
by showing him at a location that highlights everyone around
him going about their business with purpose, while he, with
all his smarts, has nowhere to go.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 Placing the pedestrians a few inches lower
than the main subject at the focal point of the
composition makes it easier to notice his reac--
tion to their presence. Although medium shots
typically showcase both the body language of a
subject and a location, it is still possible to con--
vey emotions through the facial expressions of
a character, especially if the composition is de--
signed to showcase them, as in this case.
Setting a telephoto lens to a wide aperture
produced a shallow depth of field that allowed
blurring the foreground, letting the audience
concentrate their attention on the main subject
of the composition. The telephoto also allowed
placing the camera relatively far from the ac--
tion, making it possible to get this shot without
the knowledge of the passersby to add a certain
raw, documentary quality to this scene.
TFE2.indd 63
Although most audiences will be unaware a
telephoto lens was used for this medium shot,
they will still get the sense it "feels distant", in
the same way close-up shots taken with normal
lenses can feel "intimate". This effect imbues
this medium shot with a documentary quality
that adds an element of voyeurism to this mo--
ment.
The telephoto lens' narrow angle of view makes
the passersby appear to move across the frame
much faster than they really are. Their accel--
erated motion provides a sharp visual contrast
against the stillness of the character at the fo--
cal point of the composition, making him stand
out even more.
The placement of this character follows the
Rule of Thirds, giving him the proper amount of
headroom and looking room for this aspect ra--
tio. The arrangement of visual elements in this
composition is also designed to isolate him in
this area of the frame, ensuring the audience
can notice the general dismissive attitude of his
body language as well as the contempt shown
on his face for the bustling crowd around him.
The pedestrians crossing the frame in the fore--
ground add multiple layers of depth to the com--
position and imply the location we are seeing
continues beyond the edges of the frame. Film--
makers often use these and other techniques to
add a sense of three-dimensionality to the in--
herent flatness of the images shown on-screen.
MEDIUM SHOT 63
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 technical considerations
Medium shots showcase a character and a sizable portion
of a location, allowing audiences to make visual connec-
tions between them; your lens choice can greatly enhance
or diminish the way they are presented by manipulating the
perceived relative distances between subjects. For instance,
you might want to make a key aspect of a location behind
a character look as if it is farther away than it really is; in
this case, you could use a wide-angle lens, since it can
make distances along the z-axis appear to be longer than
they really are. You could also achieve the opposite ef-
fect, and make it look as if something in the background
is much closer to a character, by using a telephoto lens to
compress, rather than expand, distances along the z-axis.
While medium shots can be obtained with virtually any fo-
cal length, the amount of space available in a location can
sometimes force you to use one type of lens over another.
For instance, if a medium shot is taken in a cramped in-
door location, like a tiny apartment or a bathroom, you
may not have enough room to use a long telephoto lens to
compress perspective while still framing your subject from
the waist up, as this shot size requires. Instead, you would
have to use a normal or even a wide-angle lens, since their
much wider angle of view needs a significantly shorter cam-
era to subject distance to frame a medium shot.
Your lens choice can also affect the appearance of
visual relationships between subjects through your depth of
field, by using selective focus to make particular visual ele-
ments easier or harder to discern by an audience. This ap-
proach, however, requires having control over the brightness
levels of your lighting to compensate for exposure changes as
you open up or close down the aperture. You may also adjust
your camera's ISO instead (switching to a higher ISO when
closing down or to a lower ISO when opening up), but keep in
mind that, depending on your camera's dynamic range and
image processing technology, deviating significantly from its
native ISO can introduce unacceptable levels of video noise.
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For this reason, it is preferable to compensate for changes
in aperture setting through adjustments in lighting intensity,
and not by changing your sensor's sensitivity.
Lighting can also play a significant role in the way
visual connections between a subject and a location are per-
ceived. A common strategy involves controlling the lighting
ratio (the relationship in brightness levels between a sub-
ject and the background/foreground) by lighting each plane
of depth in a composition separately. This allows making
the main subject brighter, darker, or just as bright as the
background, depending on the narrative point that needs to
be communicated. Most often, characters are kept slightly
brighter than everything else in a composition to prompt
audiences to focus on their performance; the difference in
brightness used in these cases can range anywhere from
slightly less than a full f-stop of light to complete underexpo-
sure (when a background is practically black). For instance,
note the difference in brightness levels between characters
and backgrounds in the medium shot from Wes Anderson's
The Royal Tenenbaums, at the beginning of this chapter, and
the medium shot from Chantal Akerman's Jeanne Dielman,
23, Quai du Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles on the opposite
page. In Anderson's The Royal Tenenbaums, Margot stands
out ever so slightly from the background thanks to a subtle
spotlight effect, evidenced by the darker edges of the frame.
The slight difference in brightness is designed to focus our
attention on her, but not to the point we will disregard the
various props and overall art direction around her, since they
provide key information about her character. In Akerman's
Jeanne Dielman, Jeanne is lit in a more naturalistic style,
and far from standing out in the composition, she seems
to blend with the background, which in some areas is ac-
tually brighter than she is. Although not greatly dissimilar,
the lighting approaches used in these medium shots suggest
dramatically different types of relationships between the
main subjects and the locations they occupy.
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 breaking the rules

Chantal Akerman’s minimalist masterpiece Jeanne Dielman, 23, Quai du Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles, examines three days in
the life of Jeanne (Delphine Seyrig), a middle-aged widow, as she performs daily house chores that include turning tricks to
make ends meet. The film uses static long takes and visually repetitive medium and long shots predominantly, with composi-
tions that seem to document, rather than dramatize, Jeanne’s domestic routines. This medium shot exemplifies this approach,
with a composition that crops her head and forces us to momentarily focus on her manner of dress and the tidiness of her house
as she greets a client, subverting the convention of making a character's emotional expression a main focus of a medium shot.

Jeanne Dielman, 23, Quai du Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles. Chantal Akerman, Director; Babette Mangolte, Cinematographer. 1975.

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 Léon: The Professional. Luc Besson, Director; Thierry Arbogast, Cinematographer. 1994.

66

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medium long shot
Medium long shots show a single or multiple characters from
approximately the knees up; they are wider than medium
shots, but tighter than long shots. According to film history
lore, medium long shots first appeared in American West-
erns, and were created out of a necessity to include a cow-
boy's gun holster in a fairly tight shot, which cannot be done
using a conventional medium shot (this explains why they
are also known as plans américains, or “American shots”, in
French). Medium long shots pull away from intimate proxim-
ity and only provide a general sense of a character's mood
or emotion through their facial expressions; however, they
showcase body language and their surrounding area simul-
taneously, making them ideal for situations when a nar-
rative connection between these elements needs to take
precedence. When they include multiple subjects, they can
also visualize relationship dynamics (by their relative place-
ment within the composition, through the implementation
of Hitchcock’s Rule, and with balanced/unbalanced fram-
ings, among other techniques); their wider perspective also
makes them ideal for group shots and emblematic shots.
Like long shots and medium shots, medium long shots are
also used in combination with tighter shots to modulate the
audience's emotional involvement; a common implementa-
tion of this principle entails placing them after particularly
intense moments to reconfigure previously established dy-
namics between characters. Since medium long shots can
be visually dense, they are often kept on-screen longer than
tighter shots with fewer details, which gives audiences more
time to scan their compositions. For this reason, it is es-
pecially important to always check the frame one last time
right before shooting to ensure they do not contain any un-
wanted visual elements.
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ML S
The medium long shot on the opposite page, from Luc Bes-
son’s Léon: The Professional, features a small exchange be-
tween the titular character (Jean Reno), an expert hitman,
and Mathilda (Natalie Portman), a precocious 12-year-old
girl he saved from a gang of corrupt cops. In a previous
scene, Mathilda proved her intent to become a killer for
hire by blindly shooting a gun out of an apartment’s win-
dow, forcing Léon to make a decision about her future. The
medium long shot that follows functions as a reveal; Léon
appears first in the frame as he walks towards us, tricking
the audience into thinking he has ditched Mathilda. As the
shot continues, Mathilda enters the frame revealing that he
has in fact decided to let her tag along. The narrow angle
of view of a long telephoto lens, coupled with a low camera
placement, allowed the filmmakers to exclude everything
from the frame except for Léon, Mathilda, and the buildings
in the distance. A shallow depth of field further concentrates
our attention on the pair by isolating them from their sur-
roundings, letting us focus on every detail of their outfits,
the strange assortment of props they are carrying, and the
demeanors communicated by their body language. The ex-
clusion of extraneous visual elements is especially critical in
this example, because the entire scene plays out within this
single medium long shot, giving audiences ample time to
analyze the dynamics of their relationship as well as the dra-
matic differences in height and overall physical appearance
between them. If this shot had been taken with a wide-angle
lens, or with a deeper depth of field, or if the camera had
been placed slightly higher, the passersby and heavy traffic
likely present in the busy Manhattan street location would
have prevented the jarring visual juxtaposition of these char-
acters from being the sole focus of this composition.
MEDIUM LONG SHOT 67
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why it works
A medium long shot is ideal to showcase a character’s body
language, a hint of facial expressions, and a location simul-
taneously, a feature used to maximum effect in this example
from the poignant ending of Michael Radford’s adaptation
of George Orwell’s dystopian novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four.
In this scene, Winston Smith (John Hurt), a political party
worker at the "Ministry of Truth", is unable to solve a chess
problem after being tortured and brainwashed for commit-
ting a "thoughtcrime" ‒‒ keeping a diary. The shot's compo-
1984. Michael Radford, Director; Roger Deakins, Cinematographer. 1984.
68
sition strategically places a poster of the figurehead of the
state, "Big Brother", so that it appears to spy on Winston,
while a broadcast of his confession as traitor to the regime
plays on a screen in the background. A long shot would not
have shown enough detail to let us notice the listless ex-
pression on his face, while a medium shot would have neces-
sarily excluded either the poster or his confession, both es-
sential visual elements to communicate he is now seemingly
incapable of exercising critical thinking after his torture.

This poster, showing the penetrating gaze of
"Big Brother", was carefully placed within the
composition so that it would appear to look
down on Winston as he contemplates his next
chess move, signifying the ever-present sur-
veillance by the state over even the minutest
activities of its citizens.
This column adds depth to the composition by
functioning as a relative size depth cue, because
we assume the column at the center of the
frame must be equal in size yet looks slightly
smaller. The chairs scattered around the room
and the waiter in the background function in the
same way to compound this effect.
This is an excessive amount of headroom for a
conventional medium long shot, but within this
scene's context it perfectly visualizes the con-
stant psychological pressure felt by this char-
acter while living under the totalitarian regime
symbolized by the "Big Brother" poster visible
in the background.
Although this chair is only partially protruding
into the frame, it functions as a "repoussoir",
an object in the foreground that adds depth and
helps guide the viewer’s gaze towards a com-
position's main subject. Filmmakers often pur-
posely add visual elements in the foreground of
a shot just for this purpose.
This screen playing a broadcast of Winston's
confessions to crimes he did not commit is es-
sential to the point of this shot, since it confirms
other confessions shown throughout the story
were also fabricated. Because of its narrative
importance, it was strategically located in a
darker, unobstructed area of the frame at a size
and level of sharpness that lets us see it in full
detail.
The camera to subject distance, focal length,
lighting, and depth of field were carefully se-
lected to ensure all the visual elements neces-
sary to make this shot's narrative point come
across were included and easy to see, like this
emblem for "Ingsoc", the totalitarian politi-
cal party that rules the dystopian future of this
story.
MEDIUM LONG SHOT 69
 technical considerations
Since medium long shots showcase a character’s body lan-
guage and a significant portion of their surrounding area,
your choice of focal length can be instrumental to let you
control what gets included in the frame. In the example from
Léon: The Professional, for instance, the narrow angle of view
of a long telephoto lens allowed the exclusion of all the traf-
fic, sidewalks, and bustling crowds one would expect to see
in the busy Manhattan street where the scene takes place,
letting the audience focus their attention solely on the overall
appearance and body language of the characters during their
exchange. A different approach was used in the example from
1984, where a much shorter focal length made it possible to
include critical visual details (the poster of "Big Brother", the
screen playing Winston's confession, the emptiness of the
bar) within the same composition to establish the multiple
visual and thematic relationships the filmmakers wanted to
communicate in this scene. When trying to include or exclude
visual elements, it is important to consider that longer focal
lengths can dramatically change what is seen in the back-
ground of a shot with minimal adjustments in camera po-
sition (but require longer distances from the main subject),
while shorter focal lengths require significant changes in
camera placement to do the same (but can be much closer
to a subject). This means that your ability to control the vi-
sual content of a frame at a given location through your focal
length will depend on the distance needed to frame a par-
ticular shot size and how much space is available along the
z-axis between the camera and your subject.
One tip to help you quickly assess how a given lens
will render your scene in a location is to understand the rela-
tionship between subject size, focal length, and focusing dis-
tance; this principle can be particularly helpful in situations
where you need to frame a character at a certain shot size,
like a long shot or a medium close up, but you also need to
include or exclude visual elements from their surrounding
area to make a narrative point. For instance, if you frame a
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subject with a 50mm lens but then decide there are things
in the background that should not be seen, you could switch
to a 100mm lens, which will double the size of your subject,
and then move the camera back so it is at twice the distance
it was before to render it back to its original size. The differ-
ence would be that now only half of what was visible in the
background would be included in the composition, because a
100mm lens has a much narrower angle of view than a 50mm
lens. If you wanted to include visual elements instead, you
would do the opposite: switch to a 25mm lens and bring the
camera closer to match the same subject size you had be-
fore, only now you will see twice as much of the background
as you did previously.
Medium long and wider shots taken indoors gen-
erally require large, powerful lights to illuminate the more
spacious areas included in the frame. For instance, in the
example from 1984, the light sources used to simulate sun-
light streaming through the front windows of the cafe had to
be strong enough to reach all the way to the back wall for the
poster of "Big Brother" to be seen clearly. Shooting a medium
long shot outdoors on a sunny day presents a different issue;
the wide area this shot covers means it will be more difficult
to control the quality of light with a butterfly over your actors
(the technique used in the medium close-up from Perfume:
The Story of a Murderer, on page 56). Although shooting night
exteriors with only available light is feasible thanks to ad-
vancements in CMOS sensor technology, using a very high
ISO to compensate for low-light conditions might not always
be desirable; depending on your camera's sensor, a high ISO
may introduce a level of video noise that may render your im-
ages unusable. For this reason, obtaining the best possible
image quality still requires supplementing or completely re-
placing available light when shooting wide shots at night out-
doors, with all the logistic requirements this entails (powerful
lights, extra tall stands or cranes, and the generators needed
to power them, among others).
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 breaking the rules

Medium long shots are generally used to showcase a character and some of the surrounding area, but in this example from
Bong Joon-ho’s Memories of Murder, a film based on the true story of South Korea’s first serial killings, a character who fears
she is being stalked is purposely kept out of focus throughout the duration of the shot, diverting the audience’s attention to the
seemingly deserted area in front of her instead. This unusual but highly effective technique figuratively and literally shifts the
focus away from the human subject to imbue her surroundings with a sense of imminent danger before a violent attack takes
place. Note that although the character is completely blurred, she was still placed in the composition according to the Rule of
Thirds, ensuring she would have the proper amount of headroom for a medium long shot.

Memories of Murder. Bong Joon-ho, Director; Kim Hyung-ku, Cinematographer. 2003.

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 Sid and Nancy. Alex Cox, Director; Roger Deakins, Cinematographer. 1986.

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long shot
The long shot includes one or multiple characters from
head to toe in the frame, along with a significant portion of
the environment. The perspective of this shot is too distant
to showcase emotional cues on a character's face, although
their general demeanor can still be gleaned by their body
language and actions. Alternatively, the long shot's inability
to showcase specific emotions can be exploited to add ten-
sion and mystery to a scene; for instance, by using it instead
of a medium close-up or a close-up to purposely conceal
a character's reaction or identity at a key moment. Unlike
tighter shots, long shots highlight a location as much as or
even more than a character, allowing it to contribute a mean-
ingful narrative context to a moment or an action; their wider
scope also permits establishing more explicit visual connec-
tions between them. Long shots are commonly framed from
a lower camera height, since this allows excluding a sizable
portion of the ground in front of a character and leaves more
room in the frame to showcase a location's key visual char-
acteristics. Like extreme long shots, long shots are often
used as establishing shots (covered on page 93), and are
typically placed right before an interior scene to identify the
setting where subsequent action is supposed to take place.
Long shots are also sometimes shown at the culmination
of a scene, usually featuring a composition that visualizes
a character's emotional or psychological reaction to a par-
ticularly meaningful event. When used strategically in con-
junction with tighter shots, long shots can help to gradually
increase or decrease an audience's emotional involvement
during key moments of a scene. For instance, an exchange
between characters could be covered with long shots and
medium shots until something critically important is said,
at which point a medium close-up is used; after this beat,
TFE2.indd 73
LS
cutting to a long shot that visualizes the revelation's dramat-
ic aftermath (by using Hitchcock's Rule, or an unbalanced
composition, for instance), can bring the scene's dramatic
intensity down, letting audiences assess the impact of what
just transpired.
Alex Cox’s biopic Sid and Nancy, a film that charts
the mutually destructive relationship between Sex Pistols
bassist Sid Vicious (Gary Oldman) and an American groupie,
Nancy Spungen (Chloe Webb), features several long shots
that visually connect them with much of the drugs, alcohol,
violence, and emotional strife that permeated their world.
In the visually stunning image on the opposite page, a long
shot perfectly captures the unorthodox nature of their ro-
mance, showing them as they share a loving kiss in the
midst of a filthy back alley while garbage rains down in slow
motion from above. The composition's low-angle and high-
ly compressed perspective (obtained with a long telephoto
lens) allowed the filmmakers to place the couple against a
bright gap between the buildings in the background, mak-
ing them stand out in the composition even though they are
only semi-silhouetted (subverting the lighting convention of
keeping a shot's main subject brighter than anything else in
a composition). The telephoto's flattening effect also made
the blurry buildings in the distance easier to notice, enhanc-
ing the effect of the shallow depth of field to further focus
the audience's attention on the area of the frame where they
are kissing, and visually merged them with the refuse raining
down on them, underscoring the idea that they are consid-
ered castoffs and trashy by society. Every visual aspect of this
long shot is designed to present this moment as a romantic
and even beautiful chapter of their relationship, despite the
unconventional (yet strangely fitting) setting.
LONG SHOT 73
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 why it works
In addition to suggesting connections between a character
and a location, the long shot can also communicate narrative
and thematic dynamics between characters, through their
placement and relative scale in the composition. The wide
area covered by this shot makes compositional guidelines
like Hitchcock’s Rule, balanced and unbalanced framing,
and the compression/expansion of perspective along the z-
axis, particularly helpful in establishing these relationships.
The Matrix Reloaded. Lana Wachowski, Lilly Wachowski, Directors; Bill Pope, Cinematographer. 2003.
74
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In this long shot from Lana and Lilly Wachowski’s The Matrix
Reloaded, an impending fight between Neo (Keanu Reeves),
a man prophesied to liberate humanity from the rule of intel-
ligent machines, and Agent Smith (Hugo Weaving), a com-
puter program that polices the virtual reality known as “The
Matrix”, is suggested to be a duel of equally matched oppo-
nents by their placement and equal size in the composition,
increasing the tension and dramatic impact of the scene.
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Both characters were given a backlight that
separates them from the background and
makes them stand out in the composition. This
is a very common practice designed to create
depth and guide the audience's attention to rel--
evant areas in the frame, usually where a char--
acter is located.
Characters were not placed in the composition
according to the Rule of Thirds; instead, they
are unusually close to the edges of the frame,
underlining the negative space between them.
This unconventional placement creates an
emptiness that visually pulls them towards the
center, foreshadowing their imminent fight.
TFE2.indd 75
The background is a couple of f-stops darker
than the foreground, ensuring nothing in it will
distract us from the characters and their im--
pending fight. Keeping background visual ele--
ments slightly darker than a main subject is a
standard cinematic lighting technique, whether
the shot is taken indoors or outdoors, during
the day or at night.
This shot only has two layers of depth: a fore--
ground and a background. The lack of an ad--
ditional layer to add depth (for instance, by
including a visual element partially protruding
into the frame) results in a relatively flat com--
position that visually implies these characters
only have room to move along the x-axis of the
frame, towards each other and conflict.
The amount of headroom given to these charac--
ters is standard for a long shot; in wider shots
such as this one, however, headroom is not al--
located by using the top horizontal line of the
Rule of Thirds, since that would result in having
too much of it. Instead, it is set by eye, according
to well established cinematic conventions.
Both characters take up the same amount of
room in the composition, suggesting they are
evenly matched; this is a typical implementation
of Hitchcock’s Rule. Likewise, their symmetrical
placement creates a balanced composition that
also implies they are evenly matched, adding
tension and suspense to the scene.
LONG SHOT 75
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 technical considerations
One of the ways the long shot visualizes relationships be-
tween a character and a location is by manipulating the
actual or apparent distances between them in the frame.
Since focal length can distort the appearance of perspec-
tive, it can be instrumental in effecting how these relation-
ships are presented. A wide-angle lens, for instance, can
expand perspective along the z-axis, making backgrounds
appear more distant than they really are, which can visu-
alize a strained emotional or psychological connection be-
tween a character and their surrounding area. Conversely,
a long telephoto lens can flatten perspective, making back-
grounds appear unrealistically close to a character in the
foreground, which can imply a strong connection between
them. It is important to remember, however, that your abil-
ity to manipulate the appearance of perspective will be lim-
ited by the amount of space to set up a shot at a given loca-
tion when using long focal lengths. If a long shot is taken
indoors with a long telephoto lens, for instance, there might
not be enough space to place the camera far enough to
counteract the magnification of the image while including a
character from head to toe in the frame. There are, howev-
er, other factors that can also influence visual connections
between a character and a location; lighting, exposure, art
direction, and camera or subject movement, among oth-
ers, can (separately or in combination) enhance or diminish
them. Compressing perspective to make a background ap-
pear closer to a character will be harder to see if the light-
ing does not showcase this effect; likewise, if a background
happens to be a textureless, empty wall, even an extreme
compression effect can go unnoticed. Your focal length
choice should therefore complement, and not work against
or ignore, every other technical and aesthetic aspect of your
shot in addition to its composition. Selective focus can also
help manipulate visual relationships between characters
and locations; a shallow depth of field, for instance, can
blur a background to make details in it difficult to notice
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while enhancing other aspects, like its color, or any shapes
produced by the blurriness. In these cases, the connection
with a character takes a more abstract or even symbolic
approach that can communicate a more complex emotional
or psychological idea to an audience.
Control over the depth of field will require being
able to adjust the lighting to compensate when opening
up or closing down the aperture, although changing the
ISO is also an alternative (but, depending on your camera, it
can have an adverse effect on image quality). When shoot-
ing outdoors in full sunlight, you will need neutral density
filtration to cut enough light when using a wide aperture
to blur backgrounds; on the other hand, when shooting
indoors with artificial light and a deep depth of field is
required, be prepared to have enough lights to compensate
for the smaller apertures needed to achieve it. Another
strategy to control how a background is perceived involves
the manipulation of distances along the z-axis with your fo-
cal length. Although you can shoot a long shot with any
lens, a long telephoto's magnification will make the back-
ground seem much closer than it really is because of its
flattening effect, which will make the blurriness produced
by a shallow depth of field a lot more noticeable than if the
same shot were taken with a wide-angle lens (which will
make the same blurry background appear to be farther
away). This is the technique that was used in the example
from Alex Cox's Sid and Nancy at the beginning of this
chapter to make the blurry buildings in the background more
prominent. The opposite effect can be seen in the example
from Michael Radford's 1984 (covered on page 68), where a
lens with a shorter focal length was used; its wider angle of
view required a shorter camera to subject distance to frame
the subject (in this case in a medium long shot), which in
turn made the background appear more distant, making it
difficult to notice everything in it is actually slightly out of
focus.
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 breaking the rules

The distance required to frame a long shot makes it less than ideal to showcase nuances of behavior and emotion through facial
expressions, which sometimes can be exploited to add suspense and mystery to a scene. In Michael Haneke’s appropriately
titled Caché (French for "hidden"), we follow the story of Georges, a TV personality who suddenly gets stalked and harassed by
someone he assumes is tied to a transgression he committed as a child. In this long shot, the final image from the film, his
son Pierrot (Lester Makedonsky) chats with the son of the man who might have been behind the harassment (Walid Afkir). The
cluttered composition makes it hard to notice them at first, and later difficult to pinpoint the dynamics of their relationship,
preventing us from unraveling the mystery and getting narrative closure (a recurrent technique used in this film).

Caché. Michael Haneke, Director; Christian Berger, Cinematographer. 2005.

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 Last Year at Marienbad. Alain Resnais, Director; Sacha Vierny , Cinematographer. 1961.

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extreme long shot
Extreme long shots show a broad view of a location with one
or multiple characters seen from a distance that occupy a
very small area of the frame. The main subject of these shots
is the setting where the action takes place, since characters
are too distant for their facial expressions or body language
to reveal their demeanor in detail. The composition of ex-
treme long shots is often designed to underline differences
in scale between a character and a location, establishing
spatial relationships between them and in the process emo-
tional or psychological connections as well (by following or
subverting the Rule of Thirds, using balanced or unbalanced
framings, or by creating meaningful juxtapositions imple-
menting Hitchcock’s Rule, among others). Depending on the
visual complexity of the location, the distant perspective of
an extreme long shot can sometimes make it difficult to spot
a character in the frame, making it particularly important to
ensure they are easy to notice if that is your intention. This
can be accomplished in a number of ways: for example, by
placing them in a relatively empty area of the frame, by us-
ing lighting to make them stand out, or by ensuring nothing
else in the composition is moving except them, to name a
few. High angles are commonly used in extreme long shots
when a location features wide, empty spaces, because they
show more of the ground around a character than eye-level
angles, and can better highlight how small they are in the
frame while making the location look particularly expansive.
However, if a location includes a tall structure of some kind,
like a building or a mountain, a high angle would not be as ef-
fective as shooting at eye-level to highlight differences in size
and scale between a subject and their environment. When
extreme long shots do not include characters and showcase
only a location, they are referred to as establishing shots (ex-
TFE2.indd 79
EL S
amined on page 93), although in some cases they can also
become extreme long shots; for instance, by first showing
just a location and then having a character enter the frame.
An iconic example of an extreme long shot can be
seen on the opposite page, from Alain Resnais’ enigmatic
drama Last Year at Marienbad, the story of a couple who
meet at a luxurious hotel and discover that they may have
met previously and perhaps contemplated having an af-
fair. The shost, one of many fascinating visual puzzles in
the film, features a symmetric composition that underlines
the geometric patterns of a vast, opulent garden; the overt
symmetry and balance of the composition is disturbed by a
number of people standing perfectly still on a central path
(evoking the statues around them). Strangely, they cast hard,
identical-looking shadows on what is obviously an overcast
day (at an angle that breaks the order established by the
rest of the visual elements in the frame), adding a surre-
alistic touch to the already oneiric tone of the film. Although
all of these compositional choices strongly imply a special
connection between the people and the garden, its meaning
is never addressed. Are the characters meant to be seen
as game pieces waiting to be moved, and the garden as a
giant gameboard, perhaps as an allegory of determinism?
Could they unknowingly be trapped in some kind of symbolic
purgatory? Philosophical interpretations aside, this image
demonstrates that beyond showcasing differences in scale,
the extreme long shot is also capable of expressing complex
ideas; only an extreme long shot could have simultaneously
included all the visual elements (a vast view of the garden,
multiple characters, an overcast sky) necessary to create
one of the most baffling and memorable images in the
history of cinema.
EXTREME LONG SHOT 79
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 why it works
Extreme long shots display a panoramic view that empha-
sizes a discrepancy in scale between a location and a char-
acter, who occupies a very small area of the frame. Although
extreme long shots usually feature only two main visual el-
ements, they can still communicate complex, narratively
meaningful ideas through their composition. Alejandro G.
Iñárritu's historical survival drama, The Revenant, illustrates
this concept in an extreme long shot that provides exposi-
tory plot information but also visualizes a character's emo-
The Revenant. Alejandro G. Iñárritu, Director; Emmanuel Lubezki, Cinematographer. 2015.
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tional state during a key moment. Set in the wilderness of the
American midwest during the early 19th century, the story
follows Hugh Glass (Leonardo DiCaprio), a frontiersman left
for dead after a bear attack who embarks on a harrowing
journey seeking justice. The primal regions he must cross
on his way back to civilization are presented in all of their
breathtaking beauty and danger, qualities visualized in this
extreme long shot that shows him as a tiny, lonely, and help-
less figure in the midst of a vast, majestic winter landscape.
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The overcast sky adds to the overall mood and
tone of this moment. Much of the melancholy
and isolation communicated by this extreme
long shot would be lost if it featured a sunny day
and a clear blue sky; appropriately, the place--
ment of the horizon along the bottom line of
the Rule of Thirds ensures the shot showcases
much of it on the top two thirds of the frame.
The horizon was framed to rest on the bottom
line of the Rule of Thirds, following the conven--
tion for extreme long shots of landscapes. If the
horizon had been placed along the top line in--
stead, the vastness and isolation suggested by
this shot would still have come across, but the
visual emphasis given to the ground would have
shifted the focus to the road still ahead of him.
Note this character's strategic placement at
the intersection of leading lines produced by
the mountains at the left and right sides of the
frame, ensuring our gaze will be guided to--
wards him even though he is barely a speck in
the midst of this vast landscape.
Although he occupies a very small area in the
frame, the dark clothing worn by this character
makes him stand out against the vast snow-
covered ground around him, ensuring he will be
easily noticed.
The extremely long camera to subject distance
resulted in a deep depth of field that shows the
foreground, middleground, and far background
in sharp focus, further enhancing this location's
sense of vastness.
The wide-angle lens used for this extreme long
shot, coupled with the long camera to subject
distance needed to show as much of the scen--
ery as possible, allowed a vast number of trees
on the side of this mountain to provide a sense
of this location's true scale.
EXTREME LONG SHOT 81
 technical considerations
Since one of the aims of extreme long shots is to showcase
a location's scale, they are usually taken with wide-angle
lenses, because they can include more visual information
across the x- and the y-axis of the frame than normal or
telephoto lenses. Wide-angle lenses also tend to exagger-
ate distances along the z-axis, making locations with strong
leading lines (like buildings and highways), as well as those
with numerous relative-size depth cues (like street lights,
or people) look like they extend far into the horizon. While
extreme long shots can also be taken with telephoto lenses
when compressing, rather than expanding, distances along
the z-axis is needed, their narrow angle of view makes it
difficult to showcase the full breadth of a large location,
and they require significantly longer distances from a sub-
ject than wide-angle lenses to counteract their magnifica-
tion.
Camera height can greatly enhance scale discrep-
ancies in an extreme long shot; for instance, vast empty
spaces benefit from using higher camera positions, because
they can show a much larger area around a character while
simultaneously reducing the amount of space they take up
in the frame, making them look smaller than if the same
shot were taken at ground level. Getting the camera height
necessary for a high-angle extreme long shot used to re-
quire finding a location with an existing high vantage point
overlooking the area where the action would take place, rig-
ging a platform with the necessary height, or renting a large
telescopic crane; thankfully, consumer drone technology
has greatly simplified getting extreme long shots from al-
most any height in virtually any location. Keep in mind, how-
ever, that flying a drone to get usable footage requires ex-
tensive rehearsals, favorable weather conditions (especially
in terms of wind speeds), and securing the certifications,
licensing, permits, or registrations that are required at your
particular location (more information on drone cinematog-
raphy can be found in the aerial shot chapter on page 212).
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Extreme long shots taken in full daylight rarely require arti-
ficial lighting, because natural light (even in overcast days)
is sufficient in most situations. However, they necessitate
extensive planning in case weather does not cooperate. Ad-
ditionally, if the extreme long shot requires capturing light
at a particular time of day, logistics can become even more
complicated, but the results can be visually stunning. For
instance, Zhang Yimou’s acclaimed period drama Raise the
Red Lantern features an emblematic shot taken a few min-
utes before sunset that takes full advantage of the unique
quality of light at this time to add beauty and symbolism to
a key moment of the story (examined on page 142). Fortu-
nately, there are plenty of smartphone apps that can predict
the sun's position at every minute of the day for any time of
the year, letting you previsualize the direction and length of
shadows for virtually any location. Additionally, with the help
of services like Google Maps' Street View feature and Google
Images, it is possible to conduct virtual location scouts to
get a good idea of what each place can offer before you ac-
tually visit them, saving you a lot of time and money while
also letting you work out your shoot's logistics much more
easily. Shooting extreme long shots outdoors at night using
only available light (even just moonlight), is actually feasible
thanks to advancements in CMOS sensor technology; how-
ever, while some cameras can be set to ISOs into the thou-
sands (and even hundreds of thousands), not all of them can
yield a usable image due to the video noise very high ISO
settings produce. Also, just because there might be enough
available light to get potentially acceptable images, it might
not illuminate your location in a way that fits your extreme
long shot's narrative point. For this reason, shooting night
exteriors can still require having strong movie light sources
(and the generators needed to power them), as well as extra
tall light stands, cherry pickers, cranes, or other equipment
to elevate them at the height necessary to cover the large
areas in an extreme long shot.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 breaking the rules

David Fincher's film about the personal drama and legal battles behind the origin of Facebook, The Social Network, includes a
number of highly unusual extreme long shots that deftly subvert one of the most recognizable visual conventions of this type of
shot. The long distances needed to frame extreme long shots almost always result in deep depths of field that show everything
in the foreground, middleground, and background in sharp focus. However, during a key scene where the Winklevoss twins
(who believe Mark Zuckerberg stole their concept to create Facebook) fail to win the prestigious Henley Royal Regatta, several
extreme long shots feature an unnaturally shallow depth of field that makes the location look like a miniature rather than a
real place. The effect, created through visual effects rather than the use of a tilt-shift lens, serves to symbolically minimize the
significance of their defeat against the larger context of their legal conflict with Zuckerberg.

The Social Network. David Fincher, Director; Jeff Cronenweth, Cinematographer. 2010.

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 CONVENTIONS

85

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 The Graduate. Mike Nichols, Director; Robert Surtees, Cinematographer. 1967.

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over the shoulder shot
Over the shoulder shots, also called OTS shots and "dirty sin-
gles", are commonly used to cover dialogue scenes between
two or more characters, especially when they are in close
proximity to one another. The name refers to the placement
of the camera directly behind the shoulder of a subject in the
foreground (although other body parts, like hips, arms, and
heads are also used) partially obstructs the frame, while the
main subject, in the middleground, faces the lens. Most of-
ten, OTS shots are framed using medium shots and medium
close-ups, and are taken from a vantage point that provides
a frontal view of the main subject in a way that showcases
their facial expressions; this framing allows audiences to
more fully connect with the emotions of the character facing
the camera and enhances their sense of engagement with
the story while maintaining a sense of physical proximity to
the other character in the scene. Depending on how much of
a foreground subject is included and the depth of field used,
it is also possible to communicate information about their
general demeanor through their body language as they react
to what the main subject is doing or saying. In most cases, an
OTS shot is accompanied by a corresponding OTS shot taken
from a reverse angle on the same side of the 180-degree
line (an editing convention designed to maintain a consistent
spatial relationship between characters), with the camera
behind the shoulder of the subject who was previously fac-
ing the lens. This accompanying OTS generally features the
same composition, depth of field, level of optical distortion,
and shooting angle as the initial OTS shot, ensuring a seam-
less visual shift when a scene cuts back and forth between
characters. The pairing of similar-looking OTS shots is a
convention that is sometimes subverted to visualize overt or
subtextual relationship dynamics between characters, usu-
TFE2.indd 87
OTS
ally to suggest a power imbalance. In these cases, OTS shots
within a scene are purposely mismatched in terms of look-
ing room, or headroom, or subject size, or even by not using
an accompanying OTS shot at all and relying instead on a
"single" (a shot that features only one subject).
Despite the limited number of visual elements the
typical OTS shot commonly includes, it can express a wide
variety of emotional and psychological relationships between
characters, as seen in the example on the opposite page,
from Mike Nichols’ groundbreaking satire The Graduate. The
story follows the plight of Benjamin Braddock (Dustin Hoff-
man), an aimless college graduate who is seduced by Mrs.
Robinson (Anne Bancroft), the wife of his father's business
partner, leading him to question the societal values he feels
pressured to follow as he enters full adulthood. In a pivotal
scene where Benjamin is cornered by a nude Mrs. Robinson,
an OTS shot visualizes just how overwhelmed and uncom-
fortable he feels at this moment. The shot's frontal angle
ensures the audience gets a full view of the pained expres-
sion on Benjamin's face as he struggles to avoid looking at
her body, which visually engulfs him to such degree only his
head is visible despite the relatively wide area covered by
the shot. The unconventionally large room taken up by Mrs.
Robinson reflects her complete dominance over Benjamin (a
classic use of Hitchcock’s Rule) during their exchange, a dy-
namic that is reinforced by the use of a non-matching, more
conventionally framed OTS reverse shot when the scene
cuts to her with Benjamin in the foreground. As this exam-
ple demonstrates, although OTS shots are ubiquitous, they
should not be considered as a merely generic or utilitarian
way to cover a dialogue scene; they can, when composed
thoughtfully, express complex ideas and subtexts eloquently.
OVER THE SHOULDER SHOT 87
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 why it works
When used thoughtfully, OTS shots can visualize relationship
dynamics between two or more characters. For instance, this
OTS shot seen during Red (Morgan Freeman) and Andy's (Tim
Robbins) first meeting in Frank Darabont’s The Shawshank
Redemption suggests they see each other as equals, fore-
shadowing the close friendship that would bind their destinies
later. The camera placement, close to Red’s line of sight, gives
the audience full access to every nuance of behavior displayed
The Shawshank Redemption. Frank Darabont, Director; Roger Deakins, Cinematographer. 1994.
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TFE2.indd 88
on his face, while the tight medium close-up framing further
suggests he is as important as Andy during this moment.
Andy's reverse shot (next page, bottom right) matches most
of this shot's visual characteristics except for the amount of
room Red occupies in the frame, which is significantly less
than what Andy takes up here. This could be justified as a way
to visualize that in this scene Andy needs Red's help, while
Red is still unsure whether he can trust Andy or not.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 This character was given the standard amount
of headroom and looking room for this shot size
by placing him in the frame according to the
Rule of Thirds. The almost completely frontal
camera angle allows the audience to view ev--
ery nuance of behavior and emotion displayed
on his face; if the camera had been placed at a
more sideways angle this would not have been
possible.
Sunlight is used as a backlight to separate this
character from the background; the reverse
OTS shot (below), however, also uses sunlight
as a backlight from the opposite direction,
which would be an impossibility in real life. This
is such a common lighting practice very few (if
any) audience members will notice the illogical--
ity of this manipulation.
TFE2.indd 89
A blurry background lets the audience concen--
trate their attention on the facial expressions
of the character facing the camera; shooting
in a bright sunny day, however, will require us--
ing neutral density filtration to compensate for
the wide aperture needed to produce a shallow
depth of field like the one seen here.
In a conventional OTS, the character with their
back to the camera normally occupies a rela--
tively small area of the frame; this allows the
audience to focus their attention on the main
subject facing the camera. In this example,
however, this character occupies almost an
equal amount of space, a choice that visualizes
the emotional connection developing between
them.
This character was placed over a sweet spot
according to the Rule of Thirds, giving him the
proper amount of looking room but not enough
headroom; this is not considered an error, how--
ever, because he is not the main subject of this
OTS shot. The inclusion of his head and shoul--
der function to add depth to the composition
and also lead the audience’s gaze towards the
character facing the camera.
The depth of field was manipulated to show this
character slightly sharper than the more out of
focus background. This choice allows the audi--
ence to still visually connect these two charac--
ters while keeping the focus (literally and nar--
ratively) on the subject facing the camera.
OVER THE SHOULDER SHOT 89
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 technical considerations
Focal length choice for an OTS shot depends on a variety of
factors that include how much of the surrounding area needs
to be seen, how far apart or close together the main and fore-
ground subjects should be perceived to be, and the level of
facial distortion you may want to incorporate or avoid, among
others. When the aim is to elicit a strong emotional connec-
tion with the main subject of an OTS shot, they are commonly
taken with focal lengths close to normal in relatively tighter
framings, like medium close-ups or close-ups, because they
minimize facial distortion and can best communicate a sense
of closeness and intimacy. When using these shot sizes and
focal lengths, the camera to subject distance will result in a
shallow depth of field that will let you keep the foreground
subject and the background out of focus while the main sub-
ject stays sharp; this effect can be further enhanced by using
a wide aperture to make the depth of field even shallower.
Shooting indoors with movie lights or in night exteriors with
available light while using a wide aperture will not require
any special adjustments, but shooting outdoors on a sunny
day will necessitate using neutral density filtration (directly
over the lens or within camera settings if available) to com-
pensate for the surplus light. Conversely, if the OTS shot re-
quires both subjects to be in focus simultaneously and the
framing is relatively wide (meaning the camera is placed far-
ther away), using a narrow aperture to produce a deep depth
of field will yield acceptable results, but you will need to have
a way to compensate for the subsequent loss in exposure,
either by adding light or by raising your ISO setting (which
may add video noise, especially in areas of underexposure).
There are alternatives to obtaining a deep depth of field that
do not require closing down the aperture. For instance, with
a split-field diopter (an optical attachment that essentially
turns a conventional lens into the equivalent of bifocals) you
can simply focus your lens to the main subject and then po-
sition the diopter over the foreground subject to render it in
sharp focus. A blurry line will be visible where the attach-
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ment ends, but it can be concealed by placing it against a
nondescript area of the composition. Another option is to use
a tilt-shift lens to move the plane of focus diagonally so that
it is more aligned towards the z-axis instead of the x-axis;
however, this technique demands careful staging of the ac-
tion and severely restricts any movement within the shot.
The apparent distance between the foreground fig-
ure and the main subject can also be manipulated with a
lens' focal length. Since subjects in an OTS shot are aligned
close to the z-axis, lenses with longer focal lengths can
make them appear to be much closer to each other than
they actually are due to the compressed perspective they
can display; this effect can be exaggerated to the point that
the figures might look unnaturally close, which can visual-
ize an unusual or abnormal relationship dynamic. However,
depending on the shot size and the lens' level of magnifica-
tion, long focal lengths can require placing the camera at
a considerable distance from the subjects, which might not
be possible when shooting in a cramped indoor location. For
instance, framing an OTS with a medium close-up while us-
ing a 200mm telephoto lens will require placing the camera
roughly 10 feet away, while a medium shot will need almost
twice that distance. A short focal length can produce the op-
posite perspective effect, making characters appear to be
farther away from each other due to their wider angle of view
and demagnification. An OTS taken with a 35mm lens at a
distance of 3 feet, for instance, will show the main subject
in a medium close-up, but from that same distance and a
16mm lens, it will be framed in a medium long shot and will
appear to be roughly twice as distant from the foreground
subject. It is not always necessary, however, to overtly ma-
nipulate the apparent distance between a foreground and a
main subject to make a narrative point; even subtle shifts in
how far apart or close together they appear to be within a
scene can effectively communicate corresponding changes
in the way characters relate to each other.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 breaking the rules

Director Matteo Garrone’s image system for Gomorrah, a film about a Neapolitan crime syndicate known as the "Camorra",
includes a recurrent motif where many over the shoulder shots lack matching reverse shots, and the focus point is set on the
foreground, keeping the character facing the camera purposely blurry. This deconstruction of the visual conventions and narra-
tive function of the OTS shot effectively adds a sense of tension and foreboding to the shady and dangerous underground deals
made by characters caught in a feud between mafia clans. In this OTS shot, Pasquale (left, played by Salvatore Cantalupo), a
high fashion tailor, agrees to train Chinese garment workers who are competing against firms under Camorra protection, put-
ting his life in extreme danger in the process.

Gomorrah. Matteo Garrone, Director; Marco Onorato, Cinematographer. 2008.

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 The Shining. Stanley Kubrick, Director; John Alcott, Cinematographer. 1980.

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establishing shot
Establishing shots showcase a location, usually from a dis-
tant perspective, that introduces a setting where subsequent
events are understood to take place, providing a geographi-
cal context to the scene or scenes they precede. This conven-
tion has been exploited by filmmakers since the early days of
cinema to simplify production logistics and minimize costs,
because in the minds of an audience a scene that immedi-
ately follows an establishing shot takes place in that location,
regardless of where it is actually filmed (often a studio set
built specifically for this purpose). Sometimes, establishing
shots are introduced after a character is shown arriving at
a location using a shot size that conceals it until the shot is
reframed (most often by tilting up the camera or by zoom-
ing out) to reveal it. Another variation includes placing the
establishing shot after an indoor scene. In these cases, the
aim is to prompt the audience to recontextualize the indoor
scene's meaning by revealing an unexpected setting. It is im-
portant to note that not every location needs to be introduced
through an establishing shot; most stories include settings
that are essential to the plot only because some minor ac-
tion happens to take place in them, but they do not function
to reveal exposition about a character or contextualize nar-
rative content, and establishing them would unnecessarily
interrupt the narrative's flow. Beyond providing a geographi-
cal context, establishing shots can also express other narra-
tively meaningful information; settings can be shown in ways
that set a particular tone, contribute to a theme as part of a
movie's image system, and provide a dramatic context to the
scene or scenes that follow or immediately precede them,
among others. A helpful strategy to showcase locations in
ways that can visualize these additional meanings is to ap-
proach them not merely as places, but as characters with
TFE2.indd 93
ES
distinct "personalities". Through the careful arrangement of
a location's visual elements in the frame (by creating com-
positions that use Hitchcock's Rule, deviate from or follow
the Rule of Thirds, or are purposely balanced/unbalanced,
among others), or otherwise underscoring (or minimizing)
its key visual attributes, any place can be made to look im-
posing, dangerous, innocuous, alluring, melancholy, and ev-
erything in between.
A great example of using establishing shots expres-
sively can be seen in Stanley Kubrick's psychological horror
masterpiece, The Shining. The story follows the slow descent
into madness experienced by Jack Torrance, a recovering
alcoholic with a tormented past, after he takes a job as an
off-season caretaker for the Overlook, a hotel that becomes
inaccessible during the winter. As the story progresses, the
Overlook's establishing shots show it gradually changing
from a postcard-worthy idyllic destination to an increasingly
desolate and bleak locale, as if it were also succumbing to
the same dark, supernatural forces that eventually drive
Jack to want to murder his family. This transformation is
visualized by first showing the hotel in bright sunlight with
clear skies, and later blanketed under a cover of snow as
the weather turns dark and ominous (opposite page). Addi-
tionally, with each establishing shot the hotel is seen occu-
pying a smaller area of the frame, highlighting the remote-
ness and isolation that would contribute to Jack's insanity
as well as his family's total vulnerability. Individually, each of
these shots effectively communicate specific ideas about the
hotel's character, but as a group and within The Shining's
carefully crafted image system, they also manage to support
the notion it has a will of its own and is somehow capable of
exerting a form of psychological control over its occupants.
ESTABLISHING SHOT 93
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 why it works
Alfonso Cuarón’s Children of Men tells the story of the world-
wide chaos that ensues in 2027 after a virus suddenly renders
all of humanity sterile. In this establishing shot, Theo, a man
trying to get a pregnant girl he discovered to safety, arrives at
the “Ark of the Arts” building in a desperate attempt to obtain
transit papers. In the dystopian future this film depicts, this
building represents one of the few remnants of law and order
Children of Men. Alfonso Cuarón, Director; Emmanuel Lubezki, Cinematographer. 2006.
94
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still standing. Accordingly, this shot's composition communi-
cates its importance (by its central framing), impenetrability
(by including the checkpoint and armed guards in the fore-
ground), and authority (by showcasing its angular, industrial
features). Beyond establishing the location, these choices
present the building as an inhospitable and uninviting place,
suggesting Theo's goal will not be easily achieved.
2/21/22 1:37 AM

Horizons are usually placed in the frame ac--
cording to the Rule of Thirds, at either the bot--
tom or the top horizontal lines, but in this es--
tablishing shot it was placed almost exactly in
the middle of the frame, complementing the
central placement of the building and this com--
position's static symmetry.
The inclusion of this traffic light partially pro--
truding into the shot acts as a "repoussoir", a
visual element that leads the viewer’s gaze to--
wards the main subject of a composition. It also
adds depth by functioning as a foreground layer.
TFE2.indd 95
This building's placement in the frame does not
follow the Rule of Thirds, which would have put
it over a sweet spot on the left or the right side
of the frame. Instead, it was placed directly in
the middle of the composition, suggesting its
central importance and authority as one of the
remaining bastions of law and order in the oth--
erwise chaotic world presented in this film.
The soldier in the foreground and the soldiers
at the end of the bridge function as relative size
depth cues that give us a sense of how far, and
therefore how large, the building must be due to
their noticeable size discrepancy.
The building was shot from a vantage point that
accentuates its angularity while also making
it look almost two-dimensional; this framing
complements the symmetric layout of the rest
of the visual elements in the composition to
present it as an inhospitable, forbidding place.
The converging lines formed by the railings of
this bridge emphasize the depth of the frame
and also function as leading lines that guide our
gaze towards their vanishing point at the main
entrance to the building.
ESTABLISHING SHOT 95
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 technical considerations
The type of visual features that need to be emphasized, dis-
torted, or concealed in a location can determine your lens
choice for an establishing shot; you might, for instance,
choose a wide-angle lens to showcase a building from a low
angle to exaggerate its height and make it look imposing, or
use a telephoto lens while shooting from far away to blend
it with the background to minimize its importance. If the lo-
cation being established reoccurs throughout the film, you
might decide to shoot it using different focal lengths and shot
compositions as the story progresses to reflect changes in
the narrative's tone or mood (the technique used by Kubrick
for the Overlook Hotel's establishing shots in The Shining).
Depth of field will be difficult to manipulate when shooting
establishing shots, because even when using a wide aper-
ture (with the help of neutral density filtration when shoot-
ing during the day), the long distances required to include
a large location in the frame result in deep depths of field.
However, it is still possible to simulate a shallow depth of
field look by using a tilt-shift lens (a specialized lens with a
movable front element that shifts the focusing plane diago-
nally), which allows you to selectively blur areas in the fore-
ground and background. Additionally, you could also create
a shallow depth of field effect entirely during postproduction,
by applying a blurring effect to selected areas of the frame or
with dedicated video plugins available for most editing pro-
grams (an example of which was used in David Fincher's The
Social Network, covered on page 83).
The large amount of minute visual details a typical
establishing shot can include makes it particularly important
to be aware of the idiosyncrasies of your camera's image
processing technology, especially as it pertains to aliasing
(artifacts that occur when a subject's level of detail exceeds
a sensor's resolution), since it could add distracting jagged
edges and/or moiré patterns to your shot. One way to re-
duce or eliminate aliasing is by making adjustments to the
camera to subject distance until it disappears; while this is
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relatively easy to do when shooting tighter shots, it can be
challenging when dealing with establishing shots because
of the greater distances involved. Closing down the aperture
can also help reduce or eliminate aliasing in some cases, but
at the cost of potentially compromising image quality, since
you would not be shooting at your lens' sweet spot.
Lighting for an establishing shot when shooting in
full daylight involves a lot of preparation and research, even
in cases when movie lights are not needed. This is because
the only way to plan for the quality and the amount of light
available at an exterior location necessarily involves keeping
track of weather conditions, which can change unexpectedly
even just hours before your shoot. The precise angle at which
you need sunlight to illuminate a location will also play a de-
terminant role in both the time of day you have to shoot and
how much time you will have to do it. Always keep in mind,
the sun shifts position across the sky by approximately 15°
per hour (about the width of your palm when held at arm's
length), which, depending on how specific you need shadows
to look like at a location, may give you a very short of window
of time to shoot before they change. Lighting establishing
shots at night can involve using only available light if your
camera can be set to a relatively high ISO, but, depending on
how it handles low-light situations, it is important to keep in
mind that you may end up with an unacceptable level of video
noise in the process. For this reason, filmmakers still often
prefer to use large, powerful lights when shooting outdoors
at night. Whether you are shooting during the day or at night,
getting the right look to suggest a specific mood or tone with
an establishing shot will take time and patience. However,
establishing shots can play an incredibly important role in
your story, so you should apply the same attention to detail
you would use to shoot the lead characters in your film. Re-
member, an establishing shot can mean a lot more to your
audience beyond just showing a location where the action
takes place, so make them count.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 breaking the rules

Director Lars von Trier cleverly exploits the narrative implications of using this highly unusual establishing shot during the
opening of Dogville. The shot, like the rest of the movie, simultaneously adheres to and subverts the conventions associated
with it; it establishes an actual, physical location (a stage with various pieces of furniture, characters, and chalk outlines) and
an implied, metaphysical one (the small township of Dogville, near the Rocky Mountains) that needs to be imagined by the audi-
ence to follow the story. This rare filmic example of Brecht’s “distancing effect” prevents audiences from getting too emotionally
involved with the story, making them more consciously critical of the events in the narrative instead.

Dogville. Lars von Trier, Director; Anthony Dod Mantle, Cinematographer. 2003.

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 The Silence of the Lambs. Jonathan Demme, Director; Tak Fujimoto, Cinematographer. 1991.

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subjective shot
The subjective shot is cinema's most rigorous visualiza-
tion of a first person perspective; unlike other conventions
designed to allow audiences to identify with a character's
physical or psychological subjectivity (among them, reaction
shots, close-up shots, and POV shots), a subjective shot lets
viewers feel as if they are active participants in the story they
are watching. This feat is accomplished by showing events
as if seen directly through a character's eyes, with framings,
camera movement, and in some cases image manipulation
designed to simulate their subjectivity. For instance, a sub-
jective shot may be taken with a lens attachment that blurs
a section of the frame if a character suffers from impaired
vision, or with an unsteady, swaying handheld camera if they
are inebriated, or through a device (like a pair of binoculars
or a peephole) if they use it during a scene. One of the most
striking features of the subjective shot, however, is that it
shows other characters in the story interacting with the cam-
era, and by extension with the audience, by looking directly
into the lens, speaking to it, and sometimes even having
physical contact with it. This interaction can be an extremely
powerful technique to engage audiences with a narrative,
but can also be very jarring, because most of the time we ex-
perience movies as passive, unacknowledged observers and
not active participants. Additionally, since subjective shots
often preclude the use of reaction shots to showcase a char-
acter's emotional responses, they can also generate a sense
of narrative ambiguity, because audiences are not provided
with specific dramatic cues to understand the full context
and meaning of the events in which they are used. For these
reasons, if subjective shots are used for extended periods of
time, they run the risk of making it difficult to identify with
the character whose subjectivity they reflect, and can even
TFE2.indd 99
subjective shot
lead audiences to gradually disconnect from a story. On the
other hand, the unique visual statement subjective shots
make can work especially well in situations when placing
the audience in the shoes of a character while they interact
with other characters amplifies a scene's dramatic impact,
or when letting them experience an action through a char-
acter's subjectivity provides them with a unique insight that
would be impossible to communicate with any other type of
shot.
Director Jonathan Demme's thriller The Silence of
the Lambs features several subjective shots that visualize
the psychological tension that pervades much of its spell-
binding narrative. The story follows Clarice Starling, an FBI
profiler-in-training who enlists the help of a brilliant se-
rial killer, Dr. Hannibal Lecter (Anthony Hopkins), to help
her solve a case; during their encounters, subjective shots
are strategically used to let audiences experience Clarice's
physical and psychological subjectivity. For instance, during
a particularly meaningful exchange where Lecter incisively
forces Clarice to reveal a key defining event from her child-
hood, he is shown in an unbearably close subjective shot
(left page) that visualizes just how imposing and intimidat-
ing he comes across to her (and, by extension, to the audi-
ence). The subjective shot's effect is complemented with a
composition that places Lecter dead center in the frame,
with underlighting that produces unnatural shadows across
his face that make him look even more menacing. Interest-
ingly, Clarice is also shown in subjective shots that use the
same framing as Lecter's at this precise moment, as if to
symbolically suggest that they are momentarily seeing "eye
to eye" despite the antagonistic yet mutually respectful na-
ture of their relationship.
SUBJECTIVE SHOT 99
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 why it works
The subjective shot is unique in its ability to let audiences
experience action through the perspective of a character,
who is represented by the camera itself. Focal length, cam-
era movement, depth of field, and other types of image ma-
nipulation are commonly used to visualize the specific physi-
cal, emotional, and psychological attributes of a character's
subjectivity. A unique example of this implementation can be
seen in Julian Schnabel’s The Diving Bell and the Butterfly,
The Diving Bell and the Butterfly. Julian Schnabel, Director; Janusz Kaminski,
100
TFE2.indd 100
which uses subjective shots throughout most of the film to
let the audience experience what life was like for Jean-Dom-
inique Bauby, a French journalist and author, after suffering
a massive stroke. In this film, shot compositions do not just
simulate his post-stroke visual impairment, as seen in this
example when the mother of his children, Céline (Emmanu-
elle Seigner) visits him, but also visualize the emotional and
psychological turmoil he endured due to his condition.
´ Cinematographer. 2007.
2/21/22 1:37 AM

In a subjective shot, characters are seen ad--
dressing the camera as if it were just another
character, looking directly into the lens, speak--
ing to it, and even touching it. This type of inter--
action is seldom used due to its transgressive
quality, but sometimes it can provide an ex--
tremely effective way to let audiences experi--
ence the story as if they were a character in it.
The slight barrel distortion on her face and the
elongated perspective of the z-axis indicate
the use of a wide-angle lens, another stylistic
choice designed to reflect the character’s de--
graded vision after his stroke.
TFE2.indd 101
Although this character comes into view by
leaning into the shot, she still ended up with the
proper amount of headroom for a shot this size,
and her placement in the frame follows the Rule
of Thirds. There are, however, many times in
this film where subjects are framed without fol--
lowing these compositional guidelines. These
instances are justified by the main character’s
subjectivity, whose full body paralysis is reflect--
ed by keeping the camera perfectly still, result--
ing in subjective shots that sometimes feature
severely cropped subjects, canted angles, and
unbalanced shot compositions.
The lighting in this shot was designed to pro--
duce a visually pleasing, cinematic look, evi--
denced by the soft glow on this side of her face
(provided by an off-screen source of fill light
or by bouncing sunlight from a matte surface).
Close-up shots allow you to reposition or add
lights that were not present in wider shots, as
long as the overall look established previously
is maintained.
The horizon is severely canted, simulating the
visual perspective of the main character, whose
head was left drooping after a stroke. The cant--
ed angle also symbolizes the chaotic new reality
he faces every day because of his devastating
brain injury. Manipulating an image to reflect
not just a character's physical, but also their
emotional, and/or psychological subjectivity is
a common visual approach to frame a subjec--
tive shot.
The shallow depth of field is meant to visual--
ize the character’s impaired, monocular vision
after suffering a stroke. The film uses several
techniques that distort or degrade the image to
varying degrees to reflect different stages of his
recovery.
SUBJECTIVE SHOT 101
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 technical considerations
While a normal lens would seem the obvious choice when
trying to simulate a human character's visual perspective,
other focal lengths may be preferable depending on the
subjective shot's narrative context. If the shot features cam-
era movement (to simulate a character walking or running,
for instance), and a handheld rig is used, wide-angle lenses
would be preferable over normal or telephoto lenses, be-
cause their wider angles of view do a better job concealing
excessive camera shake. If the same movement is accom-
plished with the aid of a dolly, a Steadicam rig, or some oth-
er type of stabilizer that minimizes or eliminates unsteady
camerawork, longer focal lengths could also be used. How-
ever, keep in mind that a certain degree of hesitation and
shakiness in the camera's handling is expected in moving
subjective shots, since they act as visual cues that tell audi-
ences they are seeing things through a character's physi-
cal subjectivity and not through the film apparatus. A per-
fectly smooth and steady subjective shot, for instance, could
be mistaken for a conventional shot until some interaction
between the camera and a character is shown, producing
a narrative ambiguity that may confuse your audience (but
could also be an effective way to add tension to a scene when
it is done by design). There may be times, however, when the
camera move needed to convey a particular subjectivity may
best be accomplished with an unconventional rig and lens
pairing. An example of this approach can be seen in Alek-
sandr Sokurov’s breathtaking Russian Ark, a film that fea-
tures an uninterrupted 91-minute subjective shot (also tech-
nically a sequence shot) taken with a Steadicam rig and a
wide-angle lens that takes the audience through 300 years of
Russian history as it travels through the Hermitage museum
(covered on page 219). Your lens choice could also be guided
by your need to visualize a specific physical, emotional, or
psychological aspect of the subjectivity being shown. A tilt-
shift lens, for instance, could help simulate the subjectivity
of a character with poor eyesight, or a long telephoto lens
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TFE2.indd 102
with an extremely narrow angle of view could reflect the
subjectivity of a character who is fixated with a particular
object or character. While some visual conventions are more
established than others (like using a “fish eye” lens to show
that someone is under the influence of drugs, or a double
exposure to show a character is drunk), remember that ev-
ery film creates its own image system, which gives you the
freedom to establish your own visual convention as long as
you implement it consistently across your narrative.
If a subjective shot incorporates camera movement,
the placement of lighting instruments will have to account
for it; a moving camera creates a dynamic composition that
can severely restrict where lights can be placed without be-
ing seen, in many cases forcing the use of practical lights
(sources of light that are visible within the shot and are part
of a location's set design, like table lamps) instead of con-
ventional movie lights, especially when shooting night inte-
rior scenes. When using practicals, it can be helpful to re-
lamp them with higher-lumen, dimmable LED bulbs to have
maximum control over their brightness and a consistent col-
or temperature. Another option is to conceal small, battery-
powered LED lights in or around practical lights, to give you
even more control over the output and color of the lighting in
your scene. Day interiors do not usually present a problem
in terms of lighting when shooting with a moving camera,
since they are generally lit with large HMI lights (the industry
standard to simulate daylight color temperature) strategi-
cally positioned outside windows. Lighting night exteriors for
a moving camera can be done using just available light by
raising the ISO setting, with the caveat that depending on
your camera's image processing technology and how far you
deviate from its native ISO, the resulting images might end
up having an unacceptable level of video noise and poor color
rendition. For this reason, getting the best possible image
quality while shooting night exteriors in low-light conditions
still involves using large, powerful movie lights.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 breaking the rules

Spike Jonze’s wonderfully surreal Being John Malkovich uses heavily vignetted subjective shots to visualize what it would be
like to experience life through the consciousness (and not simply the perspective) of "John H. Malkovich" (John Malkovich), after
a hidden portal into his mind is discovered behind a file cabinet by Craig, a puppeteer working as an office clerk. In this shot,
a bewildered Malkovich is seduced by Maxine (Catherine Keener), one of Craig's co-workers, while his wife Lotte watches the
action from inside the portal. This particular use of the subjective shot is unique because it lets the audience experience not
one, but two subjectivities simultaneously, since we hear both Lotte's and Malkovich’s voices during the scene. The physical
interaction between the characters was achieved through the use of an ingenious camera rig worn by John Malkovich himself.

Being John Malkovich. Spike Jonze, Director; Lance Acord, Cinematographer. 1999.

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 Mystery Train. Jim Jarmusch, Director; Robby Müller, Cinematographer. 1989.

104

TFE2.indd 104 2/21/22 1:37 AM


two shot
As its name implies, two shots include two characters in
the frame; these shots are usually composed as long shots,
medium long shots, and medium shots, although any shot
that features only two characters, regardless of shot size
(with the exception of OTS shots, which essentially feature
a single character) is technically called a two shot. Showing
two characters sharing the frame inherently makes a narra-
tive statement about how they connect to each other. While
this is true of any shot that includes multiple characters, like
group shots, a two shot can suggest more specific emotional
or psychological relationship dynamics between them. This
is because they prompt audiences to compare and contrast
the body language, demeanor, facial expression, costume,
and any other meaningful visual characteristic in more detail
simultaneously, in a way that cannot be done when they are
shown individually. Sometimes, these dynamics are visual-
ized by using Hitchcock’s Rule, for instance, by letting one
character occupy more space in the frame to suggest he or
she is more powerful, dominant, or important to the story;
most often, however, they are expressed by showcasing their
body language and interaction in a shot size that allows audi-
ences to fully examine them. Typically, dynamic connections
between characters are also emphasized by minimizing or
even completely foregoing the use of accompanying shots
to cover a scene, allowing audiences ample time to take in
and dissect every aspect of their performance in real time.
One important detail to be aware of when using a two shot
as a master shot, however, is that audiences will “edit” the
scene by shifting their attention between characters as the
interaction progresses; for instance, during a conversation,
they might look at a character delivering a line while they
also gauge the other character's reaction. While this might
TFE2.indd 105
two shot
seem like a trivial distinction, it can significantly impact the
way your audience engages with the characters and the
story. The reason for this is directly related to the cinematic
convention of using increasingly tighter shots to underscore
a particularly important moment or action, which allows au-
diences to identify a scene's narrative point without much
effort. However, when a scene is not fragmented into shots
of various sizes and is instead told through a single master
shot, audiences have to take a more active role searching for
visual clues to decode its dramatic intent.
Director Jim Jarmusch's tryptic of interconnected
tales, Mystery Train, uses two shots almost exclusively in
its Far from Yokohama segment to tell the story of Jun and
Mitsuko (Masatoshi Nagase and Youki Kudoh), a Japanese
teenage couple on a musical pilgrimage to Memphis, Ten-
nessee. The extensive use of two shots in this section, many
of them long takes, gives audiences ample time to compare
and contrast their very different personalities (Mitsuko is fun
and bubbly, while Jun is relentlessly stoic), fashion choices
(rockabilly for him, pop/punk for her), and taste in music (they
continually argue over whether Elvis Presley or Carl Perkins
was the better rock 'n' roll artist). The numerous two shots
also serve to visualize the special connection they develop
during their trip (an instance of which can be seen on the
opposite page); as cultural outsiders in a foreign land with
little English to get by, their shared isolation brings them
closer despite spending much of their time bickering. Jar-
musch's reliance on two shots (instead of individual close-
ups, for instance) to underline key moments between them
allows audiences to discover the quirks of their relationship
gradually, in a way that fits the uniqueness of the story and
the characters.
TWO SHOT 105
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 why it works
Two shots, like other shots that feature multiple characters,
can suggest their subjects share a particularly meaningful
emotional or psychological connection; this makes it espe-
cially important that every visual element, from the charac-
ters' body language and facial expression to their placement
and size in the frame, support the relationship dynamics
they aim to communicate. This two shot from Ridley Scott’s
Thelma & Louise, the story of two women who become want-
ed fugitives after one of them kills a would-be rapist, effec-
Thelma & Louise. Ridley Scott, Director; Adrian Biddle, Cinematographer. 1991.
106
TFE2.indd 106
tively visualizes the strong bond they have forged as a result
of their plight. By this point in the story, Louise (Susan Sa-
randon, left), a waitress with a damaged past who mistrusts
men, and Thelma (Geena Davis, right), a submissive house-
wife with a controlling husband, have turned into hard core
“bitches from hell” (to quote one character in the film) as
they right the wrongs of the patriarchal system. Every aspect
of this shot, from their stances to their facial expressions, is
designed to show how alike their journey has made them.
2/21/22 1:37 AM

A slight low angle visualizes their strength and
defiance at this moment; while an even lower
angle could also have communicated these
ideas, it could have also potentially distracted
audiences from the rest of the compositional
choices that visualize other aspects of their re--
lationship in this shot.
Both characters were placed close to sweet
spots following the Rule of Thirds, creating a dy--
namic composition that gives them the proper
amount of looking room. Note that although this
character has an excessive amount of head--
room, this is not considered a mistake, because
she is lower in the frame than the character on
the right; in a two shot, the subject placed high--
est determines where the headroom is set.
Shooting with available light will restrict your
ability to control your lighting, but you can still
create cinematic-looking images if you block
your subjects thoughtfully. In this two shot,
the characters were positioned so that the
sun functions as a backlight that separates
them from the background and as a fill light
by bouncing from the front, a common light--
ing technique when shooting outdoors in full
sunlight.

A deep depth of field kept the background in
sharp focus, showcasing the desert location
in a way that strongly connects it (and the as--
sociated ideas it evokes: emptiness, vastness,
solitude, and Westerns, among others) with the
characters during this moment in the story. This
key visual relationship would not have been as
noticeable if a shallow depth of field had been
used instead.
The medium shot size used for this two shot
allows their body language, wardrobe, and fa--
cial expressions to communicate key narrative
information about their personalities as well as
the dynamics of their relationship. Their mir--
rored stances, for instance, visualize how close
their bond has become by this point in their
journey, despite their very different disposi--
tions.
Following Hitchcock's Rule, Thelma is larger
in the frame than Louise, because at this point
in the story she has undergone a more radical
change in personality and outlook. This narra--
tive point is complemented by also making her
this composition's focal point, resting at the end
of the converging leading lines formed by the
hills in the background.

The shot was taken at a slight angle, with Thel--

ma in the foreground and Louise a couple of feet
farther away. Even though there is only a slight
difference in their respective sizes in the frame,
it still functions as a relative size depth cue that
produces the illusion of depth by emphasizing
the z-axis.

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TFE2.indd 107 2/21/22 1:37 AM

 technical considerations
Focal length choice for a two shot can be guided by the re-
lationship dynamics you may want to communicate; for in-
stance, you could use a telephoto lens' z-axis compression
to make it look as if characters are closer to each other
than they really are, perhaps to reflect they are in agree-
ment, whether or not they express this sentiment outwardly.
You could also opt for a wide-angle lens to make it look as
if they are farther apart (since short focal lengths expand
perspective), to maybe visualize an emotional distance be-
tween them. Spatial relationships can also help establish
a connection between characters and a key visual element
in the background that informs or contextualizes the mean-
ing of the two shot. Alternatively, you could also choose a
camera to subject distance and focal length combination to
control how much of the environment can be seen around
and behind characters, allowing a setting to be a more or
less meaningful visual element in a two shot. This approach
was used in the example from Mystery Train at the beginning
of this chapter, where only a relatively small portion of the
background can be seen thanks to the use of a longer focal
length and a camera placement that allowed the subjects
to be framed in a medium shot. Conversely, in the example
from Thelma & Louise on the previous page, a shorter focal
length coupled with a close camera to subject distance made
it possible to include much of the vast desert landscape be-
hind the titular characters.
Another way to visualize relationship dynamics in a
two shot is by adjusting the depth of field. For instance, you
could make the background or one of the characters fall out-
side the area of sharp focus by using a wide aperture to pro-
duce a shallow depth of field, or ensure that characters and
the background are seen clearly by using a small aperture to
give you a deep depth of field. When using depth of field this
way, it is important to keep in mind that different levels of
blurriness can communicate different relationships between
characters and between characters and their surroundings;
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TFE2.indd 108
it may not always be necessary to have the shallowest or the
deepest depth of field possible to make a narrative point.
Controlling your depth of field, however, will not be possible
without compensating for the extra light you will let in (by
reducing the output of your lights when shooting indoors or
by using neutral density filtration when shooting outdoors in
full sunlight) or cut down (by bringing your lights closer to
the subject, by adding lights, or by using a slightly higher ISO
setting).
Lighting can also play a crucial role in how audiences
interpret character connections in a two shot. For instance,
you could selectively illuminate one of your subjects so they
stand out and draw the viewer's attention while keeping the
other at a lower exposure or even completely engulfed in
shadows to suggest a duplicitous nature, or strategically use
soft, more flattering lighting on one and harsher, less com-
plimentary lighting on the other, perhaps as a way to visual-
ize how they perceive each other at a certain point of their
relationship. Visual connections between characters and a
location can also be suggested through lighting by adjust-
ing the lighting ratio (the difference in brightness between a
main subject and the foreground and/or background planes)
to control how noticeable, and therefore how meaningful, a
setting is in a composition. If a location is kept darker than
the characters in it, to the point audiences can only perceive
it as a nondescript place, it will be difficult to establish a
strong visual connection between them. Alternatively, if a
location is lit in a way that allows seeing it in full detail, it
can be understood to be as or even more important than the
characters, underscoring their connection. In the two shot
example from Thelma & Louise, for instance, the desert loca-
tion is as bright as the characters, reflecting its importance
as a place where they feel liberated and empowered, while
in the example from Paris, Texas on the opposite page, the
background is brighter than the characters, since it repre-
sents the idealized home and family life they failed to realize.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 breaking the rules

This two shot (technically also an OTS shot) from Wim Wenders’ Paris, Texas, brilliantly visualizes an emotionally complex mo-
ment in the story, as Travis (Harry Dean Stanton), a man who deserted his family and became a drifter, reveals himself to his
wife Jane (Nastassja Kinski) at the peep show club where she works. The composition uses a one-way mirror to create a two
shot that merges both characters and visualizes the dynamics of their relationship; Travis sees his reflection superimposed
over an idealized version of the home and wife he left behind and wants to regain, but the optical illusion that lets him see his
goal realized also reveals how unattainable it remains, leading him to decide his family is still better off without him. Because
this two shot manages to communicate so many aspects of the story by itself, it is also a great example of an emblematic shot.

Paris, Texas. Wim Wenders, Director; Robby Müller, Cinematographer. 1984.

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 City of God. Fernando Meirelles, Kátia Lund, Directors; César Charlone, Cinematographer. 2002.

110

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group shot
A group shot includes three or more characters in the
frame; because of this, they tend to be composed with
medium shots, medium long shots, and long shots, since
these shot sizes are wide enough to showcase multiple
subjects and some of their surrounding area. Group
shots are commonly placed at the beginning of scenes to
establish where everyone is situated within a space, so
that when tighter shots are used afterwards, their spatial
relationships are understood. Like other shots with wider
framings, group shots are well suited to suggest relationship
dynamics between characters, and between characters
and a location. Character connections in these shots are
often communicated through blocking and body language;
for instance, you could suggest disharmony by arranging
characters so that everyone displays a different posture, or
by having all of them face different directions, or by placing
them at different heights along the y-axis of the frame,
among others. An uneasy connection between characters
and a location, on the other hand, could be visualized by
letting either one visually overwhelm the other through a
size discrepancy, or by subverting the Rule of Thirds so that
characters are placed anywhere other than over a sweet
spot to create static and uncomfortable compositions. The
wider fields of view also make these shots ideal for creating
emblematic compositions, because they provide enough
room in the frame to have more complex arrangements of
characters, objects, and locations; you will note that all of the
case studies included in this chapter, for instance, function
as both group shots and emblematic shots. Emphasizing
depth in a group shot is relatively easy, since all it requires
is blocking characters along the frame's z-axis so they act
as relative size depth cues; creating flatter compositions,
TFE2.indd 111
group shot
on the other hand, can only be done by aligning subjects
along the x-axis while including only two layers of depth (a
foreground and background).
A particularly effective instance of a group shot can
be seen in Fernando Meirelles and Kátia Lund’s City of God,
a coming-of-age film that follows the lives of two children
growing up in the favelas from the 1960s to the 1980s; Li’l
Zé (Leandro Firmino) becomes a ruthless and powerful
drug lord who rules over the titular favela in Rio de Janeiro,
while Buscapé strives to reach his dream of becoming a
professional photojournalist. At a pivotal moment in the
story, Li’l Zé asks Buscapé to take a photograph of his gang
after a minor victory over the police; the resulting group
shot (opposite page), shows them standing guard over their
territory, defiantly displaying their weapons as they strike
a pose designed to instill fear in their enemies. The group
shot's deceptively simple composition effectively visualizes
several additional meanings, from their unity of purpose
through their common body language and similar manner of
dress, to the nature of their strong connection with the favela
by their central placement and comparatively larger size in
the frame. Additionally, the shot's narrative context, a gang
posing victoriously for a photograph after intimidating the
police into retreating from their turf, adds another dimension
to this image. Their side-by-side blocking and weapons
display (standing precisely within a narrow shaft of light that
makes them stand out from the background) is reminiscent
of a hunter's trophy shot, which symbolically suggests the
favela itself is their conquered prey. Within this context, the
group shot makes a powerful statement about the dynamics
of the gang's ties with the impoverished slum they control,
ironically named “City of God”.
GROUP SHOT 111
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 why it works
In addition to visualizing connections between characters
and between characters and a location, group shots are
also ideal for the creation of emblematic compositions that
communicate a story's core ideas and/or recurring themes,
due to the large number of visual elements they can contain.
In this group shot from Johnnie To’s Exiled, a tension-filled
gangster drama that follows rival teams of hitmen who hunt
each other down, the placement of characters in the frame is
Exiled. Johnnie To, Director; Cheng Siu-Keung, Cinematographer. 2006.
112
TFE2.indd 112
carefully designed to create suspense and unease, but it also
includes many oppositional visual cues that emblematize
their ongoing conflict. One group, for instance, is silhouetted
while the other is lit, one is in the foreground and the other
in the background, one is concealed and the other exposed,
and one is larger in the frame, among others. As a result, the
visually dense composition manages to capture the essence
of the story in a single image.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 This group shot's wide framing allows show--
casing virtually every character's body lan--
guage, compounding the scene's tension. This
character's posture, for instance, suggests he
is ready to engage in a gun battle at a moment's
notice. A deep depth of field that kept him and
everyone else in sharp focus was also instru--
mental to make this narrative point.
The wide angle of view needed to include so
many characters and most of the room in the
frame was obtained by using a very short focal
length; however, these lenses also add notice--
able optical distortion at the edges of the frame,
as seen on this warped wall divider. The wide-
angle lens also made the location look more
spacious than it actually is, helping sell the idea
all that all of these characters could conceal
themselves from each other despite being in
the same room.
TFE2.indd 113
This character (an underground doctor treat--
ing wounded members from rival gangs) is this
composition's main focal point, despite occupy--
ing a relatively small area of the frame; the body
language of everyone around him, combined
with lighting and an outfit that makes him stand
out, ensures he is still noticed in this crowded
group shot.
Using pools of light surrounded by areas of
darkness adds contrast and depth to the group
shot, and also makes it seem more plausible
for so many individuals to remain hidden in a
confined space like the one shown here. The
low-key lighting also helps visualize a pervasive
sense that danger lurks in the shadows, which
is stock-in-trade for the film noir and gangster
genres.
This character's body language naturally leads
our gaze towards the doctor in the background
because, like most of the characters in the
frame, he is shown facing in his direction. He
also functions as a relative size depth cue that
adds depth to the frame, due to his much larger
size when compared to the rest of the charac--
ters in the middleground and background.
Silhouetting this character and the one to his
immediate right makes them stand out against
the much brighter background, subverting the
lighting convention of highlighting subjects by
keeping backgrounds darker. Within the lighting
scheme of this shot, their silhouetting also sets
them up as visual opposites of the characters in
the foreground, reflecting their rivalry.
GROUP SHOT 113
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 technical considerations
Group shots often show everyone in the frame in sharp fo-
cus, even when subjects are placed far apart from each oth-
er along the z-axis of the frame. This is usually a function of
the long camera to subject distances needed to include mul-
tiple subjects in the frame and the use of a small aperture to
achieve a deep depth of field. While it is possible to show all
subjects in sharp focus in a group shot with a shallow depth
of field, this requires placing everyone along the x-axis of the
frame (using the same blocking shown in the example from
City of God at the beginning of this chapter), which can limit
the types of visual relationships you can express. However,
there are techniques you can use in situations when using
a small aperture is not an option (for instance, when shoot-
ing in a low-light situation, like outdoors at night, or indoors
when enough artificial or natural light is unavailable). One
option is to raise your ISO, with the caveat that depending
on how far you deviate from your camera's native ISO your
image quality may be degraded due to video noise. A lesser-
known alternative that does not require raising the ISO or
using a small aperture is to use a tilt-shift lens; with this
method, if the depth of field is too shallow to show everyone
in sharp focus, you can simply tilt the front element of the
lens to shift the focusing plane diagonally. You can then block
your subjects along this diagonal z-axis to show all of them
in focus simultaneously. A disadvantage of this technique,
however, is that it restricts character movement, since
anyone stepping outside of the diagonally-aligned focusing
plane will look blurry.
Visualizing relationship dynamics in group shots can
be done by introducing size differences between subjects,
which involves placing them along the z-axis of the frame so
the subjects in the foreground look larger than those in the
background (in effect functioning as relative size depth cues).
Using lenses with short focal lengths can highlight these
size discrepancies, because they make distances along the
z-axis of the frame appear longer than they really are. Shoot-
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ing group shots outdoors on a sunny day or indoors in large
spaces with a lot of light at your disposal offers unique nar-
rative possibilities to communicate relationship dynamics.
Without space restrictions to limit how far back a camera
can be placed, for instance, you could use a long focal length
and block subjects far apart along the z-axis while keeping
everyone at practically the same size (due to the telephoto's
perspective compression); this technique is commonly used
to visualize situations where characters share an emotional
or psychological bond, whether or not they are aware of it,
among others.
Another way to visualize relationship dynamics in
group shots is through lighting. The wide areas and deep
depths of field these shots commonly feature let you illumi-
nate foreground, middleground, and background visual ele-
ments in ways that can emphasize depth and size discrepan-
cies present in a composition. The group shot from Exiled on
the previous page is a perfect example of this use of lighting; if
the location had been flooded with light, much of the scene's
tension and suspense would have been greatly diminished.
Instead, the use of low-key lighting, with small pools of light
surrounded by shadows, creates an atmosphere filled with
dread and danger, complementing the dynamics between
the characters established by the composition of the frame.
Keep in mind, however, that the wider the shot, the more dif-
ficult it is to keep lights from being seen on-screen, adding
to the complexity of how lighting needs to be executed. One
way to overcome this problem is to use practicals to light a
scene (a technique also used when a shot involves extensive
camera movement, covered on pages 102 & 200). Lighting
day exterior group shots on a sunny day can also be chal-
lenging, because depending on how wide the shot is, it may
be difficult to cover a large area with diffusion to soften harsh
sunlight; an alternative is to schedule your shoot during an
overcast day, or close to dusk/dawn, as seen in the example
from City of God at the beginning of this chapter.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 breaking the rules

Because of the number of subjects they often include, group shots are commonly framed with long shots and medium long
shots, making it difficult to showcase facial expressions to communicate dramatic content; however, this group shot of civil
servants from Terry Gilliam’s Brazil, a film about a dystopian future where bureaucrats control every aspect of society, uses
an uncharacteristic medium close-up that does just that. The imposing, low-angle composition has characters filling every
available space at the bottom half of the frame, blocked in a way that showcases their intimidating and disapproving glares as
officers of the "Department of Information Retrieval", a branch of the government in charge of torturing suspected terrorists.

Brazil. Terry Gilliam, Director; Roger Pratt, Cinematographer. 1985.

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 Snatch. Guy Ritchie, Director; Tim Maurice-Jones, Cinematographer. 2000.

116

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split- screen shot
In a split-screen shot, the frame is divided into two or more
frames that feature simultaneous lines of action; this arti-
ficial division is an overt visual effect that inevitably exposes
the film apparatus and the filmmaker behind it, but it can
nevertheless be a powerful narrative tool to imply a special
relationship between characters or events. Often, the im-
plied connection is of a temporal nature, but emotional, psy-
chological, or thematic links between subjects can also be
suggested by this shot. Interestingly, split-screen shots were
established as a cinematic convention early in the history of
movies. Notable examples include Abel Gance's Napoleon
(1927), which features numerous three-way split-screen
shots during its finale to create symbolic image juxtaposi-
tions that add depth of meaning to its narrative, and Phillips
Smalley and Lois Weber's Suspense (1913), where three-way
split-screen shots showcase phone conversations between
a couple while a burglar breaks into their house. Split-
screen shots are still commonly found in scenes involving
phone conversations to this day; besides providing the op-
tion of not having to cut back and forth between characters,
they are also a well-established visual trope that does not
call too much attention to itself as an external manipula-
tion of the image by the filmmaker. Split-screen shots that
showcase characters performing an activity (for instance,
someone driving a car while someone else prepares dinner),
on the other hand, tend to make a strong visual statement
about their subjects, especially when they remain on-screen
for extended periods of time and feature editing within each
section (which demands a more attentive audience to keep
track of all the events taking place). In this case, in addition
to implying there is a special connection between subjects,
the split-screen shot also generates the expectation that the
TFE2.indd 117
split-- screen shot
lines of action will eventually merge; this convention is com-
monly exploited to create tension and a sense of anticipa-
tion in the audience, and is therefore usually reserved for
pivotal moments in a story. The division between sections
of the screen in a split-screen shot can take many forms,
from a thick black vertical, horizontal, or diagonal line that
is impossible to ignore, to a completely borderless division
between images and anything in between. The amount of
room each section of the screen is allocated can also vary
depending on the narrative context being supported; al-
though often both sections have the same size, they can also
be unevenly sized, producing an image that is analogous to
an unbalanced composition. This technique usually reflects
an emotional or psychological disparity between characters
or visual elements, but can also function to direct the audi-
ence's attention to an important detail in one section of the
split-screen that could go unnoticed otherwise.
Guy Ritchie's crime comedy Snatch features a clas-
sic use of a split-screen shot during a heated phone con-
versation between "Cousin Avi" (Dennis Farina), a New York
jeweler interested in a recently stolen diamond, and "Doug
the Head" (Mike Reid), the London-based jeweler tasked
with getting it for him (opposite page). As their argument es-
calates, the black line that separates them shifts position
several times, giving Cousin Avi more room in the frame as
he gets angrier when he learns that Doug has lost track of
the thief with the diamond (a power dynamic also reflect-
ed by their differently-sized framings). Although the border
between images in a split-screen shot is seldom animated,
since it brings even more attention to the technology being
used to tell the story, in this case it perfectly complements
the movie's wildly kinetic and flamboyant visual style.
SPLIT–SCREEN SHOT 117
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 why it works
The remarkable opening sequence of Better Call Saul's "Bad
Choice Road" episode relies on a series of carefully crafted
split-screen shots to highlight the visual and emotional con-
nections between Jimmy McGill (Bob Odenkirk), a conman
who becomes an unethical defense attorney, and Kim Wexler
(Rhea Seehorn), his level-headed lawyer love interest, after a
"Bad Choice Road". Better Call Saul , season 5, episode 9. Thomas Schnauz, Director; Marshall Adams, Cinematographer, 2020.
118
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drug money pickup goes awry and leaves him stranded in the
middle of a desert. Every split-screen shot in this sequence
was framed to underscore the close similarities between
each line of action despite their very different locations and
set of circumstances, adding an element of poignancy and
dramatic irony to their individual plights in the process.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 Both sides of this split-screen shot were taken
with lenses that had similar focal lengths, re--
sulting in virtually identical angles of view, de--
grees of z-axis compression, and levels of facial
distortion. The strong visual affinity between
these shots would not be as palpable if one
side had used a telephoto lens that flattened
this subject's facial features while the other
had used a wide-angle lens, even if their overall
shot compositions had remained unchanged.
Both sides of the split-screen shot feature the
same level of blurriness in the background, evi--
dence a similar camera to subject distance and
lens aperture combination was used for both
shots. Note also how, although slightly out of
focus, we can still notice relevant details from
both locations; this allows us to compare them
in a way that would not have been possible if
they had been shown completely blurry.
TFE2.indd 119
The same unorthodox shot size, halfway be--
tween a medium shot and a medium long shot,
was used to frame both subjects; they were
both also given extra headroom within the con--
text of this sequence, these choices help com--
municate the stress they are both under while
underscoring the visual similarities between
their respective shot compositions.
The slight low angle used to frame both subjects
complements the rest of the visual correspon--
dences between their shots, underlining the
connections between their characters and their
similar yet also drastically different circum--
stances. Although low-angle shots are typically
used to visualize a character feels confident or
dominant, in the context of this sequence they
signify vulnerability and stress.
This side of the split-screen shot has low-key,
film noirish lighting that results in deep shad--
ows across her face and keeps the apartment
dimly lit; this lighting style creates a strong
visual contrast with the opposite side of the
frame, which features high-key lighting and
a bright, sunny exterior. Several split-screen
shots in this sequence feature a similar "com--
plementary opposites" visual scheme.
Subjects were blocked so they would face each
other when the split-screen shot was assem--
bled, and their performances were also timed
so they could be shown taking a drink simulta--
neously. The mirroring of their actions further
highlights the visual similarities between their
shots as well as the sometimes ironic juxtapo--
sitions being showcased.
SPLIT–SCREEN SHOT 119
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 technical considerations
The shift from film to digital video greatly simplified the cre-
ation of split-screen shots; any editing program allows you
to put one together in seconds, even when they include sev-
eral shots, editing within each section, and moving borders.
While split-screen shots are very easy to assemble during
postproduction, they require careful planning during prepro-
duction, which should include knowing both the sizing of the
sections that will be used as well as the kind of visual con-
nections that need to be inferred by the audience. For this
reason, it is imperative to first know what the split-screen
shot's overriding narrative principle needs to be; is it to vi-
sualize a power dynamic between characters? to underscore
commonalities between them? to create a sense of anticipa-
tion? While this approach should be used to plan the compo-
sition of any shot in a movie, it is especially important when
dealing with split-screen shots, because of the unique type
of visual scrutiny they elicit from audiences. Unlike conven-
tional shots where the frame acts as a virtual window into
the world of the story, a split-screen shot immediately calls
attention to the technology being used to let us see it, and, by
extension, to the filmmaker behind it. As a result, while audi-
ences may suspend their disbelief when a split-screen shot
is shown, they tend to be more consciously analytical about
the images contained in them as they look for narrative con-
nections that justify revealing the film apparatus so overtly.
For this reason, every aspect of the shots that will be used
in a split-screen shot, from their composition and the direc-
tion given to actors to the way they are lit and their depth of
field, must take into account the spatial, graphic, rhythmic,
and temporal interactions that will be created when they are
juxtaposed. For instance, the split-screen shot from Better
Call Saul required the filmmakers to know beforehand which
side of the frame the characters would have to face so that
it would look like they were mirroring each other's actions,
and their performances had to be timed so they could be
synchronized; likewise, their individual shots had to use the
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TFE2.indd 120
same focal length and depth of field for its narrative point
(that they were experiencing a similar emotional state de-
spite their different circumstances) to come across clearly
to the audience.
The size and location of the division between sec-
tions in a split-screen shot can also have a major impact
on how an audience reacts to and interprets them. A border
that shifts position to selectively give one shot more room
in the frame, for instance, can direct the audience's atten-
tion to it while also implying its visual content at that time
is more narratively important than its counterpart's (follow-
ing Hitchcock's Rule). This approach can be seen in the ex-
ample from Snatch at the beginning of this chapter, where
the border between shots changes position dynamically to
give the character with the upper hand in the argument more
room in the frame. The width, color, and movement (or lack
thereof) of the border between shots should also be carefully
considered to ensure it complements a movie's tone. Some
genres, like comedies and musicals, often use very notice-
able borders between shots, and may even animate them so
that what looks like a conventional shot at first turns into a
split-screen shot as they enter the frame revealing a second
image (in effect acting as a wipe transition); in these cas-
es, their noticeability is a long established convention and
therefore not considered a distraction. Dramas and thrill-
ers, on the other hand, tend to feature static, equally-sized
borderless divisions that do not call too much attention to
themselves. It is possible to subvert these genre-based split-
screen shot conventions, however; the split-screen border
in Better Call Saul, for instance, is unusual for a drama, but
in this example it is justified because it is part of a self-con-
tained musical montage that references their use in com-
edies in an ironic manner. The example from Mike Figgis'
experimental drama Timecode, on the opposite page, also
features a noticeable border, but since it is used through the
entire film, it eventually becomes effectively invisible.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 breaking the rules

Director Mike Figgis' bold experimental drama, Timecode, challenges audiences to keep track of four 93 minute single-take
interrelated storylines presented in a four-way split-screen shot. This unique narrative structure forces viewers to become vir-
tual editors, since they have to select which section of the screen/story they want to follow at any given time. While essentially
the same process takes place when a split-screen shot is shown in a conventional film, this shot's extended duration (effec-
tively four sequence shots) allows every audience member to experience a different version of the same story simultaneously.

Timecode. Mike Figgis, Director; Patrick Alexander Stewart, Cinematographer. 2000.

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 A Hidden Life. Terrence Malick, Director; Jörg Widmer, Cinematographer. 2019.

122

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canted shot
Canted shots are created by tilting the camera laterally to
varying degrees, producing horizons that are not level and
making what should be vertical lines run diagonally across
the frame. These shots were originally introduced to the cin-
ematic vocabulary in the early 1900s, in German Expression-
ist films that incorporated distorted set designs and stylized
acting to visualize a character's subjective inner turmoil
as well as the collective anxiety that gripped Germany fol-
lowing the end of World War I. The shot eventually became
known as a “Deutsch angle” (“Deutsch” is the German word
for “German”) shot, which over time is believed to have been
mistranslated into today’s “Dutch angle” shot, even though
its historic roots have no connection with the cinema of the
Netherlands. The unique look of a canted shot readily com-
municates a sense of spatial imbalance that can suggest
a character feels disoriented, anxious, and psychologically
unstable. Canted shots can also indicate that an unusual,
awkward, or otherwise abnormal situation is happening,
whether or not the characters are aware of it. Sometimes,
filmmakers compound the effect of a canted shot with other
techniques designed to further destabilize the image. For in-
stance, a short focal length lens with noticeable optical dis-
tortion could be used very close to a subject to exaggerate
their facial features while shooting a canted shot, or cam-
era movement could be incorporated to gradually increase
the degree at which the shot is canted, or an anamorphic
lens could be slowly rotated to warp the image in addition
to canting the camera. The degree to which a shot is canted
commonly reflects how unusual conditions are in a scene;
extremely canted shots, where the camera is tilted close
to 90 degrees, are usually reserved for extreme situations.
Conversely, canting the camera by only a few degrees can
TFE2.indd 123
canted shot
introduce a sense of underlying instability to a scene without
being too distracting. Most often, canted shots are used in
emotionally heightened scenes only, or even just in a hand-
ful of shots within a scene, because like all other overt visual
stylizations, their effect can be diluted and even completely
lost when overused.
Terrence Malick's A Hidden Life, the tragic story of
Franz Jägerstätter (August Diehl), an Austrian farmer who is
imprisoned after refusing to swear allegiance to Adolf Hitler
during World War II, features a striking example of a canted
shot that visualizes the despair and anguish he experiences
during his incarceration. The shot in question (opposite page)
shows Franz after being transferred to a prison in Berlin,
where he is subjected to psychological and physical abuse as
he awaits court-martial. The 63-degree canted angle used in
this shot is unusually extreme; such over the top stylization
is normally avoided because it can distract from the narra-
tive point being made. The canted shot was also taken from
a very high angle (typically used to suggest a character feels
emotionally or psychologically vulnerable) and uses a shot
size equivalent to a medium long shot that showcases his
body language (in a posture that expresses acute stress and
powerlessness). While it might seem excessive to compound
so many techniques to underline the subtext of this moment,
A Hidden Life's visual language is itself highly stylized; most
of the movie was shot with a 12mm wide-angle lens that
greatly distorted facial features and exaggerated distances
along the z-axis of the frame. Within this visual context, the
severity of the canted angle used in this shot is justified by
the need to ensure it would have the same impact less ex-
treme canted shots typically have in movies that use a more
conventional visual language.
CANTED SHOT 123
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 why it works
In addition to suggesting that a character is experiencing an
altered emotional or psychological state, canted shots can
also communicate that an unusual or abnormal situation is
taking place, amplifying the tension of a dramatic moment.
An example of this usage can be seen in John McTiernan’s
Die Hard, the story of John McClane (Bruce Willis), a New
York City cop who manages to systematically thwart the
plans of a gang of thieves who take over a high-rise building.
Die Hard. John McTiernan, Director; Jan de Bont, Cinematographer. 1988.
124
TFE2.indd 124
In this pivotal scene, McClane stumbles upon Hans Gruber
(Alan Rickman), the mastermind behind the heist, who pre-
tends to be one of the hostages to gain his trust. The entirety
of their exchange is covered with canted shots that visual-
ize the impending danger that hangs in the air as Gruber
appears to get the upper hand, only to reveal that McClane
suspected his true identity all along and only pretended to
trust him to pump him for information about his plans.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 The excessive amount of headroom given to this
character is motivated by the need to include
the distorted shadow of his head on the wall be--
hind him (angled in the opposite direction of the
canted shot, making it even more noticeable), a
visual cue that visualizes his deceitfulness dur--
ing this scene. The extra headroom also helps
communicate something out of the ordinary is
happening.
The camera to subject distance and lens ap--
erture combination resulted in a depth of field
that kept only this character and the sign with
the floor's directory on the right in sharp focus;
this precise level of control over the depth of
field is only possible when light levels can be
adjusted as needed to compensate for the ap--
erture being used.
TFE2.indd 125
The relatively wide framing of this shot (some--
where between a medium shot and a medium
close-up, an unconventional shot size) allows
showing much of the surrounding area, in--
cluding several instances of vertical lines that
are part of the mise-en-scène. Their inclusion
makes the 8-degree canted angle a lot more
noticeable than if the shot had been taken
against a featureless background.
The underlighting used on this character gives
him a sinister, menacing look that is highlighted
by the large looming shadow extending behind
him. This light is also brighter than the light--
ing in the immediate surrounding area, making
him stand out in the composition in a way that
directs our attention towards him.
This character's inclusion in the foreground
adds depth by functioning as a relative size
depth cue, because we assume he must be ap--
proximately the same size as the character in
the middleground yet he is much larger in the
frame. His body language also serves to lead
our gaze towards the focal point of the compo--
sition, the character facing the camera.
A wide-angle lens exaggerates distances along
the z-axis of the frame (note how far apart these
characters appear to be despite being only at an
arm's length from each other), and also adds
a level of optical distortion to the composi--
tion that complements the scene's underlying
crookedness suggested by the canted angle.
CANTED SHOT 125
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 technical considerations
Since canted shots are made apparent by showing subjects
and/or aspects of the mise-en-scène slanted to various de-
grees, it is essential to create compositions that include vi-
sual elements that are easily identifiable to an audience as
not being perfectly vertical. For instance, shooting a canted
shot of a character against a background that does not read
as being askew will not have the visual impact commonly
expected when using this type of shot. In tighter shots, like
medium close-ups and close-ups, vertical lines, either as
part of a structure in the location, painted, or even added by
the filmmaker, can provide a good visual reference that can
make even slight deviations from a perfectly level shot very
noticeable; in wider shots, like extreme long shots, vertical
lines work too, but horizon lines can also offer a strong vi-
sual cue that a shot is canted.
A canted shot's effect can also be amplified or di-
minished by your focal length choice. For instance, if you are
shooting a scene in a location that includes vertical lines
visible behind a character, using a wide-angle lens could
make them less apparent, because of the way short focal
lengths extend distances along the z-axis. On the other
hand, using a telephoto lens under the same circumstances
would increase their visibility, making even a slightly cant-
ed shot very noticeable, due to the way long focal lengths
make backgrounds appear closer than they really are. How-
ever, manipulating the relative visibility of vertical lines in
the background through your focal length should also be
complemented with other aspects of your composition, in-
cluding camera movement, depth of field, lighting, and art
direction, among others. For instance, in the example from
John McTiernan’s Die Hard, on the previous page, stylized
lighting and an unorthodox shot size (somewhere between a
medium close-up and a medium shot) were complemented
with a wide-angle lens that added noticeable optical distor-
tion, emphasizing the unsettling tone already suggested by
the canted angle. A similar approach was used in the exam-
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TFE2.indd 126
ple on the opposite page, from Peter Weir's comedy-drama
The Truman Show, where a canted shot was paired with a
highly unusual "revolving" camera move that compounded
the strangeness of the moment where Truman (Jim Car-
rey), a man unknowingly at the center of an elaborate real-
ity television show, comes to the realization that something
extremely unusual is taking place in his hometown. Depth of
field can also play an instrumental role in how a canted shot
is understood. Using a deeper depth of field, where both a
main subject and a location are shown in focus, can suggest
that an abnormal situation is happening whether or not the
character is aware of it. On the other hand, a shallow depth
of field that only shows the main subject clearly while ev-
erything else is more or less blurry, may indicate the canted
shot is visualizing a character's subjective assessment of a
situation, which may or may not reflect what is really taking
place in the scene.
Creating most types of canted shots is relatively
easy, since they require no specialized hardware other than
a tripod or a handheld rig. A slightly canted angle, for in-
stance, can be produced by simply loosening the tripod's
head (the section where the camera is attached) so it can be
tilted laterally; however, this technique will only allow cant-
ing the camera by a few degrees (which in most cases will
be more than enough to communicate a shot is not level). If
a more pronounced angle is needed, you could also extend
one of the tripod's legs (or shorten two legs if the tripod is
already at its highest setting) in addition to canting the head
mount. If an even more extreme angle is needed, it is also
possible to attach the base plate that holds the camera to
the tripod sideways, so that its tilting action will let you slant
the camera laterally to a much higher degree (depending
on the tripod, it might even be possible to get a 90-degree
canted shot). Regardless of what technique you use, it is im-
portant to always secure the camera and tripod to prevent it
from tipping over when shooting a canted shot.
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 breaking the rules

Since canted shots already suggest an unusual or unnatural situation is taking place, it is rare to see them combined with
disorienting camera moves that further stylize their effect. However, this key scene from Peter Weir’s The Truman Show fea-
tures both a 19-degree canted shot and a revolving camera move (accomplished by attaching the camera to a revolving door),
to visualize Truman Burbank’s (Jim Carrey) unsettling realization that life in his idyllic hometown seems caught in a strange
repeating loop.

The Truman Show. Peter Weir, Director; Peter Biziou, Cinematographer. 1998.

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 Confessions. Tetsuya Nakashima, Director; Shôichi Atô and Atsushi Ozawa, Cinematographers. 2010.

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overhead shot
Overhead shots show characters and their immediate sur-
rounding area from directly above, resulting in a stylized, vi-
sually captivating perspective. Although they can resemble
aerial shots (covered on page 209), since they both use an
elevated vantage point, there are key differences between
them. Overhead shots are taken from a much shorter dis-
tance to the ground than aerial shots, which often show vis-
tas from hundreds and even thousands of feet in the air; for
this reason, overhead shots tend to focus on more personal
character interactions within a small area, while aerial shots
generally showcase the geography of a large region, and
when they include characters, they are seen only as small
figures in the distance. Most commonly, overhead shots
are used to visualize moments in a story where characters
find themselves at their lowest emotional, psychological, or
physical point of their lives; in this sense, they can be thought
of as a natural progression from a high-angle shot, which is
also often used to communicate a character feels vulnerable
in some way. The extremity of the angle in an overhead shot,
however, implies a certain finality to a character's condi-
tion, the sense that is not possible for them to sink any lower
than where they are at that moment. This explains why over-
head shots are typically shown at the end of scenes where a
character is defeated in some meaningful way or even dies,
from a distance that allows highlighting body language that
reflects their mental or physical breakdown (usually while
lying down facing the camera). The downward angle of an
overhead shot, however, makes it less than ideal to show-
case body language or facial expressions when characters
are standing, which is sometimes exploited to add a sense
of mystery and intrigue to a story by purposely preventing
audiences from identifying them or their demeanor as they
TFE2.indd 129
overhead shot
perform an action. When overhead shots incorporate cam-
era movement, it is almost always unmotivated, although
under certain circumstances it can be understood to reflect
a character's disembodied consciousness; for instance,
it is not uncommon to see the camera slowly pulling away
(sometimes while also rotating) from a character who has
met their demise, as if to suggest their soul is leaving their
body. Like all other shots that overtly stylize an image, over-
head shots can make a powerful visual statement, but their
effect can be diluted if they are overused or used inconsis-
tently within a movie's image system.
Tetsuya Nakashima's visually stunning psychologi-
cal thriller, Confessions, includes a highly stylized example
of an overhead shot to indicate a character is having a com-
plete mental breakdown during the film's climax. The story
follows a high school teacher set on avenging the murder
of her daughter, which she believes was committed by two
students in her class; after one of them gets arrested, Shuya
(Yukito Nishii), the other student involved, decides to kill him-
self and as many of his classmates as possible by detonating
a bomb during a graduation ceremony. When the bomb fails
to go off, however, his teacher informs him she had learned
of his plans and had secretly relocated it to his estranged
mother's office, and that he had just killed her by setting off
the explosion. An overhead shot captures the moment a de-
spondent Shuya collapses in horror upon learning this news,
visualizing his overwhelming guilt and sorrow as he is sur-
rounded by his classmates (opposite page). Although nor-
mally the stylization of an overhead shot is not accompanied
by blocking that further compounds its effect, like the per-
fect circle formed around Shuya, in this case it is justified by
this film's consistent use of a hyper-stylized visual language.
OVERHEAD SHOT 129
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 why it works
Overhead shots tend to make a strong visual impact, which
makes them ideal to showcase emblematic compositions at
key moments of a narrative. In this example from the com-
ing-of-age television series My Brilliant Friend, an overhead
shot brilliantly visualizes the complicated relationship dy-
namics simmering under the surface during a double date;
"The Betrayal". My Brilliant Friend, season 2, episode 5. Alice Rohrwacher, Director; Hélène Louvart, Cinematographer. 2020.
130
TFE2.indd 130
every detail of this shot's composition, from the blocking of
characters to their costumes, is designed to communicate
that although Bruno (Francesco Russo, lower left) is attract-
ed to Lenù (Margherita Mazzucco, center), she would rather
go out with Nino (Francesco Serpico, center), who in turn is
smitten with Lenù's life-long friend, Lila (Gaia Girace, top).
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 This red lighting accent adds texture and a dash
of color to this composition's otherwise muted
color palette, and also hints at the various emo--
tional conflicts simmering under the surface by
providing a visual clash against the overall blue
tone of the mise-en-scène. The motivation for
this light, a large neon sign on a rooftop, was
shown in an establishing shot at the beginning
of the scene.
Despite the various demeanors displayed by the
characters in this composition (like Bruno's,
whose body language and facial expression
communicate contentment), showcasing them
in an overhead shot imbues this scene with a
poignant, melancholy tone, because of its com--
mon association with moments when charac--
ters feels emotionally, physically, or psycho--
logically vulnerable or defeated.
TFE2.indd 131
The intertwined pattern formed by these char--
acters' bodies effectively reflects their tangled,
complicated relationship dynamics during this
scene; the similarly intertwined pattern of the
brickwork in the background helps further em--
phasize its visual impact, ensuring its special
significance will not go unnoticed.
The blocking in this overhead shot allowed
the filmmakers to imply emotional connec--
tions between characters by showcasing their
costumes in a visually impactful, meaningful
way. Lenù and Nino's matching light blue tops
suggest her attraction to him at this moment
(despite not being each other's date), while the
black tops worn by Bruno and Lila visually ex--
clude them from this pairing (an idea also sug--
gested by their outside placement within the
pattern formed by their bodies).
The diagonal arrangement of bodies in this
overhead shot functions essentially like a cant--
ed angle in a canted shot, and, like it, signals
that something unusual or abnormal is hap--
pening. If subjects had been blocked parallel to
the edges of the frame, this subtext could not
have been communicated as effectively.
The bulk of the visual weight of this frame is
located on the lower right hand side, result--
ing in an unbalanced composition that com--
pounds the uneasiness communicated by the
implied cantedness of the shot. Note also how
no character was placed over a sweet spot fol--
lowing the Rule of Thirds, further hinting at this
scene's troubled subtext.
OVERHEAD SHOT 131
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 technical considerations
Overhead shots can be difficult to set up and execute de-
pending on the method used to obtain them. If the shot is
obtained by rigging a camera directly above your actors, the
first and foremost consideration must be their safety; the
camera must be properly secured with grip equipment rated
to support its full weight, and have safety lines attached to
prevent any potential accidents. In these cases, it might be
more convenient to use a smaller, lighter camera just for
your overhead shots, since it makes it a lot easier to rig it;
for instance, you can simply attach it at the end of a jib arm,
or even across any type of beam supported by C-stands at
the sides. This method, however, requires knowing ahead of
time whether or not the footage taken with the smaller cam-
era can be matched in terms of texture and color grading
to the rest of your footage during postproduction, which will
likely require you to shoot tests with a few different camera
models during preproduction to find the most compatible
video format.
Indoor locations with standard-height ceilings will
present a challenge if the overhead shot needs to include
a large area, because they will restrict your ability to place
the camera far enough to do so; this problem will be exac-
erbated if you are shooting with a full-size cinema camera,
because they take up a lot room and will further shorten the
distance you will have at your disposal. Using a wide-angle
lens can help with this issue, but keep in mind that since
your camera will be relatively close to the action, your shot
may end up displaying barrel distortion (a warping of visual
elements close to the edges of the frame lenses with short
focal lengths tend to exhibit). One alternative to consider, if
you are shooting with full-frame lenses on a cropped-sen-
sor camera, is to switch to a full-frame camera just for your
overhead shot; this will allow you to include more of a scene
while still using the same lens, since you will not have to
contend with crop factors (you will have to conduct the same
shooting tests mentioned previously to ensure your footage
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TFE2.indd 132
can be matched later). If an indoor overhead shot only needs
to cover a small area, you will have even more options at
your disposal in terms of how it can be shot. For instance,
instead of rigging a camera above a subject, you could set
up a mirror reflector (basically a large mirror attached to a
frame that can be swiveled) instead, partially aimed towards
a camera on the ground so it can capture its reflection. This
solution is faster, safer, and much easier to execute, espe-
cially if you are shooting with a large camera. If the overhead
shot's framing is very tight, for instance, a medium close-up
of a subject lying on a bed, then you might not even need a
mirror at all; you can simply "cheat the shot" (in filmmaking,
"cheating" refers to setting up shots to make them easier
to capture by relocating actors or the camera, even if doing
so violates previously established blocking or the geography
of a scene), by leaning a mattress against a wall and having
your actor pretend they are lying on it. For this technique
to go unnoticed, however, it will be necessary to match the
angle, quality, color, and intensity of lighting established in
wider shots as they would look if the camera were actually
seeing the action from above, but this is still easier to do
than rigging a large camera against a ceiling.
Shooting outdoors gives you greater flexibility to
stage and frame an overhead shot, since there are no ceil-
ings to limit how far from the action you can place your cam-
era, and you will likely also have plenty of room to set up and
maneuver camera support equipment (like jibs large enough
to support the weight of a fully-rigged cinema camera) that
would not fit in an indoor location. It is also feasible to use
a drone to shoot an overhead shot outdoors, provided it is
legal to do so at your location and wind conditions allow it.
However, since drones are very noisy, any dialogue will have
to be re-recorded during postproduction, which will require
bringing back actors, the director, and renting a space and
personnel, which may potentially end up costing more than if
you had taken the overhead shot in a more conventional way.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 breaking the rules

The overt stylization of an overhead shot is usually reserved for punctuating a single, especially meaningful moment in a movie,
typically when characters find themselves at their lowest physical, emotional, or psychological point. Gaspar Noé's experimen-
tal drama Enter the Void, however, features several lengthy sequences made up entirely of overhead shots, visualizing the out-
of-body experience Oscar (Nathaniel Brown), a drug dealer who gets shot and killed by police, goes through as his conscious-
ness seemingly floats over Tokyo streets and he relives scenes from his past. Due to their extensive use, the overhead shots in
this movie tend to elicit disaffection rather than empathy, reflecting the imagined powerlessness of a disembodied spirit unable
to interact with the events happening around him.

Enter the Void. Gaspar Noé, Director; Benoıt

ˆ Debie, Cinematographer. 2009.

OVERHEAD SHOT 133

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 Agora. Alejandro Amenábar, Director; Xavi Giménez, Cinematographer. 2009.

134

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inverted shot
Inverted shots violate an unwritten rule of visual storytelling
that says images should always be shown right side up; per-
haps because of this, their narrative function usually reflects
their overt transgression of this cinematic convention. When
an inverted shot appears on-screen, it tends to signal that
the rules of the normal world of the story are being or about
to be subverted, that a previously established order is going
to be violated, or that the principles and values that held to-
gether a given society or culture up to that point will soon be
revoked, among other similar notions. The inverted imagery
in these shots is so powerful that it works as a visual meta-
phor for a world turned upside down, whether the events or
actions they showcase reflect this idea or not. When inverted
shots feature content that readily communicates rules are
being violated, for instance, someone committing a griev-
ous crime or the perpetration of an injustice, they can be
understood as making a moral statement that prompts au-
diences to consider the wider implications of what they are
seeing. Sometimes, however, inverted shots can also show-
case seemingly innocuous events, like a car driving down an
empty highway; in these cases, the apparent contradiction
between their content and the visual statement they make
can generate a sense of anticipation in the audience as
they try to reconcile the meaning behind their use. It is not
uncommon for these shots to start right-side up and then
gradually rotate into an increasingly canted angle until they
are completely upside down; when this is done, the added
visual emphasis provided by the camera movement serves
to underline the actual moment the world of the story shifts
from normal into aberrant or from order into chaos, and can
suggest that subsequent events will be inflected by the new
set of principles the inverted imagery implies. Since inverted
TFE2.indd 135
inver ted shot
shots are already very disorienting and visually stylized, their
compositions usually avoid incorporating any other tech-
niques typically used to communicate an abnormal situation
is taking place (like unbalanced compositions or excessive
amounts of looking room and headroom). The reason behind
this approach is simple: since the main narrative function of
an inverted shot is to imply a radical shift in values, present-
ing the world of the story as anything other than normal and
conventional (in visual terms) before it is turned upside down
would diminish the shot's visual impact and the significance
of its implied subtext.
A remarkable example of an inverted shot can be
seen in Alejandro Amenábar's Agora, the story of the conflict
that arose between Pagans and Christians in Roman Egypt
during the 4th century CE, and the Greek astronomer at the
center of it, Hypatia. In a pivotal scene where Pagans are
given safe passage out of the Library of Alexandria after a
Christian mob besieged them, an elaborate inverted shot
shows its complete destruction in a way that visualizes the
full weight of what this act represents. The inverted shot
starts right side up with a slow dolly in camera move that
brings us to the center of a chamber as a mob ravages ev-
erything in sight; the camera then tilts straight up at a 90
degree angle and centers on a cupola's opening, after which
it slowly rotates 180 degrees and tilts down into an inverted
shot that culminates with a dolly out move (opposite page).
The inverted shot's elaborate complexity not only functions
to underline the critical and historical importance of the li-
brary's destruction, but also makes a powerful statement
about what it signifies within this story: a willful rejection of
knowledge in favor of establishing a new set of values that
completely overturn a previously established order.
INVERTED SHOT 135
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 why it works
Joss Whedon's The Avengers features a classic example of
an inverted shot during a scene that reveals the true cause
behind a sudden, out of character argument between the
titular superheroes. As Bruce Banner (Mark Ruffalo), Thor
(Chris Hemsworth), Black Widow (Scarlett Johansson), Nick
Fury (Samuel L. Jackson), Captain America (Chris Evans),
The Avengers. Joss Whedon, Director; Seamus McGarvey, Cinematographer. 2012.
136
TFE2.indd 136
and Tony Stark (Robert Downey Jr.) clash about the best way
to safeguard the Earth, the camera rolls into an inverted shot
that places a scepter with a supernatural gem that can control
minds in the foreground; the clear implication at this point of
the shot is that the Avengers' unusually contentious demean-
or is being provoked by the artifact's malevolent influence.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 The inverted shot's composition not only sug--
gests the rules of the normal world of the
story are being subverted, but also creates ten--
sion by relocating the scepter to the top of the
frame, which visually pulls it towards the nega--
tive space now underneath it. While the same
spatial relationship existed when the shot was
right-side up and the scepter at the bottom of
the frame, that arragement did not have the
same effect because we do not normally expect
things to fall upward.
The depth of field used for this inverted shot is
shallow enough to steer our attention towards
the composition's focal point, the scepter in the
foreground, but not so shallow it would pre--
vent us from registering the Avengers' overall
demeanor through their body language and
facial expressions. If a shallower depth of field
had been used instead, the connection between
their argument and what is really causing it
would not have been established as effectively
as it is here.
TFE2.indd 137
The large amount of room taken by the scepter
in the frame is justified by its critical importance
at this moment, following Hitchcock's Rule; this
visual emphasis is complemented with a slight--
ly shallow depth of field that allows it to be the
only visual element in sharp focus, ensuring it
will command the audience's attention despite
being in a detail-heavy composition.
Since this inverted shot needed to showcase the
blocking and body language (such as the dis--
missive gesture Nick Fury gives Black Widow
shown here) of all six Avengers to visualize the
discord planted by the "Mind Stone", a shorter
focal length (evidenced by the converging per--
spective lines) with a slightly wide angle of view
was used.
This composition's focal point, the "Mind Stone"
controlling the Avengers' behavior at this mo--
ment, was placed close to the top right sweet
spot following the Rule of Thirds, resulting in
an aesthetically pleasing arrangement of visual
elements that naturally guides our attention to--
wards it.
Despite being shown upside down, these char--
acters were given the proper amount of head--
room for a shot this size. This is because since
inverted shots are already inherently disorient--
ing, it is generally not required to complement
their visual impact with other compositional
techniques typically used to suggest something
unusual is happening in a scene.
INVERTED SHOT 137
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 technical considerations
If the inverted shot does not involve any camera movement,
there are no special technical considerations to take into ac-
count during production, since you can simply shoot it like
you would any other shot and then "flip it" in postproduction
(in the graphic arts, "flipping an image" refers to reversing
it across a vertical axis so it turns upside down, while "flop-
ping" refers to reversing it across a horizontal axis, creating
a mirror image of the original). Inverted shots that incorpo-
rate camera movement (like the example from The Avengers
on the previous page), where the shot begins with the cam-
era right-side up and then gradually rolls until it is upside
down, do require special equipment that varies depending
on the complexity of the shot and weight of your camera rig.
If you are shooting with a relatively lightweight camera (like
a compact cinema camera, a DSLR, or a mirrorless cam-
era), you could use a powered gimbal to smoothly roll it into
an inverted shot; many gimbals offer rolling capabilities
(some can even execute full 360-degree rotations). Heavier
cameras require more complicated and heavier gear to per-
form a roll move, in addition to cranes, jibs, or Steadicam
rigs for extra support. For this reason, filmmakers shoot-
ing with full-size cameras will sometimes use a dedicated,
lightweight camera just for these shots (and generally for
any shot that involves complex camera movement requiring
bulky equipment to execute). This arrangement, however,
requires conducting shooting tests before production begins
to ensure your colorist (the person in charge of color correct-
ing and color grading a movie) will be able to match the raw
footage captured with the lightweight camera with the rest
of your footage.
Depending on how smoothly and how slowly the
camera roll move needs to be, it is also possible to do it with
a handheld camera. A helpful tip in this case is to first strip
the camera rig of any peripherals that are not strictly needed
(external field monitors, transmitters, and extra-heavy bat-
teries, for instance) to make it as lightweight and compact
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TFE2.indd 138
as possible. Using a wide-angle lens is also recommended,
since it will make camera shake less noticeable than a nor-
mal or a telephoto lens. If you are shooting with a small cam-
era, simply holding it with both hands by the sides and rotat-
ing it as if you were turning a car's steering wheel will do the
trick. With a medium-sized camera, it may be easier to roll it
with a handheld rig; just hold each handgrip with the oppo-
site hand (use your right hand for the left handgrip and vice
versa) with your thumbs facing the ground, and start the shot
in this somewhat uncomfortable position. Then, simply roll
the camera by uncrossing your arms until it is fully upside
down. This technique gives you more control over the roll
move and camera shake, because as the shot progresses
you are getting into a more comfortable position and not the
other way around.
If you do not have access to a gimbal, or if your cam-
era is too large and heavy to attempt a handheld camera roll
move, you can also emulate one in postproduction, provided
you are shooting with higher resolutions (especially 6K and
above; 4K may not give you enough visual content to cover the
entire frame as you rotate it) and are planning to distribute
your movie in 1080p. All you need to do is scale up the shot
until you can rotate it upside down without seeing the edges
of the frame in the process; since your shooting format's
resolution will far exceed the resolution of your final export,
you will be able to do this without any loss in video quality.
This technique, however, does require knowing beforehand
which shot will be inverted, so that you can take into account
the areas of the frame that will be cropped when the image
is magnified. For instance, if the inverted shot needs to be a
medium close-up after it is digitally enlarged, you may have
to shoot it as a medium shot or even a medium long shot,
and you would also need to place your subject at the cen-
ter of the frame while giving them an excessive amount of
headroom. These measures would allow reframing the shot
properly when the camera roll move is simulated.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 breaking the rules

Nicolas Roeg's disturbing psychological thriller, Don't Look Now, features what at first glance looks like an inverted shot during
its traumatic opening sequence; however, the shot is not in fact inverted, but simply showing the upside down reflection of a
little girl (Sharon Williams) running alongside a pond. Because of this context, the inverted image does not immediately com-
municate something ominous is happening (a common use for inverted shots). As the scene progresses and we witness the
girl's accidental drowning, it becomes clear this shot was actually foreshadowing this tragedy while also introducing one of the
main themes of this story about a couple whose relationship comes undone after their daughter's death.

Don't Look Now. Nicolas Roeg, Director; Anthony B. Richmond, Cinematographer. 1973.

INVERTED SHOT 139

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 Being There. Hal Ashby, Director; Caleb Deschanel, Cinematographer. 1979.

140

TFE2.indd 140 2/21/22 1:37 AM


emblematic shot
Emblematic shots can effectively “tell a story” with a single
image, communicating complex, abstract, and associative
ideas that visualize a movie's themes or even its central un-
derlying subtext—what a story is really about. They can ac-
complish this feat through the careful arrangement of mul-
tiple visual elements to suggest relationships that stand for
the larger meanings implicit in a narrative. There are many
approaches to creating these shots, but regardless of which
one is used, the first step is to have a clear understanding of
what the story's themes, subtexts, and core ideas are; once
these are identified, the rules of composition can be har-
nessed to organize visual elements in meaningful ways. You
could use Hitchcock’s Rule, for instance, to create a compo-
sition that emphasizes a particular subject over another to
reflect an ongoing struggle, or an unbalanced composition
to imply an unequal relationship between them, or the Rule
of Thirds to isolate one visual element in a composition to
underscore a recurring theme. A key aspect of emblematic
shots is that the associated ideas prompted by some or all of
their visual elements play a pivotal role in communicating the
theme(s) they visualize; for this reason, it is especially im-
portant to consider the symbolic as well as the iconographic
connotations of everything included in the frame, both within
the world of the story as established by the movie's image
system, as well as externally, according to the social, cul-
tural, and/or historical contexts audiences will attribute to
what they see. Due to their narrative importance in capturing
the essence of a story, emblematic shots are usually placed
strategically at the beginning or at the end of particularly
meaningful scenes or sequences. When used at the begin-
ning of a scene, they tend to set up the tone of the action that
follows; when they appear at the end of a scene or sequence,
TFE2.indd 141
emblematic shot
they tend to comment on, or contextualize, the events that
led to the emblematic shot. Another common practice is to
reuse or recreate an emblematic shot shown at the begin-
ning of a movie towards its conclusion, as a way to signal to
the audience that the story has come full circle and the end-
ing is near. Creating effective emblematic shots can be very
difficult, because their composition needs to be as thoughtful
and precise as that of a masterful painting or photograph;
every single visual element and its placement within the
frame should signify something. When planning an emblem-
atic shot, it is essential to think about the ultimate meaning
or meanings implied by the arrangement of subjects: is your
composition supporting/challenging what happens in the
story? foreshadowing a key event? commenting on issues not
directly related to the plot that nevertheless are what your
film is really about? could someone identify your film's main
themes by looking at your emblematic shot out of context?
Hal Ashby’s masterful political satire, Being There,
includes a particularly effective emblematic shot early in the
film, when its protagonist, a simple-minded man totally in-
experienced with the real world who calls himself "Chance"
(Peter Sellers), becomes homeless and wanders the streets
of Washington, D.C. after his benefactor's death. The shot's
composition (opposite page) cleverly foreshadows Chance’s
eventual ascendancy to the presidency of the United States
(symbolically represented by the Capitol building in the back-
ground and the green traffic light giving him the “go ahead”),
as well as the unorthodox and unique journey that will land
him there (reflected by the unusual central alignment of all
the key visual elements in the frame). This simple, yet effec-
tive emblematic shot introduces several themes and core
ideas explored throughout the film.
EMBLEMATIC SHOT 141
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 why it works
Emblematic shots can be difficult to conceive, but they excel
at communicating a director’s take on the themes or the main
idea being explored in a film. In this emblematic shot from
Zhang Yimou’s Raise the Red Lantern, Songliang (Gong Li), a
girl married against her will to a wealthy man who already has
several wives, has a chance encounter with one of her step-
sons, Feipu (Chu Xiao); although they meet only briefly, this is
Raise the Red Lantern. Zhang Yimou, Director; Yang Lun and Zhao Fei, Cinematographers. 1991.
142
TFE2.indd 142
the first time she has had a meaningful emotional connection
with a man since her marriage, because traditional “house
rules” she must follow severely restrict every aspect of her
life. Appropriately, a large section of her husband’s house vi-
sually commands the composition as they gaze at each other
one final time before going their separate ways, acting as a
physical and a symbolic obstacle to their interaction.
2/21/22 1:37 AM

This character was placed against an empty
background, making her quite noticeable de--
spite occupying a very small area of an other--
wise visually dense frame. Her bright red dress
also helps her stand out in what is essentially a
monochromatic composition.
The horizon was placed close to the top hori--
zontal line of the Rule of Thirds, allowing the in--
clusion of many of the various structures on this
house's rooftop; if it had been placed over the
bottom line instead, this would not have been
possible. The extra space given to the house re--
flects its importance within the story as a sym--
bol of the wealth of power of its owner.
TFE2.indd 143
Following Hitchcock’s Rule, this large structure
standing as an obstacle between the characters
was made to dominate the composition, be--
cause within the story it symbolizes the strict
family hierarchy and patriarchal rules everyone
in the household must follow. Its importance is
also communicated by its central placement in
the frame and by cropping it at the top, a visual
cue that suggests it (and the power it repre--
sents) is so big it cannot be fully contained in
the frame.
These structures in the foreground and middle--
ground add depth to the composition by func--
tioning as relative size depth cues, also lead--
ing our gaze to the silhouetted character in the
background; however, their visual impact would
not have been as noticeable if a shallow, instead
of a deep depth of field, had been used instead.
This character, like the one on the left side of
the composition, is dwarfed by the large, lav--
ish structures on this house's rooftop, reflect--
ing his lower status within the family hierar--
chy. Note that although he is very small in the
frame, he is still easy to spot because he was
placed in a relatively empty area of the compo--
sition and was also silhouetted against a bright
background, a good idea given the visual com--
plexity of this shot.
This small adornment partially protruding into
the frame adds depth to the composition by im--
plying space extends beyond the boundaries of
the frame. This is an extremely common tech--
nique designed to overcome the inherent two-
dimensionality of the medium.
EMBLEMATIC SHOT 143
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 technical considerations
The narrative impact of emblematic shots often relies on
audiences making visual connections between multiple vi-
sual elements in the frame; for this reason, they commonly
feature deep depths of field that show everything in the fore-
ground, middleground, and background of a composition in
sharp focus. Obtaining a deep depth of field while shoot-
ing outdoors on a sunny day does not present a problem,
since there will be plenty of light to compensate for using
the smaller apertures required to produce it; shooting in-
doors, however, will necessitate having extra lights or, in
their absence, raising your ISO setting, with the caveat that
depending on how far you deviate from your camera's na-
tive ISO, you may end up adding video noise to your images.
If using a smaller aperture indoors is not possible because
you do not have enough lights, or if you prefer not to raise
your ISO, there are other alternatives. One option is to simply
simulate the effect of a deep depth of field with a split-field
diopter, which would allow you to have visual elements in the
far background and foreground in focus simultaneously. This
technique, however, will restrict subject placement to only
these two areas, and will also add a blurry boundary where
the diopter ends that may be difficult to conceal depending
on the level of detail visible directly behind it. You could also
opt to use a tilt-shift lens to reposition the plane of focus to-
wards the z-axis, diagonally to the camera, so you could have
multiple visual elements in sharp focus in the foreground,
middleground and background as long as they are distrib-
uted along this area.
Manipulating the appearance of relative distances
in an emblematic shot can also help establish connections
between multiple subjects; with very long focal length lenses
and enough space to place the camera far from the action, it
is possible to make visual elements that are far apart look as
if they are next to each other. This is precisely the technique
that was used in the emblematic shot from Hal Ashby's Be-
ing There at the opening of this chapter to make the Capi-
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TFE2.indd 144
tol building in the background appear to be closer (and the
power it symbolizes more attainable) to the subject walking
towards it in the foreground. Alternatively, with very short fo-
cal lengths and close camera to subject distances, this effect
can be reversed to make subjects appear farther apart from
each other, which can help communicate an emotional or
psychological disconnection between them.
Your lighting scheme can be a determinant factor
and even the main feature that allows your emblematic shot
to effectively communicate its ideas to an audience. Whether
lighting is used to isolate visual elements from the rest of
the composition to underline a connection between them, or
as an overall thematic or even symbolic visual element, it
should complement the overall themes and core ideas being
emblematized. In the example from Zhang Yimou's Raise the
Red Lantern on the previous page, for instance, the beautiful
light of dusk imbues every surface of the house, the main
subject of this emblematic shot, with an orange glow that
gives it character and makes a strong visual statement about
its importance; within this film's narrative context however,
the uniform blanket of color also suggests the strictness and
inflexibility of the rules everyone living in the house must fol-
low. Achieving this lighting effect required getting this shot
either very early in the morning or very late in the afternoon,
since only during these times it would have been possible for
sunlight to land at this precise raking angle. The emblematic
shot from Hal Ashby's Being There, at the beginning of this
chapter, uses a similar approach to the use of lighting as
a symbolic visual element, by capturing early morning light
as it illuminates the Capitol building at the composition's
focal point; in this case, this light suggests the new dawn
in American society and politics that the character heading
towards it will usher in. Thankfully, there are several smart-
phone apps that can accurately predict the sun's position at
any given time and date, making the planning of visually cap-
tivating shots such as these a lot easier.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 breaking the rules

Although emblematic shots commonly rely on a complex arrangement of visual elements to communicate their point, some-
times simple compositions, coupled with thoughtful blocking and inspired casting and art direction choices, can be just as ef-
fective. This approach can be seen in a medium long shot from the opening of Jonathan Demme’s The Silence of the Lambs, in
a scene where FBI trainee Clarice Starling (Jodie Foster) enters an elevator filled with male recruits. The strong visual contrasts
in costumes, height, attitude, and body language between her and the men around her effectively visualize several themes of
the film, including gender politics, sexism, seeking professional achievement despite the odds, and struggling to navigate a
male-dominated field.

The Silence of the Lambs. Jonathan Demme, Director; Tak Fujimoto, Cinematographer. 1991.

EMBLEMATIC SHOT 145

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 The Soloist. Joe Wright, Director; Seamus McGarvey, Cinematographer. 2009.

146

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abstract shot
The abstract shot originated in early avant-garde and ex-
perimental films from the 1920s (notable examples include
Walter Ruttmann's Lichtspiel Opus 1 (1921), and Fernand
Léger's Ballet mécanique (1924)); although initially they
were used exclusively in these genres, they were eventually
incorporated in mainstream narrative films (perhaps most
famously in the “Stargate” sequence from Stanley Kubrick's
2001: A Space Odyssey (1968)). Abstract shots emphasize
basic visual characteristics, such as colors, textures, pat-
terns, shapes, lines, and their overall arrangement within
the frame, over the literal content of a traditional subject.
They are usually non-representational and non-referential,
making it difficult or even impossible to identify their sub-
jects; due to their abstract nature, audiences tend to extract
meaning from these shots based on the instinctual, raw
emotional connections suggested by their graphic quali-
ties, not unlike the associations conjured after looking at
the inkblots of a Rorschach test. Sometimes, abstract shots
feature subjects that are partially recognizable but are oth-
erwise distorted or abstractly presented, resulting in images
that are simultaneously familiar and foreign; this approach
is often accomplished by isolating a visual detail (commonly
by using a macro lens) in a way that makes it difficult to iden-
tify, generating a sense of ambiguity and tension in a scene.
Because abstract shots tend to call attention to themselves,
they can be especially useful when the aim is to simply sug-
gest, rather than explicitly address, a film's central themes
and ideas. They could, for instance, be strategically placed at
key moments in a narrative where audiences would normally
expect to see more literal imagery (such as an emblematic
shot) that more directly address a scene's subtext; all of the
examples in this chapter use this approach to some extent.
TFE2.indd 147
abstract shot
This implementation allows abstract shots to add extra lay-
ers of meaning to a story by prompting audiences to look
deeper into how events leading up to their appearance are
informed or even recontextualized by the associated ideas
they elicit. The duration and placement of an abstract shot
(or a group of them) should, however, be considered care-
fully, since they tend to bring a stop to the conventional flow
of a narrative; this is because unlike more literal imagery,
they require a more analytical approach from audiences to
glean their meaning, and, if overused, can potentially dis-
engage their emotional investment with the characters and
the story.
Director Joe Wright’s The Soloist, a film that follows
the unusual relationship that develops between a journalist
for the Los Angeles Times, Steve Lopez, and Nathaniel, a
musically gifted homeless man who suffers from schizo-
phrenia, deftly incorporates a series of abstract shots during
a pivotal scene to conceptualize the latter's unique relation-
ship with music. After Lopez takes an interest in Nathan-
iel’s well-being, he arranges for him to attend a Los Angeles
Symphony Orchestra rehearsal, where he is overwhelmed
with emotions upon listening to Beethoven's Third Sympho-
ny. During this scene, a montage of abstract shots—con-
stantly shifting patterns of multicolored lights (a selection of
which are included on the left page) that respond to changes
in the music's tempo and loudness—appear on-screen after
Nathaniel closes his eyes. While these abstract shots could
signify he actually experiences music as multicolored lights
(an example of synesthesia), they could also be visualizing,
in an abstract manner, his unorthodox and complex connec-
tion with rhythm, harmony, and melody in a way that more
literal imagery could not communicate.
ABSTRACT SHOT 147
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 why it works
Terrence Malick’s philosophical examination of war and its
effect on the lives of the soldiers who fight it, The Thin Red
Line, includes several instances where the narrative takes a
detour to focus on seemingly irrelevant visual details, usu-
ally an aspect of a location where a scene takes place. The
abstract shot above, for instance, is shown during a conver-
sation between two soldiers following their capture after de-
serting their unit; as one of them ponders his fate, he mo-
The Thin Red Line. Terrence Malick, Director; John Toll, Cinematographer. 1998.
148
TFE2.indd 148
mentarily focuses his attention on this detail of a metal grille,
prompting him to reminisce about his childhood. We are nev-
er shown what the actual object is, but its graphic qualities
can be interpreted as being evocative of concepts related to
conformity (by the repeating pattern), roughness (by its tex-
ture), and the inorganic (by the material). These ideas and
their counterparts (individuality, gentleness, and nature) are
all recurrent motifs examined in this film's narrative.
2/21/22 1:37 AM

The same care and attention used when fram--
ing and lighting human subjects should be ap--
plied when shooting objects, something begin--
ning filmmakers often forget. In this case, lights
were positioned at just the right angle to reveal
the rough texture of the metal work, making this
abstract shot look more visually compelling.
Sometimes, a subject's texture cannot be prop--
erly revealed solely through the angle of your
lighting. Adding an agent (like a polish, an oil,
or even just water) to make textures more no--
ticeable and visually engaging is a common
practice, and one of the reasons why so many
night exterior scenes in movies regularly fea--
ture wet streets.
TFE2.indd 149
The grille was shot at an angle that empha--
sizes the z-axis, suggesting it extends beyond
the edges of the frame. This is a very simple yet
very effective technique used by filmmakers to
create depth and avoid the inherent two-dimen--
sionality of the frame.
The shallow depth of field focuses the audi--
ence’s attention on the center of the frame,
even though it is indistinct from the rest of the
composition; this adds a sense of mystery and
ambiguity to exactly what the audience is meant
to notice on this shot, effectively underlining the
abstract nature of the image.
The framing of this shot purposely left out any
identifying details about its subject's scale or
location within the space, because they could
have allowed the audience to identify exactly
what they were looking at. This lack of con--
text means they have to focus on the subject's
graphic qualities, like its patterns, textures, and
colors, and the associated ideas they can elicit.
Because of the way abstract shots reduce sub--
jects to their essential graphic qualities, they
tend to prompt audiences to figure out how
they are connected to or are informing narra--
tive events; for this reason, it is important to se--
lect shapes, colors, or patterns that somehow
reflect a movie's central idea or themes when
creating these shots. The holes in this metal
grille, for instance, can allude to the uniformity
and lack of individuality expected from military
service.
ABSTRACT SHOT 149
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 technical considerations
Abstract shots can be created with a wide variety of tech-
niques and tools, including filters, lighting effects, physical
modeling, and digital plugins applied during the postproduc-
tion stage, among others. They are also often produced by
taking an extreme close-up shot of a subject, magnifying it
to such a degree it becomes unrecognizable; this technique,
however, can only be accomplished with a macro lens, and
in many cases also requires specialized lighting equipment
(more information on the use of macro lenses can be found
in the next chapter). Another, much simpler way to create
abstract imagery is to show a subject completely out of fo-
cus, rendering it as an amorphous shape in the process; this
method works especially well with high-contrast images,
because they result in more distinguishable shapes that are
more prone to suggest multiple interpretations (due to pa-
reidolia, the psychological phenomenon that makes people
see faces on burned toast or animal shapes in clouds). Ab-
stract shots can also be produced through more unconven-
tional means; virtually any material or object that can that
can distort, fragment, or otherwise deconstruct a subject's
visual characteristics can be utilized to create an abstract
shot. For instance, you could capture a distorted reflection
off an uneven, shiny surface, or shoot a subject through any
transparent or semi-transparent textured material capable
of deforming the way it looks. When a subject features de-
fined shapes, lines, or patterns, drastically realigning their
orientation in unexpected directions can also go a long way
in decontextualizing them. For example, a subject with a re-
peating vertical pattern will be much harder to identify if it
is shown at a canted or even a completely horizontal angle;
likewise, showing a pattern that is normally aligned diago-
nally perfectly straight will achieve a similar result.
Lighting can also provide useful ways to create ab-
stract shots, as seen in the remarkable example from Joe
Wright's The Soloist at the beginning of this chapter (accom-
plished by shining colored lights through various pieces of
150
TFE2.indd 150
glass against a black background). Most of what would be
considered technical flaws when lighting a subject, like ex-
treme overexposure, overwhelming lens flares, fogging (ex-
treme low contrast produced by stray light beams washing
over an image), and lighting subjects from angles that create
stylized, disorienting shadows, can help produce abstract
imagery, especially when they are combined with other tech-
niques that also distort or deconstruct the look of a subject.
Any camera-oriented variable or adjustable setting
is fair game to create abstract shots; for this reason, the
more you are familiar with your camera's technical capa-
bilities, the more options you will have to push the limits of
the stylistic envelope. For instance, shooting at slower than
standard frame rates (24 frames per second in the United
States and 25 frames per second in Europe), a technique
called "undercranking", can produce images that can read-
ily function as abstract shots, because the slower shutter
speeds they allow result in images that feature excessive
motion blur. Any movement in the frame, whether it origi-
nates from the subject or the camera operator, will create
highly stylized, ghostly trails with this technique, particularly
around any bright sources of light. The effect becomes more
pronounced at lower frame rates (some cameras have an
"interval" function that lets you record as few as 1 frame per
second), but keep in mind that depending on how much avail-
able light is present in your scene, slower shutter speeds
may require you to compensate (by using neutral density fil-
tration, reducing the light output, or setting the camera to a
lower ISO rating with the caveat of potentially compromising
image quality) to avoid overexposing your images. Addition-
ally, your footage will look sped up when played back at reg-
ular speed, unless you add frames to match your standard
frame rate. This is the technique that was used to create the
abstract shot on the opposite page, from Christoffer Boe's
psychological drama Reconstruction, to make an everyday
subway tunnel look like a portal into an alternate dimension.
2/21/22 1:37 AM
 breaking the rules

Christoffer Boe’s labyrinthine psychological drama, Reconstruction, follows the strange events that take place after a man
leaves his girlfriend for a woman who looks exactly like her, seemingly triggering an alternate reality where none of his previ-
ous acquaintances recognizes him. The film has several abstract shots interspersed throughout the story, like the one above,
an undercranked shot of a subway tunnel shown after he leaves his girlfriend on a train to pursue her doppelgänger. Unlike
most abstract shots, in this case we can easily recognize what we are seeing, but the stylization created by shooting at a lower
frame rate with a wide open shutter, combined with a sound cue that suggests something unusual is happening, manages to
center our attention on the shape, color, and texture of the image and the associated ideas it evokes (a wormhole? a portal to
an alternate universe?) rather than on the literal content of the shot.

Reconstruction. Christoffer Boe, Director; Manuel Alberto Claro, Cinematographer. 2003.

ABSTRACT SHOT 151

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 Requiem for a Dream. Darren Aronofsky, Director; Matthew Libatique, Cinematographer. 2000.

152

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macro shot
All macro shots are extreme close-ups, but not all extreme
close-ups are macro shots; the key difference lies in the level
of magnification they can feature. For instance, while you can
take a relatively tight shot of a person's eye with a conven-
tional lens, you would not be able to fill the entire frame with
it, due to the limitations imposed by the minimum focusing
distance (the shortest distance at which a lens can render
a subject in focus, around 18" depending on focal length) of
most lenses. Macro lenses, however, are designed to let you
get much closer to a subject, and can therefore produce im-
ages with a significantly higher level of magnification; this
allows macro shots to add a degree of visual emphasis that
extreme close-ups simply cannot match, and can make even
everyday, common objects look visually imposing. The ex-
tra level of detail and dominance in the frame macro shots
showcase inevitably generates the expectation their subjects
are narratively important in some way (an implementation
of Hitchcock’s Rule), so their inclusion should be carefully
considered and ultimately justified. Filmmakers sometimes
exploit this convention to create tension and suspense, for
instance, by showcasing a seemingly random object with a
macro shot without revealing the reason for using this shot
size until later in a story (usually in a pivotal scene). A simi-
lar implementation involves opening a scene with a macro
shot of a visually representative detail of a subject (artwork,
a decorative object, an activity), that is usually followed by a
wider shot that fully reveals it and locates it within the space.
In this case, the macro shot functions to visualize a thematic
element or subtext that contextualizes or sets the tone for
the scene it introduces. As examined in the previous chapter,
abstract shots are sometimes created with macro lenses,
and, like macro shots, can feature an extreme level of magni-
TFE2.indd 153
macro shot
fication. Although these shot types might seem to be identi-
cal, they are not; the crucial distinction between them lies in
the level of contextual information they provide about their
subjects. In a macro shot, a subject is readily identifiable by
an audience, either because it is shown in a way that provides
sufficient visual clues (as shown in all the examples on the
opposite page), or because it is preceded by a wider shots
that clearly establish the source of the magnified image (as
seen in the next section of this chapter). Conversely, abstract
shots purposely avoid revealing their subjects' actual con-
text, allowing audiences to focus on the image's raw visual
qualities instead. Sometimes, this distinction is exploited to
generate a sense of mystery, by withholding key visual infor-
mation when a macro shot is first shown so it is seen as an
abstract shot until its context is revealed later in a scene.
Director Darren Aronofsky incorporated a number
of striking macro shots in a series of key montages of his
nightmarish addiction drama, Requiem for a Dream, that vi-
sualize the physical and psychological experience of being
under the influence of psychotropic drugs. The shots include
images of drug paraphernalia, time-lapse shots of dilating
pupils, and iconic details of U.S. currency, among others (left
page). Beyond presenting a visual metaphor that justifies the
added level of detail as reflecting an addict's heightened per-
ception during a high, their accelerated editing (each shot
is shown for barely 1/3 of a second) also communicates the
almost instantaneous escape from reality drugs offer the
story's tragic characters, whether they are addicted to illegal
substances or just diet pills. Additionally, their highly stylized
presentation invites audiences to draw a more conceptual
meaning from the montages in which they appear, resulting
in a deeper understanding of addiction in all of its forms.
MACRO SHOT 153
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 why it works
Macro shots show extremely small details of a subject, re-
vealing textures and other distinguishing characteristics that
even extreme close-ups cannot capture. The closeness of
these shots can make even mundane objects, actions, or a
character's features, among others, visually captivating. The
magnification they provide also generates the expectation
that what is shown is narratively important and meaningful
to the story, as seen in Sean Penn’s visually stunning Into
the Wild, a film that follows the plight of Chris McCandless
Into the Wild. Sean Penn, Director; Eric Gautier, Cinematographer. 2007.
154
TFE2.indd 154
(Emile Hirsch) after he gets stranded while on a journey of
self-discovery in the harsh Alaskan wilderness. As his situ-
ation worsens and he physically wastes away, we see him
carve extra holes into his belt in increasingly tighter shots of
a knife cutting into the leather. Appropriately, the last hole
he makes takes on a monumental significance because it is
shown with a macro shot that suggests we will not get any
closer, communicating the impending doom that follows not
too long after it is shown.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 The background seen here does not match the
one seen in the preceding wider shots (shown
above), but the drastic shift in shot size (from
a medium long shot to this macro shot), com--
bined with the extremely shallow depth of field,
the brevity of the edit, and the highly dramatic
context, make the lack of continuity impercep--
tible to most viewers.
Due to the extremely short focusing distances
required to shoot a macro shot, depth of field
becomes extremely shallow, making it espe--
cially critical to place the most important aspect
of the composition within a very narrow area of
sharpness. In this macro shot, only the tip of the
blade as it digs into the leather to carve a hole
could be shown in focus, while the foreground
and background remained blurry.
Even though this macro shot includes only a few
visual elements, they were still arranged to im--
ply the existence of off-screen space. The belt
was positioned so it could be shown crossing
the frame diagonally, adding depth to the com--
position by accentuating the z-axis of the frame.

The blade is perfectly centered in the frame,
giving it a strong visual emphasis as it cuts into
the leather. Not following the Rule of Thirds to
create a more static composition results in a
more confronting image that complements the
scene's tension and implied finality.
A macro shot can reveal a lot of detail that
would otherwise go unnoticed, like the carved
markings on this belt; the added narrative em--
phasis provided by this level of magnification is
justified by this prop's key role in the film.

MACRO SHOT 155

TFE2.indd 155 2/21/22 1:38 AM

 technical considerations
Macro lenses are available for most shooting formats, but
not all macros offer the same features in terms of optics,
magnification, or ease of use. If obtaining the best possible
image quality and maximum magnification are paramount,
the better option is to use a dedicated, or "true" macro lens
(a designation indicating they have at least a life-size repro-
duction ratio; an object that measures half an inch will take
up half an inch on a camera's sensor). There are also zoom
and prime lenses that include a macro function, and, like
true macros, are optimized for shooting at close distances,
but they do not offer the same level of magnification and pro-
duce images that are generally not as sharp as those taken
with a dedicated macro lens. You can, however, still obtain a
higher level of magnification from these lenses, by pairing
a full-frame macro with a crop-sensor camera; since these
cameras' sensors can only capture a section of the image
projected by a lens designed for still photography sensors,
their crop factor can compensate for their lower magnifica-
tion, and in some cases it may even match the reproduction
ratio of a true macro lens. Additionally, if you are shooting
with higher resolution formats, like 4K and above, and are
planning to distribute your movie in 1080p, you also have the
option to enlarge your macro shot during postproduction to
gain even greater magnification without compromising video
quality (more information on this topic can be found on page
162). Depending on the aesthetic and narrative needs of your
macro shot, there are also other ways of capturing macro-
like shots. Close-up lenses (actually filters that screw over
a standard lens, also called "macro filters"), macro exten-
sion tubes (hollow cylinders that attach between a camera
body and a lens, reducing the original minimum focusing
distance), and even mounting a lens backwards with a re-
versing ring (allowing the lens to project a larger image into
a sensor) are alternatives, but keep in mind that they will all
entail compromises in terms of exposure, level of magnifica-
tion, and image quality.
156
TFE2.indd 156
Since macro lenses have very short focusing distances, they
produce extremely shallow depths of field (usually just a few
millimeters deep); this makes focusing very difficult, espe-
cially if there is even the tiniest movement by the subject or
the camera operator. One way to alleviate this issue is to ex-
tend the depth of field as much as possible by using a small
aperture, provided the intensity of the lights being used can
be increased or the ISO setting can be raised (without in-
troducing unacceptable levels of video noise) to compensate
for the loss in exposure. Even with a small aperture setting,
depth of field will still be very shallow, but at such close dis-
tances and level of magnification, even a small increase will
make it easier to obtain a usable image.
Macro lenses can present unique lighting challeng-
es; a common issue, for instance, is that they and the cam-
era are often so close to subjects they can cast a shadow on
them. Using a telephoto lens with a macro function instead
of a normal or a wide-angle macro can help in this situation,
because it has a longer minimum focusing distance that lets
you place it farther from a subject, avoiding the possibility of
casting shadows altogether. If using a telephoto macro lens
is not an option, you can still lessen or eliminate lens shad-
ows by lighting your subject from the opposite side of the
camera, which should still allow you to reveal textures and
create a visually compelling image. Another alternative is to
use a "macro ring light", a circular-shaped LED light with
a hole for a lens that produces soft, wrap-around lighting.
While this solution provides an easy fix to the lens' shadow
issue, if your subject has a shiny or otherwise specular sur-
face (like glass, for instance) it is important to be aware that
unusual-looking, ring-shaped reflections will be very easy to
spot in the shot, which can be distracting to an audience.
These reflections can be avoided by sticking the lens through
a hole in a white bounce card (like foam core board) instead
of using a ring light, and then aiming a light at it (while avoid-
ing flares) to bounce light towards the subject instead.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 breaking the rules

Andrew Niccol’s dystopian science fiction drama, Gattaca, features a series of macro shots of clipped fingernails, beard shav-
ings, dried skin flakes, and strands of hair falling in slow motion during its opening credits sequence, establishing their critical
importance in a world where even the smallest organic trace can help identify "in-valids"—people who were not genetically
engineered and are therefore treated like second-class citizens. Some of these shots, however, are not really macro shots;
large plastic props, made to look like skin flakes and strands of hair, were used to create more visually compelling images than
would have been possible with the actual items. Slow motion and an extremely shallow depth of field make these simulated
macro shots indistinguishable from the actual macro shots used in the sequence.

Gattaca. Andrew Niccol, Director; Slawomir Idziak, Cinematographer. 1997.

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 The Conversation. Francis Ford Coppola, Director; Bill Butler and Haskell Wexler (uncredited), Cinematographers. 1974.

158

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zoom shot
When it was introduced to moviemaking in the late 1950s,
the zoom lens allowed, for the first time, to change focal
length while a shot was taken, letting filmmakers incorpo-
rate a dynamic angle of view to a shot's composition. In a
zoom shot, a zoom lens switches from a wide-angle to a nor-
mal or a telephoto setting ("zoom in") or from a telephoto to
a normal or a wide-angle setting ("zoom out"). The primary
aim of these shots is to alter the framing and the compo-
sition during a take, so that previously unseen visual ele-
ments are gradually revealed, or aspects of the mise-en-
scène that were already shown are progressively excluded.
Zooming can communicate a wide variety of ideas depend-
ing on the narrative context in which it is used. For instance,
zooming from a long shot that showcases a location into a
medium close-up that isolates a character allows you to first
establish a setting (at the beginning of the zoom shot), to
then concentrate on how a character relates to it (by show-
casing their body language as the frame gets tighter), and
finally focus solely on their emotions as displayed through
their facial expressions (at the end of the zoom). Conversely,
the same scenario could communicate a completely dif-
ferent set of ideas and visual connections if the zoom shot
were to shift from a medium close-up to a long shot. The
zooming action can be performed smoothly and steadily or
quickly and jarringly, depending on the "feel" you want the
audience to get from the zoom shot. A frantic and unsteady
change in focal length, often used while hand-holding the
camera in action films, showcases the means used to ad-
just the composition as much as the change in composition
itself; in these cases, however, quick framing adjustments
and hesitant camerawork are part of the visual language of
the genre and therefore not considered to be distracting or a
TFE2.indd 159
zoom shot
technical flaw (a legacy of the documentary tradition, which
often relies on quick reframing to capture unstaged action
as it unfolds in real time). A very slow and gradual zoom in,
on the other hand, can communicate a sense of increasing
tension (often invoked when a character delivers a key line
of dialogue or has a meaningful realization). Although zoom
shots can resemble dolly shots, they differ greatly in the way
they depict space and movement. In a dolly shot, the relative
positions of objects are constantly changing (an effect called
"parallax"), because the camera is being physically moved
through a space; this action tends to make audiences feel
as if they are moving towards or away from a subject. On the
other hand, zoom shots feature a static perspective and no
parallax, which can feel as if an aspect of the composition
is being brought towards or moved away from audiences.
For this reason, zoom shots and dolly shots should not be
considered interchangeable, and their use should take into
account the kind of audience engagement that best serves a
given scene's narrative point.
Francis Ford Coppola’s mystery thriller The Conver-
sation features a unique zoom shot during its opening cred-
its sequence that takes us from an extreme long shot of San
Francisco's Union Square to a long shot of Harry Caul (Gene
Hackman), a surveillance expert hired to record a conversa-
tion between a couple suspected of having an affair (opposite
page). The unexpectedly lengthy yet perfectly smooth zoom
in (possible thanks to the first ever use of a programmable
electronic zoom control in a movie), coupled with the distort-
ed sound of a surreptitiously recorded conversation, adds an
element of voyeurism to the scene and makes the audience
virtually complicit in the act of spying, effectively introducing
one of the central themes of this film.
ZOOM SHOT 159
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 why it works
When a zoom shot's composition changes suddenly, it can
communicate a sense of urgency, tension, and danger. Quick
framing adjustments, hesitant camerawork, and indecisive
focusing are normal and expected with this style of shooting.
The overall effect makes the audience feel they are witness-
ing spontaneous action as it happens, in real time. In this
example from Paul Greengrass’ spy thriller The Bourne Su-
The Bourne Supremacy. Paul Greengrass, Director; Oliver Wood, Cinematographer. 2004.
160
TFE2.indd 160
premacy, Jason Bourne (Matt Damon) has just discovered an
assassin has been dispatched to kill him, prompting him to
abscond with his girlfriend Marie (Franka Potente). When he
arrives to pick her up, the shot hurriedly zooms in (or “crash
zooms”) from a wide framing that showcases Marie in the
foreground to a waiting Jason in the background, underlining
the life-or-death urgency of this moment.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 This subject was placed in the frame over a
sweet spot following the Rule of Thirds, creat--
ing a dynamic composition that also provided
her with the proper amount of headroom for a
medium close-up. The restaurant patrons be--
hind her function as relative size depth cues
that add depth to the composition.
The inclusion of this subject’s forehead is no
accident. It acts as a repoussoir, an object in--
cluded in the frame to lead the viewer’s gaze to
a composition's focal point. It also adds depth
to the frame by implying the existence of off-
screen space.
TFE2.indd 161
Focus was set for the character in the fore--
ground at this point of the zoom shot, resulting
in a shallow depth of field that kept the back--
ground blurry. When the lens zooms in to the
character in the background later, it was neces--
sary to quickly rack focus to him so he would be
seen in sharp focus.
Note how precisely the subject was placed
in the "frame within a frame" formed by the
shrubbery in the foreground and the car's win--
dow, ensuring he will be easy to spot despite
the visually dense composition.
This scene was carefully blocked to have this
car in just the right position when the crash
zoom happens a moment later; the somewhat
hesitant zooming action imbues the scene with
an urgency that gives audiences the impression
the action is unfolding in real time, as it hap--
pens.
This subject was given too much headroom
for this shot size, but unconventional framing
choices such as this one are often implemented
to imbue a zoom shot with a documentary-like
rawness that adds drama and tension to a
scene.
ZOOM SHOT 161
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 technical considerations
Zoom lenses are available in a wide variety of zoom ratios
(the focal length ranges they cover) that offer many options
to change a zoom shot's framing. For instance, a zoom lens
with a 10:1 zoom ratio will allow magnifying an image roughly
10 times its original size as you shift from the shortest to the
longest focal length (or make it 10 times smaller if you zoom
out from the longest to the shortest focal length instead).
The zoom shots from The Conversation and The Bourne Su-
premacy analyzed in this chapter feature a dramatic mag-
nification of their subjects, a telltale sign that zoom lenses
with a very high zoom ratio were used. One way to estimate
the zoom ratio needed for a zoom shot is to take into account
the relationship between focal length and subject size in the
frame; switching from a 100mm to a 50mm focal length will
reduce the area a subject takes up in the frame by half, while
going from 100mm to 200mm will double its size. It is im-
portant to remember, however, that zoom lenses tend to be
slower (sometimes significantly so) than prime lenses, due
to the extra elements they require to cover a range of focal
lengths. When shooting outdoors in full sunlight this will not
present an issue, but in low-light situations (especially when
shooting night exteriors using only available light) additional
lighting might be required unless a higher ISO setting can be
used without adding too much video noise. Another key con-
sideration when using zoom lenses (especially inexpensive
models) involves image quality; due to their optical design,
they generally cannot match the overall sharpness, contrast,
flare control, lower distortion, and fewer color aberrations
prime lenses typically offer. Zoom lenses designed for pro-
fessional filmmaking, however, can sometimes be used in
lieu of prime lenses (since they often feature higher quality
optics), saving a production team precious time that would
otherwise be spent switching lenses; this can be invaluable
in time-sensitive situations (for instance, when "chasing
light"), or when shooting logistically complex scenes that
would be too difficult or even impossible to restage.
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Keeping subjects sharp throughout the duration of a zoom
shot is easy to do with what is called a "parfocal" zoom lens;
this feature allows a zoom to remain in focus once it is set
regardless of changes in focal length. A "varifocal" zoom
lens, on the other hand, cannot maintain focus if the lens is
zoomed in or out, and therefore requires having a focus pull-
er and extra time to rehearse before you can shoot. Varifocal
zoom lenses also tend to exhibit "lens breathing" (also called
"focus breathing"), where a shot's angle of view/magnifica-
tion changes noticeably whenever focus is adjusted (high-
er-end parfocal zoom lenses are designed to minimize this
effect). Typically, zooms designed for still photography are
varifocal, while those aimed at film production are parfocal.
The narrative purpose of the zooming action can de-
termine the gear needed to accomplish it. A "crash zoom"
(a sudden and quick zoom in or zoom out, also known as
a "snap zoom" or a "whip zoom") like the one featured in
The Bourne Supremacy example, for instance, can be done
manually by adjusting the zoom ring directly or with the help
of a follow focus attachment connected to it, because any
unevenness in the zooming produced by a human opera-
tor will enhance the sense of urgency and tension expected
when using this technique. Conversely, a gradual zoom like
the one featured in The Conversation is easier to accomplish
with a zoom servo drive unit, because it allows setting a
steady, slow zooming speed that would be nearly impossible
to do by hand. Another option involves digitally emulating a
zoom shot during postproduction, which can come in handy
if you do not have a zoom lens on set. If your shooting for-
mat's resolution exceeds that of your distribution format, you
can rescale a shot without any loss in quality; for instance,
shooting in 4K allows you to digitally zoom into a shot up to
200%, provided your film will be released in 1080p. Higher
resolutions, like 6K and 8K, let you zoom even more, but ex-
treme shifts in focal length still require the use of an actual
zoom lens with a high zoom ratio.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 breaking the rules

Although this shot from the opening dream sequence of David Lynch’s The Elephant Man appears to have been taken with a
zoom lens, it was not; its gradual magnification was created with an optical printer in postproduction. The telltale signs of this
process are the evident loss of resolution and the increase in graininess as the shot "zooms in", unavoidable side effects of
rephotographing an enlargement of an already-shot frame of film. However, the shot's less than perfect image quality does
not feel out of place in this case, and instead adds a stylized look to the surreal imagery that visualizes the titular character's
imagined conception.

The Elephant Man. David Lynch, Director; Freddie Francis, Cinematographer. 1980.

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 pan shot
DYNAMICS

165

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 Kagemusha. Akira Kurosawa, Director; Takao Saitô and Shôji Ueda, Cinematographers. 1980.

166

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pan shot
In a pan shot, a stationary camera scans space horizontally,
pivoting left or right while mounted on a tripod, a gimbal,
or even handheld. The term "pan" was derived from "pan-
orama"—the showing of a complete view of an area in ev-
ery direction (from the Greek words pan, "all", and horama,
"sight" or "spectacle"). Panning shots are most commonly
used to keep moving subjects within the boundaries of the
frame (known as "pan with" shots); in these cases, the cam-
era's panning is said to be "motivated", because it responds
to a subject's movement. Pan shots can also function to shift
the view between multiple subjects (called "pan to" shots),
a technique sometimes used to cover scenes with dialogue;
when used for this purpose, panning may be motivated by
the dramatic interaction and beats of a scene rather than
subject movement. A subject's gaze can also motivate a
pan shot, by showing a character looking at something off-
screen and then panning the camera to show what they were
looking at. A common narrative expectation generated by a
pan shot is that it will culminate by revealing visual informa-
tion that is in some way relevant to the story; for instance,
panning between a character and an object can imply a spe-
cial connection exists between them, regardless of whether
the pan move is motivated or not. Using a pan shot instead
of a number of shots edited together to cover an entire scene
inherently preserves the flow of real time and the spatial in-
tegrity of a location, and this in itself can signal something
narratively significant is happening. For instance, showing
a character moving in a space with a continuous pan shot
instead of using a number of shots edited together can add
a sense of anticipation and tension in the minds of the audi-
ence, because the lack of cuts would immediately make the
scene stand out from the rest of a conventionally edited nar-
TFE2.indd 167
pan shot
rative. Panning can also help preserve the natural dramatic
impetus and timing of a performance; an argument between
a couple, for instance, could be covered by panning back and
forth between them instead of using a more typical shot/re-
verse shot approach, visualizing a heightening of emotions
as they get increasingly agitated. Additionally, the camera's
panning speed could also be choreographed to match the
growing intensity of their exchange, imbuing the scene with a
raw documentary quality that conventional editing could not
communicate in the same way. All of these narrative possi-
bilities should be considered when trying to decide whether
to use a pan shot or a combination of shots to cover a par-
ticular scene or even a moment within a scene in your film.
The example on the opposite page, from direc-
tor Akira Kurosawa’s period drama Kagemusha, features
a classic use of a pan shot to follow the titular character
(Tatsuya Nakadai), a lowly thief, as he impersonates a re-
cently deceased feudal lord. While reviewing troops, he gets
caught up in the excitement of being treated with deference
and respect, and breaks into a furious gallop while the sol-
diers cheer him on. At this point, the camera pans to keep
him in the frame as he makes his way down a long forma-
tion of troops; the resulting pan shot, one of Kurosawa's sty-
listic trademarks, makes him appear to gradually increase
the speed of his gallop (despite this not being the case) as
his path becomes more perpendicular to the camera's posi-
tion, due to the use of a long telephoto lens and its effect on
movement across the x-axis of the frame. The accelerat-
ing effect produced by this pan shot brilliantly visualizes the
unbridled exhilaration the impersonator experiences during
this moment, and also suggests he is finally beginning to
internalize the feudal lord's persona.
PAN SHOT 167
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 why it works
Panning can replace editing when it is preferable to preserve
the real-time continuity of a particularly meaningful perfor-
mance, an interaction between characters, or a key dramat-
ic moment in a story. This technique was used in a pivotal
scene from Pedro Almodóvar’s Broken Embraces, when Ma-
teo (Lluís Homar), a film director having an affair with Lena
(Penélope Cruz), an aspiring actress, enters a bathroom to
Broken Embraces. Pedro Almodóvar, Director; Rodrigo Prieto, Cinematographer. 2009.
168
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discover she was brutally beaten by a jealous lover. The entire
scene plays without cuts, first panning from Lena to Mateo
when he enters, then back to Lena when he notices her bloody
bruises, and finally into a two shot that showcases both his
reaction and her wounds. Using a single pan shot to cover
this moment added a sense of palpable tension and urgency
that conventional editing could not have communicated.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 Ensuring this subject's reflection would be in
sharp focus required setting the lens' focus--
ing ring to the combined distances between the
camera and the mirror and between the mirror
and her face; if the lens had been focused only
to the distance between the camera and the
mirror, she would have been out of focus.
The excessive amount of headroom given to this
subject is not considered a mistake, since in a
shot with multiple subjects headroom is nor--
mally set by the tallest subject in the frame. Of--
ten, shorter actors are asked to stand on apple
boxes to diminish excessive height differences
like the one seen here.
TFE2.indd 169
A strong spotlight was placed directly over the
sink, highlighting her hand as she washes the
blood away from her wounds. Because this is
the brightest area of the frame, the audience’s
attention is naturally drawn to it; this lighting
technique is often used to create a strong focal
point in a composition.
The filmmakers used the mirror's reflection to
simultaneously showcase her bloody wounds
and this character's shocked reaction to them;
note that while she was placed in the frame fol--
lowing the Rule of Thirds, he was not, visualiz--
ing the impotence he feels at this moment with
a static, central placement in the frame instead.
Including part of this subject in the foreground
adds depth to the composition (effectively pro--
ducing an over the shoulder shot despite fea--
turing only one subject at this point) and leads
our gaze towards this shot's focal point, her
hand as she washes away blood from her elbow.
The bathroom walls and the man’s shirt have
the same hue of pale blue, a color that tends to
signify passivity, possibly reflecting his inability
to help her. This vibrant red hand dryer helps
break this composition's otherwise monochro--
matic palette by adding a splash of color that
makes her bloody wounds more noticeable.
PAN SHOT 169
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 technical considerations
Since a pan shot scans space horizontally, focal length can
have a major impact on the perceived speed of movement
across the frame's x-axis relative to fixed visual elements
in the foreground and background. For instance, a pan with
shot that follows a subject with a wide-angle lens will make it
look as if they are moving slower across the frame than they
really are; this effect is produced by the wider angle of view
showing more of a location behind a subject as they move,
giving the impression they are not covering much ground. If
the same shot were taken using a telephoto lens, the effect
would be reversed, with the subject appearing to move much
faster across the x-axis, because the narrower angle of view
of these lenses shows a lot less background. This technique
was used in the example from Kurosawa’s Kagemusha at the
beginning of this chapter, by staging the action so that the
rider would not be moving across the x-axis at the beginning
of the shot, but would seem to pick up speed when his path
got more perpendicular to the camera as it panned with him.
The camera's panning action should be performed
smoothly and steadily unless camera shake is part of a film's
visual strategy (for instance, by shooting with a handheld
camera to add a documentary-like rawness to the way ac-
tion unfolds). Any jerkiness or hesitation will immediately
call attention to itself and make the audience aware of the
camera's presence, making it imperative to make sure what-
ever type of camera support is being used allows you to have
precise control over the speed and movement of the pan-
ning action. Most tripods come equipped with a resistance
mechanism (friction- or fluid-based) that smooths out pan-
ning and tilting so it can be performed at a constant speed;
this resistance is adjustable, so that you can pan as slowly
or as quickly as necessary while maintaining a fluid motion
throughout the move. Before panning, it is also important to
make sure a tripod is perfectly level, otherwise, the frame
will gradually dip towards the ground or rise up towards the
sky; most tripods have a bubble level that lets you straighten
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TFE2.indd 170
the head on which the camera rests precisely to avoid this is-
sue. Another technical concern to be aware of is the strobing
effect, or "juddering", that can affect images at certain pan-
ning speeds. There are many variables that influence how
pronounced the effect can be, but the general rule of thumb
to prevent judder is that it should take a stationary object
about 7 seconds to cross the entirety of the frame during a
pan (or a tilt). Obtaining more precise estimates, however,
requires taking into account the focal length, frame rate,
shutter speed, sensor size, and a shot's sweeping angle. For
instance, a pan covering 90 degrees taken with a 75mm lens
in the 35mm format should take about 36 seconds, while
the same shot taken with a 150mm lens should take 80 sec-
onds to complete. There is, however, one type of pan shot in
which juddering is of no concern: a "swish pan" (also known
as a "whip pan"), where the camera snaps from one sub-
ject to another blurring the shot in the process. Swish pans
are commonly used as transitions between shots, by using
the shot's blurry section to conceal an edit; they can also
add a dramatic emphasis to whatever is shown at the end of
the pan, whether it is just an object or a character's perfor-
mance.
Whether you are panning the camera to follow
a subject or to shift the view from one subject to another,
your depth of field will impact your ability to maintain focus
throughout the shot. If you use a shallow depth of field while
panning between subjects, for instance, you may have to rack
focus if one of them is closer or farther away from the cam-
era; having everyone in focus without the help of a focus pull-
er will require using a small aperture to have a deep depth of
field, provided there is enough lighting to compensate for the
reduction in exposure. This will likely not be an issue when
shooting outdoors during the day (since there will probably
be more than enough light), but it might prove challenging
when shooting indoors or in night exteriors, unless raising
the ISO can be done without adding too much video noise.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 breaking the rules

A "swish pan" (a camera pan fast enough to create blur, also called a "whip pan") can be seen in this scene from Edgar Wright’s
comedy Hot Fuzz, as it rapidly shifts our view from Janine (Cate Blanchett) a crime scene forensic investigator, to over-achiev-
ing London police officer Nicholas Angel (Simon Pegg) to reveal he was just a few feet away when he gives her a call. Swish
pans are commonly found in dramas, thrillers, horror, and action movies, adding dramatic emphasis to an object, a character's
performance, or an action shown at the end of the pan; in this example, however, the swish pan works as a visual punch line,
one of many visual gags found throughout the film. Wright’s work is well-known for incorporating visual tropes and references
from multiple genres into his comedies.

Hot Fuzz. Edgar Wright, Director; Jess Hall, Cinematographer. 2007.

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 Solaris. Steven Soderbergh, Director and Cinematographer. 2002.

172

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tilt shot
Tilt shots pivot the camera up or down while mounted on a
tripod, a gimbal, or while handheld; this action shifts the au-
dience’s attention from one area of a scene to another, ex-
tending a shot's visual range vertically. Although tilt shots are
used less often than pan shots, since most action in movies is
commonly staged along the x- or the z-axis of the frame rath-
er than the y-axis, they too can preserve the flow of real time,
the spatial integrity of a location, and the natural dramatic
impetus and timing of a performance when they replace con-
ventional editing to cover a moment within a scene. Tilting can
be motivated by character movement (for instance, by follow-
ing a character going up a staircase), or by some other aspect
of a scene (like a character looking up or down at something
off-screen that is revealed by a tilt that traces their gaze). Tilt
shots can also feature unmotivated camera movement; in
these cases, they commonly function to imply a special con-
nection exists between the subjects at either end of the tilt
move. For instance, tilting from a sad-looking character to
a sign above them advertising an exotic vacation destination
could suggest they would like to go there but cannot do so
for some reason. Whether they include motivated or unmoti-
vated camera movement, tilt shots, like pan shots, generate
the expectation that whatever is shown at the end of the shot
is especially relevant to the story in some way. This narrative
implementation can be seen whenever a tilt shot is used as
part of an establishing shot, when a character is shown ar-
riving at a location that is kept concealed from view until the
camera tilts up to gradually reveal it (or by first showing a lo-
cation and then tilting down as someone is seen arriving or
leaving); although the same plot information—"character ar-
rives at a location"—could be communicated with separate
shots edited together, using a tilt shot to connect them visu-
TFE2.indd 173
tilt shot
ally in real time and continuous space can signal the action
that follows is particularly meaningful. This connotation can
be further emphasized if other instances of a similar situa-
tion purposely avoid using a tilt shot as part a movie's image
system.
A tilt shot is used to imply a special connection be-
tween a location and a character in a key scene from Ste-
ven Soderbergh’s science fiction drama Solaris. Part of a
brief opening montage that shows a typical day in the life
of troubled psychologist Chris Kelvin (George Clooney), the
shot begins on the ceiling of a futuristic-looking office and
then slowly tilts down to reveal a group therapy session he
is conducting (left page). Still reeling from the death of his
wife, Chris’ life has become stagnant and meaningless, an
expository point that is communicated by the way this tilt shot
connects the repetitive patterns in the ceiling and walls to a
medium shot that shows him hunched over in a chair in the
center of the frame. The tilt move is performed slowly, giving
the audience ample time to observe and analyze the patterns
(which recall the bars of a prison cell or even a cage), in effect
presenting them in the form of an abstract shot at this stage
of the tilt shot. Chris' central, static placement in the frame
features an excessive amount of headroom, visualizing the
constant stress he is under, a point that is further underlined
with body language that communicates he feels defeated
(a curved back, slumped shoulders), and a shallow depth of
field that blurs his patients and suggests he is emotionally
disconnected from their therapy. Despite the apparent sim-
plicity of this tilt shot, it is doing a lot more that just showing
Chris at work; it also reinforces he is a psychologically bro-
ken man, stuck under the weight of a personal loss that he
seems unable to overcome.
TILT SHOT 173
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 why it works
Tilt shots are often used as establishing shots to introduce
a location as a character is seen arriving or leaving it. In this
example from Martin McDonagh’s In Bruges, a tilt shot es-
tablishes the Belfry of Bruges as Ray (Colin Farrell, left) and
Ken (Brendan Gleeson, right), Irish hitmen laying low after a
botched killing, arrive to visit it. The shot begins by showing
the top of the tower, and then quickly tilts down to a two shot;
In Bruges. Martin McDonagh, Director; Eigil Bryld, Cinematographer. 2008.
174
TFE2.indd 174
while the tilt move seems merely a utilitarian and narratively
inconsequential choice at this stage, it gains tremendous
relevance and poignancy later in the story, when a character
jumps to his death from the top of the tower after a climac-
tic scene. Only then is it revealed that the tilt move and the
speed of its execution in this shot were foreshadowing that
fall—a brilliant example of a movie's image system at work.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 The tower's central framing results in a sym--
metrical composition that suggests there is
something unusual about it. While a conven--
tional Rule of Thirds placement would have
created a more dynamic composition, it would
have prevented foreshadowing the special con--
nection that will develop between the tower and
the characters at the end of the shot.
The tilt shot ends in a two shot that uses a
loose medium close-up, balanced composition
to frame these characters. This shot size al--
lows the audience to visually connect this key
location's main introduction with their very dif--
ferent reactions to it as displayed through their
facial expressions and body language.
TFE2.indd 175
The tilt shot begins with an extreme low angle
that mimics the point of view of someone stand--
ing close to the base of the tower looking up.
This perspective maximizes the tilt shot's dura--
tion as it scans the tower from top to bottom,
underscoring its height.
While shooting this tilt shot with a wide-angle
lens would have made the tower look even tall--
er and the tilt move more pronounced, it would
have also distorted these characters' facial
features at the end of the shot. Instead, a focal
length closer to normal was used.
The tilt from the top of the tower to the ground
underlines its actual height; this narrative point
could not have been communicated if two shots
edited together (one showing the tower and an--
other showing the characters below) had been
used instead.
Placement of subjects roughly follows the Rule
of Thirds, although only the subject on the right
side was given the proper amount of headroom.
This is because in a shot with multiple charac--
ters, the headroom is set by the subject placed
highest in the frame.
TILT SHOT 175
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 technical considerations
The apparent speed of a tilt move, like the speed of a pan,
can be greatly impacted by your choice of focal length.
Wide-angle lenses can make movement along the y-axis
look slower than it actually is due to their wider angle of
view, which shows more of the background behind a mov-
ing subject and can therefore give the impression they are
not covering as much ground as they really are. The much
narrower angle of view of telephoto lenses produces the op-
posite effect, accelerating perceived motion along the y-axis.
By choosing the appropriate focal length, you can make a tilt
appear to be moving faster or slower, depending on the nar-
rative point you are trying to communicate. A more common
implementation of focal length in tilt shots, however, involves
the level of perspective distortion it can apply to the look of a
setting. Tilt shots are often used in establishing shots, usu-
ally by tilting down from the top of a location to show a char-
acter arriving at or departing from it (sometimes this is done
in reverse, by first showing the character and then tilting up
to reveal a location). You might, for instance, choose a wide-
angle lens for a tilt shot that establishes a building to make
it look taller and more imposing than in real life thanks to
the way short focal lengths elongate perspective along the
z-axis of the frame. Conversely, you could use a telephoto
lens instead to make the same building look shorter and less
imposing during the tilt, because of how long focal lengths
show a compressed perspective along the z-axis.
Like all other shots that involve a dynamic frame,
tilting should be executed free of any shaky or hesitant cam-
erawork (unless these visual characteristics are part of your
film's visual language and image system), since any un-
steadiness can call attention to the camera's presence. Most
professional tripods come equipped with a fluid- or friction-
based resistance mechanism that will allow you to perform
perfectly smooth tilting moves at any speed for this purpose;
for instance, to do a quick tilt down like the one in the exam-
ple from In Bruges on the previous page, you would set the
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TFE2.indd 176
tripod's friction control to its lowest setting, which would let
you pivot the camera quickly but also completely smoothly.
On the other hand, setting the friction control to the highest
setting would allow you to perform a very slow yet perfectly
steady tilt move like the one used in the example from So-
laris at the beginning of this chapter. It is also important the
tripod head is properly level (easily accomplished by center-
ing its bubble level) before attempting to tilt the camera, oth-
erwise the frame will gradually cant towards one side when
you execute the move. Tilting speed should take into account
the strobing (a juddering of the image) that can occur if the
camera is pivoted too quickly, just like in a pan shot; the pan-
ning/tilting speed rule of thumb states that it should take an
object roughly 7 seconds to completely cross a frame, but
obtaining a more accurate estimate requires taking into ac-
count the sensor size, frame rate, sweeping angle, and fo-
cal length you are using. For instance, a tilt that covers 30
degrees taken with a 50mm lens in the 35mm format should
take 9 seconds, but the same shot taken with a 100mm lens
should take 20 seconds to complete. Likewise, a 90 degree
tilt taken with a 50mm lens at 24 frames per second should
last 23 seconds, but the same shot taken at 48 frames per
second should last only 13 seconds. When performing a tilt,
it is also critical to make sure a camera rig's weight is evenly
distributed on a tripod head; most professional tripods have
a sliding base plate that lets you move the camera back and
forth to compensate for the weight of heavy zoom lenses
and battery packs you may have attached. Another useful
tripod feature to keep in mind is the counterbalancing func-
tion. Once a rig is properly centered, it is possible to apply a
counterforce through this mechanism, allowing a camera to
remain stationary at any tilting angle. A well-balanced cam-
era rig will make it much easier for an operator to focus on
a shot's framing (since they will not have to also worry about
supporting the weight of the rig itself as a tilt is performed),
and will prevent it from accidentally tipping over.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 breaking the rules

In this contemplative shot from Wim Wenders’ romantic fantasy film, Wings of Desire, a tilt is combined with a dolly in move
that gradually tightens the frame to focus our attention on Cassiel (Otto Sander), a guardian angel who comforts lost souls, as
he rides a double-decker bus. Unconventionally, in this shot the tilt move takes narrative precedence over the dollying of the
camera, creating a visually poetic composition that makes the angel appear to gradually rise into the sky.
Wings of Desire. Wim Wenders, Director; Henri Alekan, Cinematographer. 1987.

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 Ratcatcher. Lynne Ramsay, Director; Alwin H. Küchler, Cinematographer. 1999.

178

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dolly shot
In a dolly shot, the camera is placed on a wheeled platform
that can be moved smoothly towards or away from a subject.
Like all other shot types that incorporate camera movement,
dolly shots tend to perform three main narrative functions:
they can reveal or conceal visual information, and can also
contextualize an action or a situation by virtue of how and
when the camera move is executed within a scene. The most
common example of the latter is the “dolly in” move, where
the camera is brought increasingly closer to a character as
they experience a gradual realization or make an important,
usually life-changing decision. In these cases, the dolly shot
serves to visually underline the tension, suspense, or drama
of a moment by allowing it to unfold in real time, without any
edits (for instance, by cutting from a medium shot to a me-
dium close-up) that could potentially dilute its significance.
Another common implementation is the “dolly out” move,
where the camera slowly pulls away from a character, typi-
cally after an unexpected, emotionally harmful event takes
place; the increasingly wider framing makes them occupy a
gradually smaller amount of space in the frame (a dynamic
application of Hitchcock's Rule) that usually signals a loss
of confidence, power, or growing feelings of loneliness or
despair. Dolly shots can also serve to focus an audience's
attention on a specific aspect of a location, by starting with
a wider framing that gradually tightens to exclude visual in-
formation as they approach a main subject; conversely, they
can also reveal the context of a subject by first showing it in a
tight frame that eventually widens to uncover further details
about the location that contains it. In both of these cases,
the dolly shot's dynamic composition highlights the narrative
importance of a subject, whether they are an object, a loca-
tion, or a character. Although dolly shots can look similar
TFE2.indd 179
dolly shot
to zoom shots (both feature a dynamic composition staged
along the z-axis of the frame), there is a key difference be-
tween them that should be taken into account before decid-
ing which one should be used for a given scene. Zoom shots
tend to make audiences feel as if a detail of a scene is be-
ing brought closer or moved away from them; the camera's
movement in dolly shots, on the other hand, is perceived as
if audiences are themselves moving towards or away from
a subject. These alternate interpretations may be explained
by dolly shots' parallax effect (the apparent change in the
relative position of objects due to changes in vantage point),
which zoom shots do not have because they are taken with
a stationary camera. Because of the strong visual and nar-
rative statements they can make, dolly shots should be used
sparingly, reserved for those moments in a story where audi-
ences are expected to make a strong emotional connection
with a situation or a character.
A visually poetic example of a dolly shot that both
reveals an important aspect of a scene and also contextual-
izes a moment in it can be seen in Lynne Ramsay’s drama
Ratcatcher, the harrowing tale of James (William Eadie), a
12-year-old boy who comes of age in an impoverished area
of Glasgow in the 1970s. After sneaking away on a bus, he
arrives at a partially completed housing project set in an idyl-
lic section of the countryside; once inside one of the houses,
the camera slowly dollies in towards a window as James
approaches it, and then continues to dolly through it as he
jumps out into a wheat field, in one the film’s most beautiful-
ly surrealistic images (left page). The dolly shot's gradual re-
veal of the true vastness of the wheat field allows audiences
to experience the exhilaration and magic of this meaningful
moment in James’ otherwise bleak, lonely life.
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 why it works
One of the most common uses of a dolly shot is a “dolly in”,
where the camera gradually approaches a character to un-
derline a meaningful moment of discovery or reflection, as
seen in this example from Steven Spielberg’s Indiana Jones
and the Raiders of the Lost Ark. In this scene, Indiana Jones
(Harrison Ford), a rogue archeologist hired to recover a pre-
cious artifact, has just failed to rescue an old flame and be-
lieves she is dead. A resourceful man used to facing danger
Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark. Steven Spielberg, Director; Douglas Slocombe, Cinematographer. 1981.
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at every turn, he now finds himself unprepared to deal with
the personal consequences of his adventures. As the dolly
shot tightens the frame from a medium shot that showcases
his body language and the location to a medium close-up that
focuses our attention on the pained expression on his face, it
underscores the dramatic impact of this emotional moment,
and by letting it play in real time, it also reflects the sudden
stop in the narrative flow caused by her unexpected demise.
2/21/22 1:38 AM

The relatively deep depth of field at this point
of the dolly shot allowed showcasing much of
the location in the background, but as the cam--
era is dollied towards the character, a tighter
framing and a shallower depth of field visually
separates him from the surrounding area to let
us concentrate on his facial expression.
This bottle peeking into the edge of the frame
plays a very important role: it creates depth by
adding a layer to what otherwise would be only
a two-layer composition (foreground and back--
ground). This compositional technique helps
suggest space continues beyond the edges of
the frame.
TFE2.indd 181
Although everyone in the background is lit with
diffused, soft lighting, the main subject is lit us--
ing three-point lighting designed to make him
stand out in the composition and draw our at--
tention to him. This lighting convention is so
well established its artifice goes mostly unno--
ticed, even in shots where it should look out of
place, like in this day exterior dolly shot.
As the camera got closer to the subject, it had
to be tilted up slightly to give him the proper
amount of headroom for a medium close-up.
The composition was also reframed to give him
looking room on the left side of the frame, since
he is facing that direction.
The dolly shot begins with a medium shot that
shows the subject at the center of the frame.
This placement results in a static composition
that effectively visualizes his current emotional
state: he is distraught after seeing his former
lover's demise and feels unable to proceed with
his quest.
The shorter camera to subject distance at
the end of the dolly shot resulted in a tighter
framing and a shallower depth of field. A focus
puller had to keep the character in sharp focus
throughout the shot's duration, a must anytime
the camera is moved closer to or farther away
from a subject.
DOLLY SHOT 181
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 technical considerations
Dolly shots are usually accomplished by placing the camera
on a moving platform with wheels, which might or might not
require tracks depending on how smooth and even the ter-
rain is. A location's physical characteristics (especially how
spacious or confined it happens to be), the size of the camera
rig, and the distance the dolly move will cover, among other
factors, will determine what the most efficient and practi-
cal way to execute a dolly shot will be, as well as what type
of equipment is best suited for the job. Skateboard dollies
(wooden platforms with angled skateboard wheels) that use
PVC piping for tracks, for instance, are lightweight and easy
to transport, but can be noisy (a critical point if you will be
recording sound during shooting), need a lot of room to ma-
neuver, and can take a long time to set up if the ground is
uneven. Doorway dollies (platforms supported with a metal
frame with pneumatic wheels and a steering handle) on the
other hand, take almost no time to set up since they do not
require tracks, are highly maneuverable, practically silent,
can easily support the weight of a full-size camera rig and a
couple of crew members, and, as their name implies, can fit
through most standard door thresholds; however, they are
very heavy and difficult to transport. When shooting in very
confined locations, camera sliders (a set of narrow tracks
with a movable carriage supported by tripods) are a great
alternative to create dolly shots. They can be set up in sec-
onds, are completely silent, take up very little room, and are
lightweight and easy to carry; their downsides are that you
can only attach camera gear to them, so an operator needs
to walk alongside the camera as it is moved, and, unless
you get an expandable modular model, you are stuck with
whatever length slider you bring to a location. Keep in mind
that you also do not need to restrict yourself to using equip-
ment designed for dolly shots; any device that will let you
move the camera smoothly can be used, like wheelchairs,
gimbals, stabilizers, handheld rigs, shopping carts, and even
homemade solutions. No matter what piece of hardware you
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use to accomplish a dolly shot, having one will automatically
add time to your production schedule, since any shot that in-
cludes movement is inherently more difficult to execute and
takes extra time to set up, light, and rehearse.
Choosing the right lens for a dolly shot will depend
on a number of variables, among them: how close to the
subject the camera will be, how much of the location needs
to be seen, and how far or close you want the background
to appear to be. While having to consider so many factors
might seem daunting at first, a good first step is to priori-
tize the shot's narrative function. Ask yourself: what is the
dolly move meant to communicate? Is it to showcase a char-
acter's reaction? The way they relate to their surrounding
area? Both? For instance, you might select a lens based on
how much distortion you want to add to a character's fa-
cial expression if the camera gets very close to them at one
point, or you could also pick a lens based on the angle of
view needed to highlight a connection between a character
and a key visual element in a location, so that as the camera
begins or ends the dolly move, the composition includes both
of them prominently.
If the dolly shot is relatively subtle and does not cov-
er much ground, your lighting strategy will not differ much
from what you would do if the shot were taken with a static
camera. However, if it covers longer distances (for instance,
by going from a long shot to a medium close-up), things can
get complicated, since you would then have to light both the
location and the character to look visually compelling for
what would be in effect several shot sizes (a long shot, a me-
dium close-up, and everything in between as the camera is
moved). Dolly shots that include wider fields of view will also
require more powerful lights than those with tighter fram-
ings, because they will need to be placed relatively far from
the action to avoid being seen by the camera. This is why it is
important to take into account how your lighting needs will
be impacted by your lens choice when planning a dolly shot.
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 breaking the rules

Dolly shots commonly underline "turning point" moments, often when a character has a meaningful realization or makes an
important decision. François Ozon’s Swimming Pool, the story of Sarah (Charlotte Rampling), a mystery novel writer in search
of inspiration, features a dolly shot that does something quite unusual, however; it moves the camera sideways instead of
towards or away from its subject. This highly unorthodox dolly move suggests something unusual is happening in this scene,
where it is revealed Sarah experiences a sudden burst of creativity. The audience is kept in the dark about this dolly shot's true
meaning until the end of the film, where a plot twist typical of her novels changes the meaning of everything they have seen.

Swimming Pool. François Ozon, Director; Yorick Le Saux, Cinematographer. 2003.

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 Event Horizon. Paul W. S. Anderson, Director; Adrian Biddle, Cinematographer. 1997.

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dolly zoom shot
The dolly zoom shot is known by many names, including:
“counter zoom”, “trombone shot”, “zolly”, and, perhaps
most famously, the “Vertigo effect shot", due to its appear-
ance in Alfred Hitchcock’s Vertigo (1958) to visualize the fear
of heights experienced by detective John Ferguson (James
Stewart) during key moments in the story. Dolly zooms
are created by combining a dolly shot with a zoom shot,
synchronized so that as the camera dollies towards a sub-
ject the zoom lens simultaneously glides to a shorter fo-
cal length setting, or when dollied away from a subject to a
longer focal length. When executed flawlessly, a dolly zoom
shot keeps the subject’s size constant in the frame while the
perspective of the background changes drastically, appear-
ing to get closer or farther away depending on whether the
zoom is set to a wide-angle or a telephoto setting. The effect
is very noticeable and disorienting, and for these reasons
it is typically reserved for moments when something es-
pecially meaningful or particularly uncommon takes place,
such as when a character makes a shocking discovery or
has a sudden, life-changing realization that radically alters
the direction of a story. Dolly zooms can also visualize ex-
treme emotional states, like rage, obsession, infatuation,
paranoia, and fear. The speed at which the dolly zoom is
executed, as well as the extent of the shift in focal length,
can strongly influence how it is interpreted by the audience
and the type of ideas it can communicate. In scenes where
characters experience extreme emotions, for instance, dolly
zooms tend to be performed quickly, making the change in
perspective disconcerting and all but impossible to ignore.
Conversely, sometimes dolly zooms are done so slowly the
shift in perspective is very subtle or almost imperceptible;
in these cases they can convey that something out of the or-
TFE2.indd 185
dolly zom shot
dinary, although not necessarily extreme in nature, is hap-
pening, whether a character is aware of it or not. A less
common use of the dolly zoom is to showcase a location
by itself, without a character present in the composition;
in such instances, it functions as a point-of-view shot that
visualizes a character’s distorted subjectivity, usually due to
an altered state of mind.
Paul W. S. Anderson's science fiction horror film
Event Horizon includes a dolly zoom shot that visualizes the
sudden shock felt by Dr. William Weir (Sam Neill), as he expe-
riences a supernatural encounter in a seemingly possessed
spaceship. The film follows a crew of astronauts sent to in-
vestigate the mysterious return of the Event Horizon, a vessel
that generates black holes to travel through rifts in spacetime,
only to discover it may have brought back an otherworldly en-
tity capable of inducing frightening hallucinations. As Dr. Weir
attempts to fix a power drain in the ship, he hears an eerie
whisper that sounds like his late wife; at this moment, a dolly
zoom shot quickly shifts the perspective of the background
by dollying the camera towards him while simultaneously
changing the zoom lens' focal length from a telephoto to a
wide-angle setting, all while keeping him the same size in
the frame (opposite page). The unnerving change in perspec-
tive as the enclosure appears to recede not only suggests his
shock and fear, but also visualizes how trapped and isolat-
ed he feels as the way out suddenly becomes much harder
to reach. If the dolly zoom had been done in reverse order,
by starting with a wide-angle setting and then dollying back
while switching to a telephoto focal length, the background
(and the exit out of the enclosure) would have appeared to be
much closer to him at the end of the shot, taking away some
of the tension of this moment.
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 why it works
The highly unusual shift in perspective that happens in a dolly
zoom shot can communicate a character is under extreme
emotional or psychological distress. In this example from Ma-
thieu Kassovitz’ gritty urban drama La Haine, a dolly zoom is
used to reveal how a group of friends raised in the “banlieues”
(impoverished French housing projects) really feel when they
La Haine. Mathieu Kassovitz, Director; Pierre Aım,
¨ Cinematographer. 1995.
186
TFE2.indd 186
arrive in Paris to collect a debt; although Vinz (Vincent Cassel,
left) and Saıd
¨ (Saıd¨ Taghmaoui, right) appear to be indifferent
to their surroundings, the dramatic change in how much clos-
er and constrictive the background looks as the dolly zoom
shot ends visualizes they are, in fact, feeling extremely un-
comfortable about being outside their neighborhood.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 A slight high angle lets the buildings take up more
room in the frame, ensuring the dolly zoom's com--
pression effect that follows is showcased more promi--
nently. This vantage point, coupled with the extra
headroom given to these characters, also helps visu--
alize their psychological vulnerability at this moment.
At the start of the dolly zoom, the camera is close to
the subjects while the zoom lens is set to a wide-angle
setting. This focal length produced an apparent expan--
sion of distances along the z-axis, evidenced by the
converging leading lines formed by the buildings re--
ceding into a vanishing point at the center of the frame.

The size of these subjects remained constant,
but the background now appears to be much
closer and flatter due to a longer camera to
subject distance and a shift from a short to a
long focal length setting on the zoom lens.
The zoom's telephoto setting makes this tower
look much larger than it was at the beginning
of the shot; it also looks blurrier than it was,
but this is due to its magnification at this point,
since the depth of field remained unchanged.
As the camera moved back, it was necessary to
slightly tilt it up to maintain the extra amount
of headroom seen at the beginning of the shot.
Note how the handrail's top surface is no longer
visible due to this new vantage point.

DOLLY ZOOM SHOT 187

TFE2.indd 187 2/21/22 1:38 AM

 technical considerations
The zoom ratio you choose for a dolly zoom shot will depend
on how drastic or subtle you want the change in perspective
to be (more information on zoom ratios can be found in the
technical chapter and on page 33), but it is important to re-
member that the more extreme the shift in focal length, the
more space that will be required to dolly the camera towards
or away from a subject. For instance, the zoom ratio used for
the dolly zoom in the example from Event Horizon, at the be-
ginning of this chapter, is not as high as the one used in the
example from La Haine on the previous page (as evidenced
by the greater level of background magnification seen in the
latter), and therefore did not require dollying the camera as
much. Dolly zoom shots that incorporate extra long dolly
moves also make it more challenging to keep a subject in
focus, especially when shooting with a shallow depth of field.
In these cases, taking precise camera to subject measure-
ments at various stages of the shot for a focus puller, as well
as allocating extra time to do more than a few practice runs,
are essential. If the dolly zoom shows a subject in a medium
close-up or a close-up by bringing the camera very close or
moving it far from them, it is also necessary to consider that
facial features may look exaggerated and unnatural; very
short focal lengths in particular will compound the distortion
produced by a short distance to a subject by adding barrel
distortion to an actor's face. Filmmakers sometimes incor-
porate this stylization to enhance the disorienting effect of
a dolly zoom's sudden change in perspective, commonly to
visualize extreme emotional or psychological states.
Like dolly shots, dolly zoom shots require the as-
sistance of a focus puller to keep subjects in sharp focus;
although focusing is often done with a manual follow focus
attachment when shots are taken with a static camera, the
complexity of a dolly zoom shot makes it preferable to pull
focus via a wireless remote control system. This allows a fo-
cus puller to stand away from the camera as it is moved,
while a camera operator zooms in or out as needed. In some
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cases, especially when a dolly move covers a long distance,
an additional camera assistant is used to control the zoom-
ing action remotely with a separate wireless remote control
unit, freeing the camera operator to concentrate solely on
the framing of the shot.
As the name implies, in a dolly zoom shot the cam-
era is usually moved on a wheeled dolly, but tracks, stabiliz-
ers, sliders, and even handheld rigs are also often used. Keep
in mind, however, that it will be more difficult to execute the
shot properly when using a stabilizer or a handheld camera,
because of the inherent challenges of choreographing the
independent movement of at least three people (a camera
operator, a spotter, and a focus puller). Regardless of how
the move is accomplished, it is essential that the speed at
which the camera approaches or moves away from a subject
matches the speed of the focal length shift as much as pos-
sible; otherwise, the subject's size will seem to grow larger
or smaller while the background moves closer or farther
away, diminishing the dolly zoom's visual impact. A helpful
tip in this regard is to take into account there is a propor-
tional relationship between focal length and subject size in
the frame; for instance, if a subject is shown in a medium
shot at a distance of 5 feet with a zoom set at 50mm, when
the zoom is set to 100mm the camera should be roughly 10
feet away to maintain them at the same size, and vice versa.
If you shoot at high video resolutions, like 4K and above, it is
also possible to emulate a dolly zoom effect in postproduc-
tion without actually using a zoom lens, provided your movie
will be released in 1080p. Simply frame the shot and move
the camera towards or away from a subject like you would in
a standard dolly zoom, and then rescale the shot (the higher
resolution will prevent losing video quality during this step)
to keep their size constant in the frame. The end result is
virtually indistinguishable from an actual dolly zoom shot,
since it features the same change in background perspective
produced by physically moving the camera.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 breaking the rules

This shot, from Danny Boyle’s Trainspotting, has all the telltale signs of a dolly zoom shot: subject size remains constant, and the
background appears to recede into the distance. However, things are not what they seem; instead of moving the camera toward
the subject while switching to a wide-angle focal length setting, the bed was simply rolled back along with the camera inside a
specially built set. The end result looks even more stylized than a dolly zoom, adding a surreal touch to the visualization of the
withdrawal pangs suffered by Renton (Ewan McGregor), a heroin addict on the mend.

Trainspotting. Danny Boyle, Director; Brian Tufano, Cinematographer. 1996.

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 The 400 Blows. François Truffaut, Director; Henri Decaë, Cinematographer. 1959.

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tracking shot
In a tracking shot, the camera follows a moving subject from
behind, alongside, or backwards in front of them (called a
"reverse tracking shot", a Kubrick stylistic trademark), while
keeping them within the boundaries of the frame. Tracking
shots are sometimes mistaken for dolly shots, but they are
easy to tell apart, since in a dolly shot the camera's move-
ment is unmotivated and happens independently of whether
a subject is moving or not, most often by dollying towards or
away from them, whereas in a tracking shot camera move-
ment is invariably motivated by a moving subject. Using a
tracking shot to follow a character as they make their way
through a location signals their journey is narratively impor-
tant in some way, and also generates the expectation that
their destination will be dramatically relevant. One reason
for this is that most of the time movies generally omit or
greatly condense a character's physical progress from point
A to point B, so whenever these moments are showcased
with a tracking shot, they attain an inherent significance in
the minds of the audience. Tracking shots also tend to elicit a
higher level of emotional engagement and identification with
the character being followed, because for the duration of the
shot audiences feel as if they are being brought along with
them instead of watching the action unfold from a distance,
as passive observers. Although tracking shots can be taken
with almost any shot size, they are often medium shots, me-
dium long shots, and long shots, because these framings
allow showcasing a character and a location more or less
in equal terms, and are therefore better suited than tighter
shots to highlight the kinetic aspects of the camera's track-
ing movement. Sometimes, tracking shots are combined
with zoom shots and/or dolly shots to gradually tighten or
widen the frame (for instance, by switching from a medium
TFE2.indd 191
tracking shot
shot to a medium close-up); the added visual emphasis pro-
vided by this technique can add tension and drama to a scene
by gradually shifting our attention from a character's body
language to the emotions displayed by their facial expression
as a shot progresses, or vice versa. Due to the large amount
of visual information they can contain, tracking shots are of-
ten long takes, especially when their main narrative function
is to establish a strong visual and emotional connection be-
tween a character and their surrounding area.
A particularly memorable tracking shot can be seen
towards the end of François Truffaut’s marvelous examina-
tion of adolescent psychology, The 400 Blows. The film fol-
lows Antoine Doinel (Jean-Pierre Léaud), a neglected Pa-
risian boy whose mischievous antics put him at odds with
his family and eventually land him in a center for troubled
youths. Earlier in the story, he expressed a yearning to see
the ocean, having never seen it before; later, after he man-
ages to escape from the center, he scampers through the
countryside towards the shoreline, as if guided by an in-
stinct he cannot fight. His run to freedom is showcased in an
80-second tracking shot (a virtual eternity at a time when the
average shot length was roughly 8 seconds) that plays with-
out a musical cue to contextualize the tone of this moment.
The shot shows Antoine in a medium long and at times a
long shot, putting us just close enough to notice he does not
seem happy or sad, concerned or carefree as he gets closer
to his goal (left page). The long take used for this tracking
shot preserves the rawness of the moment, allowing An-
toine's final rebellious act to embody the broader need for
flight that characterized his dealings with authority figures
throughout the film, leading to what is arguably one of the
most famous freeze-frames in the history of cinema.
TRACKING SHOT 191
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 why it works
Tracking shots sometimes incorporate other camera moves
to further underline the narrative significance of a moment
in a scene. In this example from Tomas Alfredson’s Let the
Right One In, the story of the unlikely friendship that develops
between Oskar (Kåre Hedebrant) a kid who is constantly ha-
rassed at school, and Eli, a 200-year-old vampire who looks
like a 12-year-old, a tracking shot is combined with a dolly in
Let the Right One In. Tomas Alfredson, Director; Hoyte van Hoytema, Cinematographer. 2008.
192
TFE2.indd 192
to underline Oskar’s anguish as he is bullied by a classmate.
The action was choreographed so that as the camera tracks
alongside him it also gets gradually closer, shifting from a
medium long shot to a medium close-up. The bully (Patrik
Ridmark) remains off-screen as Oskar retreats and enters
the frame only as the shot ends, effectively visualizing the
latter’s increasing sense of dread and impotence.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 The camera remains still until this character
enters the frame motivating the tracking move
that follows. The shot size at this point, a me--
dium long shot, allows including both the main
character and a large portion of the surround--
ing area, necessary to emphasize the space he
covers as he retreats from the bully.
A shallow depth of field allowed keeping the
bully in the middleground in sharp focus while
the main character in the foreground remained
blurry. This is an unconventional but effective
choice that prompts us to identify with the main
character's plight by directing our attention to
the cause of his distress at this moment.
TFE2.indd 193
Before the tracking move begins, the audience
is given an opportunity to focus their attention
on these two boys play fighting in the back--
ground; their inclusion helps foreshadow the
threat of violence that pervades this scene and
constantly follows the main character.
Although this character was placed in the frame
roughly following the Rule of Thirds, he was not
given room behind him, making it seem as if his
back is pressed against the edge of the frame.
This unorthodox composition underlines the
helplessness and inescapability of his situation.
This column in the foreground functions as a
"repoussoir", a visual element that adds depth
to the frame and guides the viewer's gaze to--
wards a composition's focal point. It also helps
underline the tracking shot's x-axis movement
by crossing the frame faster than the retreating
character in the middleground.
While the bully was given the proper amount of
headroom, his victim in the foreground was not;
this placement, combined with a shallow depth
of field that kept him out of focus, ensures our
attention will be centered on the bully and not
him at this point of the shot.
TRACKING SHOT 193
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 technical considerations
Tracking shots can be accomplished by moving the camera
on a dolly, with a Steadicam, a gimbal, a slider, from inside
a vehicle, with a drone, or even by just handholding the cam-
era, among others. When deciding which method should be
used for a particular tracking shot, it is important to consider
the type and complexity of the camera movement involved,
the camera's angle (reverse tracking, from behind, along-
side), and the physical characteristics of the location (espe-
cially how rough or uneven the terrain is). Using a wheeled
dolly can produce perfectly steady shots, provided there is
a smooth, even surface to work with; dollying over uneven
ground requires laying down tracks, but, depending on ter-
rain conditions, tracking distance, and complexity of move-
ment, they may take a very long time to set up and will also
encumber making last-minute changes to the preplanned
path of a shot. Stabilizing rigs take significantly less time to
set up and give you almost unlimited options to change the
framing while shooting (for instance, by switching from a re-
verse to an alongside tracking shot), but for the same reason
they may also make it more difficult to keep a subject in fo-
cus, since the camera to subject distance is likely to change
throughout the shot (unlike tracking shots with unchanging
compositions, where focusing distance remains constant).
The best way to keep a subject sharp in this situation, es-
pecially when shooting with a shallow depth of field, is with
the assistance of a focus puller operating a wireless remote
control focusing system; this method, however, necessitates
extensive planning and rehearsing, which can take up a lot of
time. An option that does not require a focus puller is to use a
deep depth of field, thus allowing a camera operator to keep
a subject in focus simply by staying within a predetermined
distance from them, adjusting their position as needed if ei-
ther one gets too close or too far from each other. Since a
deep depth of field will require using a small aperture, you
will need to be able to control the amount of light available
in a scene when shooting in low-light situations (like out-
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doors at night), either by adding extra lighting or by raising
the ISO setting (provided it does not introduce an unaccept-
able amount of video noise). When shooting outdoors during
the day, having enough light to use a small aperture will not
be an issue; if a shallow depth of field is needed instead,
neutral density filtration (mounted on a matte box, a lens,
or activated in your camera if it comes equipped with this
feature) will be required to cut down the extra light a larger
aperture will let through.
Focal length can have a major impact in how move-
ment across the x- or the z-axis of the frame is perceived in
a tracking shot. For instance, a telephoto lens' narrow angle
of view will make a character moving along the x-axis appear
to be going faster than they actually are, because the back-
ground will be seen crossing the frame more rapidly than if a
wide-angle lens were used. This effect becomes increasingly
more apparent with longer focal lengths and tighter shot
sizes (like medium close-ups, for instance). Likewise, wide-
angle lenses will increase the apparent speed of a subject
moving along the z-axis, because short focal lengths tend to
extend distances into the background of the frame; using a
telephoto lens, on the other hand, will make subjects mov-
ing along this axis look as if they are hardly advancing, be-
cause of the perspective-flattening effect long focal lengths
display due to the longer distances they require to frame a
subject. When a tracking shot is done with a handheld cam-
era, it is common to opt for wide-angle lenses, because they
do a much better job concealing camera shake than tele-
photo lenses, which amplify any unsteadiness because of
their narrower angle of view. However, although short focal
lengths can make a handheld tracking shot look stable, they
require bringing the camera closer to frame tighter shots
of a subject, which can produce exaggerated and unnatural-
looking facial features. Longer focal lengths can be used for
tracking shots that use some kind of stabilization, since in
these cases concealing camera shake is not a factor.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 breaking the rules

Tracking shots are motivated by moving subjects, a convention that prevents the inclusion of camera movement that calls
attention to itself and the film apparatus. This tracking shot from Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck’s The Lives of Others,
however, subverts this convention by including both motivated and unmotivated camera movement. When the shot begins the
camera tracks alongside Gerd Wiesler (Ulrich Mühe), a former Stasi spy who lost everything after the fall of the Berlin Wall,
until it suddenly stops in front of a bookstore window display advertising a novel by a man he betrayed his principles to protect
while he exits the frame. This seemingly unmotivated action is jarring and unexpected, creating a moment of tension that lasts
until Wiesler steps back into the shot to admire the display.

The Lives of Others. Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck, Director; Hagen Bogdanski, Cinematographer. 2006.

TRACKING SHOT 195

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 Goodfellas. Martin Scorsese, Director; Michael Ballhaus, Cinematographer. 1990.

196

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Steadicam shot
While dolly rigs and tracks can effectively produce shots with
perfectly smooth camera movement, their setup and execu-
tion can be difficult and time-consuming to accomplish, and
in some situations simply impossible to implement; for in-
stance, neither dollies nor tracks can be used to fluidly move
a camera up or down a set of stairs. Garret Brown’s revolu-
tionary invention of the Steadicam, a portable camera stabi-
lizing system, solved this problem and added a new kind of
shot to the cinematic vocabulary in the process: the Steadi-
cam shot. A Steadicam rig involves the use of a special sup-
portive harness attached to an iso-elastic, articulated arm;
this multiaxis arm is connected to a gimbal and a sled that
holds a camera, an external field monitor, and a counter-
balancing weight. A perfectly balanced rig effectively isolates
any shakiness caused by the operator, allowing for almost
unlimited freedom of movement (restricted solely by the en-
durance of the operator). Steadicam shots can replicate the
same types of movement seen in dolly shots and tracking
shots without the need to lay down tracks or use a bulky dol-
ly, and the rig's smaller footprint allows it to navigate around
even relatively confined spaces while still being able to ex-
ecute highly complex camera moves. Steadicam shots are
commonly reserved for times when maintaining the integrity
of time, space, and the fluidity of movement in a scene are
narratively meaningful to the story; there should be a com-
pelling reason why a particular scene is covered with a Stea-
dicam shot instead of with a combination of shots of various
sizes. Sometimes, a Steadicam shot is used to preserve the
original timing of an actor's performance in a single take,
dynamically reframing the shot's composition as needed to
increase the emotional involvement of the audience or to vi-
sually underline a particular aspect of a scene. Preserving
TFE2.indd 197
steadicam shot
real time in this way tends to add tension and generates the
anticipation that anything can happen, since without edits to
signal something meaningful is taking place (for instance,
by cutting to a close-up), audiences are compelled to remain
alert at every stage of a Steadicam shot. In some cases, the
fluidity and complexity of the camera's movement is in itself
integral to the narrative point being made, reflecting or com-
menting in a symbolic way on the nature of the action shown.
Like most shots that involve a moving camera, movement in
a Steadicam shot is most often motivated by a moving char-
acter (usually by having the camera proceed alongside, in
front of, or behind them as they make their way through a
location) in a manner that feels organic to the flow of a scene
and does not call attention to itself.
One of the most brilliant and celebrated examples
of a Steadicam shot can be seen in Martin Scorsese’s bio-
graphical crime drama Goodfellas, when Henry Hill (Ray Li-
otta), an up and coming gangster, takes his girlfriend Karen
(Lorraine Bracco) out for dinner (left page). In a virtuosic
Steadicam shot, we follow them as they enter a popular res-
taurant through a side door, bypassing a large crowd waiting
in line to get in. After a labyrinthine walk through hallways
and a hectic kitchen, they make their way into the main seat-
ing area, bypassing yet another line of patrons waiting impa-
tiently to be seated. Finally, they are promptly given a table
right next to the stage as Henry tips everyone from bouncers
to waiters and they are sent a complimentary bottle of wine
from a nearby table. The use of a single Steadicam shot to
cover this sequence allows the audience to feel like they are
tagging along with the couple, letting them momentarily ex-
perience the effortless privilege and status that come with
living life as a “goodfella”.
STEADICAM SHOT 197
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 why it works
Steadicam shots can showcase an actor’s performance in
real time while simultaneously providing a dramatic empha-
sis by dynamically reframing the composition. In this riveting
example from Tony Gilroy’s Michael Clayton, a single Steadi-
cam shot performs these functions to maximum effect, be-
coming at times a two shot, a medium close-up, an OTS shot,
Michael Clayton. Tony Gilroy, Director; Robert Elswit, Cinematographer. 2007.
198
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a long shot, a close-up, and finally a medium shot, as two kill-
ers (Terry Serpico and Robert Prescott) hired by a chemical
company murder a litigator (Tom Wilkinson) who is building a
case against it. Using a single Steadicam shot instead of a se-
ries of shots also highlights the killers’ swift and ruthless ef-
ficiency and suggests they have done this many times before.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 The tight framing used at the beginning of the
shot allowed one of the killers to remain un--
seen until right before he enters the frame,
despite having been apparently only a few feet
away. Afterwards, the Steadicam shot will be
reframed to showcase other relevant details
while also adding a dramatic emphasis to vari--
ous moments within the scene.
The composition at the end of the Steadicam
shot showcases this character's demise; the
tighter framing, however, required pulling fo--
cus to keep his face sharp, which resulted in a
slightly shallower depth of field than what was
seen when the composition used a long shot
(fourth frame on the opposite page).
TFE2.indd 199
The Steadicam shot required multiple re--
frames, which made it imperative to carefully
choreograph the action beforehand to ensure
sharp focus could be maintained throughout. At
this point in the shot, for instance, focus was set
for the subjects in the foreground, blurrying the
background in he process.
Although nearly upside down, the subject was
still placed in the frame over a sweet spot fol--
lowing the Rule of Thirds; his body's placement
also functions as a leading line that guides our
gaze towards his face, this composition's focal
point.
Keeping the proper amount of headroom
throughout a Steadicam shot can be challeng--
ing, especially when a scene includes a lot
of sudden, fast action. Operators need to be
skilled at constantly assessing the composition
to dynamically reframe of shot as needed, in ad--
dition to using their peripheral vision to move
safely through a location.
This character's diagonal, nearly upside-down
final placement in the frame reflects the un--
usualness of the disturbingly efficient way he
was murdered (also complemented by not in--
cluding an empathetic music cue to dramatize
this moment).
STEADICAM SHOT 199
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 technical considerations
The stabilized motion Steadicam shots are capable of pro-
ducing means that unlike handheld shots, they do not re-
quire using a wide-angle lens to help conceal camera shake.
Your choice of focal length can therefore be guided by your
need to have a particular angle of view, or to manipulate
the look of distances between a main subject and the back-
ground, or to control how fast or slow subject movement is
perceived to be as the camera travels. For instance, you may
want to use a wide-angle lens to exaggerate the distance
being covered by a subject moving along the z-axis of the
frame (due to the expanded perspective short focal lengths
can produce), or use a telephoto lens instead to make it look
as if they are hardly moving (due to this lens' perspective-
flattening effect). Perception of movement along the x-axis of
the frame can also be accelerated by using a telephoto lens,
or slowed down with a wide-angle lens, but keep in mind that
following a subject with a telephoto will require keeping the
camera farther away (how much farther will vary depend-
ing on the telephoto's level of magnification and the shot
size you choose), which may be difficult or even impossible
to do when shooting indoors. Another important consider-
ation when choosing a lens for a Steadicam shot that centers
on a moving character is the kind of relationship with their
environment you want to convey. For instance, a wide-angle
lens will include more of a location around and behind a sub-
ject than a telephoto lens, and will therefore allow creating
a stronger visual connection between them, especially if a
deep depth of field is also used.
While the word "Steadicam" has become synony-
mous with moving stabilized shots, there are a number of
alternate solutions available for virtually any camera size
and budget. Mechanical solutions include handheld stabiliz-
ers that use a grip attached to a three-axis (pan, tilt, and roll)
gimbal connected to a camera mount and a counterweight;
while this setup allows you to replicate the effect of a Stea-
dicam shot, it can be harder to operate for too long because
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TFE2.indd 200
the full weight of the camera and the stabilizing rig has to
be supported by the operator with one arm unless a sup-
port vest is also used. Another option is electronic gimbals,
battery-operated camera mounts equipped with sensors and
motors that cancel out operator-generated movement along
three axes. Compared to a full Steadicam rig, gimbals are
lighter and have a smaller footprint, which makes them ideal
for use in confined spaces; additionally, once they are prop-
erly balanced (a step that may take a considerable amount of
time), recording perfectly smooth shots is a relatively simple
matter. Electronic gimbals offer so many advantages they
have even been incorporated into "hybrid" rigs that combine
mechanical and electronic stabilization (as seen in ARRI's
Trinity system) that greatly expand the types of stabilized
motion that can be accomplished.
Dynamic camera shots can present a challenge for
cinematographers, because a moving camera often makes it
difficult or even impossible to hide the lights used to illu-
minate a location. One strategy is to carefully choreograph
the camera's path so that it avoids showing lights, but this
can be hard to implement and it will add yet another level of
difficulty to an already technically demanding shot. Another
option is to light an entire location with practicals (sources
of light visible within the shot that are part of the mise-en-
scène); the movement of actors can then be planned so that
they will pass by or stand next to these lights, allowing the
camera to move freely within the space. Having control over
the intensity of your lights, whether they are practicals or
standard movie lights, always plays a critical role in your
ability to use a particular depth of field, but it is especially
important when a Steadicam shot is performed without a fo-
cus puller. In these cases, a Steadicam operator can keep
subjects in focus by maintaining a predetermined camera to
subject distance according to the depth of field being used,
making the execution of complicated long takes (like a se-
quence shot) much easier to accomplish.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 breaking the rules

Camera movement in a Steadicam shot is often motivated by a moving subject, because unmotivated movement could be inter-
preted by the audience as reflecting an unseen character's subjectivity. Several key Steadicam shots in Stanley Kubrick’s Full
Metal Jacket, however, blur this distinction, with a moving camera that seems to be motivated by the movement of Marines as
they conduct a reconnaissance operation, but also feels like a subjective shot because of the way it stays low to the ground and
appears to take cover behind them during their incursion. These Steadicam shots' narrative ambiguity help add palpable ten-
sion to an already stressful scene, and effectively help immerse audiences in the middle of the action.

Full Metal Jacket. Stanley Kubrick, Director; Douglas Milsome, Cinematographer. 1987.

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 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. Ang Lee, Director; Peter Pau, Cinematographer. 2000.

202

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crane shot
In a crane shot, the camera is mounted on a support that
can be an actual crane, a jib arm, a cherry picker, a drone,
or any other device that will allow the camera to be moved
vertically, from just a few feet off the ground all the way up
to over a hundred feet in height. One of the most common
uses of a crane shot is to gradually reveal the full extent of
a location, showing more details as the camera's vantage
point is raised. This particular use of a crane shot functions
essentially as an establishing shot, edited at the beginning
of a scene or whenever a narratively meaningful location is
introduced in full. Another typical use of a crane shot is to
insert it at the conclusion of a key event, such as a charac-
ter's final appearance (usually starting with a tight shot that
transitions into a wider framing as they walk away along the
z-axis of the frame and the camera cranes up), or at the con-
clusion of a story (showcasing a location at ground level to
then reveal a much larger setting as the camera rises); in
these cases, the crane shot adds a dramatic emphasis that
communicates a sense of finality and narrative closure. This
technique is sometimes used in reverse to introduce a key
character, by first showing a location from a high vantage
point to then reveal them in a tighter shot as the camera is
lowered. Upward or downward movement in a crane shot can
be made more apparent if objects in the foreground of the
composition are seen passing by the camera as it is moved;
including these visual cues is especially important when the
crane shot's elevation covers a short distance, because in
these cases the change in vantage point may go completely
unnoticed otherwise. Crane shots are also sometimes com-
bined with other types of camera movement, primarily tilt,
tracking, and horizontal camera moves, through the use of
dolly rigs or other types of moving platforms (a strategy com-
TFE2.indd 203
crane shot
monly used in sequence shots) that can add a great level of
complexity to their execution. Due to their strong visual im-
pact, using a crane shot to introduce a location, a character,
or to showcase an event, will inevitably make a powerful nar-
rative statement that communicates something or someone
especially meaningful or relevant is being shown; it should
therefore be reserved only for those moments in your story
that warrant this level of visual and dramatic underscoring.
A classic use of a crane shot can be seen in director
Ang Lee’s period martial arts drama Crouching Tiger, Hid-
den Dragon, during an extended flashback sequence where
Jen Yu, the daughter of an influential and wealthy Manchu-
rian aristocrat with a secret passion for martial arts, meets
Lo “Dark Cloud” (Chang Chen), the leader of a gang of des-
ert bandits who ends up falling for her. Lo is first shown with
a crane shot that elevates the camera from under a cliff to
gradually reveal he is actually accompanied by numerous
members of his gang as they wait to ambush Jen's cara-
van (left page); this camera move is combined with a tilt that
shifts the vantage point from a steep low angle at the begin-
ning of the shot to a slight high angle at the end; the visual
emphasis provided by the crane shot during this character's
reveal not only communicates his importance in the story, but
also provides us with significant expository information about
his character. The initial low angle, for instance, visualizes
his dominance and power at this key moment (a common vi-
sual trope), while the high angle at the end of the crane shot
helps establish a strong visual connection between him and
his domain, the vast desert he controls with his gang of ban-
dits. As this example illustrates, crane shots can communi-
cate multiple narrative points provided they are thoughtfully
planned and strategically implemented within a narrative.
CRANE SHOT 203
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 why it works
In addition to underlining the narrative importance of key lo-
cations or characters when they are introduced, crane shots
can also enhance the emotional intensity of a moment within
a scene. In Jane Campion’s period drama The Piano, a crane
shot performs this function when Ada (Holly Hunter), a mute
Scottish woman who moves to New Zealand as part of an ar-
The Piano. Jane Campion, Director; Stuart Dryburgh, Cinematographer. 1993.
204
TFE2.indd 204
ranged marriage, makes the fateful choice to obey her hus-
band and give music lessons to a man who has her beloved
piano so she can get it back. As the descending crane shot
shifts from a high-angle long shot into a medium close-up,
the dramatic emphasis it communicates effectively visual-
izes the emotional turmoil prompted by her decision.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 The high angle used for this crane shot show--
cases both the location and the characters,
highlighting their connection at this point in the
story. As the crane shot continues, the camera
tilts and pans to reframe the shot into a medi--
um close-up; combining camera moves adds a
dramatic emphasis to this moment.
As the crane shot ends, the camera pans to
reframe the shot into a conventional medium
close-up that follows the Rule of Thirds, giving
this character the proper amount of (cropped)
headroom and looking room on the left side of
the frame.
TFE2.indd 205
This subject's placement at the start of the
crane shot does not follow the Rule of Thirds,
resulting in an unorthodox framing that visu--
alizes the conflict between her strict Victorian
values and the wildness of the New Zealand
jungle around her.
The shorter camera to subject distance at the
end of the crane shot required focus pulling to
keep this subject sharp; when using drones,
jibs, or cranes, this focus adjustment is ac--
complished remotely, via wireless follow focus
controllers.
The deep depth of field at this point shows both
the location and the characters in sharp focus,
underscoring their connection. As the shot pro--
gresses, a shorter focusing distance results in
a shallower depth of field that centers our at--
tention on the foreground character's facial ex--
pression.
Note the glints in her eyes, produced by placing
a large light diffused with a butterfly or bounced
on a matte surface at a precise height so it would
be reflected in them. These eye lights are com--
monly added to prevent characters from having
a lifeless, or “dead gaze” look in their eyes.
CRANE SHOT 205
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 technical considerations
Choosing a focal length for a crane shot should take into
consideration the angle of view needed at every point of the
camera move, the axis of motion within the composition that
needs to be enhanced or diminished, and the narrative point
being made, among other factors. For instance, if the aim of
a crane shot is to showcase the vastness of a location as the
camera gradually rises, a wide-angle lens would allow show-
ing more of a landscape in the frame than a telephoto or a
normal lens. Conversely, if the camera's upward movement
needs to be emphasized, elements passing by it in the fore-
ground will appear to move faster with a telephoto lens than
with a wide-angle lens, because long focal lengths exagger-
ate movement along the x- and y-axes of the frame. Other
variables that could influence your choice of focal length in-
clude the amount of optical distortion you might want to add
or avoid at some point in a crane shot. For example, in the ex-
ample from Jane Campion’s The Piano on the previous page,
the medium close-up at the end of the crane shot would have
looked significantly different if a wide-angle lens with a very
short focal length had been used, since it would have distort-
ed the character's facial features in a noticeable way.
Even a relatively simple crane shot requires signifi-
cantly more time to set up, choreograph, and shoot than a
conventional shot, and for this reason their inclusion should
be accounted for in a production schedule. The type of hard-
ware involved can also dramatically impact how long it will
take to shoot them; there are over a hundred different models
of cranes available for film and video production, anywhere
from a jib arm that attaches to a tripod letting you elevate and
lower the camera just a few feet, to large, 8000-pound cranes
that require at least two operators and let you raise the cam-
era over 100 feet. Other options include telescopic cranes,
cranes with articulated arms, cranes that can support the
weight of a Steadicam rig along with an operator, and vehi-
cle-mounted cranes that can cruise at highway speeds. One
thing to keep in mind is that unless a crane is large enough
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to carry both a camera and an operator, you will need some
way to preview the frame as the crane shot is executed. This
is commonly accomplished with a preview monitor attached
at the base of the crane's arm, or with a wireless field monitor
system. If the crane shot involves any focus pulling, zooming,
panning or tilting, additional remote control systems (and
their operators) to adjust these features will also be needed.
Another option at your disposal, made possible thanks to ad-
vancements in digital video technology, does not require us-
ing a crane at all; drones equipped with lightweight 4K cam-
eras can recreate basic crane moves, saving you the trouble
of renting and transporting bulky crane equipment. However,
it is important to note that drones will make it impossible to
record clean audio because of the loud noise they generate,
so if the crane shot includes any dialogue, it will have to be
re-recorded in postproduction with ADR (automated dialogue
replacement). The use of a crane on set makes it paramount
to take extra safety precautions, like never allowing anyone
to walk under it, only letting qualified personnel operate it,
never exceeding its weight and movement restrictions, en-
suring cast and crew are aware of the movement that will be
executed beforehand, checking for potentially dangerous ob-
structions (like power lines) in the immediate area, and being
aware of weather conditions that may affect its performance
(like wind or extreme heat/cold).
Crane shots taken in day exteriors that include char-
acters may require diffusing sunlight in a way that does not
interfere with the camera's rising or lowering motion, which
might be difficult to do depending on the sun's elevation at
the time of day the shot is taken. Night exteriors present the
same lighting problems you will encounter when shooting ex-
treme long shots; you will have to either use powerful lights
positioned at a high vantage point to cover a wide area, find
a location with enough available light, or raise your camera's
ISO setting with the caveat you may potentially compromise
image quality by introducing video noise.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 breaking the rules

Crane shots are often combined with other camera moves (like pans and tilts) to augment the dramatic impact of a meaningful
moment in a narrative. This example from Sergio Leone’s Once Upon a Time in the West adds even more complexity by also
seamlessly incorporating a zoom out and a dolly move to a crane shot as it pulls back to reveal the sadistic killing of a man.
Throughout the film, we followed “Harmonica”, a gunman seeking revenge, as he relentlessly tracked down Frank (Henry Fon-
da), the leader of a gang of ruthless killers, without knowing his motives. During their final showdown, Frank (and the audience)
finally learns that many years earlier he had viciously killed Harmonica’s brother, during a flashback that uses this elaborate
crane shot to communicate the momentous significance of this event.

Once Upon a Time in the West. Sergio Leone, Director; Tonino Delli Colli, Cinematographer. 1968.

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 War and Peace, Part I: Andrei Bolkonsky. Sergey Bondarchuk, Director; Chen Yu-Lan, Anatoliy Petritskiy, and Aleksandr Shelenkov,
Cinematographers. 1965.

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aerial shot
Aerial shots showcase broad exterior locations, landscapes,
or events from a highly elevated perspective that can range
from hundreds to thousands of feet in the air; although they
are similar to overhead shots (covered on page 129), aerial
shots feature much higher vantage points. Since we nor-
mally do not see things from such heights, aerial shots are
inherently eye-catching, and tend to have a strong visual im-
pact whenever they are shown. The wide scope aerial shots
can encompass makes them ideal for establishing shots of
vast areas, since they can highlight a location's scale and
geographical features in a way no other shot can. When used
for this purpose, they often incorporate unmotivated cam-
era movement, typically in the form of a slow flyover that is
sometimes combined with a tilting up of the camera that
gradually reveals the horizon and a location's true vastness.
Aerial shots are also commonly used to display interactions
between large groups of subjects (like armies in combat), or
other massive-scale events (like natural disasters); in these
cases, the distant perspective tends to prompt audiences to
consider the larger implications rather than the personal
consequences of what they are being shown. Sometimes,
filmmakers exploit this emotional distancing by strategically
placing aerial shots immediately before or right after par-
ticularly intense scenes, as a way to create drastic shifts in
mood that heighten their combined dramatic impact (a tech-
nique screenwriters call "upping the ante"). For instance,
showing an aerial shot of a distant battle can create a sense
of anticipation that gets fulfilled when it is followed by a shot
taken at ground level in the middle of the action. Likewise,
taking the audience from within the battle at ground level
to a distant aerial shot of it can prompt them to become
more critically aware of its ultimate meaning within the
TFE2.indd 209
aerial shot
larger scheme of the story and beyond (a technique called
a "distancing effect"). The angle used for an aerial shot can
influence how it is interpreted by an audience; a downward,
diagonal angle tends to be seen as being more expository
and non-judgemental, whereas a top-down perspective can
suggest a more omniscient and even ominous tone (for in-
stance, when paired with a moving camera that follows the
path of a moving subject). But as always, the actual meaning
of a shot depends on its context within the narrative.
Aerial shots abound in Sergey Bondarchuk's first
chapter of his astonishingly faithful film adaptation of Tol-
stoy's masterpiece War and Peace, titled War and Peace,
Part I: Andrei Bolkonsky. Arguably the grandest epic film
ever made, it consists of four parts that span 431 minutes
and features over 10,000 extras. Given the tremendous scale
and sweeping scope of the production, it is not surprising
the filmmakers relied heavily on the use of aerial shots to
showcase the vast number of soldiers involved in the nu-
merous battles it depicts, taken from high vantage points
overlooking battlegrounds and from helicopters high above
the action. A particularly striking aerial shot can be seen
on the opposite page, from the climactic scene that depicts
Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Austerlitz. After the titu-
lar character is badly wounded and questions his desire to
achieve glory in the field of battle, the momentary peaceful-
ness and calmness he experiences gives way to an aerial
shot taken from such an extreme height thousands of sol-
diers can be seen within its composition. The high vantage
point feels so far removed from the throes of war, it allows
audiences to see the action almost in abstract terms, add-
ing a sense of poignancy and depth to Bolkonsky's previous
realization.
AERIAL SHOT 209
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 why it works
Beyond establishing the geography of large spaces, aerial
shots can also communicate specific ideas about a location's
character that can help set the tone or mood of a scene. This
aerial shot from Denis Villeneuve's Sicario, the story of an
FBI agent who gets recruited to topple a Mexican drug cartel,
does a lot more than just show the border crossing between
Ciudad Juárez and El Paso as a team of agents races to get
back into the United States; it also presents it as a peril-
Sicario. Denis Villeneuve, Director; Roger Deakins, Cinematographer. 2015.
210
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ous, potentially lethal obstacle in their way. This is because
throughout the film, aerial shots were carefully codified to be
associated with cartel-related violence, by their use during
news broadcasts about cartel atrocities, in DEA surveillance
imagery, and in montages shown every time agents traveled
to key border locations during their operations. Consequent-
ly, by the time this aerial shot is shown, audiences have al-
ready been primed to expect something violent will happen.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 Shooting the scene at this precise time of day
and under these particular weather conditions
resulted in having almost no shadows present,
highlighting how exposed the agents will be if
anything goes awry. If the scene had been shot
at dawn or at dusk instead, the elongated shad--
ows that would have been seen during those
times would not have made this area look as
exposed and perilous.
The canted angle used at the beginning of the
aerial shot not only recalls similarly-framed
helicopter shots commonly seen in live news
broadcasts (including earlier in this film), but
also suggests something off-kilter is happen--
ing at this moment. As the aerial shot travels
towards the agents stuck in traffic, the framing
straightens out (bottom right on the opposite
page), as if to signify they are heading from a
stable to an unstable situation.
TFE2.indd 211
The aerial shot was taken from roughly the
same altitude and from the same angle as a
helicopter shot shown earlier during a news
broadcast about Mexican drug cartel activities;
these visual similarities prompt the audience
to associate it with cartel violence when it is
shown, adding a sense of dread and tension to
this scene.
The composition's visual weight was positioned
at the center of the frame, ignoring a Rule of
Thirds location that would have produced a
more dynamic framing of these lanes of traf--
fic. This unorthodox placement compounds the
effect of the canted angle to further suggest
something out of the ordinary is taking place.
The shot begins with the camera flying directly
above the border crossing as it makes its way
to the agents' motorcade, far behind all of
these cars stuck in traffic (see opposite page);
this camera move allows the audience to get a
sense of the vast distance they would need to
cover before they can reach safety, stressing
their vulnerability.
From this height, the angle of view of the lens
used for this aerial shot allowed showcasing
the large number of cars stuck in traffic waiting
to cross the border, underscoring how unlikely
it will be for the agents to make a quick exit
back into American soil.
AERIAL SHOT 211
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 technical considerations
Until relatively recently, aerial shots required renting a he-
licopter with a large gyro-stabilized camera rig, and hiring
both a pilot and a specially trained aerial camera crew, mak-
ing getting these shots a very expensive proposition even for
major Hollywood productions. The exceptionally fast develop-
ment of inexpensive unmanned aerial vehicles, known collo-
quially as drones, coupled with equally impressive advance-
ments in digital video technology that allowed pairing them
with ultra-lightweight, high resolution cameras, have made
it possible for almost anyone to shoot professional-looking
aerial shots. Helicopters are still the preferred option in some
cases because they offer unique advantages over drones, like
faster speeds, longer flying times, significantly higher alti-
tudes, the option to use a shallow depth of field, and having
a camera operator with a more comprehensive situational
awareness than someone working remotely (especially im-
portant when an aerial shot includes dynamic camera move-
ment). However, drones are quickly catching up on most of
these areas, and offer advantages of their own beyond cost
and access, like the ability to get much closer to subjects
and into much smaller places than a helicopter ever could.
If an aerial shot does not involve complex camera movement
and simply showcases a panoramic view of a location from a
relatively lower altitude, drones are the preferred tool, even
in multimillion dollar productions.
Preliminary location scouting for an aerial shot can
be done virtually with Google Maps, as well as by searching
through user-submitted aerial photographs posted to social
media platforms; it is key, however, to familiarize yourself
with all laws regulating the flying of drones at your chosen
location, including the times of day flying is permitted, alti-
tude restrictions (in the United States, for instance, the limit
is 400 feet, roughly the height used for the aerial shot from
Sicario on the previous page), whether or not there are any
"no-go zones" nearby (like government buildings, airports,
and stadiums), and any certification/licensing/registration
212
TFE2.indd 212
requirements you may have to obtain. Drones are available
in a plethora of sizes and payloads that offer a wide variety of
flying capabilities, making it critical to select the right model
for your aerial shot. A particularly important aspect to con-
sider is the wind conditions you are likely to encounter at a
location; although most drones come equipped with 3-axis
gimbal stabilization, there is a limit to how much wind they
can handle before a shot becomes unusable due to camera
shake. Larger drones are generally better at dealing with
stronger gusts of wind than lighter, more portable drones; a
useful rule of thumb to keep in mind is that you should not at-
tempt to fly a drone if wind speeds are greater than two thirds
of your drone's maximum flying speed. Consulting historical
weather data to get a sense of typical wind speeds at your
location can be helpful in this regard, but it should be noted
they are generally not recorded at higher altitudes, where
they tend to be faster. Flying a drone during location scouting
can give you a much better idea of what to expect, provided
you do it at approximately the same time of day you plan to
shoot (this is also an excellent opportunity to get a preview of
what the light quality might look like when you shoot).
Before choosing a particular drone/camera combi-
nation, it is also important to ensure the colorist (the person
in charge of color correcting and color grading a movie) will
be able to match your drone footage with the rest of your foot-
age, since you will likely be shooting with different video co-
decs. During shooting, it is also crucial to set up your drone's
camera to manual exposure to avoid clipping your highlights,
use a native ISO, and if available, select a recording format
with a wide dynamic range and a cinematic color profile;
these settings will produce the best possible video quality,
and will make it easier to match your footage in postpro-
duction. As it should be evident by now, even a simple aerial
shot requires a lot of planning, preparation, and extra time
to shoot in case weather conditions do not cooperate, all of
which should be reflected in your production schedule.
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 breaking the rules

Alberto Rodríguez's atmospheric police thriller, Marshland, opens with a series of stunning aerial shots of the Guadalquivir
Marshes, where its story takes place, captured from such a high altitude they almost look like satellite images. From this ex-
treme height, the area attains an otherworldly, almost abstract quality as patterns that resemble a human brain are revealed,
setting a dark, disquieting tone for the events that follow. However, these are not actually aerial shots, but photographs of the
region taken by internationally recognized photographer Héctor Garrido for a book about fractal landscapes, which were ani-
mated in postproduction to include moving currents, flocks of birds, and grazing herds of animals to sell the illusion.

Marshland. Alberto Rodríguez, Director; Alex Catalán, Cinematographer. 2014.

AERIAL SHOT 213

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 Touch of Evil. Orson Welles, Director; Russell Metty, Cinematographer. 1958.

214

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sequence shot
Sequence shots are among the most complex, technically
demanding, and visually captivating shots you can attempt.
The term originates from the literal translation of the French
“plan-séquence”, and refers to a shot that incorporates a so-
phisticated set of dynamic camera moves and framing over
a long take, very often encompassing action from several
scenes that would normally be covered with a number of indi-
vidual shots. Sequence shots make an unmistakably powerful
narrative statement about the importance of the action they
cover and the spatial and temporal relationships between
elements in the frame, and generally suggest an underlying
theme that connects them and justifies presenting them in a
single, uninterrupted shot. For these reasons, they are often
used to showcase a crucial set of events that are pivotal to the
understanding of a story. Sequence shots can include a wide
variety of shots (like crane shots, dolly shots, tracking shots,
and Steadicam shots, among others), often combined seam-
lessly to create a dynamic frame that can include anything
from an extreme close-up to an extreme long shot. Camera
movement is often motivated by the movement of characters,
although unmotivated camera movement is also used some-
times, exclusively or in combination with motivated move-
ment. Since sequence shots are always long takes (shots
that can last anywhere from a minute to the entire duration
of a feature film), they preserve real time, space, the timing
of actors' performances, and add a sense of realism, tension,
and a dramatic emphasis to the events they showcase. How-
ever, the real-time aspect inherent in sequence shots does
not automatically connote realism, as they are frequently sty-
listically virtuosic and therefore very apparent to audiences.
Because of the difficulty behind the creation of these shots,
filmmakers have found ways to "cheat", creating what ap-
TFE2.indd 215
sequence shot
pear to be sequence shots that are in fact a series of separate
shots with edits concealed. This is often accomplished by cut-
ting between two shots while the frame is completely filled
with a nondescript image, like a blank wall, or by using the
silhouette of a character as they pass in front of the camera
(techniques used most famously in Alfred Hitchcock’s Rope
(1948), and more recently in Alejandro G. Iñárritu's Birdman
(2014)). The advent of computer generated imagery, or CGI,
has also made it possible to conceal edits more effectively,
making them virtually impossible to detect.
A legendary example of a sequence shot can be seen
during the opening of Orson Welles’ Touch of Evil, the story
of a Mexican narcotics agent committed to bringing down a
crooked American cop. The shot begins with a close-up of a
bomb's timer being set for three minutes, which then turns
into a high-angle long shot as it is planted in the trunk of a
car; it then shifts into a tracking shot as it follows a couple
driving the car to the United States-Mexico border, where
it reframes into a medium long shot when they cross paths
with newlyweds Mike and Susan Vargas (Charlton Heston
and Janet Leigh). The shot culminates with a dolly in move
into a medium shot of the couple as their romantic interlude
is interrupted by the car's sudden explosion, leading to the
sequence's first cut three minutes after the timer was set.
Showing this entire set of events unfold in real time greatly
enhances the sequence's suspense, tension, and intricate
connections in a way that would have been impossible to do if
it had been edited in a conventional way. The sequence shot's
labyrinthine camera movement also introduces the border in
a way that reflects the tangled moral, ethical, legal, and cul-
tural clashes that take place there, some of the key themes
explored by this film.
SEQUENCE SHOT 215
2/21/22 1:38 AM
 why it works
Sequence shots can make a powerful narrative statement
that showcases a pivotal and extended set of events, preserv-
ing the integrity of time, space, and performance in the pro-
cess. In this crucial scene from Juan José Campanella’s The
Secret in Their Eyes, a remarkable sequence shot (actually
seven shots seamlessly merged with the aid of CGI) does just
that, by starting high above a soccer stadium and then gliding
The Secret in Their Eyes. Juan José Campanella, Director; Félix Monti, Cinematographer. 2009.
216
TFE2.indd 216
above the crowds to follow federal justice agents Benjamin
and Pablo (Ricardo Darín and Guillermo Francella) as they
chase after a murder suspect (Javier Godino) through the
bowels of the stadium, ending with his arrest on the playing
field. The extreme dramatic emphasis implied by the use of a
sequence shot underlines the importance his capture repre-
sents and all but confirms his guilt.
2/21/22 1:38 AM

The sequence shot begins with an aerial shot
taken from a helicopter that reveals a soccer
stadium while a match is in progress. Today,
the same shot would most likely be taken with a
drone, and would be much cheaper and easier
to accomplish.
The extreme 86-degree canted angle reflects
the highly unusual circumstances of his cap--
ture as well as the emotional stress he is expe--
riencing at this moment. Note that despite the
unorthodox framing, the subject was still given
the appropriate amount of looking room and
headroom according to the Rule of Thirds.
TFE2.indd 217
The dramatic start of this sequence shot would
have lost much of its visual impact if the scene
had been set during the day instead of at night;
the vast darkness around the stadium makes
its brightly lit field stand out in the composition,
creating a strong focal point in the process.
Although this subject is supposed to be lit only
by the stadium’s available light, his lighting was
tweaked so that it matches the dramatic tone of
this scene, using light sources of different in--
tensities to give him a backlight that separates
him from the background and a fill light that at--
tenuates the shadows across his face.
The sequence shot shifts the composition from
an extreme long shot of the stadium taken
from hundreds of feet into the air all the way
to a medium close-up only a few inches from
the ground. This seemingly impossible feat was
accomplished by seamlessly blending seven
separate shots with the aid of CGI.
A short camera to subject distance, combined
with a large aperture, resulted in a shallow
depth of field that effectively focuses our atten--
tion on his agitated facial expression as he is
being captured.
SEQUENCE SHOT 217
2/21/22 1:39 AM
 technical considerations
The lens choice for a sequence shot will depend on its visual
and dynamic complexity. Some important factors to consider
are: the variety of shot sizes that will be involved, the angle
of view needed at every stage of the shot, the type of camera
or subject movement that needs to be emphasized or un-
derstated, the minimum focusing distance required during
key moments, and the aperture setting necessary to ensure
selected visual elements are in (or out of) focus as needed,
among others. For instance, in the sequence shot from Or-
son Welles' Touch of Evil examined at the beginning of this
chapter, the wide-angle lens used expanded distances and
enhanced movement along the z-axis of the frame, and also
added a slight degree of optical distortion to the architec-
ture of the border town while simultaneously showcasing
much of the richly detailed mise-en-scène due to its wide
angle of view and the use of a deep depth of field. These vi-
sual characteristics allowed introducing the border town as
a labyrinthine, sleazy, and sinister place, filled with moral
and ethical ambiguities where boundaries (both physical and
psychological) are blurred and easy to cross. This sequence
shot exemplifies a perfect synergy between visual style, nar-
rative needs, and thematic content, where the type of spatial
and motion manipulation provided by the lens was precisely
coupled with carefully choreographed lines of action, periph-
eral activity, camera movement, and framing; this same shot
would have been impossible to accomplish with a telephoto
lens and a shallow depth of field.
Sequence shots can be created with virtually any kind
of equipment designed to produce a free-flowing dynamic
camera move, including cranes, jibs, dollies, vehicles, hover-
boards, drones, cable systems, and Steadicam or handheld
rigs. Often, the execution of a sequence shot involves one or
more "handoffs" between different types of camera rigs (for
instance, by starting a shot with a handheld camera that is
later transferred to a vehicle and then hooked onto a cable
system) that requires several crews working in unison. While
218
TFE2.indd 218
all dynamic camera moves require extra time to light and to
coordinate equipment, crew, and cast, the unique technical
requirements of a sequence shot simply cannot be overstat-
ed. In fact, it is entirely possible for a single sequence shot
to take up an entire day of shooting or more, depending on
its level of complexity; for instance, it took director Michel-
angelo Antonioni and his cinematographer Luciano Tovoli 11
days to shoot a 7-minute sequence shot for the ending of his
film The Passenger (1975).
The strategies for lighting a sequence shot are not
dissimilar to the ones used for Steadicam and other dynamic
camera shots that cover several distinct spaces. If shooting
night interiors, the use of practicals (sources of light vis-
ible within the frame that are part of the mise-en-scène)
can be extremely helpful, since a roaming camera will likely
prevent placing movie lights where you normally would. In
some cases, a crew member is enlisted to travel alongside
the camera with a portable light source to provide sufficient
and constant exposure to a moving subject, although this
raises the level of complexity of an already very technically
demanding shot. Day interiors can be lit using only moti-
vated light coming through windows, allowing the camera to
travel freely without worrying about the placement of lights
within a location. Night exteriors, as always, present a for-
midable challenge unless you have access to large lighting
fixtures that can be raised high enough to pass for moonlight
or street lights; another option would be finding a location
with enough available light so that very few additional lights,
if any, would be needed (as seen during the beginning of the
sequence shot from Juan José Campanella’s The Secret in
Their Eyes in the previous section). More often than not, it
will be extremely hard or even impossible to have ideal light-
ing throughout an entire sequence shot taken outdoors at
night, so in these cases it is important to know beforehand
what its key moments will be to prioritize them and light
them accordingly.
2/21/22 1:39 AM
 breaking the rules

It is impossible to overstate the spectacular achievement accomplished in Aleksandr Sokurov’s Russian Ark, a film that uses
a single, 91-minute Steadicam sequence shot to transport audiences through 300 years of Russian history as they explore St.
Petersburg's Hermitage Museum. The uninterrupted take incorporates virtually every shot type examined in this book, and was
made possible thanks to the use of a Steadicam rig, a portable hard drive video recording system, and a mind-boggling amount
of planning to organize 2000 extras performing in 33 separate locations within the museum.

Russian Ark. Aleksandr Sokurov, Director; Tilman Büttner, Cinematographer. 2002.

SEQUENCE SHOT 219

TFE2.indd 219 2/21/22 1:39 AM

 filmography
1984. Dir. Michael Radford. Virgin, 1984.
2001: A Space Odyssey. Dir. Stanley Kubrick. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer,1968.
3 Monkeys. Dir. Nuri Bilge Ceylan. Zeynofilm, 2008.
The 400 Blows. Dir. François Truffaut. Les Films du Carrosse, 1959.
A Hidden Life. Dir. Terrence Malick. Fox Searchlight Pictures, 2019.
Agora. Dir. Alejandro Amenábar. Mod Producciones, 2009.
Amélie. Dir. Jean-Pierre Jeunet. Claudie Ossard Productions, 2001.
Apocalypto. Dir. Mel Gibson. Icon Productions, 2006.
The Avengers. Dir. Joss Whedon. Marvel Studios, 2012.
"Bad Choice Road". Better Call Saul, created by Vince Gilligan, Peter Gould, season 5, episode 9, High Bridge Productions, 2015.
Ballet mécanique. Dir. Fernand Léger. Synchro-Ciné, 1924.
Beau Travail. Dir. Claire Denis. La Sept-Arte, 1999.
Being John Malkovich. Dir. Spike Jonze. Gramercy Pictures, 1999.
Being There. Dir. Hal Ashby. Lorimar Film Entertainment, 1979.
"The Betrayal". My Brilliant Friend, created by Saverio Costanzo, season 2, episode 5, Fandango, 2018.
Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance). Dir. Alejandro G. Iñárritu. New Regency Productions, 2014.
The Bourne Supremacy. Dir. Paul Greengrass. Universal Pictures, 2004.
Brazil. Dir. Terry Gilliam. Embassy International Pictures, 1985.
Broken Embraces. Dir. Pedro Almodóvar. Universal Pictures International, 2009.
Caché. Dir. Michael Haneke. Les Films du Losange, 2005.
Children of Men. Dir. Alfonso Cuarón. Universal Pictures, 2006.
City of God. Dirs. Fernando Meirelles, Kátia Lund. O2 Filmes, 2002.
Clockers. Dir. Spike Lee. Universal Pictures, 1995.
Confessions. Dir. Tetsuya Nakashima. Toho Company, 2010.
The Conversation. Dir. Francis Ford Coppola. American Zoetrope, 1974.
Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. Dir. Ang Lee. Columbia Pictures Film Production Asia, 2000.
Die Hard. Dir. John McTiernan. Twentieth Century Fox, 1988.
The Diving Bell and the Butterfly. Dir. Julian Schnabel. Pathé, 2007.
Dogville. Dir. Lars von Trier. Zentropa Entertainments, 2003.
Don't Look Now. Dir. Nicolas Roeg. Casey Productions, 1973.
The Elephant Man. Dir. David Lynch. Brooksfilms, 1980.

FILMOGRAPHY 221

TFE2.indd 221 2/21/22 1:39 AM

 Enter the Void. Dir. Gaspar Noé. Fidélité Films, 2009.
Event Horizon. Dir. Paul W. S. Anderson. Paramount Pictures, 1997.
Ex Machina. Dir. Alex Garland. A24, 2014.
Exiled. Dir. Johnnie To. Media Asia Films, 2006.
Fallen Angels. Dir. Kar-Wai Wong. Block 2 Pictures, 1995.
Flowers. Dirs. Jon Garaño, José Mari Goenaga. Departamento de Cultura del Gobierno Vasco, 2014.
Full Metal Jacket. Dir. Stanley Kubrick. Warner Bros., 1987.
Gattaca. Dir. Andrew Niccol. Columbia Pictures, 1997.
The Godfather. Dir. Francis Ford Coppola. Paramount Pictures, 1972.
Gomorrah. Dir. Matteo Garrone. Fandango, 2008.
Goodfellas. Dir. Martin Scorsese. Warner Bros., 1990.
The Graduate. Dir. Mike Nichols. Lawrence Truman Productions, 1967.
The Grand Budapest Hotel. Dir. Wes Anderson. Fox Searchlight Pictures, 2014.
Gretel & Hansel. Dir. Oz Perkins. Orion Pictures, 2020.
Hot Fuzz. Dir. Edgar Wright. Universal Pictures, 2007.
The Hurt Locker. Dir. Kathryn Bigelow. Voltage Pictures, 2008.
I Am Not Madame Bovary. Dir. Feng Xiaogang. Beijing Skywheel Entertainment Co., 2016.
In Bruges. Dir. Martin McDonagh. Focus Features, 2008.
Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark. Dir. Steven Spielberg. Paramount Pictures, 1981.
Into the Wild. Dir. Sean Penn. Paramount Vantage, 2007.
Jeanne Dielman, 23, Quai du Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles. Dir. Chantal Akerman. Paradise Films, 1975.
John Wick: Chapter 3 ‒ Parabellum. Dir. Chad Stahelski. Lionsgate, 2019.
Joker. Dir. Todd Phillips. Warner Bros., 2019.
Kagemusha. Dir. Akira Kurosawa. Toho Company, 1980.
La Haine. Dir. Mathieu Kassovitz. Le Studio Canal+, 1995.
Last Year at Marienbad. Dir. Alain Resnais. Cocinor, 1961.
Léon: The Professional. Dir. Luc Besson. Gaumont, 1994.
Let the Right One In. Dir. Tomas Alfredson. EFTI, 2008.
Lichtspiel Opus 1. Dir. Walter Ruttmann. Ruttmann-Film, 1921.
The Lighthouse. Dir. Robert Eggers. A24, 2019.
The Lives of Others. Dir. Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck. Wiedemann & Berg Filmproduktion, 2006.

222

TFE2.indd 222 2/21/22 1:39 AM

 The Marriage of Maria Braun. Dir. Rainer Werner Fassbinder. Albatros Filmproduktion, 1979.
Marshland. Dir. Alberto Rodríguez. Atípica Films, 2014.
The Matrix Reloaded. Dirs. Lana Wachowski, Lilly Wachowski. Warner Bros., 2003.
Memories of Murder. Dir. Bong Joon-ho. CJ Entertainment, 2003.
Michael Clayton. Dir. Tony Gilroy. Castle Rock Entertainment, 2007.
Mission: Impossible. Dir. Brian De Palma. Paramount Pictures, 1996.
Mystery Train. Dir. Jim Jarmusch. JVC Entertainment Networks, 1989.
Naked. Dir. Mike Leigh. Thin Man Films, 1993.
Napoleon. Dir. Abel Gance. Ciné France, 1927.
Oldboy. Dir. Park Chan-wook. Show East, 2003.
Once Upon a Time... In Hollywood. Dir. Quentin Tarantino. Columbia Pictures, 2019.
Once Upon a Time in the West. Dir. Sergio Leone. Rafran Cinematografica, 1968.
Paris, Texas. Dir. Wim Wenders. Road Movies Filmproduktion, 1984.
The Passenger. Dir. Michelangelo Antonioni. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1975.
Perfume: The Story of a Murderer. Dir. Tom Tykwer. DreamWorks Pictures, 2006.
The Piano. Dir. Jane Campion. CiBy 2000, 1993.
The Proposition. Dir. John Hillcoat. UK Film Council, 2005.
Pulp Fiction. Dir. Quentin Tarantino. A Band Apart, 1994.
Raise the Red Lantern. Dir. Yimou Zhang. Century Communications, 1991.
Ratcatcher. Dir. Lynne Ramsay. Pathé Pictures International, 1999.
Reconstruction. Dir. Christoffer Boe. HR. Boe & Co., 2003.
Requiem for a Dream. Dir. Darren Aronofsky. Artisan Entertainment, 2000.
Reservoir Dogs. Dir. Quentin Tarantino. Live Entertainment, 1992.
The Revenant. Dir. Alejandro G. Iñárritu. New Regency Productions, 2015.
The Rock. Dir. Michael Bay. Hollywood Pictures, 1996.
Rocky. Dir. John G. Avildsen. Chartoff-Winkler Productions, 1976.
Rope. Dir. Alfred Hitchcock. Warner Bros., 1948.
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Russian Ark. Dir. Aleksandr Sokurov. The State Hermitage Museum, 2002.
The Secret in Their Eyes. Dir. Juan José Campanella. Tornasol Films, 2009.
Sex and Lucía. Dir. Julio Medem. Canal+ España, 2001.

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 The Shawshank Redemption. Dir. Frank Darabont. Castle Rock Entertainment, 1994.
The Shining. Dir. Stanley Kubrick. Warner Bros., 1980.
Sicario. Dir. Denis Villeneuve. Lionsgate, 2015.
Sid and Nancy. Dir. Alex Cox. Zenith Entertainment, 1986.
The Silence of the Lambs. Dir. Jonathan Demme. Orion Pictures, 1991.
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Solaris. Dir. Steven Soderbergh. Twentieth Century Fox, 2002.
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Star Wars: Episode IV ‒ A New Hope. Dir. George Lucas. Lucasfilm, 1977.
Suspense. Dirs. Phillips Smalley, Lois Weber. Rex Motion Picture Company, 1913.
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Thelma & Louise. Dir. Ridley Scott. Pathé Entertainment, 1991.
The Thin Red Line. Dir. Terrence Malick. Fox 2000 Pictures, 1998.
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The Truman Show. Dir. Peter Weir. Paramount Pictures, 1998.
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Up in the Air. Dir. Jason Reitman. Paramount Pictures, 2009.
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Wings of Desire. Dir. Wim Wenders. Road Movies Filmproduktion, 1987.

224

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 image credits

Page 20 Photo by Hugo Rousson courtesy of Claire McCarthy and Denson Baker
Figure 15 (a) Photo courtesy of Lindsey Optics and Joel Lipton
Figure 15 (b) Photo courtesy of Alan Gordon Enterprises Inc.
Figure 15 (d) Photo courtesy of Atomos
Figure 15 (e) Photo courtesy of Chemical Wedding
Figure 16 (a) Photo courtesy of Denson Baker
Figure 16 (b) Photo courtesy of Atomos

Original illustrations and photographs by Gustavo Mercado

IMAGE CREDITS 227

TFE2.indd 227 2/21/22 1:39 AM

 index Boldface indicates film titles. Italicized numbers indicate illustrations/film stills

A and dolly shots 182

abstract shots 147, 150, 153
in Reconstruction 150, 151
in The Soloist 146, 147, 150
in The Thin Red Line 148–149
Academy ratio 21
Ackroyd, Barry 32
Acord, Lance 103
aerial shots 129, 209, 210, 212
in Marshland 213
in The Secret in Their Eyes 217
in Sicario 210–211
in War and Peace, Part I: Andrei
Bolkonsky 208, 209
Adams, Marshall 118
Afkir, Walid 77
Agirre, Javier 25
Agora (Amenábar, 2009) 134, 135
Aım,
¨ Pierre 186
Akerman, Chantal 64, 65
Alcott, John 92
Alekan, Henri 177
Alfredson, Tomas 192
Almodóvar, Pedro 168
Amélie (Jeunet, 2001) 54, 55
Amenábar, Alejandro 134, 135
American Westerns 67
anamorphic ratios 21
Anderson, Paul W. S. 184, 185
Anderson, Wes 23, 24, 60, 61, 64
angles of view 30
in The Avengers 137
in Bad Choice Road episode (Better
Call Saul) 119
and close-ups 51
and crane shots 206
and director's viewfinders 37, 38
in Exiled 113
and extreme long shots 82
in Fallen Angels 31
in Lèon: The Professional 67, 70
and medium shots 64
in 1984 70, 76
and pan shots 170
in Perfume: The Story of a
Murderer 57
and sequence shots 218
in Sicario 211
and Steadicam shots 200
and subjective shots 102
of telephoto lenses 32
and tilt shots 176
and tracking shots 194
of wide-angle lenses 31
Antonioni, Michelangelo 218
Apocalypto (Gibson, 2006) 34, 35
Arbogast, Thierry 66
Aronofsky, Darren 152, 153
Artemis Prime 20, 37, 38
Artemis Pro 36, 38
Ashby, Hal 140, 141, 144
aspect ratios 21–24
and director's viewfinders 38
in The Grand Budapest Hotel 23, 24
in Gretel & Hansel 23, 24
in I Am Not Madame Bovary 23, 24
in Joker 26
in The Lighthouse 23, 24
in The Revenant 22
in Stalker 26
and The Rule of Thirds 24, 25, 26
Atô, Shôichi 128
avant-garde films 147
The Avengers (Whedon, 2012) 136–137
B
backgrounds 29, 31, 76, 108, 126
in Amélie 55
in Bad Choice Road episode (Better
Call Saul) 119
and blurriness see blurriness
and canted shots 126
and close-ups 49, 51, 52
and dolly zoom shots 185, 188
and emblematic shots 144
in Event Horizon 185
in Exiled 112, 113
in Fallen Angels 31
and group shots 114
in The Hurt Locker 32
in Indiana Jones and the Raiders of
the Lost Ark 181
in Jeanne Dielman, 23, quai du
Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles 64
in La Haine 186, 187
and long shots 76
in The Matrix Reloaded 75
and medium close-ups 55, 58
and medium long shots 70
and medium shots 64
and over the shoulder shots 90
in Perfume: The Story of a Murderer
56, 57
in The Royal Tenenbaums 61, 64
in The Shawshank Redemption 89
in Sid and Nancy 73, 76
and telephoto lenses 32, 64, 126, 170
in Thelma & Louise 107, 108
in Three Monkeys 51
in Trainspotting 189
and two shots 108
in WALL·E 49

INDEX 229

TFE2.indd 229 2/21/22 1:39 AM

 backgrounds (continued)
and wide-angle lenses 32, 64, 176, 194
Bad Choice Road episode (Better Call
Saul) 118–119, 120
Baker, Denson 20, 37
balanced shot compositions 27
and establishing shots 93
and extreme long shots 79
in In Bruges 175
and long shots 74
in The Matrix Reloaded 75
and medium long shots 67
in The Proposition 27–28
Ballet mécanique (Léger, 1924) 147
Ballhaus, Michael 44, 196
Bancroft, Anne 87
Bay, Michael 29
Béart, Emmanuelle 34
Beau Travail (Denis, 1999) 29–30
Being John Malkovich (Jonze, 1999)
103
Being There (Ashby, 1979) 140, 141, 144
Berger, Christian 77
Besson, Luc 66, 67
The Betrayal episode (My Brilliant
Friend) 130–131
Biddle, Adrian 106, 184
Bigelow, Kathryn 32
Bingol, Yavuz 50
Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue
of Ignorance) (Iñárritu, 2014) 215
Biziou, Peter 127
Blanchett, Cate 171
Blaschke, Jarin 23
blurriness
and backgrounds 34, 35, 52, 76, 108
in Bad Choice Road episode (Better
Call Saul) 119
230
TFE2.indd 230
in The Bourne Supremacy 161
and close-ups 51, 52
and depth of field 34, 35, 76, 108
in Into the Wild 155
and long shots 76
and medium close ups 55
in Michael Clayton 199
in Perfume: The Story of a
Murderer 57
in The Shawshank Redemption 89
and telephoto lenses 35, 76
in Three Monkeys 51
and two shots 108
and wide-angle lenses 35, 76
Boe, Christoffer 150, 151
Bogdanski, Hagen 28, 195
Bondarchuk, Sergey 208, 209
Bong, Joon-ho 71
The Bourne Supremacy (Greengrass,
2004) 160–161, 162
Boyle, Danny 189
Bracco, Lorraine 197
Brazil (Gilliam, 1985) 115
Broken Embraces (Almodóvar, 2009)
168–169
Brown, Nathaniel 133
Bryld, Eigil 174
Burum, Stephen H. 33
Butler, Bill 158
Büttner, Tilman 219
butterflies 57, 58, 70, 205
C and extreme long shots 82
Caché (Haneke, 2005) 77
Cage, Nicolas 29
camera movement
and aerial shots 209, 212
and crane shots 203, 206, 207
in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon
203
and dolly shots 159, 179, 182
and dolly zoom shots 185, 188
in Event Horizon 185
in The 400 Blows 191
in Full Metal Jacket 201
in Goodfellas 197
in Indiana Jones and the Raiders of
the Lost Ark 180–181
and inverted shots 135, 138
in La Haine 186–187
in Let the Right One In 192–193
in The Lives of Others 195
in Once Upon a Time in the West 207
and overhead shots 129
in The Piano 204–205
in Ratcatcher 179
in The Secret in Their Eyes 216–217
and sequence shots 215, 218
and Steadicam shots 197, 200, 201,
219
and subjective shots 102
in Swimming Pool 183
in Touch of Evil 215
and tracking shots 191, 194, 195
in Trainspotting 189
in The Truman Show 126, 127
camera placement
and canted shots 123
and depth of field 34–35
in Die Hard 125
in Fallen Angels 31
and field of view 30–31
and group shots 114
in Léon: The Professional 67
2/21/22 1:39 AM
 and medium long shots 70 and lenses 49, 52 deep depth of field 34, 35
in Mystery Train 108 and lighting 50, 52 and canted shots 126
and over the shoulder shots 87, 90 in Pulp Fiction 53 and close-ups 49
and overhead shots 132 and The Rule of Thirds 51 and emblematic shots 144
in The Shawshank Redemption 88 in Three Monkeys 50–51 and establishing shots 96
and zoom shots 159 in WALL·E 49 in Exiled 113
Campanella, Juan José 216, 218 Colin, Grègoire 29 and extreme long shots 83
Campion, Jane 204, 206 Confessions (Nakashima, 2010) 128, and focal length 58
Cantalupo, Salvatore 91 129 and group shots 114
canted shots 9, 123, 124, 126 The Conversation (Coppola, 1974) in Indiana Jones and the Raiders of
in The Betrayal episode (My Brilliant 158, 159, 162 the Lost Ark 181
Friend) 131 Coppola, Francis Ford 4, 6–7, 9, 158, and long shots 76
in Die Hard 124–125, 126 159 and over the shoulder shots 90
in A Hidden Life 123 Cox, Alex 72, 73, 76 and pan shots 170
in The Truman Show 126, 127 crane shots 203, 204, 206, 207 in The Piano 205
Carrey, Jim 126, 127 in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon in Raise the Red Lantern 143
Cassel, Vincent 186 203 in The Revenant 81
Catalán, Alex 213 in Once Upon a Time in the West and Steadicam shots 200
Ceylan, Nuri Bilge 50 207 in Thelma & Louise 107
Chang, Chen 203 in The Piano 204–205, 206 in Touch of Evil 218
Chapman, Michael 26 crash zoom 161, 162 and tracking shots 194
Chen, Shiang-chyi 59 Cronenweth, Jeff 83 and two shots 108
Chen, Yu-Lan 208 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon Delbonnel, Bruno 54
Cheng, Siu-Keung 112 (Lee, 2000) 202, 203 Delhomme, Benoıt ˆ 27, 59
Children of Men (Cuarón, 2006) 94–95 Cruz, Penélope 168 Delli Colli, Tonino 207
Choi, Min-sik 13 Cuarón, Alfonso 94 Demme, Jonathan 98, 99, 145
Chu, Xiao 142 Denis, Claire 29, 30
Chung, Chung-hoon 10 De Palma, Brian 33
City of God (Meirelles and Lund, 2002) D depth cues 24, 28–29
110, 111, 114 Damon, Matt 160 in The Bourne Supremacy 161
Claro, Manuel Alberto 151 Darabont, Frank 88 in Children of Men 95
classic director's viewfinders 37–38 Davis, Geena 106 and extreme long shots 82
Clockers (Lee, 1995) 46, 47 de Bont, Jan 124 and group shots 111, 114
Clooney, George 1, 173 de la Rica, Kiko 42 in Indiana Jones and the Raiders of
close-ups 2, 9, 21, 49, 50, 52 De Niro, Robert 27 the Lost Ark 181
and backgrounds 49, 51, 52 Deakins, Roger 68, 72, 88, 210 in 1984 69
and depth of field 49, 50 Debie, Benoıtˆ 133 in The Rock 29
and focal length 50, 52 Decaë, Henri 190 depth of field 34–35

INDEX 231

TFE2.indd 231 2/21/22 1:39 AM

 depth of field (continued)
and aerial shots 212
in Amélie 55
in Apocalypto 35
in The Avengers 137
in The Bourne Supremacy 161
and canted shots 126
and close-ups 49, 50, 52
in The Diving Bell and the Butterfly
101
and dolly zoom shots 188
and emblematic shots 144
and establishing shots 96
in Exiled 113
and extreme close-ups 46
and group shots 114
in Indiana Jones and the Raiders of
the Lost Ark 181
in Into the Wild 155
in La Haine 187
and lenses 34–35
in Léon: The Professional 67
in Let the Right One In 193
and long shots 76
and macro shots 156
in The Marriage of Maria Braun 45
and medium close-ups 34–35, 58
and medium shots 64
in Michael Clayton 199
in Naked 63
in 1984 69
and over the shoulder shots 87, 90
and pan shots 170
in Perfume: The Story of a
Murderer 57
in The Piano 205
in Raise the Red Lantern 143
in The Revenant 81
232
TFE2.indd 232
in The Royal Tenenbaums 61
in The Secret in Their Eyes 217
and sequence shots 218
in The Shawshank Redemption 89
in Sid and Nancy 73
in Solaris 173
and split-screen shots 120
and Steadicam shots 200
and subjective shots 100
in Thelma & Louise 107
in Three Monkeys 51
and tracking shots 194
and two shots 108
in Up in the Air 1–2
in WALL·E 49
see also deep depth of field; shallow
depth of field
Deschanel, Caleb 140
Deutsch angle shots see canted shots
DiCaprio, Leonardo 21, 80
Die Hard (McTiernan, 1988) 124–125,
126
Diehl, August 123
director's viewfinders
classic 37–38
digital 38–39
large format optical 38
distancing effect 24, 209
in Dogville 97
The Diving Bell and the Butterfly
(Schnabel, 2007) 100–101
Dod Mantle, Anthony 97
Dogville (von Trier, 2003) 97
dolly shots 159, 179, 180, 182, 183
in Indiana Jones and the Raiders of
the Lost Ark 180–181
in Ratcatcher 179
in Swimming Pool 183
dolly zoom shots 185, 186, 188
in Event Horizon 185, 188
in La Haine 186–187, 188
in Trainspotting 189
in Vertigo 185
Don't Look Now (Roeg, 1973) 139
Downey, Robert, Jr. 136
Doyle, Christopher 31
drones 82, 132, 194, 203, 206, 212,
217, 218
Dryburgh, Stuart 204
Dutch angle shots see canted shots
E
Eadie, William 179
Eggers, Robert 23, 24
The Elephant Man (Lynch, 1980) 163
Elswit, Robert 198
emblematic shots 141, 142, 144, 145
in Being There 141, 144
in The Betrayal episode (My Brilliant
Friend) 130
and group shots 111, 112
and medium long shots 67
and overhead shots 130
in Paris, Texas 109
in Raise the Red Lantern 82, 142–
143, 144
in The Silence of the Lambs 145
Enter the Void (Noé, 2009) 133
establishing shots 73, 79, 93, 96
and aerial shots 209
in Children of Men 94–95
and crane shots 203
in Dogville 97
in The Shining 93, 96
and tilt shots 173, 174, 176
2/21/22 1:39 AM
 Evans, Chris 136
Event Horizon (Anderson, 1997) 184,
185, 188
Ex Machina (Garland, 2014) 25, 26
Exiled (To, 2006) 112–113, 114
external field monitors 39, 138
extreme close-ups 33, 43, 44, 46, 150,
153
in Clockers 46, 47
in The Marriage of Maria Braun
44–45
in Sex and Lucia 43
extreme long shots 79, 80, 82
in Beau Travail 29–30
and canted angles 126
in The Conversation 159
in The Godfather 6
in Last Year at Marienbad 79
in The Revenant 80–81
and The Rule of Thirds 24
in The Secret in Their Eyes 217
in The Social Network 83
eye lights 52
in Three Monkeys 51
in The Piano 205
eye reflections 52
in Clockers 47
in WALL·E 49
F and over the shoulder shots 90
Fallen Angels (Wong, 1995) 31
Far From Yokohama (Mystery Train,
Jarmusch, 1989) 105, 108
Farina, Dennis 117
Farrell, Colin 174
Fassbinder, Rainer Werner 44
fast lenses 32, 33
Feinberg, Danielle 48 and tracking shots 194
Feng, Xiaogang 23, 24 and two shots 108
field of view 30–31 in Up in the Air 1
Figgis, Mike 120, 121 and zoom shots 159, 162
Fincher, David 83, 96 focal points 29
Firmino, Leandro 111 in The Avengers 137
Flowers (Garaño and Goenaga, 2014) in Beau Travail 29
25–26 in Being There 144
focal length 30 in Broken Embraces 169
and angle of view 30 in Die Hard 125
in The Avengers 137 in Exiled 113
in In Bruges 175 in The Marriage of Maria Braun 45
and canted shots 123, 126 in Michael Clayton 199
and close-ups 50, 52 in Naked 63
and crane shots 206 in Perfume: The Story of a
and depth of field 34, 35 Murderer 57
and dolly zoom shots 185, 188 in The Secret in Their Eyes 217
and emblematic shots 144 in Thelma & Louise 107
and establishing shots 96 in Three Monkeys 51
in Event Horizon 185 Ford, Harrison 180
in Exiled 113 Foster, Jodie 145
and field of view 30 frame axes 24
and group shots 114 Francis, Freddie 163
in La Haine 187 Freeman, Morgan 88
and lenses 30, 31, 32, 33 Fujimoto, Tak 98, 145
and long shots 76 Full Metal Jacket (Kubrick, 1987) 201
and medium close-ups 58
and medium long shots 70
in 1984 69, 70 G
Gance, Abel 117
in Perfume: The Story of a Garaño, Jon 25, 26
Murderer 57 Garland, Alex 25, 26
and split-screen shots 120 Garrido, Héctor 213
and Steadicam shots 200 Garrone, Matteo 91
and subject size 30, 35, 58, 64, 70, Gattaca (Niccol, 1997) 157
114, 162, 185, 187, 188 Gautier, Eric 154
and subjective shots 100 German Expressionist films 123
and tilt shots 176 Gibson, Mel 34, 35

INDEX 233

TFE2.indd 233 2/21/22 1:39 AM

 Gilliam, Terry 115 in The Bourne Supremacy 161 high angles 7, 8, 28
Gilroy, Tony 198 in Broken Embraces 169 in Amélie 55
Giménez, Xavi 134 in Die Hard 125 in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon
Girace, Gaia 130 in The Diving Bell and the Butterfly 203
Gleeson, Brendan 174 101 and extreme long shots 79, 82
Godard, Agnès 30 in Ex Machina 26 in A Hidden Life 123
The Godfather (Coppola, 1972) 4, 6–7 in In Bruges 175 in La Haine 187
Goenaga, José Mari 25, 26 in Indiana Jones and the Raiders of in The Lives of Others 28
Gomorrah (Garrone, 2008) 91 the Lost Ark 181 and overhead shots 129
Gong, Li 142 in Joker 26 in Perfume: The Story of a
Goodfellas (Scorsese, 1990) 196, 197 in La Haine 187 Murderer 56, 57
Google Images 82 in Let the Right One In 193 in The Piano 205
Google Maps 82, 212 in The Matrix Reloaded 75 in Touch of Evil 218
The Graduate (Nichols, 1967) 86–87 in Memories of Murder 71 in Up in the Air 1
The Grand Budapest Hotel in Michael Clayton 199 Hillcoat, John 27–28
(Anderson, 2014) 23, 24 in Naked 63 Hirsch, Emile 154
Greengrass, Paul 160 in 1984 69 Hitchcock, Alfred 27, 185, 215
Gretel & Hansel (Perkins, 2020) 23, and over the shoulder shots 87 Hitchcock's Rule 27
24 in Perfume: The Story of a in The Avengers 137
Griebe, Frank 56 Murderer 57 and dolly shots 179
group shots 111, 112, 114, 115 in The Piano 205 and emblematic shots 141
in Brazil 115 in Pulp Fiction 53 and establishing shots 93
and character connections 105 in The Secret in Their Eyes 217 and extreme close-ups 43
in City of God 111, 114 in The Shawshank Redemption 89 and extreme long shots 79
in Exiled 112–113, 114 in Solaris 173 in The Godfather 9
and medium long shots 67 in Stalker 26 in The Graduate 87
and medium shots 61 in Thelma & Louise 107 and long shots 73, 74
in Three Monkeys 51 and macro shots 153
in Uncut Gems 26 and medium long shots 67
H in Up in the Air 1 in Raise the Red Lantern 143
Hackman, Gene 159 in WALL·E 49 and split-screen shots 120
Hall, Jess 171 see also looking room; The Rule of in Taxi Driver 27
Haneke, Michael 77 Thirds in Thelma & Louise 107
Hardy, Rob 25 Hedebrant, Kåre 192 and two shots 105
Harris, Ed 29 Hemsworth, Chris 136 Hoffman, Dustin 87
headroom 9, 26 Henckel von Donnersmarck, Florian Homar, Lluís 168
in Bad Choice Road episode (Better 28, 195 Hopkins, Anthony 99
Call Saul) 119 A Hidden Life (Malick, 2019) 122, 123 Hoytema, Hoyte van 192

234

TFE2.indd 234 2/21/22 1:39 AM

 Hot Fuzz (Wright, 2007) 171
Hurbis-Cherrier, Mick 3
Hurt, John 68
The Hurt Locker (Bigelow, 2008) 32
I inverted shots 135, 138
I Am Not Madame Bovary (Feng,
2016) 23, 24
Idziak, Slawomir 157
image systems 9, 11–12, 31
and close-ups 49
and emblematic shots 141
and establishing shots 93
in Gomorrah 91
in In Bruges 174
and medium close-ups 55
in Oldboy 12–13, 14–16, 17–19
and overhead shots 129
in The Shining 93
and subjective shots 102
and tilt shots 173, 176
in In Bruges 174
In Bruges (McDonagh, 2008) 174–175
176
Iñárritu, Alejandro González 21, 22,
80, 215
Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the
Lost Ark (Spielberg, 1981) 180–181
indoor scenes
and close-ups 52
and emblematic shots 144
and establishing shots 93
and group shots 114
and long shots 76
and medium close-ups 58
and medium long shots 70
and over the shoulder shots 90
TFE2.indd 235
and overhead shots 132 Keitel, Harvey 47
and pan shots 170 Kendrick, Anna 1
and Steadicam shots 200 Khondji, Darius 25
and two shots 108 Kim, Hyung-ku 71
Into the Wild (Penn, 2007) 154–155 Kinski, Nastassja 109
in Agora 135
Knyazhinskiy, Aleksandr 25
Kubrick, Stanley 92, 93, 96, 147, 191,
in The Avengers 136–137 201
in Don't Look Now 139 Küchler, Alwin H. 178
ISO XIII, 35, 37 Kudoh, Youki 105
and depth of field 52, 64, 76, 90, 108, Kuleshov, Lev 11
114, 144, 156, 194 Kuleshov effect 11
and low-light situations 82, 96, 170 Kurosawa, Akira 166, 167, 170
native 37, 52, 64, 102, 114, 144, 212
L
J La Haine (Kassovitz, 1995) 186–187,
Jackson, Samuel L. 136 188
Jarmusch, Jim 104, 105 large format optical viewfinder 38;
Jeanne Dielman, 23, quai du see also director's viewfinders
Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles Lasky, Jeremy 48
(Akerman, 1975) 64, 65 Last Year at Marienbad (Resnais,
Jeunet, Jean-Pierre 54, 55 1961) 78, 79
Johansson, Scarlet 136 Laustsen, Dan XII
John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum Lavant, Denis 29
(Stahelski, 2019) XII, XIII Le Saux, Yorick 183
Joker (Phillips, 2019) 25, 26 leading lines 29
Jonze, Spike 103 in Beau Travail 30
judder 170, 176 in Children of Men 95
and extreme long shots 82
K in La Haine 187
in The Revenant 81
Kagemusha (Kurosawa, 1980) 166, in Thelma & Louise 107
167, 170 Léaud, Jean-Pierre 191
Kaminski,
´ Janusz 100 Lee, Ang 202, 203
Kang, Hye-jeong 13 Lee, Spike 46, 47
Kassovitz, Mathieu 186 Léger, Fernand 147
Keener, Catherine 103 Leigh, Mike 62
INDEX 235
2/21/22 1:39 AM
 lens finders 38
lenses 31–34
and angle of view see angle of view
and breathing 162
and close-ups 52
and crane shots 206
and depth of field see depth of field
and dolly shots 182
and extreme close-ups 43, 46
fast 32, 33
and field of view 30–31
and focal length see focal length
macro see macro lenses
and macro shots 153, 154, 156
and medium close-ups 58
and medium long shots 70
minimum focusing distance of 33,
46, 153, 156, 218
normal see normal lenses
and overhead shots 132
prime 33, 46, 156
slow 32
in smartphones 46, 52
specialized 33–34, 43
speed of 32, 33
and split-screen shots 119
and subjective shots 99
sweet spots 46, 96
telephoto see telephoto lenses
tilt-shift see tilt-shift lenses
wide-angle see wide-angle lenses
zoom see zoom lenses
Léon: The Professional (Besson,
1994) 58, 66, 67, 70
Leone, Sergio 207
Let the Right One In (Alfredson, 2008)
192–193
Libatique, Matthew 152
236
TFE2.indd 236
Lichtspiel Opus 1 (Ruttmann, 1921) 147
The Lighthouse (Eggers, 2019) 23, 24
lighting
and abstract shots 150
and available light 37, 70, 82, 90, 96,
102, 107, 162, 206, 217, 218
in Bad Choice Road episode (Better
Call Saul) 119
in The Betrayal episode (My Brilliant
Friend) 131
in Broken Embraces 169
in Clockers 47
and close-ups 50, 52, 58
and crane shots 206
and depth of field 35, 76, 90, 108,
114, 144, 170, 194,
in Die Hard 125
in The Diving Bell and the Butterfly
101
and dolly shots 182
and emblematic shots 144
and establishing shots 96
in Exiled 113
and extreme close-ups 45, 46
and extreme long shots 79, 82
and group shots 114
high-key 46, 119
in Indiana Jones and the Raiders of
the Lost Ark 181
and long shots 76
low-key 46, 113, 114, 119
and low-light situations 32, 35, 37,
70, 96, 102, 114, 162, 194
and macro shots 156
in The Matrix Reloaded 75
and medium close-ups 58
and medium long shots 70
and medium shots 64
and night exteriors 70, 82, 90, 102,
162, 170, 206, 218
in 1984 69, 70
and over the shoulder shots 90
and overhead shots 133
and pan shots 170
ratio 64, 108
in The Royal Tenenbaums 61
in The Secret in Their Eyes 217
and sequence shots 218
in The Shawshank Redemption 89
in Sid and Nancy 73
and subjective shots 102
in Thelma & Louise 107
in The Thin Red Line 149
and tracking shots 194
and two shots 108
and zoom shots 162
see also sunlight
Liotta, Ray 197
The Lives of Others (Henckel von
Donnersmarck, 2006) 28, 195
long shots 73, 74, 76
in Beau Travail 29–30
in Caché 77
and dolly shots 182
and group shots 111
in Jeanne Dielman, 23, quai du
Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles 65
in The Matrix Reloaded 74–75
in The Piano 204
in The Rock 29
in Sid and Nancy 73, 76
in Touch of Evil 215
and tracking shots 191
in Up in the Air 1
looking room 26
in Amélie 55
2/21/22 1:39 AM
 in Ex Machina 26
and image systems 12
in Indiana Jones and the Raiders of
the Lost Ark 181
in Joker 26
in Naked 63
in Perfume: The Story of a
Murderer 57
in The Piano 205
in Pulp Fiction 53
in The Secret in Their Eyes 217
in The Shawshank Redemption 89
in Stalker 26
in Thelma & Louise 107
in Three Monkeys 51
in Uncut Gems 26
in Up in the Air 1
in WALL·E 49
see also headroom; The Rule of
Thirds
Louvart, Hélène 130
low angles 28
in Bad Choice Road episode (Better
Call Saul) 119
in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon
203
in In Bruges 174
in The Lives of Others 28
in Thelma & Louise 107
Lubezki, Emmanuel 22, 80, 94
Lucas, George 25, 26
Lund, Kátia 110, 111
Lynch, David 163
M in What Time Is It There? 59
Mazzucco, Margherita 130
McCarthy, Claire 20
McDonagh, Martin 174
McGarvey, Seamus 136, 146
McGregor, Ewan 189
McTiernan, John 124, 126
macro lenses 33
and abstract shots 147, 150
and extreme close-ups 46
and macro shots 156
macro shots 153, 154, 156
in Gattaca 157
in Into the Wild 154–155
in Requiem for a Dream 153
Makedonsky, Lester 77
Malick, Terrence 122, 123, 148
Man of Sorrows (painting, Ensor) 13
Mangolte, Babette 65
The Marriage of Maria Braun
(Fassbinder, 1979) 44–45
Marshland (Rodríguez, 2014) 213
The Matrix Reloaded (Wachowski and
Wachowski, 2003) 74–75
Maurice-Jones, Tim 116
Medem, Julio 42, 43
medium close-ups 55, 56, 58, 59
in Amélie 55
and backgrounds 56, 58
in Brazil 115
and depth of field 34–35, 58
in Fallen Angels 31
and over the shoulder shots 87, 90
in Perfume: The Story of a
Murderer 56–57
in The Rock 29
and The Rule of Thirds 26
medium long shots 67, 68, 70, 71
and group shots 67, 111
in Léon: The Professional 67, 70
in Memories of Murder 71
in 1984 68–69
in The Silence of the Lambs 145
and two shots 105
medium shots 61, 62, 63, 64
and depth of field 64
and group shots 111
in Jeanne Dielman, 23, quai du
Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles 64, 65
in Mystery Train 108
in Naked 62–63
and over the shoulder shots 87
in The Royal Tenenbaums 61, 64
in Thelma & Louise 107
and tracking shots 191
Meirelles, Fernando 110, 111
Memories of Murder (Joon-ho, 2003)
71
Metty, Russell 214
Michael Clayton (Gilroy, 2007) 198–199
Milsome, Douglas 201
mirror reflectors 132
Mission: Impossible (De Palma, 1996)
33, 34
moiré effect 46, 96
Monti, Félix 216
Mühe, Ulrich 28, 195
Müller, Robby 104, 109
Mystery Train (Jarmusch, 1989) 104,
105, 108
Far From Yokohama segment 105
N
Nagase, Masatoshi 105
Nakadai, Tatsuya 167
Nakashima, Tetsuya 128, 129
Naked (Leigh, 1993) 62–63

INDEX 237

TFE2.indd 237 2/21/22 1:39 AM

 Napoléon (Gance, 1927) 117 and aerial shots 209 in Broken Embraces 168–169
Neill, Sam 185 and close-ups 52 in Hot Fuzz 171
neutral density filtration 35, 52, 76, 89 and crane shots 206 in Kagemusha 167, 170
90, 96, 108, 150, 194 and depth of field 34 Paris, Texas (Wenders, 1984) 108, 109
Niccol, Andrew 157 and emblematic shots 144 Park, Chan-wook 10, 12
Nichols, Mike 86, 87 and establishing shots 96 The Passenger (Antonioni, 1975) 218
night exteriors and extreme long shots 82 Pau, Peter 202
and crane shots 206 and group shots 114 Pegg, Simon 171
and establishing shots 96 and ISO settings 37 Penn, Sean 154
and extreme long shots 82 and long shots 76 Perfume: The Story of a Murderer
and medium long shots 70 and medium close-ups 58 (Tykwer, 2006) 56–57
and over the shoulder shots 90 and medium long shots 70 Perkins, Oz 23, 24
and sequence shots 218 and over the shoulder shots 90 Petritskiy, Anatoliy 208
and subjective shots 102 and overhead shots 132 Phillips, Todd 25, 26
and zoom shots 162 and pan shots 170 The Piano (Campion, 1993) 204–205,
Nimri, Najwa 43 and sequence shots 218 206
1984 (Radford, 1984) 68–69, 70, 76 and tracking shots 194 Pitt, Brad 24
Nishii, Yukito 129 and two shots 108 Pope, Bill 74
Noé, Gaspar 133 and zoom shots 162 Pope, Dick 62
normal lenses 8, 30, 31 over the shoulder shots 87, 88, 90 Portman, Natalie 67
and close-ups 49, 52 in Gomorrah 91 Potente, Franka 160
and crane shots 206 in The Graduate 87 Pratt, Roger 115
and medium close-ups 58 in Paris, Texas 109 Prescott, Robert 198
and medium shots 63 in The Shawshank Redemption previsualization tools 37–39
and subjective shots 102 88–89 see also director's viewfinders;
overhead shots 129, 130, 132, 133 external field monitors; large format

O in The Betrayal episode (My Brilliant

Friend) 130–131
lens finders; optical viewfinders
Prieto, Rodrigo 168
Odenkirk, Bob 118 in Confessions 129 prime lenses 33, 46, 156
Oldboy (Chan-wook, 2003) 10, 12–19 in Enter the Void 133 The Proposition (Hillcoat, 2005) 27–28
Oldman, Gary 73 Ozawa, Atsushi 128 Pulp Fiction (Tarantino, 1994) 53
Olivares, Galo 23 Ozon, François 183
Once Upon a Time... In Hollywood
(Tarantino, 2019) 24 R
Once Upon a Time in the West P Rabiger, Michael 3
(Leone, 1968) 207 Paltrow, Gwyneth 61 Radford, Michael 68, 76
Onorato, Marco 91 Pan, Luo 23 Raise the Red Lantern (Zhang, 1991)
outdoor scenes pan shots 167, 168, 170, 171 82, 142–143, 144

238

TFE2.indd 238 2/21/22 1:39 AM

 Rampling, Charlotte 183 The Rule of Thirds 24, 26 in Thelma & Louise 107
Ramsay, Lynne 178, 179 in The Avengers 137 in Three Monkeys 51
Ratcatcher (Ramsay, 1999) 178, 179 in Beau Travail 30 in Uncut Gems 25, 26
Reconstruction (Boe, 2003) 150, 151 in The Betrayal episode (My Brilliant in Up in the Air 1
Reeves, Keanu 74 Friend) 131 in WALL·E 49
Reid, Mike 117 in The Bourne Supremacy 161 see also headroom; looking room;
Reis, Michelle 31 in Broken Embraces 169 sweet spots
Reitman, Jason XIV, 1 in Children of Men 95 Russian Ark (Sokurov, 2002) 102, 219
Reno, Jean 67 in The Diving Bell and the Butterfly Russo, Francesco 130
repoussoirs 101 Ruttmann, Walter 147
in The Bourne Supremacy 161 and emblematic shots 141
in Children of Men 95
in Let the Right One In 193
and establishing shots 93
in Ex Machina 25, 26 S
in 1984 69 and extreme long shots 79 Safdie, Benny 25, 26
Requiem for a Dream (Aronofsky, in Flowers 25, 26 Safdie, Josh 25, 26
2000) 152, 153 and group shots 111 Saitô, Takao 166
Rerberg, Georgi 25 in In Bruges 175 Sander, Otto 177
Reservoir Dogs (Tarantino, 1992) 5, 7 in Into the Wild 155 Sarandon, Susan 106
Resnais, Alain 78, 79 in Joker 25, 26 Sayeed, Malik Hassan 47
The Revenant (Iñárritu, 2015) 21, 22, in Let the Right One In 193 Schnabel, Julian 100
80–81 in The Matrix Reloaded 75 Schnauz, Thomas 118
reverse shots 87, 88, 91 and medium close-ups 26 Schwartzman, John 29
Rhames, Ving 53 and medium shots 26 scope ratios 21; see also aspect ratios
Richardson, Robert 24 in Memories of Murder 71 Scorsese, Martin 26, 27, 196, 197
Richmond, Anthony B. 139 in Michael Clayton 199 Scott, Ridley 106
Rickman, Alan 124 in Naked 63 The Secret in Their Eyes
Ridmark, Patrik 192 in Perfume: The Story of a (Campanella, 2009) 216–217, 218
Ritchie, Guy 116, 117 Murderer 57 Seehorn, Rhea 118
Robbins, Tim 88 in The Piano 205 Seigner, Emmanuelle 100
The Rock (Bay, 1996) 29 in Pulp Fiction 53 Sekula, Andrzej 53
Rocky (Avildsen, 1976) 8 in Raise the Red Lantern 143 Sellers, Peter 141
Rodríguez, Alberto 213 in The Revenant 81 Semler, Dean 34
Roeg, Nicolas 139 in The Secret in Their Eyes 217 sequence shots 215, 216, 218
Rohrwacher, Alice 130 in The Shawshank Redemption 89 in The Passenger 218
Rosenberg, Martin 48 in Sicario 211 in Russian Ark 219
The Royal Tenenbaums (Anderson, in Stalker 25, 26 in The Secret in Their Eyes 216–217,
2001) 60, 61, 64 in Star Wars: Episode IV – A New 218
Ruffalo, Mark 136 Hope 25, 26 in Touch of Evil 215, 218

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 Serpico, Francesco 130
Serpico, Terry 198
Sex and Lucía (Medem, 2001) 42, 43
Seyrig, Delphine 65
shallow depth of field 34
and aerial shots 212
in Amélie 55
in The Avengers 137
in The Bourne Supremacy 161
and canted shots 126
and close-ups 46, 52
in The Diving Bell and the Buterfly
101
and dolly zoom shots 188
and establishing shots 96
and group shots 114
in Into the Wild 155
in Léon: The Professional 67
in Let the Right One In 193
and long shots 76
and macro shots 156
in The Marriage of Maria Braun 45
and medium close-ups 58
in Naked 63
and over the shoulder shots 90
and pan shots 170
in Pulp Fiction 53
in The Secret in Their Eyes 217
and sequence shots 218
in The Shawshank Redemption 89
in Sid and Nancy 73
in The Social Network 83
in Solaris 173
in The Thin Red Line 149
and tracking shots 194
and two shots 108
in Up in the Air 2
in WALL·E 49
240
TFE2.indd 240
The Shawshank Redemption
(Darabont, 1994) 88–89
Shelenkov, Aleksandr 208
Sher, Lawrence 25
The Shining (Kubrick, 1980) 92, 93, 96
shoot and protect 21
Sicario (Villeneuve, 2015) 210–211, 212
Sid and Nancy (Cox, 1986) 72, 73, 76
The Silence of the Lambs (Demme,
1991) 98, 99, 145
skateboard dollies 182
sliders 182, 188, 194
Slocombe, Douglas 180
Smalley, Phillips 117
smartphones
apps 82
and depth of field 52
lenses 46
Snatch (Ritchie, 2000) 116, 117, 120
The Social Network (Fincher, 2010)
83, 96
Soderbergh, Steven XIII, 172, 173
Sokurov, Aleksandr 102, 219
Solaris (Soderbergh, 2002) 172, 173,
176
Solitude (poem, Wilcox) 13, 18
The Soloist (Wright, 2009) 146, 147, 150
specialized lenses 33–34, 43
Spielberg, Steven 180
split-field diopters 33, 34, 90, 144
split-screen shots 117, 120
in Bad Choice Road episode (Better
Call Saul) 118–119
in Napoléon 117
in Snatch 116, 117
in Suspense 117
in Timecode 120, 121
Stahelski, Chad XII, XIII
Stalker (Tarkovsky, 1979) 25, 26
Stanton, Andrew 48, 49
Stanton, Harry Dean 109
Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope
(Lucas, 1977) 25, 26
Steadicam rigs 102, 138, 194, 206, 215,
218
Steadicam shots 197, 198, 200, 201
in Full Metal Jacket 201
in Goodfellas 197
in Michael Clayton 198–199
in Russian Ark 219
Steelberg, Eric XIV
Stewart, James 185
Stewart, Patrick Alexander 121
Storaro, Vittorio 21
subjective shots 99, 100, 101, 102
in Being John Malkovich 103
in The Diving Bell and the Butterfly
100–101
in Full Metal Jacket 201
in Russian Ark 102
in The Silence of the Lambs 99
sunlight
and crane shots 206
in The Diving Bell and the Butterfly
101
and establishing shots 96
and group shots 114
and long shots 76
and medium close-ups 58
and neutral density filtration 76, 96,
108
and over the shoulder shots 90
in Perfume: The Story of a
Murderer 57
in Raise the Red Lantern 144
in The Shawshank Redemption 89
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 in Thelma & Louise 107
and two shots 108
and zoom shots 162
see also lighting
Surtees, Robert 86
Suspense (Smalley and Weber, 1913)
117
sweet spots (lenses) see lenses
sweet spots (The Rule of Thirds) 24
in The Avengers 137
in Beau Travail 29–30
in The Betrayal episode (My Brilliant
Friend) 131
in The Bourne Supremacy 161
in Children of Men 95
in Flowers 25, 26
and group shots 111
in Joker 25, 26
in Michael Clayton 199
in The Shawshank Redemption 89
in Stalker 25, 26
in Star Wars: Episode IV – A New
Hope 25, 26
in Thelma & Louise 107
in Three Monkeys 51
see also The Rule of Thirds
Swimming Pool (Ozon, 2003) 183
swish pans 170, 171
T and tracking shots 194
Taghmaoui, Saıd¨ 186
Taracena, Gerardo 35
Tarantino, Quentin 5, 7, 24, 53
Tarkovsky, Andrei 25, 26
Tautou, Audrey 55
Taxi Driver (Scorsese, 1976) 5, 26, 27
telephoto lenses 30, 32
TFE2.indd 241
and canted shots 126 tilt shots 173, 174, 176
and close-ups 49, 52 in In Bruges 174–175, 176
and crane shots 206 in Solaris 173, 176
and depth of field 34–35, 73 and tilting speeds 176
and emblematic shots 144 in Wings of Desire 177
and establishing shots 96 tilt-shift lenses 33–34
and extreme close-ups 46 and emblematic shots 144
and extreme long shots 82 and establishing shots 96
and group shots 114 and group shots 114
and inverted shots 138 and over the shoulder shots 90
in Kagemusha 167 and subjective shots 102
in Léon: The Professional 67, 70 Timecode (Figgis, 2000) 120, 121
and long shots 76 Tiryaki, Gökhan 50
and macro shots 156 To, Johnnie 112
and medium close-ups 58 Toll, John 148
and medium shots 64 Touch of Evil (Welles, 1958) 214, 215,
and movement in the frame 32, 170, 218
176, 194 Tovoli, Luciano 218
in Naked 63 tracking shots 191, 192, 194, 195
and over the shoulder shots 90 in The 400 Blows 191
and pan shots 170 in Let the Right One In 192–193
and perspective compression 32, 35, in The Lives of Others 195
58, 64, 73, 76, 82, 90, 108, 114, 176, Trainspotting (Boyle, 1996) 189
185, 194, 200 Truffaut, François 27, 190, 191
and sequence shots 218 Trujillo, Raoul 35
in Sid and Nancy 73 The Truman Show (Weir, 1998) 126, 127
and Steadicam shots 200 Tsai, Ming-liang 59
and subjective shots 102 Tufano, Brian 189
and tilt shots 176 two shots 105, 106, 108
in Broken Embraces 168
and two shots 108 in In Bruges 175
Taylor, Gilbert 25 in Michael Clayton 198
Thelma & Louise (Scott, 1991) 106–107, in Mystery Train 105, 108
108 in Paris, Texas 108, 109
Thewlis, David 62 in Thelma & Louise 106–107, 108
The Thin Red Line (Malick, 1998) 2001: A Space Odyssey (Kubrick,
148–149 1968) 147
Three Monkeys (Ceylan, 2008) 50–51 Tykwer, Tom 56
INDEX 241
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 War and Peace, Part I: Andrei
U Bolkonsky (Bondarchuk, 1965) 208,
and over the shoulder shots 90
and overhead shots 132
Ueda, Shôji 166 209 and pan shots 170
unbalanced shot compositions 27 Washington, Isaiah 47 and perspective expansion 32, 35, 58
in The Betrayal episode (My Brilliant Watson, Emily 28 64, 76, 90, 108, 126, 176, 200
Friend) 131 Weaving, Hugo 74 in The Revenant 81
in The Diving Bell and the Butterfly Webb, Chloe 73 in Russian Ark 102
101 Weber, Lois 117 and Steadicam shots 200
and emblematic shots 141 Weir, Peter 126, 127 and subjective shots 102
and establishing shots 93 Welles, Orson 214, 215, 218 and tilt shots 176
and extreme long shots 79 Wenders, Wim 109, 177 in Touch of Evil 218
and inverted shots 135 Wexler, Haskell 158 and tracking shots 194
and long shots 73, 74 What Time Is It There? (Tsai, 2001) 59 widescreen aspect ratios 21
and medium long shots 67 Whedon, Joss 136 Widmer, Jörg 122
in The Proposition 28 Whishaw, Ben 56 Wilkinson, Tom 198
and split-screen shots 117 wide-angle lenses 30, 31–32 Williams, Sharon 139
Uncut Gems (Safdie and Safdie, 2019) in Amélie 55 Willis, Bruce 124
25, 26 and camera shake 102, 138, 194 Willis, Gordon 4
Univisium 21 and canted shots 126 Wings of Desire (Wenders, 1987) 177
Up in the Air (Reitman, 2009) XIV, 1–2 and close-ups 49, 52 Winstone, Ray 27
and crane shots 206 Wong, Kar-wai 31
V and depth of field 35
in Die Hard 125, 126
Wood, Oliver 160
Wright, Edgar 171
variable focal length lenses 33 in The Diving Bell and the Butterfly Wright, Joe 146, 147, 150
Vertigo (Hitchcock, 1958) 185 101
Vertigo effect shot see dolly zoom
shots
and establishing shots 96
in Exiled 113
X
video noise 37, 52, 64, 70, 82, 90, 96, and extreme long shots 82 x-axis 24
102, 114, 144, 156, 162, 170, 194, 206 and facial features 8, 49, 52, 55, 58 and group shots 111, 114
Vierny, Sacha 78 in A Hidden Life 123 and movement in the frame 167, 170,
Villeneuve, Denis 210 in The Hurt Locker 32 194, 200
Von Trier, Lars 97 in In Bruges 175
and inverted shots 138
Y
W and long shots 76
and medium close-ups 58 y–axis 24
WALL·E (Stanton, 2008) 49 and medium shots 64 and extreme long shots 82
Wachowski, Lana 74 and movement in the frame 58, 170, and group shots 111
Wachowski, Lilly 74 176, 194, 206 and movement in the frame 176

242

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 and tilt shots 173 and tracking shots 194
Yang, Lun 142 and two shots 108
Yeoman, Robert David 23, 60 Zhang, Yimou 82, 142, 144
Yoo, Ji-tae 13 Zhao, Fei 142
Yoon, Jin-seo 13 zoom lenses 33
and dolly zoom shots 185
Z and establishing shots 93
in Event Horizon 185
z-axis 24 and extreme close-ups 46
and blocking 173, 179, 203 in La Haine 187
and canted shots 123, 125, 126 and macro shots 156
and close-ups 52 in Once Upon a Time in the West
compression 32, 64, 108, 119, 176 207
and crane shots 203 parfocal 162
and depth cues 28–29, 107, 111, 114 and tilt shots 176
155 and tracking shots 191
and depth of field 34–35, 46, 52, 114, varifocal 162
144 zoom ratio 33, 162, 188
and dolly shots 179 zoom shots 159, 160, 162, 179
and dolly zoom shots 187 in The Bourne Supremacy 160–161
and emblematic shots 144 in The Conversation 159, 162
expansion 32, 52, 58, 64, 76, 82, 101, in The Elephant Man 163
114, 123, 125, 126, 144, 149, 176,
187, 218
and extreme close-ups 46
and extreme long shots 82
and group shots 111, 114,
and long shots 74, 76
and medium close-ups 58
and medium long shots 70
and medium shots 64
and movement in the frame 32, 58,
194, 200,
and over the shoulder shots 90
and sequence shots 218
and split-screen shots 119
and Steadicam shots 200
and tilt shots 176

INDEX 243

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