INTRO

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L O S S O F

Unity

SLOWING DOWN OF TIME

To understand that consider this - Two friends separate,
with one of them living in the plains and the other going to live in
the mountains. They meet up again years later: the one who has
stayed down has lived less, aged less, the mechanism of his
cuckoo clock has oscillated fewer times. He has had less time to do
things, his plants have grown less, his thoughts have had less time
to unfold. . . . Lower down, there is simply less time than at altitude
.So , we can now say that - Time passes more slowly in some places,
more rapidly in others.
Surprised? An even more surprising fact is that - someone
understood this slowing down of time a century before we had
clocks precise enough to measure it. His name was Albert Einstein.
Einstein understood that time does not pass uniformly everywhere
before the development of clocks accurate enough to measure the
different speeds at which it passes. One of the major questions that
Einstein asked himself was - What does it mean, this “modification
of the structure of time”? Today we can say for fact that It means
precisely the slowing down of time described above: a mass slows
down time around itself. The Earth is a large mass and slows down
time in its vicinity. It does so more in the plains and less in the
mountains, because the plains are closer to it.
This is why the friend who stays at sea level ages more slowly.
Hence, even though we cannot easily observe it, the slowing down of
time nevertheless has crucial effects: things fall because of it, and it
allows us to keep our feet firmly on the ground.

One conclusion that we can draw out is that there is no “truer”

time; there are two times and they change relative to each other.
Neither is truer than the other. But there are not just two times.
Times are legion: a different one for every point in space. There is
not one single time; there is a vast multitude of them. The time
indicated by a particular clock measuring a particular phenomenon is
called “proper time” in physics

The single quantity “time” melts into a spiderweb of times. We do

not describe how the world evolves in time: we describe how things
evolve in local time, and how local times evolve relative to each
other.
Hence , time has lost it’s first aspect – UNITY
(INFO- Einstein has given us the equations that describe how proper
times develop relative to each other.For example: (t table − t ground
) = gh/c 2 t ground where c is the speed of light, g = 9.8m/s² is the
acceleration of Galileo, and h is the height of the table.)
 4 T H D I M E N S I O N -

Time
Spacetime is a mathematical model which fuses the three
dimensions of space and the one dimension of time into a single
four-dimensional manifold. Spacetime diagrams can be used to
visualize relativistic effects, such as why different observers
perceive differently where and when events occur.

For example- If you wanted to meet a friend at any possible

location on earth, you would need to give them a precise
longitude, latitude, and altitude. However, this information would
not be enough for two people to meet because you did not give
him one more crucial piece of information - the time. He or she
would have to know what time they were to meet you at that
precise location.

Hence, these are the 4 dimensions of the universe– three spatial

dimensions and one time dimension. With these 4 coordinates, you
could rendezvous with anyone anywhere in the universe. In fact,
these 4 dimensions can describe any event in the universe. It seems
like an odd thing because time is not measured in meters or inches,
like the other spatial dimensions. It is measured in minutes and
seconds. It doesn’t seem to fit with the other three.

Yet it appears to be a fundamental component of the universe in

which we live, as fundamental as the other spatial dimensions. In
fact, time is an inseparable component of space.
That’s why physicists refer to the geometry of the universe, not as
space, but as spacetime. Until the 20th century, it was assumed that
the three-dimensional geometry of the universe (its spatial
expression in terms of coordinates, distances, and directions) was
independent of one-dimensional time. The physicist Albert Einstein
helped develop the idea of space-time as part of his theory of
relativity. He proposed that the fourth dimension is time. He said
time should be a dimension like the other spatial dimensions because
space and time are inseparable. If you wish to move through space,
you cannot do it instantaneously; you have to move from where you
are right now to another spatial location, where you’ll only arrive at
a certain point in the future. If you’re here now, you cannot be in a
different place at this same moment, you can only get there later.
Moving through space necessitates you to move through time as
well.

Hence, it is argued that time is the 4th dimension since without it,
we cannot construct any meaningful position vector with an
unchanging length. Time’s dimension is a line going from the past
to present to future. Thus, time as the fourth dimension locates an
object’s position at a particular moment
 E X P A N S I O N O F T H E

Universe

When scientists talk about the expanding universe, they mean that
it has been growing ever since its beginning with the Big Bang. The
galaxies outside of our own are moving away from us, and the ones
that are farthest away are moving the fastest. This means that no
matter what galaxy you happen to be in, all the other galaxies are
moving away from you.

However, the galaxies are not moving through space, they are
moving in space, because space is also moving. In other words, the
universe has no center; everything is moving away from everything
else. If you imagine a grid of space with a galaxy every million light
years or so, after enough time passes this grid will stretch out so
that the galaxies are spread to every two million light years, and so
on, possibly into infinity .

Who Figured This Out?

The American astronomer Edwin Hubble made the observations in
1925, proving that there is a direct relationship between the
speeds of distant galaxies and their distances from Earth. The
observation that galaxies are moving away from the Earth at
speeds proportional to their distance has traditionally been known
as Hubble’s Law, although it should be noted that, in 2018, the
International Astronomical Union (IAU) voted to recommend
That’s why physicists refer to the geometry of the universe, not
as space, but as spacetime. Until the 20th century, it was assumed
that the three-dimensional geometry of the universe (its spatial
expression in terms of coordinates, distances, and directions) was
independent of one-dimensional time. The physicist Albert
Einstein helped develop the idea of space-time as part of his
theory of relativity. He proposed that the fourth dimension is
time. He said time should be a dimension like the other spatial
dimensions because space and time are inseparable. If you wish to
move through space, you cannot do it instantaneously; you have
to move from where you are right now to another spatial
location, where you’ll only arrive at a certain point in the future.
If you’re here now, you cannot be in a different place at this same
moment, you can only get there later. Moving through space
necessitates you to move through time as well.

Hence, it is argued that time is the 4th dimension since

without it, we cannot construct any meaningful position vector
with an unchanging length. Time’s dimension is a line going
from the past to present to future. Thus, time as the fourth
dimension locates an object’s position at a particular moment

Amending the name to the Hubble – Lemaître law, in Belgian

astronomer Georges Lemaître to the development of modern
cosmology. The Hubble Space Telescope was named after Edwin
Hubble, and the single number that describes the rate of the cosmic
expansion, relating the apparent recession velocities of external
galaxies to their distance, is called the Hubble Constant.
So, is the Universe Infinite ?
It might be easier to explain about the beginning of the universe
and the Big Bang Theory, than to talk about how it will end. It is
possible that the universe will last forever, or it may be crushed
out of existence in a reverse of the Big Bang scenario, but that
would be so far in the future that it might as well be infinite. Until
recently, cosmologists (the scientists who study the universe)
assumed that the rate of the universe’s expansion was slowing
because of the effects of gravity. However, current research
indicates that the universe may expand to eternity. But research
continues and new studies of supernovae in remote galaxies and a
force called dark energy may modify the possible fates of the
universe.
Eventually theorists came up with three sorts of explanations.
Maybe it was a result of a long-discarded version of Einstein's
theory of gravity, one that contained what was called a
"cosmological constant." Maybe there was some strange kind of
energy-fluid that filled space. Maybe there is something wrong
with Einstein's theory of gravity and a new theory could include
some kind of field that creates this cosmic acceleration. Theorists
still don't know what the correct explanation is, but they have
given the solution a name. It is called DARK ENERGY.
 D A R K E N E R G Y &

Dark Matter
Atoms, stars , rocks , planets, galaxies, and even us are made up of
“matter” but this matter accounts for less than 5% of the known
universe. When scientists and theorists calculated why the universe
is structured the way it is, it quickly became clear that there's just
not enough normal matter. That suggests everything we experience
is really only a tiny fraction of reality. This leads us to our topic …
dark energy and dark matter . From the rest of the universe 25% is
dark matter while 70% is dark energy. Though we're sure that they
exist , we really have no clue of what they are or how they work
..because they are invisible.

Dark matter
1. Something is
out there
From what we know .Dark matter makes it possible for galaxies to
exist. The gravity of the visible matter is not strong enough to form
galaxies and complex structures. The stars would more likely be
scattered all over the place and not form galaxies. So, there is

2. It interacts
something there inside and around it. Something that doesn't emit
or reflect light. but besides being able to calculate the existence of
with gravity.
dark matter, we can actually see it. Places with high concentrations
3. There is a
of dark matter bend light passing nearby.

lot of it.
So, there's something there that interacts with gravity.
And we know that dark matter can definitely not be made up of
clouds of normal matter because it would emit particles we could
. detect.
 Dark matter is probably made up of a complicated exotic particle
that doesn't interact with light and matter in a way we expect.

Keep in mind that Dark matter is not anti-matter, because anti-

matter produces unique gamma rays when it reacts with normal
matter. Dark matter is also not made up of black holes, very
compact objects that violently affect their surroundings, while
dark matter seems to be scattered all over the place. In short -

1.SOMETHING IS
OUT THERE

2. IT INTERACTS
WITH GRAVITY.

3.THERE
3. ThereISisAa
lotOF
LOT ofITit.
DARK ENERGY
Dark energy is even more strange and mysterious. We can't
detect it and measure it. But we do see its effects very clearly. In
1929, Edward Hubble examined how the wavelength of light
emitted by distant galaxies shifts towards the red end of the
electromagnetic spectrum as it travels through space. He found
that fainter, more distant galaxies showed a large degree of red
shift; closer galaxies, not so much. Hubble determined that this
was because the universe itself is expanding. The red shift occurs,
because the wavelengths of light are stretched as the universe
expands.

More recent discoveries have shown that the expansion of the

universe is accelerating. Before that, it was thought that the pull
of gravity would cause the expansion to either slow down or even
retract and collapse in on itself at some point. Space doesn't
change its properties as it expands. New space is constantly
created everywhere, galaxies are tight bound clusters held
together by gravity so we don't experience this expansion in our
daily lives. But we see it everywhere around us. Wherever there is
empty space in the universe, more is forming every second.

So, dark energy seems to be some kind of energy intrinsic to

empty space. Energy that is stronger than anything else we know
and it keeps getting stronger as time passes by. Empty space has
more energy than everything else in the universe combined.

We have multiple ideas about what dark energy might be. -

 IDEAS ABOUT DARK ENERGY

1) First idea suggests that dark energy is not a thing, but

just a property of space. Empty space is not actually empty ,
it has its own energy. It can generate more space and is
quite active. So, as the universe expands, it could be that
just more and more space appears to fill the gaps and this
leads to a faster expanding universe.

2)This idea that Einstein had back in 3) Another idea is that

1917 is pretty close to the first one.
It gives us the concept of a
cosmological constant, a force that
counteracted the force of gravity.
The only problem is, that when we
tried to calculate the amount of this
energy the result was so wrong and
weird, that it only added to the
confusion.
empty space is actually full
of temporary, virtual
particles that spontaneously
and continuously form from
nothing and then disappear
into nothing again. The
energy from those particles
could be dark energy.

4) Another one is that maybe dark energy is an unknown kind of

dynamic energy fluid or field which permeates the entire universe, but
somehow has the opposite effect on the universe than normal energy
and matter. But if it exists, we don't know how and where or how we
could detect it.
 T H E P R I N C I P L E O F

Uncertainty
The French scientist the Marquis de Laplace once suggested that
there should be a set of scientific laws that would allow us to
predict everything that would happen in the universe, if only we
knew the complete state (i.e. their position and time) of the
universe at one time.
In order to predict the future position and velocity of a particle,
one has to be able to measure its present position and velocity
accurately. The obvious way to do this is to shine light on the
particle. Some of the waves of light will be scattered by the particle
and this will indicate its position. However, one will not be able to
determine the position of the particle more accurately than the
1. Something is
distance between the wave crests of light, so one needs to use light
of a short wavelength in order to measure the position of the
out there
particle precisely. Now, by Planck’s quantum hypothesis, one cannot
use an arbitrarily small amount of light; one has to use at least one
quantum. This quantum will disturb the particle and change its
velocity in a way that cannot be predicted. Moreover, the more
accurately one measures the position, the shorter the wavelength
2. It interacts
of the light that one needs and hence the higher the energy of a
single quantum. So the velocity of the particle will be disturbed by a
3. There is a
larger amount.
with gravity.
Moreover, this limit does not depend on the way in which one tries
lot of it.
to measure the position or velocity of the particle, or on the type of
particle: Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is a fundamental,
inescapable property of the world.
Duality between Waves and Particles
Although light is made up of waves, Planck’s quantum hypothesis
tells us that in some ways it behaves as if it were composed of
particles: it can be emitted or absorbed only in packets, or quanta.
Equally, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle implies that particles
behave in some respects like waves: they do not have a definite
position but are ‘smeared out’ with a certain probability
distribution.
There is thus a duality between waves and particles in quantum
mechanics: for some purposes it is helpful to think of particles as
waves and for other purposes it is better to think of waves as
particles. An important consequence of this is that one can
observe what is called interference between two sets of waves or
particles.
 Q U A N T U M

Theory
Quantum theory is the theoretical basis of modern physics that
explains the nature and behaviour of matter and energy on the
atomic and subatomic level. The nature and behaviour of matter
and energy at that level is sometimes referred to as quantum
physics and quantum mechanics. Organizations in several
countries have devoted significant resources to the development
of quantum computing , which uses quantum theory to drastically
improve computing capabilities beyond what is possible using
today's classical computers. In 1900, physicist Max Planck
presented his quantum theory to the German Physical Society.
Planck had sought to discover the reason that radiation from a
glowing body changes in colour from red, to orange, and, finally,
1. Something is
to blue as its temperature rises. He found that by making the
assumption that energy existed in individual units in the same way
out there
that matter does, rather than just as a constant electromagnetic
wave - as had been formerly assumed - and was therefore
quantifiable, he could find the answer to his question. The
existence of these units became the first assumption of quantum
theory.
2. It interacts
is a units of energy, with gravity.
Planck wrote a mathematical equation involving a figure to
3. There
represent these individual which he called quanta
The equation explained the phenomenon very well.
lot of it.
Planck found that at certain discrete temperature levels (exact
multiples of a basic minimum value), energy from a glowing body
will occupy different areas of the colour spectrum. Planck found
 that at certain discrete temperature levels (exact multiples of a
basic minimum value), energy from a glowing body will occupy
different areas of the colour spectrum. Planck assumed there was a
theory yet to emerge from the discovery of quanta, but, in fact,
their very existence implied a completely new and fundamental
understanding of the laws of nature. Planck won the Nobel Prize in
Physics for his theory in 1918, but developments by various
scientists over a thirty-year period all contributed to the modern
understanding of quantum theory.

The Development of Quantum Theory

· In 1900, Planck made the assumption that energy was made of
individual units, or quanta.
· In 1905, Albert Einstein theorized that not just the energy, but
the radiation itself was quantized in the same manner.
· In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that there is no fundamental
1. Something is
difference in the makeup and behaviour of energy and matter; on
the atomic and subatomic level either may behave as if made of
out there
either particles or waves. This theory became known as the principle
of wave-particle duality: elementary particles of both energy and
matter behave, depending on the conditions, like either particles or
waves.
· In 1927, Werner Heisenberg proposed that precise, simultaneous
2. It interacts
measurement of two complementary values - such as the position
with gravity.
and momentum of a subatomic particle is impossible. Contrary to
3. There is a
the principles of classical physics, their simultaneous measurement

lot of it.
is inescapably flawed; the more precisely one value is measured, the
more flawed will be the measurement of the other value. This theory
became known as the uncertainty principle, which prompted Albert
Einstein's famous comment, "God does not play dice."
 The Copenhagen Interpretation
and the Many-Worlds Theory
The two major interpretations of quantum theory's implications for
the nature of reality are the Copenhagen interpretation and the
many-worlds theory. Niels Bohr proposed the Copenhagen
interpretation of quantum theory, which asserts that a particle is
whatever it is measured to be (for example, a wave or a particle),
but that it cannot be assumed to have specific properties, or even
to exist, until it is measured. In short, Bohr was saying that
objective reality does not exist. This translates to a principle called
superposition that claims that while we do not know what the state
of any object is, it is actually in all possible states simultaneously, as
long as we don't look to check.

1. Something is
out there

2. It interacts
3. There is a with gravity.
lotthisoftheory,
To illustrate it. we can use the famous and somewhat cruel
analogy of Schrodinger’s Cat . First , we have a living cat and place
it in a thick lead box. At this stage, there is no question that the cat
. is alive. We then throw in a vial of cyanide and seal the box. We do
 not know if the cat is alive or if the cyanide capsule has broken and
the cat has died. Since we do not know, the cat is both dead and
alive, according to quantum law - in a superposition of states. It is
only when we break open the box and see what condition the cat is
in that the superposition is lost, and the cat must be either alive or
dead.
The second interpretation of quantum theory is the many-worlds (or
multiverse theory. It holds that as soon as a potential exists for any
object to be in any state, the universe of that object transmutes
into a series of parallel universes equal to the number of possible
states in which that object can exist, with each universe containing
a unique single possible state of that object.
Furthermore, there is a mechanism for interaction between these
universes that somehow permits all states to be accessible in some
way and for all possible states to be affected in some manner.
Stephen Hawking and the late Richard Feynman are among the
scientists who have expressed a preference for the many-worlds
theory.
1. Something is
Quantum out
Theory's Influence
there
Although scientists throughout the past century have balked at the
implications of quantum theory - Planck and Einstein among them -
the theory's principles have repeatedly been supported by
2. It interacts
experimentation, even when the scientists were trying to disprove
them. Quantum theory and Einstein's theory of relativity form the
3. There is a with gravity.
basis for modern physics. The principles of quantum physics are
being applied in an increasing number of areas, including quantum
lot of it.
optics, quantum chemistry, quantum computing and quantum
cryptography
 Introduction
In 1894, a high school teacher suggested to one of his precocious pupil that
he should leave, because he was unhappy. The teenager took that advice and
never came back. Later, he tried to apply to a prestigious university, but
failed the entrance exam. Later in his life, when he tried to get his dream job
as a professor, no university would hire him. He had to settle for a lowly job
as a clerk at a patent office. History does not remember the name of the
teacher, or the names of the universities that rejected him for a job, but it
will never forget that teenager, because he went on to not only revolutionize
physics, but changed the way we view reality itself. In 1999, Time magazine
named him man of the century. Today his name is synonymous with
"genius." We are talking , of course, about Albert Einstein. Yet this entire
revolution in physics started with a simple thought experiment. When Albert
Einstein first published the Special Theory of relativity in 1905, he was
either vehemently ridiculed or ignored. People thought it was just too weird
and radical to be real. "This guy is not even a working scientist, he’s just a
patent clerk", some said. "How dare he challenge the greatest scientist that
ever lived – Isaac Newton, whose theories have been proven to be correct for
hundreds of years". Some politicians even insulted his religious heritage .
Einstein was known, however, to have a very vivid imagination. And one day,
as legend has it, while observing a window washer on a ladder near his patent
office, he had one of his famous thought experiments that went on to change
the course of scientific history. With his theories of special relativity and
general relativity , Einstein overthrew many assumptions underlying earlier
physical theories, redefining in the process the fundamental concepts
of space, time, matter, energy, and gravity. Along with quantum
mechanics, relativity is central to modern physics. In particular,
relativity provides the basis for understanding cosmic processes
and the geometry of the universe itself.
Special Theory Of Relativity

Introduction
The theory of special relativity explains how space and time are linked
for objects that are moving at a consistent speed in a straight line. One
of its most famous aspects concerns objects moving at the speed of
light. Simply put, as an object approaches the speed of light, its mass
becomes infinite and it is unable to go any faster than light travels. This
cosmic speed limit has been a subject of much discussion in physics, and
even in science fiction, as people think about how to travel across vast
distances. The theory of special relativity was developed by Albert
Einstein in 1905, and it forms part of the basis of modern physics.

History
Einstein began thinking of light's behaviour when he was just 16 years
old, in 1895. He did a thought experiment, where he rode on one light
wave and looked at another light wave moving parallel to him.
In 1865, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that light
is a wave with both electrical and magnetic components, and established
the speed of light (186,000 miles per second). Scientists supposed that
the light had to be transmitted through some medium, which they called
the ether.
Classical physics should say that the light wave Einstein was looking at
would have a relative speed of zero, but this contradicted Maxwell's
equations that showed light always has the same speed: 186,000
miles a second. Another problem with relative speeds is they
would show that the laws of electromagnetism change
depending on your vantage point, which contradicted classical
physics as well .
This led to Einstein's eventual musings on the theory of special relativity,
which he broke down into the everyday example of a person standing
beside a moving train, comparing observations with a person inside the
train. He imagined the train being at a point in the track equally between
two trees. If a bolt of lightning hit both trees at the same time, due to
the motion of the train, the person on the train would see the bolt hit
one tree before the other tree. But the person beside the track would see
simultaneous strikes.

"Einstein concluded that simultaneity is relative; events that are

simultaneous for one observer may not be for another," the
encyclopedia stated. "This led him to the counterintuitive idea that
time flows differently according to the state of motion, and to the
conclusion that distance is also relative."

The Famous Equation

Einstein's work led to some startling results, which today still seem
counterintuitive at first glance even though his physics is usually
introduced at the high school level. One of the most famous equations in
mathematics comes from special relativity. The equation — E = mc2 —
means "energy equals mass times the speed of light squared." It shows
that energy (E) and mass (m) are interchangeable; they are different
forms of the same thing. If mass is somehow totally converted into
energy, it also shows how much energy would reside inside that mass:
quite a lot. (This equation is one of the demonstrations for why an
atomic bomb is so powerful, once its mass is converted to an explosion.)

This equation also shows that mass increases with speed, which
effectively puts a speed limit on how fast things can move in the
universe. Simply put, the speed of light (c) is the fastest velocity at
which an object can travel in a vacuum. As an object moves, its mass
also increases. Near the speed of light, the mass is so high that it
reaches infinity, and would require infinite energy to move it, thus
capping how fast an object can move.
The only reason light moves at the speed it does is because photons, the
quantum particles that make up light, have a mass of zero.

A special situation in the universe of the small, called "quantum

entanglement," is confusing because it seems to involve quantum particles
interacting with each other at speeds faster than the speed of light.
Specifically, measuring the property of one particle can instantly tell you
the property of another particle, no matter how far away they are. Much
has been written about this phenomenon, which is still not fully explained
in terms of Einstein's conclusions.

Another strange conclusion of Einstein's work comes from the realization

that time moves relative to the observer. An object in motion experiences
time dilation, meaning that time moves more slowly when one is moving,
than when one is standing still. Therefore, a person moving ages more
slowly than a a person at rest. So yes, when astronaut Scott Kelly spent
nearly a year aboard the International Space Station in 2015-16, his twin
astronaut brother Mark Kelly aged a little faster than Scott.
General Theory Of Relativity

Introduction
Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity completely changed the
notion of the Universe. It shed light on the birth of the universe,
planetary orbits and black holes. It is a geometric theory of
gravitation published by Einstein in 1915 and is the current
description of gravitation in modern physics. General relativity
generalizes special relativity and refines Newton’s law of universal
gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric
property of four-dimensional space time.

Newton's Idea About Gravitation

Until the early 20th Century, physics was mostly explained in terms of
Isaac Newton's laws. For Newton, gravity was a force generated by the
mass of an object causing them to attract each other, heavier objects
pulling others more intensely. Newton said that we stand on the ground
on Earth, because it attracts us to its centre. And that is why the planets
move around the Sun. But imagine if the Sun disappeared completely.
According to Newton's theory, the planets of the Solar System would
instantly abandon their orbits, as there would be no gravity attracting
them to the Sun. For Newton, gravity is a force with immediate Action
regardless of the distance between the bodies.

Einstein’s Challenging Ideas

According to Einstein’s calculations, light was the fastest
thing in the Universe. Nothing could travel faster than light,
 not even gravity. Light takes about eight minutes to cover the nearly
150 million kilometres that separate the Sun from the Earth. So, if
the Sun disappeared, how could the Earth go off its orbit before us
Earthlings stopped seeing sunlight? These problems suggested to
Einstein that gravity could have a different explanation than Newton
thought.

The General Theory of Relativity

Between 1905 and 1915, Einstein developed the theory of general
relativity. He imagined the three dimensions of space and the dimension
of time together as a kind of fabric surrounding us, shaped by the
presence of celestial bodies. He called it space-time. He imagined the Sun
as a heavy bowling ball placed in the middle of a trampoline. The ball
makes the surface of the trampoline dip. This curvature is what we feel
as gravity. So for Einstein, the Earth and the other planets remain in
orbit not because the Sun attracts them but because the Sun is such a
massive star that other celestial bodies follow the curve it generates in
the space-time fabric. Now gravity is no longer considered a force of
attraction between two bodies, as Newton thought. It is an effect of the
space-time curvature on bodies. So according to Einstein if the sun
disappeared, his theory says this disturbance in space-time would form a
gravitational wave that would travel to the planets at exactly the speed
of light. That means we would see the Sun go dark at the same time as
the Earth changes its orbit. In other words, what Einstein demonstrated
is that until then we had been seeing the Universe in the wrong way. In
order to express this mathematically it required complicated
mathematics. Einstein with the help of his friend Mathematician Marcel
Grossman figured out the mathematics of curved space-time. The
mathematical equations of Einstein’s general theory of relativity,
tested time and time again, are currently the most accurate
way to predict the gravitational interactions, replacing those
developed by Isaac Newton several centuries prior.
Newton’s Theory VS Einstein's Theory
Newtonian space and time, presumed that time was fixed, space was
fixed, and gravity was a mysterious force that could act at a distance
from one massive object to another without touching it. In this model,
Gravity did not affect the underlying space and time, but acted within
it. Einstein’s theory was that gravity was not a force between massive
objects, but something that emerges from the interaction of space
and massive objects. According to him Space-time tells matter how to
move and matter tells space-time how to curve.

Einstein's Gravity Field Equation

Mercury’s Precession
However for this theory to really be taken seriously, it had to make a
prediction that could be tested. This test came in the form of Mercury.
All planets orbited the sun in an ellipse. The planet closest to the sun,
Mercury, also orbited in an ellipse. But it did something weird. It had
something called a precession which means that its ellipse never closes.
The point of the orbit that was farthest from the sun advances a little bit
every time Mercury goes around the Sun. It’s as if the ellipse itself is
orbiting the sun. It could not be figured out using Newton’s equations.
When Einstein applied his new curved space theory to this orbit, .
the new theory predicted exactly the precession that Mercury
actually has. Finally, a theory perfectly matched the observation
which had been a mystery for decades. But the most fool-proof
confirmation of his theory came in 1919.
 Solar Eclipse 1919
An English Astronomer, Arthur Eddington, photographed stars near the
sun during a total solar eclipse. If Einstein was right, then the position
of the stars near the sun would appear different from the predicted
location based on where they should be as seen at night. This would
happen because as light passed near the sun, it would be bent by the
curvature of space due to gravity. And that’s exactly what he found,
confirming that the theory was correct.

Although General relativity is an astounding achievement by

one the greatest scientists of all time, it does not answer
everything. Questions remain, it tells us how gravity works,
it doesn’t tell us what exactly it is.
 TIME
Countless but an
inch of gold...
 Take a moment to observe the effects of gravity. Lift
your arm and feel how you are compelled to drop it
again. Gravity is always there—it’s stable, it’s
permanent, it’s unchanging. Or is it?

The equivalence principle tells us that the effects of

gravity and acceleration are indistinguishable. In
thinking about the example of the cylindrical ride, we
see that accelerated motion can warp space and time.
It is here that Einstein connected the dots to suggest
that gravity is the warping of space and time. Gravity is
the curvature of the universe, caused by massive
bodies, which determines the path that objects travel.
That curvature is dynamical, moving as those objects
move
 Motion is indeed illusionary

On one evening in spring of 1905, a patent clerk in Bern named

Albert Einstein, after his whole day of work decided to take a tram
car on his way home, it was this ride home that made Einstein
brainstorm...and this brainstorming revolutionized modern physics
forever…
While receding away from Zytglogge clock tower Einstein imagined
what would happen if the tram car was traveling at the speed of
light. He realized that if he was traveling at 186,000 miles per second
..the clock’s hands would appear to completely freeze (to him), at the
same time he knew that the clock’s hand would tick along at their
normal pace back at the clock tower, But for Einstein time had
slowed down…Einstein concluded that the faster you move through
space the slower you move through time

Q. How is that even possible?

The speed of an object through space reflects how much of its
motion through time is being diverted. The faster it moves through
space, the more its motion is being diverted away from moving
through time, so time slows down…
To understand this, we need to know -
 Where Did This "Time Dilation" Come From?
Einstein’s work was heavily influenced by two of the most iconic
physicists of all time – First there were the laws of motion discovered
by Issac Newton, and Second were the laws of electromagnetism laid
down by James Clerk Maxwell. Newton’s laws insisted that velocities
are never absolute but always relative so that their magnitudes must
be appended by the phrase “with respect to”. On the other hand,
Maxwell found that the speed of an electromagnetic wave such as
light is fixed at an exorbitant 299,792,458m/s regardless of who
observes it. Einstein had to make a difficult choice, either Newton’s
laws were incomplete or the speed of light was not a universal
constant. He soon realized that the two notions can coexist with just
a little tweak in Newton's laws.

Einstein suggested that time itself (for an inertial observer like that
guy standing beside the track , that we just read about) must slow
down to compensate for the decrease in speed such that the
magnitude remains a constant.
Einstein called this absurdity “Time dilation” and his newfound theory
“Special relativity”.
So now we know that time dilation, in the theory of special relativity,
is the “slowing down” of a clock as determined by an observer who is
in relative motion with respect to that clock.
To understand this further we should know about -

The Twin Paradox

Two identical twin astronauts, Stella and Terra on their 20th birthday,
volunteered for an experiment. It was decided that one of them will
remain on earth while the other will board a spaceship. Stella’s
spaceship will be moving at 86.6% the speed of light to visit a star
that was 10 light-years away. The relationship between Stella’s
moving spaceship and terra (an unmoving observer) can be quantified
by the Lorentz factor.
At 86.6% of the speed of light, the Lorentz factor is 2, meaning that
time will pass twice as slowly aboard the spaceship. Stella won’t
notice this slowing down as everything – clocks and electrical
devices will also slow down. Stella’s own biological activities
including her rate of aging and her perception of time itself will slow
down. In accordance with the time-dilation effect, the elapsed time
on the clock of the twin on the rocket ship will be smaller than that
of the inertial observer twin. i.e. The inertial observer – Terra will be
older than Stella when they meet back on earth.
Anything and everything that taught us about time dilation have
been written down in golden letters in the history of space-time, Be
it Einstein’s theory of relativity that gave us time dilation or The
twin paradox that gave us a better understanding of time dilation.
No doubts given to how mind-boggling yet magnificent time dilation
is… History speaks for itself…
 THE ARROW OF TIME
The explanation that is usually given as to why we don’t see broken cups
jumping back onto the table is that it is forbidden by the second law of
thermodynamics. This says that disorder or entropy always increases with
time. In other words, it is Murphy’s Law—things get worse. An intact cup
on the table is in a state of high order, but a broken cup on the floor is a
disordered state. One can therefore go from the whole cup on the table in
the past to the broken cup on the floor in the future, but not the other
way around.
The increase of disorder or entropy with time is one example of what is
called an arrow of time, something that gives a direction to time and
distinguishes the past from the future. There are at least three different
arrows of time. First, there is the thermodynamic arrow of time—the
direction of time in which disorder or entropy increases. Second, there is
the psychological arrow of time. This is the direction in which we feel
time passes—the direction of time in which we remember the past, but
not the future.

The Thermodynamic Arrow

Suppose a system starts out in one of the small numbers of ordered
states. As time goes by, the system will evolve according to the laws of
physics and its state will change. At a later time, there is a high
probability that it will be in a more disordered state, simply because there
are so many more disordered states. Thus, the disorder will tend to
increase with time if the system obeys an initial condition of a high
order. This is the thermodynamic arrow of time
 The Psychological Arrow
The direction of time in which a computer remembers the past is the same
as that in which disorder increases. This means that our subjective sense
of the direction of time, the psychological arrow of time, is determined by
the thermodynamic arrow of time. This makes the second law of
thermodynamics almost trivial. Disorder increases with time because we
measure time in the direction in which disorder increases. You can’t have
a safer bet than that.

The Cosmological Arrow

The cosmological arrow of time points in the direction of the universe's
expansion. It may be linked to the thermodynamic arrow, with the
universe heading towards a heat death (Big Chill) as the amount of usable
energy becomes negligible. Alternatively, it may be an artifact of our
place in the universe's evolution (see the Anthropic bias), with this arrow
reversing as gravity pulls everything back into a Big Crunch.
If this arrow of time is related to the other arrows of time, then the
future is by definition the direction towards which the universe becomes
bigger. Thus, the universe expands—rather than shrinks. This is a
cosmological arrow of time.
HOLES

HOLES
 introduction

We find ourselves in a bewildering world. We want to

make sense of what we see around us and to ask: what is
the nature of the universe? What is our place in it and
where did it come from? Why is it the way it is?
To try to answer these questions we adopt some ‘world
picture.’ Just as an infinite tower of tortoises
supporting the flat earth is such a picture, so is the
theory of superstrings. Black holes and wormholes are
some of the strangest and most fascinating objects in
outer space. They're extremely dense, with such strong
gravitational attraction that even light cannot escape
their grasp if it comes near enough. These strange
entities contain the hidden secrets beyond the
imagination of a mere human. Parallel universe,
teleportation, breaking light barrier, cosmic
microwave background breakdown are some of these
possibilities predicted but you never know its enigmas
by meagre anticipation. Or how about falling into
infinitely tiny points, compressing your matter
constituents to what is called The Singularity, a place
where all conceptions of time and space completely
fall apart or in other words, a no man’s land. Curious
enough already? Let’s dive right in.
 holes
BLACK
"where god divided by zero"
Life of a Star
To understand how a black hole might be formed, we first need
an understanding of the life of a star. A star is formed when a
large amount of gas (mostly hydrogen) starts to collapse in on
itself due to its gravitational attraction. As it contracts the gas
heats up. Eventually, the gas will be so hot that when the
hydrogen atoms collide, they no longer bounce off each other,
but instead coalesce to form helium. The heat released in this
reaction is what makes the star shine. This additional heat also
increases the pressure of the gas until it is sufficient to balance
the gravitational attraction, and the gas stops contracting.
Stars will remain stable like this for a long time, with heat from
the nuclear reactions balancing the gravitational attraction.
Eventually, however, the star will run out of its hydrogen and
other nuclear fuels.

Chandrasekhar Limit
When the star got sufficiently dense, the repulsion caused by the
Pauli’s exclusion principle would be less than the attraction of
gravity. Chandrasekhar calculated that a cold star of more than
about one and a half times the mass of the sun would not be able
to support itself against its own gravity. (This mass is now
known as the Chandrasekhar limit.)
 Death of a Star
White Dwarf
If a star’s mass is less than the Chandrasekhar limit, it can
eventually stop contracting and settle down to a possible final
state as a ‘white dwarf’ with a radius of a few thousand miles and
a density of hundreds of tons per cubic inch.

Neutron Stars
There was another possible final state for a star, also with a
limiting mass of about one or two times the mass of the sun but
much smaller even than a white dwarf. They are called neutron
stars. They would have a radius of only ten miles or so and a
density of hundreds of millions of tons per cubic inch.

Blackholes
Stars with masses above the Chandrasekhar limit, on the other
hand, have a big problem when they come to the end of their fuel.
In some cases, they may explode or manage to throw off enough
matter to reduce their mass below the limit and so avoid
catastrophic gravitational collapse but in most cases, it forms
what is now called Black holes.

Black Hole Formation

The gravitational field of the star changes the paths of light rays
in space-time from what they would have been had the star not
been present. The light cones, which indicate the paths followed in
space and time by flashes of light emitted from their tips, are bent
slightly inward near the surface of the star. As the star contracts,
the gravitational field at its surface gets stronger and the light
cones get bent inward more. This makes it more difficult for light
from the star to escape, and the light appears dimmer and redder
to an observer at a distance. Eventually, when the star has shrunk
to a certain critical radius, the gravitational field at the surface
becomes so strong that the light cones are bent inward so much
that light can no longer escape. According to the theory of
relativity, nothing can travel faster than light. Thus if light cannot
escape, neither can anything else; everything is dragged back by
the gravitational field.

Structure of a Black Hole

Singularity-
A singularity is a location in spacetime where the density and
gravitational field of a celestial body is predicted to become
infinite by general relativity

Event Horizon-
The event horizon, the boundary of the region of space-time from
which it is not possible to escape, objects can fall through the
event horizon into the black hole, but nothing can ever get out of
the black hole through the event horizon.

Ergosphere-
The region just outside the event horizon of a rotating black hole
(i.e., a Kerr black hole), within which an observer is forced to
rotate with the black hole, and cannot remain stationary with
respect to the rest of the Universe. The outer boundary of the
ergosphere is the static limit.
 Space-Time in a Black Hole
To a distant observer, clocks near a black hole would appear to
tick more slowly than those further away from the black hole. Due
to this effect, known as gravitational time dilation, an object
falling into a black hole appears to slow as it approaches the event
horizon, taking an infinite time to reach it. At the same time, all
processes on this object slow down, from the viewpoint of a fixed
outside observer, causing any light emitted by the object to
appear redder and dimmer. Eventually, the falling object fades
away until it can no longer be seen.
On the other hand, indestructible observers falling into a black
hole do not notice any of these effects as they cross the event
horizon. According to their own clocks, which appear to them to
tick normally, they cross the event horizon after a finite time
without noting any singular behavior.

Spaghettification
Gravity gets weaker the farther you are from the star, so the
gravitational force on our intrepid astronaut’s feet would always
be greater than the force on his head. This difference in the forces
would stretch our astronaut out like spaghetti or tear him apart
before the star had contracted to the critical radius at which the
event horizon formed!

Cosmic Censorship Hypothesis

According to general relativity, there must be a singularity of
infinite density and space-time curvature within a black hole. At
this singularity the laws of science and our ability to predict the
future would break down. However, any observer who remained
outside the black hole would not be affected by this failure of
predictability, because neither light nor any other signal could
reach him from the singularity. This remarkable fact led Roger
Penrose to propose the cosmic censorship hypothesis: it protects
observers who remain outside the black hole from the
consequences of the breakdown of predictability that occurs at
the singularity, but it does nothing at all for the matter that falls
into the hole.

Shape of Black Holes

The rapid movements involved in a star’s collapse would mean that
the gravitational waves it gave off would make it ever more
spherical, and by the time it had settled down to a stationary
state, it would be precisely spherical. According to this view, any
non-rotating star, however complicated its shape and internal
structure, would end up after gravitational collapse as a perfectly
spherical black hole, whose size would depend only on its mass.

Kerr holes-
A Kerr black hole is a type of black hole that possesses only mass
and angular momentum (but not electrical charge – the third
possible property of a black hole). In other words, a Kerr black hole
is an uncharged black hole that rotates about a central axis.
Moreover, its size and shape would depend only on its mass and
rate of rotation, and not on the nature of the body that had
collapsed to form it. So, a very large amount of information about
the body that has collapsed must be lost when a black hole is
formed.
Schwarzschild Black Hole-
If the rotation is zero, the black hole is perfectly round and the
solution is identical to the Schwarzschild solution. Schwarzschild
Black Hole, otherwise known as a 'static black hole' has no electric
charge. It is characterized solely by its mass.

Hawking Radiation
The paths of light rays in the event horizon had always to be
moving parallel to, or away from, each other. Thus, the area of the
event horizon might stay the same or increase with time but it
could never decrease, in fact, the area would increase whenever
matter or radiation fell into the black hole If a black hole has
entropy, then it ought also to have a temperature. But a body with
a particular temperature must emit radiation at a certain rate.
This radiation is required in order to prevent violation of the
second law of thermodynamics. So, a black hole ought to emit
particles and radiation as if it were a hot body with a temperature
that depends only on the black hole’s mass: the higher the mass,
the lower the temperature.

Where does this radiation come from?

How is it possible that a black hole appears to emit particles when
we know that nothing can escape from within its event horizon?
The answer, quantum theory tells us, is that the particles do not
come from within the black hole, but from the ‘empty’ space just
outside the black hole’s event horizon!
In empty space, there must be a certain minimum amount of
uncertainty, or quantum fluctuations, in the value of the field.
One can think of these fluctuations as pairs of particles of light or
gravity that appear together at some time, move apart, and then
come together again and annihilate each other. one of the
partners in a particle/antiparticle pair will have positive energy,
and the other partner negative energy. If a black hole is present,
for the virtual particle with negative energy to fall into the black
hole and become a real particle or antiparticle. In this case it no
longer has to annihilate with its partner. Its forsaken partner may
fall into the black hole as well. Or, having positive energy, it might
also escape from the vicinity of the black hole as a real particle or
antiparticle. To an observer at a distance, it will appear to have
been emitted from the black hole.

The positive energy of the outgoing radiation would be balanced

by a flow of negative energy particles into the black hole. By
Einstein’s equation E = mc2 (where E is energy, m is mass, and c is
the speed of light), energy is proportional to mass. A flow of
negative energy into the black hole therefore reduces its mass. As
the black hole loses mass, the area of its event horizon gets
smaller.

Primoradial Black Holes

Primordial black holes with masses more than a thousand million
tons (the mass of a large mountain) One can also consider the
possibility that there might be black holes with masses much less
than that of the sun. Such black holes could not be formed by
gravitational collapse, because their masses are below the
Chandrasekhar mass limit. Low-mass black holes could form only if
matter was compressed to enormous densities by very large
external pressures. such low-mass black holes might have been
formed in the high temperatures and pressures of the very early
universe.

Death of a Black Hole

The approximations used to derive the emission from black holes
should work well when the black hole has a mass greater than a
fraction of a gram. However, they will break down at the end of
the black hole’s life when its mass gets very small. The most likely
outcome seems to be that the black hole will just disappear, at
least from our region of the universe, taking with it any
singularity there might be inside it, if indeed there is one.
 WORMHOLES
& time travel
'time shall work on thy orders'
Might it be possible for someone to travel into the future or the
past? H. G. Wells in The Time Machine explored these
possibilities, as have countless other writers of science fiction.
Yet many of the ideas of science fiction, like submarines and
travel to the moon, have become matters of science fact. So,
what are the prospects for time travel?
Observations of the microwave background and of the
abundances of the light elements indicate that the early universe
did not have the kind of curvature required to allow time travel.

To time travel, you basically need to break the speed of light

barrier.
There is a problem with breaking the speed-of-light barrier. The
theory of relativity says that the rocket power needed to
accelerate a spaceship gets greater and greater the nearer it
gets to the speed of light. We have experimental evidence for
this, not with spaceships but with elementary particles in
particle accelerators like those at Fermilab or CERN. We can
accelerate particles to 99.99 percent of the speed of light, but
however much power we feed in, we can’t get them beyond the
speed-of-light-barrier. Similarly, with spaceships: no matter how
much rocket power they have, they can’t accelerate beyond the
speed of light.
That might seem to rule out both rapid space travel and travel
back in time. However, there is a possible way out. It might be
that one could warp spacetime so that there was a shortcut
between A and B. One way of doing this would be to
create a wormhole between A and B. As its name suggests, a
wormhole is a thin tube of space-time which can connect two
nearly flat regions far apart.
There need be no relation between the distance through the
wormhole and the separation of its ends in the nearly flat
background. Thus, one could imagine that one could create or find
a wormhole that would lead from the vicinity of the solar system
to Alpha Centauri. The distance through the wormhole might be
only a few million miles even though Earth and Alpha Centauri are
twenty million million miles apart in ordinary space. But then an
observer moving toward the earth should also be able to find
another wormhole that would enable him to get from Alpha
Centauri back to earth without caring to travel
38,000,000,000,000 km (38 trillion km) through the pathway of
ordinary space. So, wormholes, like any other possible form of
travel faster than light, would allow one to travel into the past.
The idea of wormholes between different regions of space-time
was not an invention of science fiction writers but came from a
very respectable source. In 1935, Einstein and Nathan Rosen wrote
a paper in which they showed that general relativity allowed what
they called ‘bridges,’ but which are now known as wormholes.

The Einstein-Rosen bridges didn’t last long enough for a spaceship

to get through: the ship would run into a singularity as the
wormhole pinched off. However, it has been suggested that it
might be possible for an advanced civilization to keep a wormhole
open. To do this, or to warp space-time in any other way so as to
permit time travel, one can show that one needs a region of space-
time with negative curvature, like the surface of a saddle.
Ordinary matter, which has a positive energy density, gives
space-time a positive curvature, like the surface of a sphere. So,
what one needs, in order to warp space-time in a way that will
allow travel into the past, is matter with negative energy density.

We thus have experimental evidence both that space-time can be

warped (from the bending of light during eclipses) and that it can
be curved in the way necessary to allow time travel (from the
Casimir effect). One might hope therefore that as we advance in
science and technology, we would eventually manage to build a
time machine.
When space-time is warped enough to make travel into the past
possible, virtual particles moving on closed loops in space-time can
become real particles traveling forward in time at or below the
speed of light. As these particles can go around the loop any
number of times, they pass each point on their route many times.
Thus, their energy is counted over and over again and the energy
density will become very large. This could give space-time a
positive curvature which would not allow travel into the past. It is
not yet clear whether these particles would cause positive or
negative curvature or whether the curvature produced by some
kinds of virtual particles might cancel that produced by other
kinds. Thus, the possibility of time travel remains open. But we’re
not going to bet on it. Our opponent might have the unfair
advantage of knowing the future