Review Related Literature

This chapter reviews the existing literature on Adult Learning.

Malcolm Shepherd Knowles (1913 – 1997) was an American educator

well known for the use of the term Andragogy as synonymous to adult
education. According to Malcolm Knowles, andragogy is the art and science
of adult learning, thus andragogy refers to any form of adult learning.
(Kearsley, 2010).

In 1968, Malcolm Knowles proposed "a new label and a new

technology" of adult learning to distinguish it from preadult schooling, The
ANDRAGOGY AND SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING 5 European concept of
andragogy, which he defined as "the art and science of helping adults learn,"
was contrasted with pedagogy, the art and science of helping children learn
(Knowles, 1.980).

In the 1970s, the andragogy theory was further developed by Malcolm

Knowles. He is also credited for being the main popularizer of andragogy. He
positioned andragogy as an answer to the insufficiencies of pedagogy. He felt
that pedagogy’s idea of the purpose of education does not carry over to adult
education.
Knowles (1980), as pointed out by Caruth (2014), viewed university
administration as a laggard to management in business and industry. This
is in the realm of finding the balance between human growth and
organizational efficiency. Higher education, according to Knowles, lags
because it overemphasizes organizational efficiency, interfering with the
delivery of quality education. Those that sympathize with this view call for
more focus on human growth.

The Knowles theory of andragogy evolved into a sort of movement

within academia. And, as Savicevic (1991) noted, the research body
revolving around it has also been growing. He added that Knowle’s
andragogy has been adopted in at least 10 European countries, including
Poland, England, Germany, Russia, and Hungary, among others. Moreover,
it was adopted by various disciplines, including management (in Forrest &
Peterson, 2006, cited in Kenyon & Hase, 2001), medicine (in Bedi, 2004,
cited in Kenyon & Hase, 2001), education (in Bolton, 2006, cited in Kenyon
& Hase, 2001), and criminal justice (in Birzer, 2004, cited in Kenyon &
Hase, 2001).

Andragogy is an approach to learning that is focused on adult

learners. The term was first coined by educator Alexander Kapp in 1833,
and it has since been used to describe a variety of educational philosophies
and methods (Loeng, 2017).

Andragogy is typically contrasted with pedagogy, which is the more

traditional approach to teaching children. Andragogy is built on the premise
that adults are more self-directed and motivated than children, and that
they need to be given the opportunity to learn in ways that are relevant to
their lives. Like the ADDIE instructional model, andragogy hinges on
pursuing learning past formal education.

As a result, andragogical approaches tend to be highly participatory,

with a strong focus on hands-on learning experiences. While andragogy is
not necessarily limited to adults, it is most often used in contexts where
adult learners are the primary focus.

The term andragogy can be supposedly equivalent to the term

pedagogy. Andragogy in Greek means man-leading in comparison to
pedagogy, which in Greek means child-leading. However, it should be noted
that the term pedagogy has been used since the Ancient Greek times, while
Alexander Kapp, a German educator, first used the term andragogy in 1833.

Andragogy, or the study of adult learning, can provide insights on

how to teach adult learners more effectively. Traditional-aged students
are emerging into adulthood and many aspects of andragogy can benefit
them as well. In traditional pedagogy, the faculty member is a “sage on
the stage,” but in andragogy, this shifts to a “guide on the side.” Malcolm
Knowles (1984) identified six principles of adult learning that can create
more engaging learning experiences to meet individual student needs
and foster a higher likelihood of academic success.

In 1980, Knowles made 4 assumptions about the characteristics

of adult learners (andragogy) that are different from the assumptions about
child learners (pedagogy). In 1984, Knowles added the 5th assumption.

1. Self-Concept
As a person matures his/her self-concept moves from one of being a
dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human
being.
2. Adult Learner Experience
As a person matures, he/she accumulates a growing reservoir of
experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning.
3. Readiness to Learn
As a person matures his/her readiness to learn becomes oriented
increasingly to the developmental tasks of his/her social roles.
4. Orientation to Learning
As a person matures his/her time perspective changes from one of
postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application. As
a result, his/her orientation toward learning shifts from one of
subject- centeredness to one of problem centeredness.
5. Motivation to Learn
As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal
(Knowles 1984:12).

Learning theory is rooted in andragogy, the practice of teaching adults,

as opposed to pedagogy, the practice of teaching children. Adult learning
theories have expanded to include an array of options since 1980 when
educator Malcolm Knowles introduced the concept of andragogy. The seven
principles of adult learning include self-direction, transformation,
experience, mentorship, mental orientation, motivation, and readiness to
learn.
 Adult learning theories can positively impact adult learning experiences
both in the classroom and on the job. Going to school is one thing. Going to
school as an adult is another. Just as adults think, act, and process
information differently than children, so too do they learn differently. In fact,
there’s a lot of research out there about what makes a learning style
effective for an adult. Here, we explore seven of the best adult learning
theories, or adult learning styles, in play today.

According to Knowles’ (1984) principles of andragogy, adults focus

on the need to know. This relates to the engagement component of UDL
through the “recruiting interest” strategy (CAST, 2018). Some options for
recruiting interest involve giving students choice and autonomy. A
simple way to do this is to let students pick the topic of a paper or
project. This choice also increases the relevance and value of the
learning. If students pick a topic that relates to their life, it becomes
authentic to the learner. Another way to recruit interest is to establish
clear guidelines on the assignment and avoid distractions, as well as
provide supportive instruction and supplemental resources.

Knowles (1984) provides an example of applying andragogy

principles to the design of personal computer training:

1. There is a need to explain the reasons specific things are being

taught (e.g., certain commands, functions, operations, etc.)
2. Instruction should be task-oriented instead of promoting
memorization learning activities should be in the context of common
tasks to be performed by the others.
3. Instruction should take into account the wide range of different
backgrounds of learners; learning materials and activities should
allow for different levels/types of previous experience with
computers.
4. Since adults are self-directed, instruction should allow learners to
discover things and knowledge for themselves without depending on
 people. However, learners should be offered guidance and help when
mistakes are made.

Adult learning may be possible, but is it easy? Not always. Some

common obstacles to adult learning, whether in the classroom or on the job,
include:

Time: As in there’s never enough of it.

Confidence: Competing against a younger, more agile workforce or student

peer group can undermine any experienced professional’s confidence.

Money: Going back to school is an investment. And while the payoff can be
worth it, making that initial financial commitment can feel daunting.

There are 771 million illiterate adults globally today, according to

UNESCO’s Institute of Statistics. And many more do not have the adequate
skills and knowledge needed to navigate through our increasingly digital
21st century demands. While participation in adult education is improving in
some places, access to learning opportunities remains profoundly unequal,
and millions continue to be left out.

From the pandemic to the climate crisis, to the digital revolution and
mass movements of populations around the world, we know that today,
more than ever, it is critical to ensure access to quality education and
learning opportunities throughout life for everyone, everywhere.

The main challenge for adult learning and education across the globe
is to reach those who need it most. That is the core message of UNESCO’s
latest Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education (GRALE). About
60% of countries reported no improvement in participation by people with
disabilities, migrants or prisoners. 24% of countries reported that the
participation of rural populations declined. And participation of older adults
also decreased in 24% of the 159 surveyed countries.
 Adult learning theory, or andragogy, is the study that examines how
adults learn and master knowledge, competences, and new skills. Adult
learning theory principles are based on the premise that adults learn
differently than children. (Helen Colman, 2023).

Adult learning, or the act of pursuing one’s own education as an

adult, can be done in a formal setting such as higher education, a trade
school, or an apprenticeship. It can also refer to an adult simply wanting to
learn about a new skill or topic independently. For most adults, pursuing
education stems from a desire for self-improvement, a professional need for
specific skills, or a want to expand available job possibilities.

When imagining the role of an educator, it’s easy to overlook adult

education when you think about schools and learning. But adult education
happens every day, and understanding the theory, challenges, and
principles that go into adult learning is important.

These are the most common difficulties, or learning barriers, typically

encountered by adult learners that can prevent adults from growing their
skills and impact their readiness to learn. Since corporate learning takes
the largest share in adult learning, we’ll cover adult learning barriers in
that context.

Focusing

With only 5% of the workweek that employees are ready to spend on

training (according to the most optimistic estimates), it’s evident that adults
generally tend to have other priorities. They have too much on their plate,
not only at work but in their personal life. That presents the challenge to
stay focused on training and reduce distractions (e.g., noisy learning
environment, children and pets demanding attention at home, or
smartphone addiction).

Seeing The Big Picture

 If adults don’t see where they stand in the company, don’t feel valued,
or know what depends on them, corporate training often may seem
unnecessary. Employees may simply not understand why their employer
tries to involve them in corporate training programs. It’s necessary to show
that employee training and development are important for their growth in
the company and to make a real impact on overall business performance.

Having A Purpose

That’s the same old ‘what’s in it for me’ situation. Adult learners want
to know exactly how the new information will help them in life or work. If
the purpose of training isn’t concrete enough and doesn’t target the
learning needs of the audience, it may become an unbreakable barrier, and
no training will make sense.

Impostor Syndrome

Adults tend to fear not knowing something they perceive to be

essential for their new role, another career path, or a different profession.
Motivation to learn may decline due to the fear of criticism as well. So, if the
training topic is something new for the adult, they may suffer from imposter
syndrome, and that hinders their growth and professional development
greatly.

To distinguish the critical aspects of adult learning, education

theorists and psychologists had to elaborate theoretical frameworks that
would reinvent learning experiences and practices for adults. Over the last
century, a number of different theories have gained prominence. There’s no
single theory that explains how and why adults learn best; however, each
one sheds light on a particular aspect of adult learning.
 We’ve made a review of six of the most popular adult learning theories
to see how each can be used to facilitate adult learning techniques to
deliver desired learning outcomes.

For our purposes, ‘adult education’ refers to all practices and

processes that consider adults to be pedagogical subjects, independently of
age, responsibilities, educational attainment or socioeconomic conditions,
and the venues in which such practices take place. ‘Education’ stresses the
intentionality, by adults as social actors, to create the conditions for them to
extend and develop their knowledge, skills, judgements, and sense-making
actions and capacities. In doing so, however, it also acknowledges the
widespread practice of utilizing ‘learning’ and ‘education’ in intentional
attempts by governments, transnational organizations and private
institutions to provide such opportunities while also regulating educational
and social behavior and shaping their circumstances. So, this chapter takes
a public policy stand and hence restricts attention to the politics or
processes ‘through which values are authoritatively allocated’ (Easton, 1965,
21) to adult education in the name of public interest

Adult learning principle/theory

Transformation theory is a theory of adult learning addressed to
educators. It assumes that by adulthood we already have assimilated a set
belief about the world, other people and ourselves. These belief systems
serve as "boundary structures" for perceiving and comprehending new data.
They become our frames of reference or "meaning perspectives," and they
profoundly affect how, what and why we learn. (Jack Mezirow)

Part of being an effective instructor involves understanding how

adults learn best. Compared to children and teens, adults have special
needs and requirements as learners. Despite the apparent truth, adult
learning is a relatively new area of study. The field of adult learning was
pioneered by Malcom Knowles. (Stephen Lieb).
 The adult education literature supports the idea that teaching adults
should be approached in a different way than teaching children and
adolescents (preadults). Many aspects of effective teaching apply to all age
groups. However, adults have had more life experiences and in many ways
are differently motivated than children. Adults are more self-directed in their
learning and have a greater need to know why they should learn something.
Self-initiated learning is the most lasting and pervasive. (Jannette Collins,
2004).

Knowles (1984) used the term andragogy to describe the assumptions

of adult learning: Readiness-to-learn, self-directedness, active learner
participation, and solution-centered.

Adult Learning and Education The graduate student guide in adult

education explores theories of adult learning and adult education
participation. It provides a frame of reference for understanding the
development of a rapidly evolving field and for enhancing knowledge and
competencies in this professional domain. (Belanger Paul, 2011).

The Self-Knowledge Inventory of Lifelong Learning Strategies (SKILLS)

was developed to measure adult learning strategies in real-life learning
situations. SKILLS consists of a series of 12 scenarios from real-world
situations that reflect Shirk's (1990) nine general categories of learning for
real-life situations and that necessitate various types and levels of learning.
(Conti Gary, et.al. 1991).

Even before the increase in participation by adults in education

and training in the mid-1980s in the United Kingdom and the
development of access and other adult orientated schemes, there had
been attempts to develop a professional perspective for ‘adult education’.
Embedded in the notion of adult education is often the belief that adult
learners are different from children and that there needs to be a separate
‘theory’ underpinning the teaching and learning of adults. (Ann Hanson,
1991).

Robert Kegan’s (1982, 1994, 2000) constructive-developmental theory

informs the learning-oriented model and centers on two fundamental
premises: a) We actively make sense of our experiences (constructivism); and
b) The ways we make meaning of our experiences can change — grow more
complex — over time (developmentalism). Research suggests that in any
school or team, it is likely that adults will be making sense of their
experiences in developmentally different ways (Drago-Severson, 2004a,
2004b; Kegan, 1994), (Ellie Drago-Severson,2008).

Is adult education socialist? Yes, according to Brookfield and because

of this it involves a critical investigation of reality with the practical intent of
changing the world. This leads to the exciting prospect of opening for
scrutiny the assumptions under which we operate. (Stephen Bookfield,
2005).

Adult learning must begin with a basic understanding of ways that

adults learn. Often, trainers know the content to be presented, yet they may
be unaware of the most effective methods to deliver the information. In the
SH&E field, the difference between effective and ineffective training may be
death, injury, pain, suffering and lost profits (Robotham, 2001).

Adult learners are a rapidly growing segment of the postsecondary

student population. While many in student services use the terms
nontraditional and adult student interchangeably, we argue that adult
students have particular characteristics that set them apart from
nontraditional students. In order to understand who these students are it is
necessary to clear up some of the confusion about the difference between
adult students and nontraditional students (Frankie Santos Laanan, et.al.)
 There are many theories that explain how adults learn and each has
its own merits. This Guide explains and explores the more commonly used
ones and how they can be used to enhance student and faculty learning.
(David C. M. Taylor, 2013).

Knowledge of adult learning theory can provide a basis for effective

practice. Presented here are several theoretical approaches to adult learning.
Andragogy. One of the most commonly applied frameworks of adult learning
is andragogy, described as the art and science of helping adults learn
(Knowles and Associates, 1984).

The andragogical model of adult learning and education developed by

Malcolm Knowles. the basis for much of "adult learning theory", is
summarized and reviewed in terms of its assumptions, principles and
recommended practices. (Clardy, 2005).

Adult learning theories do not address the real learning needs of

women, people of color, or working-class learners. Adult educators should
teach non dichotomous ways of knowing, acknowledge and foster alternative
forms of knowing, construct a supportive environment, and teach with love.
(Amstutz, Donna D. 1991)
Definition of Terms

1. Adult Learning - refers to the intentional and self-directed process

through which individuals, typically beyond the traditional age of
compulsory education, acquire knowledge, skills, attitudes, or
competencies to meet personal, professional, civic, or societal goals. It
encompasses a broad spectrum of learning experiences that are
tailored to the unique characteristics, needs, and motivations of adult
learners. It encompasses a wide range of approaches and
methodologies, including but not limited to formal education
programs, vocational training, professional development workshops,
continuing education, self-directed learning, and informal learning
experiences. The dynamic nature of adult learning recognizes the
individuality of learners, their diverse backgrounds, and the need for
tailored approaches that accommodate their unique circumstances
and learning preferences.

2. Adult Education - refers to a diverse and lifelong learning process

designed for individuals beyond the age of compulsory education,
aiming to enhance their knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
 competencies in various domains. It encompasses a wide spectrum of
formal, non-formal, and informal learning opportunities intended to
meet the diverse needs, goals, and aspirations of adult learners within
societal, personal, professional, and community contexts. Adult
education serves various purposes, including advancing career
prospects, supporting personal growth, promoting social cohesion,
fostering cultural understanding, and addressing societal challenges.
Its dynamic nature acknowledges the evolving needs of adult learners
and seeks to provide inclusive, engaging, and impactful educational
experiences across diverse learning contexts.

3. Adult Learning Theory - refers to a collection of principles, concepts,

and frameworks that describe and explain how adults acquire
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and competencies throughout their lives.
It aims to understand the unique characteristics, motivations,
learning styles, and developmental needs of adult learners, guiding
educators, trainers, and facilitators in designing effective learning
experiences tailored to adult learners. It provides a framework for
understanding how adults learn best, enabling educators and trainers
to create effective, learner-centered, and engaging learning
environments. By applying these theories, practitioners can design
and facilitate learning experiences that cater to the unique needs and
characteristics of adult learners, fostering meaningful and
transformative learning outcomes.

4. Andragogy - Developed by Malcolm Knowles, andragogy forms a

foundational concept in adult learning theory. It emphasizes that
adult learners are self-directed and autonomous, drawing from their
life experiences, interests, and goals to guide their learning.
Andragogy focuses on engaging adults as active participants in the
learning process. a theory of adult learning developed by Malcolm
Knowles in the 1970s. It represents a set of principles and
assumptions that distinguish adult learning from child or pedagogical
 learning. Andragogy focuses on understanding how adults learn, their
motivations, characteristics, and specific needs in the learning
process. Andragogy serves as a guiding framework for educators,
trainers, and facilitators working with adult learners. It emphasizes a
learner-centered approach that recognizes the unique characteristics
and motivations of adult learners. By applying andragogical
principles, educators can create learning experiences that are tailored
to the specific needs, experiences, and motivations of adult learners,
thereby fostering more effective and meaningful learning outcomes.

5. Pedagogy - refers to the theory, practice, and methodology of teaching

and educating children. It encompasses a wide range of instructional
strategies, approaches, and techniques used by educators to facilitate
learning and development in children, typically from infancy through
adolescence. Pedagogy forms the foundation of formal educational
systems and represents the art and science of teaching children. It
emphasizes the educator's role in guiding and facilitating learning
experiences that support children's intellectual, emotional, social, and
physical growth, preparing them for future success in various aspects
of life.
References:

Adult Learning Principles and Application. (n.d.). Retrieved December 24,

2023, from

https://www.civilservice.louisiana.gov/files/divisions/Training/Job

%20Aid/Training/Adult%20Learning%20Principles%20and
%20Application.pdf

Allen, S., & Started. (2007). Adult Learning Theory & Leadership

Development. Kravis Leadership Institute, Leadership Review, 7, 26–

37. https://psychaanalyse.com/pdf/ADULT%20LEARNING

%20THEORY%20AND%20LEADERSHIP%20DEVELOPMENT%20BY

%20S%20J%20ALLEN%20(12%20Pages%20-%2061%20Ko).pdf

Amstutz, D. D. (1999). Adult Learning: Moving toward More Inclusive

Theories and Practices. New Directions for Adult and Continuing

Education. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ596500
Applying Adult Learning Principles to Online Course Design - ProQuest. (n.d.).

Www.proquest.com. Retrieved December 24, 2023, from

https://www.proquest.com/openview/d324c17a8e43a8416d089a07b

0845cc2/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=29704

Archived Perspective Notice | SSWM - Find tools for sustainable sanitation

and water management! (n.d.). Sswm.info.

https://sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/LIEB

%201991%20Principles%20of%20adult%20learning.pdf

Baumgartner, L. (1960). Four Adult Development Theories and Their

Implications for Practice. Munson & Crosbie.

https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?

repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=1c5b776761b3280df806221934b3fad8d80

e9409

Bélanger, P. (2011). Theories in Adult Learning and Education.

In library.oapen.org. Verlag Barbara Budrich.

https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/29454

Chen, J. C. (2014). Teaching nontraditional adult students: adult learning

theories in practice. Teaching in Higher Education, 19(4), 406–418.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2013.860101

Clardy, A. (2005). Andragogy: Adult Learning and Education at Its Best?

In ERIC. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED492132
Collins, J. (2004). Education Techniques for Lifelong

Learning. RadioGraphics, 24(5), 1483–1489.

https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.245045020

Colman, H. (2019, October 11). 6 Adult Learning Theories and How to Put
Them into Practice. Your Digital Learning Expert.
https://www.ispringsolutions.com/blog/adult-learning-theories

Drago-Severson, E. (n.d.). feature / ADULT LEARNING.

https://learningforward.org/wpcontent/uploads/2008/10/drago294.
pdf

Dunst, C. J., Bruder, M. B., Trivette, C. M., Hamby, D., Raab, M., &
McLean, M. (2001). Characteristics and Consequences of Everyday
Natural Learning Opportunities. Topics in Early Childhood Special
Education, 21(2), 68–92.
https://doi.org/10.1177/027112140102100202

EdD, P. R. (2023, March 6). Utilizing Adult Learning Principles and Universal

Design for Learning to Advance Student Success. Faculty Focus |

Higher Ed Teaching & Learning.

https://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/equality-inclusion-and-

diversity/utilizing-adult-learning-principles-and-universal-design-for-

learning-to-advance-student-success/

Fairbanks, B. (2021, August 24). 7 Adult Learning Theories and Principles |

Tips, Guides, and More. University of Phoenix.

https://www.phoenix.edu/blog/adult-learning-theories-

principles.html
Faure, et al. (1972). Learning to be: The world of education today and
tomorrow. Paris: UNESCO/Harrap. Retrieved 10 May 2022
from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000223222/PDF/2
23222eng.pdf.multi

Funded by The National Institute on Disability, I. L. (2020, November

12). Courses: Center on Knowledge Translation for Disability and

Rehabilitation Research. Ktdrr.org.

https://ktdrr.org/training/courses/principles-of-adult-learning/index

.html

Galbraith, D. D., & Fouch, S. E. (2007). Principles of Adult Learning

Application to Safety Training. Professional Safety, 52(09).

https://onepetro.org/PS/article-abstract/33090/Principles-of-Adult-

Learning-Application-to-Safety

Hall, B. L., & Kidd, J. R. (2014). Adult Learning: A Design for Action: A

Comprehensive International Survey. In Google Books. Elsevier.

https://books.google.com.ph/books?

hl=en&lr=&id=wh6oBQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=adult+learning&

ots=3fExaFaE7a&sig=juuOY0hs3IU8k2yyFXhxSbBNBjk&redir_esc=y#

v=onepage&q=adult%20learning&f=false

Principles of Adult Learning When You Teach? ThoughtCo.

https://www.thoughtco.com/principles-for-the-teacher-of-adults-

31638
Illeris, K. (2003). Adult education as experienced by the

learners. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 22(1), 13–23.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370304827

Malamed, C. (2009, September 28). Characteristics of Adult Learners. The

ELearning Coach.

https://theelearningcoach.com/learning/characteristics-of-adult-

learners/

Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and Self-Directed Learning: Pillars of

Adult Learning Theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing
Education, 2001(89), 3. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.3

Pappas, C. (2013, May 9). The Adult Learning Theory - Andragogy – of

Malcolm Knowles. ELearning Industry.
https://elearningindustry.com/the-adult-learning-theory-andragogy-
of-malcolm-knowles/amp?
fbclid=IwAR3sCEkFFr0tI1LbsutEYMrFwEbFFjS9C0v3xME955bS9pVH
6d9YPUyjThk

Principles of adult learning to use for employee development | UTS Online.

(n.d.). Studyonline.uts.edu.au.
https://studyonline.uts.edu.au/blog/principles-adult-learning-use-
employee-development

Principles of adult learning - Teflpedia. (n.d.). Teflpedia.com. Retrieved

December 24, 2023, from

https://teflpedia.com/Principles_of_adult_learning

Ross-Gordon, J. (n.d.). Theory and research provide insight into the

characteristics, needs, and teaching preferences of adult learners in the

 college classroom. 6 Adult Learners in the Classroom.

http://www.robert-vroman.com/resources/Adult%20Learners%20in

%20the%20Classroom.pdf

Taylor, D. C. M., & Hamdy, H. (2013). Adult learning theories: Implications

for learning and teaching in medical education: AMEE Guide No.
83. Medical Teacher, 35(11), e1561–e1572.
https://doi.org/10.3109/0142159x.2013.828153

THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING STYLES. (n.d.).

http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/88323/2/The

%20importance%20of%20learning%20styles.pdf#page=42

The right to lifelong learning: Why adult education matters. (2022).

Unesco.org. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/right-lifelong-

learning-why-adult-education-matters?

fbclid=IwAR1cVs5ZxyNL3z6va7h9Pr56OKL-

M_g6kR_7xVcG5zyP_iV_o8L231TL-ag

Understanding Adult Learners | Knowles’ Adult Learning Principles. (n.d.).

Www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov.
https://www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/LearnersFirst/knowles-adult-learning-
principles.html

Western Governors University. (2020, April 7). Adult Learning Theories and
Principles. Western Governors University.
https://www.wgu.edu/blog/adult-learning-theories-
principles2004.html

Woodard, C. A. (2007). Using Adult Learning Theory for New-Hire

Training. Journal of Adult Education, 36(1), 44–47.
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ891064
‌