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Enhancing Statisctical Literacy Skills Through Real Life Activities Enriched With Gamification Elements
Enhancing Statisctical Literacy Skills Through Real Life Activities Enriched With Gamification Elements
Enhancing Statisctical Literacy Skills Through Real Life Activities Enriched With Gamification Elements
gamification elements:
An experimental study
€
Unal Çakıro
glu
Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Fatih
Faculty of Education, Trabzon University, Trabzon, Turkey
Mustafa Güler
Department of Mathematics Education, Fatih Faculty of Education,
Trabzon University, Trabzon, Turkey
Abstract
This study attempts to determine whether gamification can be used as a pedagogical technique to
overcome the challenges in teaching statistics. A post-test quasi-experimental design was carried
out in gamified and non-gamified groups in order to reveal the effect of gamification elements in
cultivating students’ statistical literacy skills. Students in gamified group were also interviewed to
understand the function of gamification process. The results suggest that; although gamifying the
instructional process had a positive impact on developing students’ statistical literacy in medium
and high score students; surprisingly the influence of the gamification to the low- achieved scores
were not positive. The positive impact was discussed in accordance with the gradual structure of
statistical literacy and suggestions for successful gamification applications due to the context were
included.
Keywords
Gamification, progressive instructional processes, statistical literacy, Watson’s model
Corresponding author:
Mustafa Güler, Department of Mathematics Education, Fatih Faculty of Education, Trabzon University, Trabzon, Turkey.
Email: mustafaguler@trabzon.edu.tr
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Introduction
In an increasingly information-driven society, beyond a mathematical knowledge; statistical
literacy is considered as a necessary skill for all students in their daily life (Franklin et al.,
2005). In this circumstance, Wallman (1993) pointed out that statistical literacy training
should be started in young ages in elementary and primary grade students. NCTM (2000)
also puts emphasis on the skills of statistical literacy and suggests enriching mathematics
curriculum with statistics learning area at different school levels. Similarly in Turkey statis-
tics topics have taken place in the newly revised middle schools mathematics education
curriculum (Ministry of National Education, 2013).
A large body of the statistics literacy generally examined the development of students’
statistical knowledge (Callingham and Watson, 2004), revealing statistical literacy level
of the adults (DelMas, 2002; Schield, 2006) or defining how to use the statistical knowledge
in real world (Ben-Zvi and Garfield, 2004; Martinez-Dowson, 2010; Rumsey, 2002;
Schield, 2006; Watson and Kelly, 2008). Some studies also suggested some new ways for
enhancing statistical knowledge in young ages. Leavy and Hourigan (2015) argued that
appropriate implementations supported the improvement of statistical literacy by
introducing authentic statistical investigations in the lesson. For college students, Clair
and Chihara (2012) implemented a pedagogical strategy, team-based learning, and revealed
the effectiveness of the approach compared to the individual participation. The results of
the previous studies provide hints that students’ statistical literacy skills may be
improved in around specific processes (e.g. Clair and Chihara, 2012; Krishnan, 2015).
In this sense, various real world problems are suggested to figure out the statistical value
of the data, so that such kind of data may support statistical interpretation skills
(Woltman, 2017).
Although there is a widespread recognition of the necessity concerning teaching and
learning statistics, it is still viewed as a new area compared to other study fields in math-
ematics (Guler et al., 2016). Many efforts in the classroom level have been provided in years;
however, students still have many difficulties in understanding theoretical aspects, and
practicing the knowledge in their daily life (Cerrito, 1999; Ozmen and Guven, 2019;
Watson and Moritz, 2000). One reason for this is the gradual structure of the statistical
knowledge. Students receiving statistics courses are generally unable to pass these gradual
stages of operations with data, understanding the meaning of data and using data in real
contexts or daily experiences (Verhoeven, 2006). Finally, in line with the motivation, low
engagement is seen one of the reason of low achievement. In a recent study; applying
Merrill’s First Principles, researchers found that students’ conceptual understanding in
terms of literacy, reasoning, and thinking statistically were promoted; however specifically,
the understanding of statistical terminology did not develop to a satisfactory level (Tu and
Snyder, 2017). Overall, previous research has demonstrated that teachers should deal with
these challenges during teaching statistics a multidimensional manner.
In order to eliminate the challenges, this paper reports cultivating statistical literacy
where the main stages in learning statistics were taken as a basis and focuses to provide a
meaningful link among these stages via gamification elements. This is because; gamification
is suggested to provide motivation, encouragement and may regulate students’ behaviors in
the instructional processes (Buckley and Doyle, 2016). Thus, the study deals with develop-
ment of statistical knowledge and the features of gamification elements.
Çakıroglu and Güler 3
Theoretical framework
Understanding and reacting statistical messages are sometimes more complex than they
seem. In this case, Watson (1997) introduced one of the hierarchical and most referred
models. This model presents an accurate understanding of the statistical knowledge with
the cognitive hierarchy of statistical knowledge, by referring indicators of each stage
(Watson and Callingham, 2003). The model is briefly outlined in Figure 1.
Some researchers used this framework as a way to measure and assess statistical literacy
skills development and also suggested implementations for statistics courses in line with this
€
framework (e.g. Ozmen, 2015; Watson and Callingham, 2003). The core objectives in the
stages are as follows.
Tier 1- Basic understanding of statistical terminology: According to Watson (1997), the
skills at this stage contains core concepts and are directly related to specific topics in the
curriculum and the topics in this tier is delivered in a traditional way with students creating
and analyzing their own data sets. Considering Turkish middle school mathematics curric-
ula, the topics in this tier include percentage, median, mean, graphs, measures of spread
concepts.
Tier 2 - Embedding of language and concepts in a wider context: This stage involves
understanding statistics terminology when embedded in a social context. For instance,
when those who already learnt statistical concepts see news on television or newspaper
report including statistics, make reasoning or interpretation instead of making calculations.
In other words, to read, understand and interpret written reports, rather than just perform-
ing computations are at the forefront. In this stage when statistics is embedded in a context,
a higher level of mathematical thinking is required than the first tier.
Tier 3 - Questioning of claims: In this stage, students are expected to criticize the data
given in a context. For instance, when those who know the background of statistical terms,
read statistical data in the media, they intend to show or proof misleads insufficient or
inappropriate information instead of making calculations. In this phase, students are
hoped to be aware of the missing parts, inquire incorrect interpretations and to question
the conclusions.
According to Watson and Callingham (2003), although traditional textbook questions
could fulfil the requirements of lower level of objectives such as Tier 1, these questions were
insufficient to meet the targeted high-level skills such as providing motivating contexts to
challenge students’ critical thinking. In line of this reasoning, they recommend teachers to
investigate various contexts such as media reports to provide student engagement and moti-
vation. Within the scope of the study, this proposal was taken into consideration and
students were exposed to various contexts in the designed learning environment. Thus,
given the potential of gamification to enhance engagement and motivation, we enriched
the learning process through gamification elements.
Gamification
Although the question of what the elements are that keep people in this context is not old,
the idea of how to transfer these elements to the various settings for a given learning
objective has come to the fore in the last decade. Considering the history of gamification,
although it was defined only in early 2010s, it became a trend in the following years and
studies were carried out on different fields from marketing to education. The outstanding
popularity of gamification is originating in the belief in its potential to foster motivation,
behavioral changes, friendly competition and collaboration in different contexts, such as
engagement (Dichev and Dicheva, 2017). Gamification is somehow different from playing
games in the classroom but it is using game elements in non-game contexts (Deterding et al.,
2011; Zimmerling et al., 2019). As a versatile and multidisciplinary concept, gamification
covers a range of theoretical and experimental knowledge as well as various technological
platforms and domains through motivational components (Seaborn and Fels, 2015).
According to Huotari and Hamari (2017), the function of gamification is to invoke the
same psychological states and emotions as games do. Numerous studies has been conducted
on the use of various types of game mechanics and dynamics such as badges (Ortega-Arranz
et al., 2019), leaderboards (Çakıroglu et al., 2017) and real gift (Yaman and Güven, 2014),
among others. An adaptation of Bunchball, Inc’s (2010) summary of gamification elements
is illustrated in Figure 2.
According to Ofosu-Ampong (2020), there is still a need to response some questions
whether game design elements are suitable to all spheres of human activities and whether
their use in education is always desirable. He furthermore recommends addressing more
research questions to human–computer interaction researchers in gamification. This study
focuses on the effect of gamification on the development of statistical literacy skills of
middle school students in terms of the educational dimension. In this context, prior research
in using gamification elements in mathematics classrooms provided hints for us to design the
learning environment enriched with gamification elements.
Figure 2. Game mechanics and game dynamics (adapted from Bunchball, Inc, 2010).
that some traditional activities in mathematics classrooms are inherently uninteresting and
teachers are failing to engage students in the activities. Considering the idea that todays’
students are growing up with the games, gamification attracted the attention of educators
and they tended to adapt the principles of gamification as a part of the classrooms (Buckley
and Doyle, 2016).
Gamification is considered as a useful way to increase student motivation (van Roy and
Zaman, 2018) and engagement by providing students with clear, achievable goals (Landers
and Callan, 2011), by organizing enjoyable learning environments (Cohen, 2011; Landers
and Callan, 2011), encouraging competition and giving rewards (Hamari, 2013). Gnauk
et al. (2012) addressed that it stimulated student self-efficacy via feedback. Furthermore,
gamification provides inspiration for weaker students and enhances their willingness in the
activities (Suls et al., 2002). In educational contexts, gamification have been most commonly
implemented through digital points, badges, virtual goods, level, reputation, extra points, or
leaderboards (Deterding et al., 2011; Hamari, 2013; Hew et al., 2016; Zichermann and
Cunningham, 2011). For instance, leaderboards allow students to perform relative to
others; and this competitive atmosphere increases students’ endeavoring in the tasks
(Charsky, 2010). Since gamification elements are mainly inspired from the behavioral pat-
terns of the game activities in the real world, educators suggest applying gamification within
real life problems or using the gamification elements in the activities, which are validated in
real scenarios (Sim~ oes et al., 2013).
Studies in mathematics generally used the potential contributions of gamification in
engagement and motivational aspects. Focusing on the scoring in a primary school,
Kickmeier-Rust et al. (2014) implemented a simple app in Austrian classrooms found pos-
itive effects of an individualized and meaningful feedback about errors. In another study,
Goehle (2013) integrated two common video game systems, levels and achievements in the
online homework program and he noticed greater than a half of the participants engaged
with the program. However, some studies revealed the negative results in mathematics (e.g.
Attali and Arieli-Attali, 2015). For instance, the study conducted by Attali and Arieli-Attali
(2015) found no effect of point as a basic element of gamification on 6-8 grade middle school
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students’ academic performance. Hence, the empirical evidence regarding the effects of
gamification on teaching mathematics is still unclear; and a need exists for more research
in order to understand its effects and providing ways of implementing gamification.
Method
A quasi-experimental research was designed with a focus on achievement in statistics learn-
ing area. Two groups of 7th grade students received same topics and asked for to complete
same activities in the similar classrooms. In the experimental group, the intervention includ-
ed the tasks enriched with gamification elements, however the tasks in control group class-
room was not gamified. Our interest in gamification process is primarily on the tasks related
to the stages of statistics instructional process. Since it is difficult to determine the influence
of the gamification elements (badges, leaderboard and real gift) solely, the effects in the
experimental group are provided through the combinational effect of the gamification
elements.
Groups n M SD t df F p
groups, and other assumptions are appropriate, t-test was conducted. The results revealed
no significant differences between CG and EG found (see Table 1).
Since, the study focuses on statistics learning area of 7th grade Turkish mathematics
curriculum, and the learning objectives were summarized in Table 2.
Course content, which in ways to conduct a total of 12 hours during 5 weeks considering
objectives was enriched as, summarized in Table 3.
For each in-class activity, teacher firstly underlined the concept related to the relevant
topic and explained procedural knowledge for some calculations, and then enriched the
lesson using worksheets. For each of the tiers, some tasks were included in the worksheets.
For instance, for the forecast activity, students were asked to visit http://www.havaduru
mu15gunluk.net/ web site, and to note the day and night temperatures of their province in
related places in worksheet. Students were requested to response some questions from Tier 1
to Tier 3 relatively such as what they understand the given concept, how they calculate the
described concept using data they gathered from the internet and compare and making
interpretation with the data. Afterwards, similar implementation was carried out using a
ready-data set. For CG, students were asked to answer the questions in pc lab using direc-
tions given in worksheet. Both worksheets in EG and CG were collected. Different from
CG, in order to gamify the teaching process in EG, students’ worksheets were scored by
teacher using an answer key on the scale of 100.
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Gamification elements have been included in the process through two different channels.
The first was the digital online platform, where the students awarded by leaderboard and
budgets. The students were asked to visit the web address shared with them on the evening
of the activities implemented. Here, top five students in the previous week’s activities in the
EG group were announced on the leaderboard as a result of their performance in the pre-
vious week. Badges, which was used as another virtual gamification element, was given to
students who responded the questions of tier1 and tier2. Similar to leaderboard, the badges
were announced on the website and represented by silver and golden star so that the student
who collected three silver star was replaced with golden. Second channel was the real gift. At
the end of each activity multiple-steps awarded question, tier3, those who responded cor-
rectly each steps were awarded via real gift.
The elements of gamification integrated gamified instructional process on statistics topic
is illustrated in Table 4.
Instruments
In order to determine the influence of the gamification elements, students’ achievements
were revealed and their perspectives were gathered to explain the influences.
Student Achievement Scores: Final exam scores were used in order to define student
academic achievements. Since, Watson (1997) proposed a three-tiered hierarchy to explain
statistical literacy proficiency; the final examination questions (For sample questions, see
Appendix) covered this structure of statistics. In this study Watson’s model including three
Çakıroglu and Güler 9
Leader board • For each activity, student performances were ranked. The top five
were placed on the leader board, and the leader board was then
printed A3 size and hung in the classroom.
Badges • For some questions on worksheet, students were given “good”
badges. For each three “good” one, the badges were exchanged via
“the best”.
Real gifts • Those who were fully correct responded award-winning question of
the week were awarded with small real gifts.
Data analysis
In order to put forth the difference between two groups, t test was used for overall final
exam scores regarding the assumption of homogeneity of variance. On the other hand,
considering for each tier in the framework, we conducted Mann–Whitney U tests to com-
pare the means of two groups to reveal the differences between CG and EG in the context of
statistical literacy levels, as the normal assumption of t-test was not satisfied. In particular,
for the analysis comparing of each dimensions of statistical literacy (basic terminology,
context and questioning) between two groups, the .05 of significance level was used. The
p value represented a 2-tailed significance if the result was not in the expected direction.
Students’ performances regarding the overall scores of test were classified considering three
intervals: 0-33 for low, 34-66 for medium and 67-100 for high performances. Finally, inter-
views were transcribed and analysed descriptively. The responses of the students were coded
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according to three themes which were pre-identified in the context of interview questions: (1)
the contribution of gamification to facilitating learning, b) the affective contribution of
gamification c) the general evaluation of gamifying process. Some direct quotations of
students were provided to explore the interrelation between student achievements and gami-
fied learning setting.
Results
Academic achievements in gamified and non-gamified groups
The descriptive data show that the performance of students in (EG) (n¼21 and mean ¼ 66.5)
was higher when compared to (CG) (n ¼ 20 and mean ¼45). In other words, the students in
statistics classroom with gamification elements outperformed than non-gamified group. The
box-plot obtained from these data is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 presents a box-plot presentation of the distribution of statistical scores of EG
and CG. The test variable is normally distributed within both groups, therefore t-test was
conducted and the results showed significant difference between the EG and the CG in favor
of EG (see Table 6).
CG 6 10 5
EG 3 8 9
Groups n M SD t df F p
knowledge), (2) contribution in affective domain (motivation, engagement, interest) and (3)
evaluation of overall the gamifying process.
For instance, all of the high and medium achievers stated that the gamifying learning
setting has contributed constructing new knowledge. They think that the process has
increased their motivation as well as engagement. For instance, H1 addressed that “. . .
When I saw my friends getting badges, something triggered me to get one of the badges.
However, the examples were different in the textbook; I sometimes tried to pose problems. I
made a list of nut crops regarding to the cities. I calculated their median, average etc.” M2
expressed that “. . . At first implementation, I asked myself why not I took place on
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26
24
22
20
18
16
Scores
14 EG
12
CG
10
8
6
4
2
0
Tier 1 Tier 2 Tier 3*
Statistical literacy skills
Figure 4. Final test scores in terms of statistical literacy of EG and CG (Mann–Whitney U-test results,
*p ¼ .005 < .05).
leaderboard. Then I decided to study harder for the previous activities. I had definitely peak
motivation, I actually still have.” On the other side, majority of students in low group
expressed that the implementation did not affect their motivation nor contributed their
studies. As L1 identified, “The process had no contribution. I mean I was not whipped.
Çakıroglu and Güler 13
It was interesting, but I was not motivated. It was difficult to take place in the leaderboard
or to get a gift.”
All of the respondents at high and medium level were positive about the contribution of
implementation to their engagement. For example, M3 expressed that “I tried to engage
more in the lesson, because I had opportunity to get more badges. At the beginning, it was
so easy but then it became so hard to get one in the study period. I studied for a lot of
questions at home to be more active in the class.” Likewise, H2 asserted that “When you feel
you compete to collect more badges, take in to the leaderboard or most importantly for me
to take a gift; you necessarily should engage all the activities. In addition, it is not enough to
participate to activities during the lesson. Once we have collected the data (means data
detective activity), so I asked questions to the people on the street.” However, for 2 of 3
low achievers expressed that the implementation had no influence on their engagement.
While L3 specified that “I tried to win the teacher’s favour, I often ask to talk in the
class.”, In contrast, L2 stated, “I’m not sure it helped me to participate to the activities
more.” Similarly, the students addressed that the implementations attracted their interest.”
Interestingly, while medium and high level students prefer real gift or leaderboard as a
gamification element, badges was the main choice of the low achievers. In one noteworthy
statement from the interviews, L1 pointed out that “. . . It was difficult to win a gift or take
place top three on the leaderboard. However, it was easier to get a badge. I have found the
average of both and get a badge, I was so happy.”
To sum up, qualitative results indicate that the gamification elements used in the instruc-
tional process have contributed students’ efforts in the tasks as well as increasing their
motivation and engagement. Majority of the interviewees found the implementation inter-
esting and found the approach beneficial. On the other hand, while high and medium level
of the students had similar experiences, low ones gave vague answers for some questions.
Consequently, the overall perspective of the EG groups can be considered as satisfied.
objectives of the stages. In the context of teaching statistics, Tishkovskaya and Lancaster
(2010) suggested to follow a way from easy to difficult in order to build statistical literacy
skills. In this study, three tiers of Watson (1997) in developing statistical knowledge have
guided us in order to apply the instructional process. In other words, the structure of the
statistical knowledge provided us a well-organized way of gamifying. Hence, we gamified
the tasks in order to direct students to pass the stages. Thus, as a result, gamifying the
process supported students transiting among the stages of statistical literacy. In addition, the
students in EG expressed that the gamification elements used in classroom has developed
their engagement not only in the school, but also outside. This is to say some of them stated
that they also studied at home to get badges, take a place in leaderboard or win a gift.
The situation is considered as a dilemma in gamification whether it is a target itself or a
vehicle for achieving the tasks (Lee and Hammer, 2011). The results of this study
supported the idea that aiming to gain a gamification element in the study was a vehicle
for achievement as well.
On the other hand, NCTM (2000) suggests connections between mathematics subjects
and real-words situations in teaching statistical knowledge. In terms of passing the tiers, the
students’ perspectives reflected that passing from one to another was facilitated in experi-
mental group students. Thus, gamification elements in the experimental group is supported
students to proceed in the tiers of the statistical knowledge with keeping students motivated
and making a sense of game like environment.
In the study, the nature of the course allowed to integrate gamification elements easily in
to the instructional process. The experimental group students were asked to follow the
directions in the activities supported with worksheets. Especially badges were given in tier
1 and tier 2 in which knowing statistical concepts and terminology, and adapting and
implementing them in various contexts. Since Thompson and Iwata (2005) addressed to
take care of a large number of students getting badges, and the counter-effect of over
reinforce; we used a leaderboard in order to present the top performers of the previous
week selected in accordance with their total scores. Thus in the study, students’ perspectives
reflect that leaderboard allowed students to keep the external motivation fresh. Although
most of the low achieved students expressed that the gamification elements did not affect to
their motivation or engagement, they only found badges valuable because of getting it easy.
On the other hand, real gift was decided to be given for high-level cognitive questions,
requiring critical thinking, true interpretation or justification. During the activities related
to Tier1, students were asked to make basic descriptions and calculations such as median of
a given data set. The next tier they were requested making investigations such as collecting
data on the web and constituting a data set, then for instance, choosing appropriate way of
presenting data using the knowledge they already learned the previous tier. In the final tier,
different cases such as graphs including errors in or newspaper articles with data bias used to
understand how students provide justification the persuasiveness of the case. While badges
were frequently used for the first two tiers, real gift was given for tier3 due to its crucial role
of high-level cognitive questions, requiring critical thinking, true interpretation or justifica-
tion. Although, Authors in prior study found that using real gifts may not work for uni-
versity students; in this study for middle school students found them valuable for achieving
the tasks in the instructional process.
According to the GAISE report, the ultimate target of statistics instruction is developing
statistical literacy (Franklin et al., 2005). It is clearly addressed that for all stages of building
statistical literacy, gamified class descriptively performed higher. Despite there was no
Çakıroglu and Güler 15
statistically difference for the first two stages, in the third tier a statistical difference was
noticed between the final test results in favour of gamified group students. In conjunction
with the first two stages, the last stage defined as questioning of claims and connected to
critical thinking (Guler et al., 2016). In this regard, one of the contributions of the imple-
mentation is pushing students to make investigation, inquiry and furthermore, to use their
understanding in different contexts. Since the scores of the groups were both above the
average in two groups, one conclusion may be derived that gamification implementation
works more in higher cognitive level. In addition, one conclusion of this study is that while
the implementation accurately increased the motivation and engagement of medium and
high-level achievers, low performers remained distant. The results contribute to the instruc-
tional design processes in two folds. First, the study results support the idea that an appro-
priate gamifying process may provide positive learning performances during the learning
process (Bai et al., 2020; Buckley and Doyle, 2016; Hakulinen et al., 2015). On the other
hand, although a limited number of studies focus on the effect of gamification on academic
performance of low-achievers, a study conducted by Ding and Orey (2018) revealed that
students with low achievers tend not to engage a learning setting even enriched via gami-
fication elements. Similarly, the results obtained from this study showed that even if the
learning environment is gamified, the targeted success could not be achieved for the low. In
fact, the interview data show that students become insensitive to the gamification elements
after a while and joined the despair. At this point, perceptions to be unsuccessful prohibited
taking the advantage of the positive motivation provided by the gamification elements for
the low-achieved student.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
16 E-Learning and Digital Media 0(0)
ORCID iD
Mustafa Güler https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4082-7585
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Çakıroglu and Güler 19
Author Biographies
€
Unal Çakıro
glu is currently a professor at the Department of Computer and Instructional
Technologies at Trabzon University. His academical qualifications were in Computer
Engineering (BSc), in Computer Engineering (MS) and Technology of Education (PhD).
He teaches instructional design, and IT related courses. His research interests include gami-
fication, online learning, intelligent tutoring systems, virtual reality in education.