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2.

Vector Algebra
Quantities can be divided into two groups

1. Scalar quantity: scalar quantities are defined by a magnitude (number)


and units only. Examples are length, area, volume, mass, time etc.
2. Vector quantity: vector quantities are defined completely by a number
(magnitude) and the direction in which it operates. Examples are force,
velocity, acceleration etc.
A vector �� can be represented by a straight line below.
A

The length of the line �� is the magnitude of the vector and its direction
is specified by an arrow. If a vector �� = �� then the magnitude of �� =
��
If �� = �� + �� then �� = �² + �²
Note: �� ≠ ��

Unit Vector

A vector �� which has magnitude 1 (one) is called a unit vector in the


direction of �. The unit vector �� has a relationship with � such that
��
��� =
��
For any position vector �� with coordinate �(�, �). If � is the unit vector
in the direction of � − ���� and � is the unit vector in the direction of the
� − ����, then �� = �� = �� + ��.

Vectors in plane and space

A two dimensional vector �� = �� + �� is said to be in plane. Three



dimensional vectors � = �� + �� + �� is said to be in space.

2.1 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors


For two vectors �� = �� + �� and �� = �� + ��
�� + �� = �� + �� + (�� + ��)

⟹ �� + �� = � + � � + � + � �
� �
� − �� = �� + �� − (�� + ��)

�� + �� = � − � � + � − � �

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Example 1:

If �� = 2� + 4� and � = 3� − 4�

Find

a. �� + ��

b. � − ��
Solution:
� �
a. � + �� = 2� + 4� + (3� − 4�)
� �
� + �� = 2 + 3 � + (4 − 4)� = 5� + 0�
� �
� + �� = 5�
� �
b. � − � = 2� + 4� − (3� − 4�)
� �
� − � = 2 − 3 � + (4 −− 4)� =− � + 8�

Example 2:

Given these vectors in space


� � �
� = 2� + 3� − 4� �� = 10� − 4� − 3� � = 4� − �� − 2�
� � � �
Find � + � +�
Solution:
� � � �
� + � +� = 2� + 3� − 4� + 10� − 4� − 3� + (4� − 3� − 2�)

= 2 + 10 + 4 � + 3 − 4 − 3 � + −4 − 3 − 2 �
� � � �
� + � +� = 16� − 4� − 9�

2.2 Scalar multiple of vectors


If �� = �� + �� is a vector and � is a scalar (number) then
� ∗ �� = ��� = �(�� + ��)
Therefore ��� = ��� + ���
Example 1:
Given a vector �� = 2� + 4� find
� 1 � � �
a. 2� �. 3 � �. 2� − � ��
Solution:

a. 2� = 2 2� + 4� = 2(2� + 4�)

2� = 4� + 8�
1 � 1 2 4
b. � = 2� + 4� = � + �
3 3 3 3
� � � � 4 8
c. 2� − � � = 2(2� + 4�) − � (2� + 4�) = 4� + 8� − 3
� + 3�
4 8
= 4− � + (8 − )�
3 3

2
� � � 8 16
Therefore 2� − � � = 3
�+ 3

2.3 Resultant vector


A vector can be resolved into two component parts: the horizontal
component and the vertical component.

v
F
� sin �


H

For the vector F shown above � cos


the �
horizontal component is � cos � and
the vertical component is � sin �.
The magnitude of the resultant force � is given by � = �2 + � 2

The direction of the resultant force � is also given by � = tan−1 �

Therefore the resultant force � = � , �

Example 1:

Resolve the acceleration vector of 17�/�2at an angle of 120° to the


horizontal into horizontal and vertical components.
Solution: V

120°
-H H

-V

Horizontal component � = 17���120°

=− 8.5�/�2 (������ �ℎ� ����� ���� �������������)

Vertical component � = 17���120° = 14.72�/�2

Example2:

And object is acted on by two forces one of which is 10� and acts
horizontal and the other 20� which acts vertical. Determine the
resultant force.

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Solution:

20N

10N
Applying Pythagoras theorem, the diagonal � is
� = 202 + 102 = 22.4�
The angle � is calculated as follows
20
���� =
10
20
� = tan−1 = 63.4°
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Therefore the resultant vector � is 22.4� in the direction of 63.4° .

Example 3:

15m/s

10m/s

20°
10
7m/s

Calculate the resultant velocity � of the three velocities in the figure above.

Solution:

Horizontal component � = 10 cos 20 + 15���90 + 7���190

= 9.397 + 0 + −6.894

= 2.503�/�

Vertical component � = 10���90° + 15���90° + 7���190°

= 3.420 + 15 + −1.216

= 17.204�/�

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Magnitude of resultant velocity � = �2 + �2

= 2.5032 + 17.2042

= 302.24

Therefore � = 17.39�/�

Direction of � is tan � =

17.204
⟹ tan � =
2.503
tan � = 6.8734

� = tan−1 6.8734

Therefore � = 81.72°

Hence � = 19.39�/�, 81.72°

2.4 Scalar product of two vectors (dot product)


� �
If � and �� are two vectors, the scalar product of these two vectors is
defined by
� � � �
�. �� = � �� cos �
� � � �
where � ��� �� are the magnitudes of vectors � and ��
� �
respectively and � is the angle between � and �� .
Note: scalar product is also called the dot product.

2.41 Properties of the scalar product


1. if � = 90°
� � � � � � � �
�. �� = � �� cos 90° = �. �� = � �� (0)
� �
Hence �. �� = 0
Therefore the scalar product (dot product) of two vectors at
right- angles is zero (0).
2. The angle between two parallel vectors is 0°.
� �
Therefore the scalar product of two parallel vectors � and ��
is given by
� � � � � �
�. �� = � � cos 0° = � �� (1)
� � � �
�. �� = � ��
Therefore the dot product of two parallel vectors is the
product of their magnitudes.
� � � �
3. �. �� = � �� cos �

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� � � �
��. � = �� � cos �
� � � �
Since � �� = �� �
� � � �
Hence �. �� = ��. �

We therefore say that the scalar product (dot product) is


commutative.
� �
4. If we have three vectors �, �� ��� ��

� � �
Then �. � + � = ��. �� + ��. ��
We therefore say that the dot product is distributive over
addition.
This follows from property 2 that when we dot the unit vector � and �
we get
That is �. � = 1 (1) cos 0° = 1 (Since � ��� � are parallel)
That is �. � = (1)(1) cos 90° = 0 (Since � ��� � are perpendicular)
This follows �. � = 1
�. � = 0

For any two vectors �� = �� + �� and �� = �� + ��


� �
�. �� = �� + �� . ( �� + ��)

= ���. � + ���. � + ���. � + ���. �

= ��(1) + ��(0) + ��(0) + ��(1)


� �
Therefore �. �� = �� + ��

Note: anytime we dot two vectors the result is a scalar (number).

Example 1:
� �
If �� = 2� + 4� and �� = 3� − 4� find �. ��

Solution:
� �
�. �� = 2� + 4� . ( 3� − 4�)

= 2 3 �. � + 2 −4 �. � + 4 3 �. � + 4 −4 �. �

= 2 3 (1) + 2 −4 (0) + 4 3 (0) + 4 −4 (1)

= 6 − 16
� �
Therefore �. �� =− 10

Example 2:

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� � �
If � = 2� + 3� − � and �� = 3� + 4� − 3� find �. ��

Solution:
� �
�. �� = 2� + 3� − � . (3� + 4� − 3�)

= 2 3 �. � + 2 4 �. � + 2 −3 �. � + 3 3 �. � + 3 4 �. � + 3 3 �. � + −1 3 �. �
+ −1 4 �. � + −1 −3 �. �

= 2 3 (1) + 2 4 (0) + 2 −3 (0) + 3 3 (0) + 3 4 (1) + 3 3 (0) + −1 3 (0)


+ −1 4 (0) + −1 −3 (1)

= 6 + 12 + 3
� �
Therefore �. �� = 21

The dot product is use to find the angle between two vectors.

Example 3:

Find the angle between two forces �� = 2� + 3� and �� = 2� + 3�

Solution:

�� = 2� + 3�

�� = 2� + 3�
If � is the angle between �� and �� then by applying the dot product formula we
have
�� . �� = �� �� cos �

�� = 2� + 3� = 13

�� = 5� + 3� = 34

�� . �� = 2� + 3� . (2� + 3�)

= 2 5 + 3(3)

= 10 + 9

= 19

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Therefore substituting the values above, the dot product formula for
the two forces
�� . �� = �� �� cos �
Becomes
19 = 13 ( 34 ) cos �
19 = 442 cos �
19
cos � =
442
19
⟹ cos � =
21.0238
cos � = 0.9034
� = cos−1 0.9034
Finally � = 25.35°

2.5 Vector product of two vectors (cross product)


� �
The vector product (cross product) of two vectors � and �� is written as
� � � �
� × �� = � �� sin �
� � � �
Where � ��� �� the magnitudes of vectors are � and �� , � is the angle
� �
between � and �� .

2.51 Properties of the vector product


1. The angle between two parallel vectors is 0°.
� �
Therefore the vector product of two parallel vectors � and ��
is given by
� � � �
� × �� = � � sin 0° = 0

Therefore the vector product of two parallel vectors is always


zero

That is � × � = 0, � × � = 0 ��� � × � = 0

2. if � = 90°
� � � � � � � �
� × �� = � �� sin 90° = �. �� = � �� (1)
� � � �
Hence � × �� = � ��
� � � � � �
3. � × �� =− (�� × �) when the direction of � × �� is reverse we
� �
have −(�� × �)
� ��
� � � �
4. � × (�� + ��) = (� × ��) + (� × �) cross product is distributive
over addition.

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� � � � � �
5. � × (���) = � � × �� = (���) × �� where k is a scalar.

Vector product in component form


� �
Given the vectors � = �� � + �1 � + �1 � and �� = �2 � + �2 � + �2�
� �
Then � × �� = �1 � + �1 � + �1� × �2 � + �2 � + �2 �

= �1 �2 � × � + �1�2 � × � + �1 �2 � × � + �1 �2� × � + �1 �2 � × � + �1 �2 � × � + �1 �2 �
× � + �1 �2 � × � + �1 �2 � × �

Since � × � are parallel � × � = 1 (1)���0° = 0

Therefore ��= 0

�� = 0

�� =0

� × � are perpendicular

Therefore � × � = 1 (1)���90° = 1

Since � × � are unit vectors in the direction of � we write

�×�=1∗�

��=�

��= �

��=�
� � � �
Note: since � × �� =− (�� × �)

It implies that

� × � =− � × � =− �

� × � =− � × � =− �

� × � =− � × � =− �

Therefore we can write


� �
� × �� = �1 �2 � × � + �1 �2 � × � + �1 �2 � × � + �1 �2 � × � + �1 �2 � × � + �1 �2 � × �
+ �1 � 2 � × � + �1 �2 � × � + �1 �2 � × �
� �
� × �� = �1 �2 (0) + �1 �2 � + �1 �2 ( − �) + �1 �2 ( − �) + �1 �2 (0) + �1 �2 � + �1 �2 �
+ �1 �2 ( − �) + �1 �2 (0)

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= �1 �2 � − �1 �2 � − �1 �2 � + �1 �2 � + �1 �2 � − �1 �2 �
� �
Finally � × �� = �1 �2 − �1 �2 � + �1 �2 − �1 �2 � + �1 �2 − �1 �2 �

Another method:

We can also use the method of determinants of sub-matrices to find the cross
product of two or more vectors.

� �
Note: = �� − ��
� �
� �
� = �� � + �1 � + �1 � and �� = �2 � + �2 � + �2 �

� � � �
� � �1 � � �1 �1
� × �� = �1 �1 �1 = 1 �+ 1 1 �+ � � �
�2 �2 �2 �2 2 2
� 2 �2 �2
� �
� × �� = �1 �2 − �1 �2 � + �1 �2 − �1 �2 � + �1 �2 − �1 �2 �

Rewriting in the correct order we have


� �
� × �� = �1 �2 − �1 �2 � + �1 �2 − �1 �2 � + �1 �2 − �1 �2 �

Note: when we cross two vectors the result gives a vector.

Example 1:
� �
If � = 2� + 3� and �� =− 2� + 4�
� �
Find � × ��

Solution:
� �
� × �� = (2� + 3�) × ( − 2� + 4�)

=− 4� × � + 8� × � − 6� × � + 12� × �

= 0 + 8� − 6( − �) + 0

= 8� + 6�
� �
Therefore � × �� = 14�

Second method:

Using the determinant method we have

� �
2 3 = 8 −− 6 � = 14�
−2 4

10
� �
Therefore � × �� = 14�

Example 2:
� �
Evaluate � × �� if
� �
� = 2� + 3� − 5� and �� = � − 4� + 3�

Solution:
� � �
� × �� = 2� + 3� − 5� (� = � − 4� + 3�)

= 2� × � − 8� × � + 6� × � + 3� × � − 12� × � + 9� × � − 5� × � + 20� × � − 15�


�

= 0 − 8� − 6� − 3� − 0 + 9� − 5� − 20� − 0

=− 11� − 11� − 11�


� �
Therefore � × �� =− 11(� + � + �)

Second method
� �
� = 2� + 3� − 5� and �� = � − 4� + 3�

Can be written in matrix form as follows

� � � � �
2 3 3 −5 −5 2
� × �� = 2 3 −5 = �+ �+ �
1 −4 −4 3 3 1
1 −4 3
= −8 − 3 � + 9 − 20 � + −5 − 6 �

=− 11� − 11� − 11�

Rearranging in the correct order we have − 11� − 11� − 11�


� �
Therefore � × �� =− 11(� + � + �)

2.6 The scalar triple product


� �
Multiplication of vectors of the form ��. (�� × �) is called the scalar triple product.

Result of scalar triple product is always a scalar (number). The value of the scalar
� �
triple product ��. (�� × �) is the volume of a parallelepiped with sides �, � ��� �.

Example:

Determine the scalar triple product of the three vectors


� � �
� = � + 2� , �� = � − 3� − � ��� � = � + 2� − �

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Solution:
� � � � �
The scalar triple product of vectors �, �� ��� � is ��. (�� × �)
� � �
� × � = � = � − 3� − � × (� + 2� − �)

= � × � + �� × � − 1� × � − 3� × � − 6� × � + 3� × � − 1� × � − 2� × � + 1� × �

= 0 + 2� + � + 3� − 0 + 3� − � + 2� − 0
� �
� × � = 5� + 5�
� � �
Finally �. �� × � = � + 2� . (5� + 5�)

= 5 1 + 2 0 + 5(0)

= 5

Another method

� � � � �
1 −3 −3 −1 −1 1
�� × � = 1 −3 −1 = �+ �+ �
1 2 2 −1 −1 1
1 2 −1
= 2 −− 3 � + 3 −− 2 � + −1 −− 1 �
� �
�� × � = 5� + 5�
� � �
Finally �. �� × � = � + 2� . (5� + 5�)

= 5 1 + 2 0 + 5(0)

= 5

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