Optimized Maintenance of Generator Rotors

Optimized Maintenance of Generator Rotors
Technical Report
12731594
12731594
Optimized Maintenance
of Generator Rotors
1004951
Final Report, November 2004
EPRI Project Manager

J. Stein
EPRI • 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 • USA
800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com
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DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN
ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH
INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE
ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:
(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)

WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR
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FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR
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(INCLUDING ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE
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SELECTION OR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD,
PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT.
ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT
Nuclear Safety Solutions
ORDERING INFORMATION
Requests for copies of this report should be directed to EPRI Orders and Conferences, 1355 Willow
Way, Suite 278, Concord, CA 94520, (800) 313-3774, press 2 or internally x5379, (925) 609-9169,
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Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power
Research Institute, Inc. EPRI. ELECTRIFY THE WORLD is a service mark of the Electric Power
Research Institute, Inc.
Copyright © 2004 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
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CITATIONS
This report was prepared by
Nuclear Safety Solutions

700 University Avenue
H4-F3
Toronto, Ontario
M5G 1X6, Canada
Principal Investigator
G. Klempner
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:
Optimized Maintenance of Generator Rotors, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1004951.
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PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Generator rotor maintenance options are limited, and they are expensive. Both the timing and the
scope of work should be carefully optimized to ensure that maintenance achieves the maximum
benefits in terms of cost-effective, trouble-free, long-term operation. This EPRI report was
produced to support utilities in optimizing the maintenance of large generator rotors of 2- and
4-pole design that are cooled directly or indirectly by air or hydrogen. The document is a
comprehensive guide to maintenance of 50- and 60-Hz machines operating at speeds of 1500,
1800, 3000, and 3600 rpm. The information in the guide is generic in nature and applicable to
rotors from all major generator manufacturers. The guide does not cover water-cooled rotors.
Results & Findings

The guide provides:
• Information on rotor basics and design issues
• A description of the major components of the rotor and their functions
• A discussion of known rotor problems, how they manifest themselves, and how they can be
corrected
• A discussion of rotor shorted turns and ground faults
• A compilation of on-line monitoring and diagnostic methods
• A compilation of off-line testing procedures
• A discussion of basic approaches to maintenance
• Component-by-component inspection guidelines
• A discussion of “repair versus replace” decisions
• Guidance on purchased services
• Extensive references and a glossary of terms
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Challenges & Objectives
Operated on baseload, many generator rotors can provide a trouble-free service life of 25 years
or more. However, deregulation in the power industry has forced some generators away from
baseload operation, and the resulting increased thermal and mechanical cyclic duty has
significant consequences for rotating equipment. Shifting and load following subject rotor
forging teeth, wedges, copper windings, and connectors to low- and high-cycle fatigue
mechanisms and subject insulation materials to shear and thermal stresses. In addition, known
phenomena such as stress corrosion cracking of retaining rings and torsional resonances, excited
by grid transients, have a major impact on rotor design and choice of materials.
Applications, Values & Use

Most of the outages planned for conventional steam power plants involve work on the turbine
and generator. The challenge for the engineer is to improve performance and extend reliability
while eliminating unproductive activities from the maintenance outage schedule and controlling
costs. This guide provides a useful tool for optimizing maintenance on generator rotors, a key
turbine component.
EPRI Perspective
As a focus of innovative approaches and techniques, maintenance of aging steam turbines has
assumed increased importance. Many old steam plants, particularly those that are coal fired and
well maintained, can be positioned to succeed in the current deregulated environment. To
support this goal, EPRI is developing a series of engineering guidelines, repair procedures, and
support technologies. This report is part of that effort.
Approach
The project team compiled the information in the guide from numerous sources of available data
including equipment vendors, EPRI, the IEEE, and the International Council on Large Electric
Systems (CIGRE).
Keywords
Generator rotors
Maintenance
Generator life management
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ABSTRACT
This document is a comprehensive guide that utilities can use to streamline and optimize their
maintenance approach to the large generator rotors of 2- and 4-pole design found in most fossil
and nuclear power plants. The guide provides generic coverage of 50- and 60-Hz machines that
are cooled directly or indirectly by air or hydrogen. The guide provides:
corrected
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CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................1-1
2 ROTOR BASICS ....................................................................................................................2-1

2.1 The Rotor as Part of a Power Generating System ..........................................................2-1
2.2 The Rotor as a Component of the Generator..................................................................2-2
2.3 Rotor Design Issues ........................................................................................................2-3
2.3.1 Rotor Windings ........................................................................................................2-3
2.3.2 Electromagnetics .....................................................................................................2-4
2.3.3 Mechanical Issues ...................................................................................................2-5
2.3.4 Generator Cooling Methods ....................................................................................2-6
2.4 Rotor Operating Duty and Life Expectancy .....................................................................2-7
3 MAJOR ROTOR COMPONENTS ..........................................................................................3-1

3.1 The Forging .....................................................................................................................3-1
3.2 Windings .........................................................................................................................3-4
3.3 Winding Insulation ...........................................................................................................3-7
3.4 Winding Slot Wedges ......................................................................................................3-7
3.5 Endwinding Packings and Blocking.................................................................................3-8
3.6 Damper or Amortisseur Windings ...................................................................................3-9
3.7 Main Leads and Wedges...............................................................................................3-10
3.8 Radial Terminal Studs ...................................................................................................3-11
3.9 Bore Copper ..................................................................................................................3-12
3.10 Retaining Rings ...........................................................................................................3-13
3.11 Balance or Centering Rings for Retaining Rings.........................................................3-15
3.12 Locking Rings for Retaining Rings ..............................................................................3-15
3.13 Fans ............................................................................................................................3-16
3.14 Collector or Slip Rings and Brush Gear ......................................................................3-16
3.15 Gas Guides or Baffles .................................................................................................3-17
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3.16 Balance Weights .........................................................................................................3-18
3.17 Zone Rings ..................................................................................................................3-19
4 FAILURE MECHANISMS.......................................................................................................4-1
4.1 Shorted Winding Turns....................................................................................................4-1
4.2 Failed Copper Joints .......................................................................................................4-5
4.3 Copper Dusting ...............................................................................................................4-7
4.4 Rotor Winding Grounds...................................................................................................4-8
4.5 Mechanically Damaged Interturn Insulation ..................................................................4-10
4.6 Overheated Interturn Insulation.....................................................................................4-11
4.7 Misaligned Interturn Insulation ......................................................................................4-13
4.8 Distorted Copper Windings ...........................................................................................4-14
4.9 Elongated Copper Windings..........................................................................................4-16
4.10 Misaligned Copper Windings.......................................................................................4-16
4.11 Crushed Ventilation Paths in Copper Winding ............................................................4-17
4.12 Slot Liner Damage.......................................................................................................4-18
4.13 Endwinding Packings Damage....................................................................................4-20
4.14 Blocked Ventilation......................................................................................................4-21
4.15 Forging Fretting Fatigue ..............................................................................................4-22
4.16 Rotor Tooth Top Cracking ...........................................................................................4-23
4.17 Cracked Rotor Wedges ...............................................................................................4-24
4.18 Retaining Ring Aqueous Stress Corrosion Pitting or Cracking ...................................4-25
4.19 Collector Ring Flashover .............................................................................................4-26
4.20 Brush Gear Failure ......................................................................................................4-27
4.21 Bore Copper Insulation Damage .................................................................................4-28
4.22 Radial Terminal Stud Damage ....................................................................................4-29
4.23 Damper Winding Damage ...........................................................................................4-30
4.24 Gas Baffle Damage .....................................................................................................4-31
4.25 Arcing and Overheating Due to Negative Sequence Currents....................................4-31
4.26 Arcing and Overheating Due to Motoring ....................................................................4-33
5 ON-LINE MONITORING.........................................................................................................5-1
5.1 Rotor Winding Temperature ............................................................................................5-1
5.2 Rotor Winding Ground Alarm ..........................................................................................5-2
5.2.1 Risk Assessment on Rotor Ground Alarm...............................................................5-3
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5.3 Rotor Winding Shorted Turns—Detection by Flux Probe................................................5-4
5.3.1 Risk Assessment on Indication of Shorted Turns....................................................5-7
5.4 Shaft Speed ....................................................................................................................5-8
5.5 Rotor Vibration ................................................................................................................5-8
5.6 Torsional Vibration Monitoring.........................................................................................5-9
5.7 Shaft Voltage and Current Monitoring ...........................................................................5-10
5.8 Bearing Metal Temperature...........................................................................................5-10
5.9 Bearing Inlet Oil Temperature .......................................................................................5-11
5.10 Bearing Outlet Oil Temperature ..................................................................................5-11
5.11 Hydrogen Seal Metal Temperatures ...........................................................................5-11
5.12 Hydrogen Seal Inlet Oil Temperature..........................................................................5-12
5.13 Hydrogen Seal Outlet Oil Temperature .......................................................................5-12
5.14 Hydrogen Seal, Hydrogen/Seal Oil Differential Pressure............................................5-12
5.15 Rotor Fan Differential Pressure...................................................................................5-13
5.16 Dew Point Monitoring ..................................................................................................5-13
5.17 Negative Sequence .....................................................................................................5-13
5.17.1 Risk Assessment of a Negative Sequence Event ...............................................5-13
5.18 Rotor Winding Overvoltage .........................................................................................5-14
5.18.1 Risk Assessment of Rotor Overvoltage...............................................................5-15
6 OFF-LINE MAINTENANCE TESTING ...................................................................................6-1

6.1 Rotor Nondestructive Examination Inspection Techniques.............................................6-1
6.1.1 Visual Inspection .....................................................................................................6-1
6.1.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection....................................................................................6-2
6.1.3 Liquid Penetrant Inspection .....................................................................................6-2
6.1.4 Ultrasonic Examination............................................................................................6-3
6.1.4.1 The Pulse Echo Method...................................................................................6-3
6.1.4.2 The Through Transmission Method .................................................................6-4
6.1.5 Eddy Current Examination.......................................................................................6-4
6.2 Rotor NDE Specifics........................................................................................................6-5
6.2.1 Rotor Forgings.........................................................................................................6-5
6.2.2 Fans.........................................................................................................................6-6
6.2.3 Retaining Rings .......................................................................................................6-6
6.2.3.1 Retaining Ring Testing Frequency...................................................................6-7
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6.2.3.2 Retaining Ring Inspection Procedure When Rings Are Removed from
the Rotor Body .............................................................................................................6-7
6.2.3.3 In Situ Testing ..................................................................................................6-7
6.3 Air Pressure Test of the Rotor Bore ................................................................................6-8
6.4 Rotor Electrical Testing ...................................................................................................6-8
6.4.1 Winding Resistance.................................................................................................6-8
6.4.2 Insulation Resistance ..............................................................................................6-9
6.4.3 Polarization Index ....................................................................................................6-9
6.4.4 DC Hi-Pot ................................................................................................................6-9
6.4.5 AC Hi-Pot...............................................................................................................6-10
6.4.6 Shorted Turns Detection by Low-Voltage DC or Volt Drop ...................................6-10
6.4.7 Shorted Turns Detection by Low Voltage AC or “C” Core Test .............................6-10
6.4.8 Field Winding Ground Detection by Split Voltage Test..........................................6-11
6.4.9 Field Ground Detection by Current Through Forging Test ....................................6-13
6.5 Specialized Testing .......................................................................................................6-14
6.5.1 Shorted Turns Detection by Recurrent Surge Oscillation......................................6-14
6.5.2 Shorted Turns Detection by Open Circuit Test......................................................6-16
6.5.3 Shorted Turns Detection by Winding Impedance ..................................................6-17
7 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE......................................................................................7-1

7.1 Limited Access Inspection...............................................................................................7-1
7.2 Robotic Inspection...........................................................................................................7-1
7.3 Rotor Removal from Stator for Inspection .......................................................................7-2
7.3.1 Risk Assessment of Removing the Rotor from the Stator Bore...............................7-3
7.4 Rotor Component Inspection...........................................................................................7-3
7.4.1 Collector Rings ........................................................................................................7-4
7.4.2 Radial Terminal Studs .............................................................................................7-5
7.4.3 Bore Copper ............................................................................................................7-5
7.4.4 Fans.........................................................................................................................7-5
7.4.5 Retaining Rings .......................................................................................................7-5
7.4.6 Balance or Centering Rings.....................................................................................7-6
7.4.7 Gas Guides and Baffles...........................................................................................7-6
7.4.8 Retaining Ring to Rotor Body ..................................................................................7-6
7.4.9 Locking Keys or Rings.............................................................................................7-7
7.4.10 Rotor Body.............................................................................................................7-7
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7.4.11 Wedges .................................................................................................................7-7
7.4.12 Winding Slot Wedges—Radial Vent Holes............................................................7-7
7.4.13 Balance Weights....................................................................................................7-7
7.4.14 Journals .................................................................................................................7-8
7.4.15 Coupling ................................................................................................................7-8
7.4.16 Hydrogen Seal Shaft Collars .................................................................................7-8
8 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES................................................................................................8-1
8.1 Approaches to Maintenance............................................................................................8-1
8.1.1 Planned Maintenance..............................................................................................8-1
8.1.2 Predictive Maintenance ...........................................................................................8-1
8.1.3 Condition-Based Maintenance ................................................................................8-2
8.1.4 Forced Maintenance................................................................................................8-2
8.2 Frequency of Maintenance..............................................................................................8-3
8.3 Extent of Maintenance.....................................................................................................8-3
9 REPAIR/REFURBISH/REPLACE DECISIONS .....................................................................9-1

9.1 Repair and Replacement Considerations........................................................................9-1
9.2 Upgrading and/or Uprating During Rehabilitation Efforts ................................................9-2
9.3 On-Site Versus Off-Site Work Location Considerations..................................................9-4
9.4 Contractor Considerations...............................................................................................9-5
9.5 Spares Considerations ....................................................................................................9-5
10 SPECIFIC PURCHASED SERVICES ................................................................................10-1

10.1 Rotor Repair and Rewind Considerations ...................................................................10-1
10.1.1 Partial Versus Full Rewind ..................................................................................10-2
10.1.2 Reuse of Existing Copper Versus Replacement with New Copper .....................10-2
10.1.3 New Insulation .....................................................................................................10-2
10.1.4 Forging Condition for Reuse................................................................................10-2
10.1.5 Design Arrangement and Functionality ...............................................................10-3
10.1.6 Design Changes in Materials...............................................................................10-3
10.1.7 On-Site Versus Factory Rewinds ........................................................................10-3
10.1.8 Retaining Ring Replacement...............................................................................10-4
10.2 Rotor Rewinding..........................................................................................................10-4
10.3 Industry or Other Standards Applicable to a Rotor Repair or Rewind.........................10-5
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10.3.1 Rotor Winding......................................................................................................10-5
10.3.2 Winding Insulation ...............................................................................................10-6
10.3.3 Slot Wedges ........................................................................................................10-6
10.3.4 Endwinding Packings and Blocking.....................................................................10-6
10.3.5 Retaining Rings ...................................................................................................10-6
10.3.6 Excitation .............................................................................................................10-7
10.3.7 Safety Factor .......................................................................................................10-7
10.3.8 Factory Balancing................................................................................................10-7
10.3.9 Critical Speeds ....................................................................................................10-8
10.3.10 Factory Tests.....................................................................................................10-8
10.3.11 Electrical Tests ..................................................................................................10-9
10.3.12 Mechanical Tests...............................................................................................10-9
10.3.13 Operating Conditions and Performance Requirements .....................................10-9
10.3.14 Site Performance Testing ..................................................................................10-9
10.3.15 Negative Sequence Capability ........................................................................10-10
10.3.16 Fault Conditions...............................................................................................10-10
10.4 New Rotor Purchase .................................................................................................10-10
11 GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................11-1
12 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................12-1
12.1 EPRI Reports ..............................................................................................................12-1
12.2 Papers .........................................................................................................................12-1
12.3 Books ..........................................................................................................................12-3
12.4 Standards ....................................................................................................................12-3
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A POSSIBLE ON-LINE MONITORING FOR VARIOUS FAILURE MECHANISMS ................ A-1
B OFF-LINE TESTS FOR POSSIBLE DETERMINATION OF THE EXTENT OF

VARIOUS FAILURES............................................................................................................... B-1
C ACCESS REQUIRED TO DETERMINE THE EXTENT OF VARIOUS FAILURES.............. C-1
D OFF-LINE TESTS OR PROCEDURES FOR INDICATING RELATIVE HEALTH OF

VARIOUS ROTOR COMPONENTS ......................................................................................... D-1
E ACCESS REQUIRED FOR INSPECTION OF THE VARIOUS ROTOR

COMPONENTS ........................................................................................................................ E-1
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 3600 RPM, 2-Pole Generator Cross-Section ...........................................................2-2

Figure 2-2 1800 RPM, 4-Pole Generator Cross-Section ...........................................................2-3
Figure 2-3 Rotor Cross-Section Showing Winding ....................................................................2-3
Figure 2-4 2-Pole Generator Flux Pattern..................................................................................2-4
Figure 2-5 4-Pole Generator Flux Pattern..................................................................................2-5
Figure 3-1 2-Pole Rotor Forging ................................................................................................3-3
Figure 3-2 4-Pole Rotor Forging ................................................................................................3-3
Figure 3-3 2-Pole Rotor Winding Installed in Rotor Forging ......................................................3-5
Figure 3-4 4-Pole Rotor Winding Installed in Rotor Forging ......................................................3-5
Figure 3-5 Various Rotor Winding Slot Content Configurations.................................................3-6
Figure 3-6 Various Rotor Winding Slot (Short) Wedge Configurations ......................................3-8
Figure 3-7 Rotor Endwinding Blocking Between Copper Coils ..................................................3-9
Figure 3-8 Endwinding Amortisseur.........................................................................................3-10
Figure 3-9 Main Leads Installed in Axial Slots Cut in the Forging Shaft and Held in Place
by Wedges .......................................................................................................................3-11
Figure 3-10 Main Leads Removed...........................................................................................3-11
Figure 3-11 Outboard Radial Terminal Studs Installed Between Collector Rings, for
Connection Between Collector Rings and Bore Copper ..................................................3-12
Figure 3-12 Bore Copper Leads Running Axially Through the Rotor Shaft Between the
Inboard and Outboard Radial Terminal Studs..................................................................3-13
Figure 3-13 Retaining Ring with Balance or Centering Ring Installed on a Rotor (Axial
Type Rotor Fan Is Also Shown in Photo) .........................................................................3-14
Figure 3-14 Retaining Ring with Balance or Centering Ring Shrink-Fitted into the Back
End of the Ring ................................................................................................................3-14
Figure 3-15 Locking Rings for Retaining Rings .......................................................................3-16
Figure 3-16 Gas Baffles Installed Under the Endwinding Copper ...........................................3-18
Figure 3-17 Balance Weights Installed in the Rotor Pole Face ...............................................3-19
Figure 4-1 Shorted Turns in Rotor Slot—Schematic..................................................................4-2
Figure 4-2 Shorted Turns in Rotor Slot from Overheating .........................................................4-3
Figure 4-3 Shorted Turns in Rotor Endwinding Due to Friction Heating Against a
Packings Block...................................................................................................................4-3
Figure 4-4 Massive Shorted Turns in Rotor Endwinding Due to Failed Joints...........................4-4
Figure 4-5 Coil-to-Coil Short in Rotor Endwinding Due to Copper Distortion.............................4-4
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Figure 4-6 Failed Pole-to-Pole Connector Joint—Arced Open Circuit .......................................4-6
Figure 4-7 Pole-to-Pole Connector Cracking from Fatigue (Not Fully Through) ........................4-6
Figure 4-8 Coil-to-Coil Connector in Process of Failing from Fatigue (Arcing Has Started
to Occur) ............................................................................................................................4-6
Figure 4-9 Copper Dusting Particles Due to Relative Motion Between Two Layers of One
Turn of the Copper Winding ...............................................................................................4-7
Figure 4-10 Copper Erosion Marks in the Transverse Direction Due to Relative Motion
Between Two Layers of One Turn .....................................................................................4-7
Figure 4-11 Rotor Winding Ground in the Slot from Copper Dust .............................................4-9
Figure 4-12 Rotor Winding Ground to Retaining Ring from Coil-to-Coil Failure ........................4-9
Figure 4-13 Corresponding Damage Through Retaining Ring Insulation to Ground (to the
Retaining Ring) ................................................................................................................4-10
Figure 4-14 Cracked Interturn Insulation in the Slot ................................................................4-10
Figure 4-15 Damaged Interturn Insulation in the Endwinding..................................................4-11
Figure 4-16 Worn Out Interturn Insulation in the Endwinding from Aging................................4-11
Figure 4-17 Overheated Interturn Insulation in the Slot ...........................................................4-12
Figure 4-18 Overheated Top Channel Insulation in the Slot....................................................4-12
Figure 4-19 Overheated Interturn Insulation in the Endwinding...............................................4-13
Figure 4-20 Misaligned Interturn Insulation in the Slot.............................................................4-13
Figure 4-21 Misaligned Interturn Insulation in the Endwinding ................................................4-14
Figure 4-22 Mildly Distorted Top Copper Turn in the Endwinding ...........................................4-15
Figure 4-23 Major Distortion and Deformation of the Copper Endwinding...............................4-15
Figure 4-24 Elongated and Deformed Copper Endwinding .....................................................4-16
Figure 4-25 Misaligned Copper Endwinding ............................................................................4-17
Figure 4-26 Crushed Twin Ventilation Ducts in Endwinding ....................................................4-17
Figure 4-27 Crushing of Copper, Causing Reduced Ventilation ..............................................4-18
Figure 4-28 Slot Liner Overheated in the Slot Portion from Undercooling ...............................4-18
Figure 4-29 Slot Liner Overheated from Copper Friction at the Slot Exit (Top Photo) and
Slot Liner Worn Completely Through to the Forging from Copper Movement and
Friction (Bottom Photo) ....................................................................................................4-19
Figure 4-30 Slot Liner Cracked Near the Slot Exit ...................................................................4-20
Figure 4-31 Slot Liner Axial Migration Observed Under the Retaining Ring ............................4-20
Figure 4-32 Endwinding Packings Damaged as a Result of Excessive Forces.......................4-21
Figure 4-33 Endwinding Packings Broken as a Result of Excessive Forces ...........................4-21
Figure 4-34 Blocked Ventilation Passages in the Slot Wedges from Copper Coil Axial
Shifting .............................................................................................................................4-22
Figure 4-35 Fretting Fatigue Marks in Rotor Winding Slot Dovetail, at Wedge End
Locations..........................................................................................................................4-23
Figure 4-36 Fretting Fatigue Crack in Rotor Winding Slot Dovetail .........................................4-23
Figure 4-37 Rotor Forging Tooth Top Cracking, Showing Top of Tooth Broken Away............4-24
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Figure 4-38 Cracked Rotor Winding Slot Wedge.....................................................................4-25
Figure 4-39 Stress Corrosion Pitting (Left) and Cracking (Right) in Retaining Ring
Surface.............................................................................................................................4-26
Figure 4-40 Collector Ring Flashover Damage........................................................................4-27
Figure 4-41 Brush Gear Failure Damage.................................................................................4-28
Figure 4-42 Cracked Bore Copper Insulation ..........................................................................4-29
Figure 4-43 Radial Terminal Stud Threads Damaged Beyond Repair.....................................4-30
Figure 4-44 Cracked Damper Winding End Connector Overlap ..............................................4-30
Figure 4-45 Cracked Hydrogen Gas Baffle Under Retaining Ring ..........................................4-31
Figure 4-46 Arcing at the End of a Winding Slot Wedge to the Retaining Ring (Not in
Place) Due to Parasitic Currents ......................................................................................4-32
Figure 4-47 Overheating in the Pole Face Damper Wedge and Rotor Forging Due to
Negative Sequence Heating ............................................................................................4-32
Figure 4-48 Severe Arcing and Heating Damage in the Rotor Surface Between Wedge
Ends and the Forging, Due to Motoring ...........................................................................4-33
Figure 4-49 Severe Arcing Damage in a Rotor Winding Slot Wedge Due to Motoring at
Low Speed (Currents Flowed from Out-Of-Synchronism Slip Frequencies at the
End of a Full-Length Aluminum Wedge to the Rotor Slot Dovetail) .................................4-34
Figure 4-50 Matching Arcing Damage in the Forging from Figure 4-49...................................4-34
Figure 5-1 Rotor Winding Hot Spot Multiplier ............................................................................5-2
Figure 5-2 Flux Probe Installation ..............................................................................................5-6
Figure 5-3 Flux Probe and Cross-Slot Leakage Flux .................................................................5-6
Figure 5-4 Flux Probe Trace ......................................................................................................5-7
Figure 6-1 “C” Core Test Setup ...............................................................................................6-11
Figure 6-2 “C” Core Test Plotted Results.................................................................................6-12
Figure 6-3 Field Winding Ground Detection by Split Voltage Test...........................................6-13
Figure 6-4 Field Ground Detection by Current Through Forging Test .....................................6-14
Figure 6-5 RSO Trace for a Two-Pole Rotor—No Shorts ........................................................6-15
Figure 6-6 RSO Trace for a Two-Pole Rotor—with Shorts, Dual-Trace Plot ...........................6-15
Figure 6-7 RSO Trace for a Two-Pole Rotor—with Shorts, Subtracted Traces.......................6-16
Figure 6-8 Shorted Turns Detection by Open Circuit...............................................................6-17
Figure 6-9 Shorted Turns Detection by Impedance .................................................................6-18
Figure 7-1 Bent Stator Core Laminations Due to Skid Plate Movement During Rotor
Removal .............................................................................................................................7-2
Figure 7-2 Stator Core Damage Due to Skid Plate Insertion for Rotor Removal .......................7-3
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Relative Cooling Properties of Various Cooling Mediums Used in

Turbogenerators.................................................................................................................2-7
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1
INTRODUCTION
Operated on baseload, many generator rotors can provide a trouble-free service life of 25 years
or more. However, deregulation in the power industry has forced some generators away from
baseload operation, and the resulting increased thermal and mechanical cyclic duty has
significant consequences for rotating equipment. Shifting and load following subject rotor
forging teeth, wedges, copper windings, and connectors to low- and high-cycle fatigue
mechanisms and subject insulation materials to shear and thermal stresses. In addition, known
phenomena such as stress corrosion cracking of retaining rings and torsional resonances, excited
by grid transients, have a major impact on rotor design and choice of materials.
Generator rotor maintenance options are limited, and they are expensive. Both the timing and the
scope of work should be carefully optimized to ensure that maintenance achieves the maximum
benefits in terms of cost-effective, trouble-free, long-term operation. The technical decisions
regarding what to include and what not to include in a new or refurbished rotor can have
significant impact on delivery time and the ability of a new rotor to operate successfully and
reliably for the long term, in the new environment.
This document provides the power industry with a comprehensive guide to large generator rotor
maintenance. Specifically, it is a guide for streamlining and optimizing the maintenance
approach to large generator rotors of the 2- and 4-pole designs that are found in the majority of
nuclear and fossil power plants. These include 50- and 60-Hz machines, operating at speeds of
1500, 1800, 3000, and 3600 rpm. Among these machines, there are four basic machine types that
will be covered, as follows:
• Rotors Indirectly Cooled by Air
• Rotors Indirectly Cooled by Hydrogen
• Rotors Directly Cooled by Air
• Rotors Directly Cooled by Hydrogen
This guide does not cover water-cooled rotors.
The information included in the guide is generic in nature, and applicable to rotors from all
major generator manufacturers worldwide.
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Introduction
The guide provides:

corrected
Information in the guide is compiled from numerous sources of available data. These include
equipment vendors, EPRI, IEEE, and the International Council on Large Electric Systems
(CIGRE). The guide is intended to serve as a useful tool in today’s rapidly changing business
environment, where downsizing and diminishing expertise challenge power plant operators.
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2
ROTOR BASICS
2.1 The Rotor as Part of a Power Generating System

Within this document, the term rotor refers to a part of an electrical generator of the steam-
turbine-driven, or turbogenerator, variety. These range from relatively small machines of a few
megawatts (MW) to very large generators with ratings over 1600 MW. The generators specific to
this discussion are of the 2- and 4-pole designs, employing round rotors, with rotational
operating speeds of 3600 and 3000 rpm (2-pole designs) and 1800 and 1500 rpm (4-pole
designs), depending on the country or continent.
The basic function of the generator is to convert mechanical power, delivered from the shaft of
the turbine, into electrical power. Therefore, a generator is actually a rotating mechanical energy
converter. The mechanical energy from the turbine is converted by means of a rotating magnetic
field produced by dc current in the copper winding of the rotor, which generates three-phase ac
voltages in a copper winding in the stator or armature. The stator winding is connected to
terminals, which are in turn connected to the power system for delivery of the output power to
the system.
As the system requires more energy or power from the generator, more steam needs to be
admitted to the turbine. Hence more energy is transmitted to the generator, from the turbine, in
the form of torque. This torque is mechanical in nature, but electromagnetically coupled to the
power system through the generator.
The power output of the generator generally follows the load demand from the system.
Therefore, the voltages and currents in the generator are continually changing, based on the load
demand. The generator design must be able to cope with these large and fast changes, which
further show up inside the machine as mechanical forces and temperatures. The design must
therefore incorporate electrical current carrying materials (copper), magnetic flux carrying
materials (highly permeable steels), insulating materials, structural members, and cooling media,
all working together under the operating conditions of a turbogenerator.
Since the turbine generator is also a synchronous machine, it operates at one very specific speed,
to produce a constant system frequency of 60 Hz (3600 and 1800 rpm) or 50 Hz (3000 and 1500
rpm). As a synchronous machine, a turbine generator employs a steady magnetic flux passing
radially across the air gap between the rotor and the stator. For the machines in this discussion,
again this means a magnetic flux distribution of 2 or 4 poles on the rotor. This flux pattern varies
sinusoidally with rotation. As the rotor spins at its synchronous speed, the rotating magnetic field
moves past a 3-phase winding installed in the stator. This generates an alternating voltage in the
stator winding, which is also very nearly sinusoidal, in each of the three phases. The output of
the stator winding is the 3-phase power delivered to the power system.
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Rotor Basics
2.2 The Rotor as a Component of the Generator
A generator rotor is essentially a large rotating magnet, used to induce alternating current and
voltage in the windings of the stationary part of the generator, called the stator. The rotor consists
of a long cylindrical steel forging made of magnetic material. There are axially cut slots
machined into the main body of the forging, to hold the copper windings that carry the dc
magnetizing current. The copper windings are held in the slots by wedges generally made of
steel, aluminum, or a brass alloy. The endwindings of the copper are held in place by steel
retaining rings. These are generally made of nonmagnetic steel, but some older designs do
employ magnetic material. The copper winding is fully insulated from the forging, the wedges,
the retaining rings, and all other conducting parts of the rotor by an elaborate system of organic
insulating components. All of these components operate at high speeds up to 3600 rpm plus an
additional 10% for overspeed conditions. In addition, because of the high electrical currents and
associated electrical losses involved, there is significant temperature rise on all operating parts.
Therefore, the ability of these components to operate under high dynamic loads and temperatures
is essential.
Figures 2-1 and 2-2 are illustrations of 2-pole and 4-pole generators of the same size in terms of
power output (i.e., 100 MW), showing the rotor installed in the stator bore. A comparison of the
two machines gives the reader an idea of the difference in relative physical size due to the
differences between 2- and 4-pole rotors. These are typical large generator configurations
operating in the world today.
Figure 2-1
3600 RPM, 2-Pole Generator Cross-Section
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Rotor Basics
Figure 2-2
1800 RPM, 4-Pole Generator Cross-Section
2.3 Rotor Design Issues
2.3.1 Rotor Windings
The capability of the field winding is expressed in ampere-turns (A-Ts) per pole. The total
cross-sectional area in each slot available for copper is subdivided into turns, all of which are
connected in series to form a coil. The number of field turns per pole multiplied by the current in
the winding equals the total A-Ts. (See the winding schematic shown in Figure 2-3.) The current
density in the copper determines the total loss to be dissipated and hence the temperature of the
winding. For constant current density, as the number of turns increases, the copper area per turn
and hence the current per turn would decrease proportionally, but the total A-Ts per pole would
remain the same. Since field voltage is proportional to the number of turns, it does not affect the
A-Ts.
Figure 2-3
Rotor Cross-Section Showing Winding
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Rotor Basics
The major design criterion impacting the A-T capability of the field winding is the temperature
of the conductors. The capability can be increased by using improved insulation materials, which
are capable of higher temperatures, or by improving the cooling system, or by increasing the
total area available for copper in the rotor cross section.
2.3.2 Electromagnetics
The electromagnetic circuits of 2-pole and 4-pole turbogenerators are shown in semischematic
form in Figures 2-4 and 2-5. The cross-section views presented in these figures show an air gap
separating the slotted outer surfaces of both the rotor and the stator. The major elements of the
magnetic circuit, as shown, are the solid steel rotor (including the rotor winding teeth/slots and
poles and the main body below the slots and poles), the air gap (which constitutes the principal
reluctance in the circuit), and the laminated steel stator core (including the stator teeth/slots and
stator yoke below the slots).
The air gap is the annular region between the rotor body and the stator core. Although the air gap
is large to accommodate insertion of the rotor and its larger-diameter retaining rings, it has a
major design purpose with regard to the reluctance of the total magnetic circuit, and hence the
overall stability of the generator. The air gap greatly affects the steady-state stability of the
generator when connected to the power system, by simple variation of the length of the space
between the stator and rotor outer surfaces. The length of this air gap is used to determine the
short-circuit ratio (SCR), which is calculated by dividing the amount of field current required to
produce rated stator terminal voltage on open circuit by the amount of field current required to
produce rated stator current on short-circuit condition.
Figure 2-4
2-Pole Generator Flux Pattern
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Rotor Basics
Figure 2-5
4-Pole Generator Flux Pattern
In practical terms, this means that the longer the air gap, the higher the short-circuit ratio and
therefore, the higher the magnetic circuit reluctance. Additionally, with a longer air gap the
generator will tend to be more stable and require greater ampere-turns to achieve the required
level of magnetic flux across the air gap, meaning that more field current is necessary. A larger
generator is required for a given apparent power rating for an SCR because a larger rotor is
required to handle the extra field magnetomotive force, and because of the extra space occupied
by the air gap. But the air gap needs to be large enough to permit insertion of the rotor through
the stator bore with sufficient clearance for safe handling, and must take into account the larger
diameter of the retaining rings. This may limit the minimum possible SCR in some generators.
2.3.3 Mechanical Issues
Rotor mechanical issues are as complicated and as critical to the success of rotor operation as the
electrical and electromagnetic issues. The forging of a rotor holds a complex assortment of
components, including the copper winding and its associated insulation systems, and carries the
magnetic flux generated by the current flowing in the rotor winding. To carry out its function, the
rotor must operate at high speed, as mentioned previously, and all of its components must work
without failing or undergoing excessive vibration. All of the rotor components are under high
stress during operation and are in a very precise state of balance.
In terms of stresses, the rotor retaining rings are generally the most highly stressed component of
the rotor. However, as a rule of thumb, all rotor components are generally designed to have a
safety factor of 50% above the maximum operation stress that any individual rotor component
sees at 20% above the rated operating speed. This design criterion allows for the fact that rotors
undergo overspeeds during stress events and as a natural testing function, and must still have
sufficient margin. A generous margin is required because of the potentially catastrophic of rotor
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Rotor Basics
failures. There are many known instances of rotor failures, and the consequences have been
devastating on occasion, causing total machine destruction.
One of the main operating issues with generator rotors is the need to run at high speed with
minimal vibration. Most large turbogenerator rotors operate with vibration limits of about 6 mils
on the shaft, or less. This is only 0.006 inch (0.152 mm) and is a critical limit if damage to rotor
bearing and hydrogen seals is to be avoided. In practice, there are usually limits set for two levels
of vibration. The first limit is the “alarm” limit, at which the operator is first notified that
vibration is now approaching an undesirable level, and the second limit is the “shut-down” limit,
at which the unit must be taken off line and the vibration corrected. The precise limits vary for
2-pole and 4-pole rotors and for different bearing types as well.
There are various different types of vibration that a rotor can encounter, but they generally
exhibit either 1/rev or 2/rev frequency characteristics. Further, they can be mechanical or thermal
in nature. When high vibrations occur, generator specialists usually carry out sophisticated
testing to find the nature of the vibration and hence understand the root cause and possible
repairs required.
2.3.4 Generator Cooling Methods
Turbine generators employ either air or hydrogen as the internal cooling atmosphere of the
generator. Hydrogen is the most effective gas for ventilating a rotating machine. It is used in all
large turbine generators and most medium-size machines, and even in many smaller generators.
Hydrogen, for use as a coolant in generators, is provided at a purity of approximately 98%. It is

usually maintained from a continuous supply of commercial-grade hydrogen of high purity. It is
necessary to maintain a large supply for filling the generator after overhauls and to replace gas
lost during operation. Hydrogen consumption occurs in the generator through absorption into the
seal oil and through untraceably small leaks in the hydrogen coolers, in the stator winding, or out
of the casing. A pressure regulator holds the hydrogen pressure at the rated level specified by the
generator design.
Hydrogen’s density at 98% purity is on the order of 1/10 that of air at a comparable pressure.
This reduces the fan and windage loss to such a low value that it is feasible to raise hydrogen
pressure to as much as 75 psi relative to atmospheric pressure without adversely affecting
efficiency. This higher pressure greatly increases the heat removal capability of the hydrogen.
Hydrogen’s properties are such that its heat transfer coefficient is 50% more effective than that
of air at the same pressure. Therefore, hydrogen is much more effective in removing heat from a
surface. (See Table 2-1.)
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Rotor Basics
Table 2-1
Relative Cooling Properties of Various Cooling Mediums Used in Turbogenerators
Specific Specific Flow Cooling

Coolant
Heat Density Volume Capacity
Air 1.00 1.00 1.000 1.0

H2 @ 30 psi 14.36 0.21 1.000 1.0
H2 @ 45 psi 14.36 0.26 1.000 4.0
H2 @ 60 psi 14.36 0.35 1.000 5.0
Oil 2.09 8.48 0.012 21.0

Water 4.16 1000.00 0.012 50.0
The heat capacity per unit volume (the product of specific heat at constant pressure and density)
of hydrogen is approximately equal to that of air at the same pressure. Therefore, the temperature
rise of hydrogen would be approximately the same as that of air if the same volume flow rate of
the two gases were used to remove the same amount of heat. The temperature rise is substantially
reduced because the fan and windage loss is reduced in hydrogen.
The hydrogen is circulated throughout the generator by shaft-mounted fans or blowers. The hot
rotor gas is discharged to the air gap, after having absorbed the heat from the field winding
losses. The hydrogen is also circulated through the core and stator terminals and then back to the
coolers for cooling and recirculation.
To remove or introduce hydrogen in the generator, an external system is connected that employs
CO2 for hydrogen purging on removal and air purging when admitting hydrogen into the
machine. Instrumentation is also generally provided for monitoring of hydrogen gas purity, dew
point, and temperature.
Air-cooled turbine generators are commonly open-ventilated, taking air from outside the
machine and discharging the warm air back to the outside in another location.
2.4 Rotor Operating Duty and Life Expectancy
The actual life expectancy of a rotor will depend both on the materials used and on the type of
operating duty that the rotor will be required to handle in its lifetime. The stated design life
generally depends on the materials, in that the materials are normally expected to withstand
approximately 25 years of operating duty before a rewind is required. The operating duty can
then affect the condition of the equipment over its operating life, which is why some rotors will
appear to have a different service life than others. Baseloaded units with minimal thermal cycling
duty generally have a longer life than equipment that undergoes two-shifting duty and frequent
thermal and mechanical cycles. The 25-year life is a basic guideline.
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Rotor Basics
The life expectancy of a properly designed and constructed rotor is determined by the design
capability of the insulation systems, as they are the weakest link in most cases. The design
capability requirements are generally those related to the class of insulation system, as outlined
in the international standards which cover electrical machines.
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3
MAJOR ROTOR COMPONENTS
Generator rotors are constructed from the various materials used to make the specialized
components that comprise the rotor as a whole. All these components must work together as a
unit, under strenuous operating duty encompassing thermal, electrical, and mechanical loads.
The following are the main rotor components that are described in this section of the guide.
Illustrations or photos are included where relevant.
1. The Forging (coupling, bearing journals, hydrogen seal surfaces)
2. Windings
3. Winding insulation
4. Winding slot wedges
5. Endwinding packings and blocking
6. Damper or amortisseur windings
7. Main leads and wedges
8. Radial terminal studs
9. Bore copper
10. Retaining rings
11. Balance or centering rings for retaining rings
12. Locking rings for retaining rings
13. Fans
14. Slip/collector rings and brush gear
15. Guides or baffles
16. Balance weights
3.1 The Forging
Turbine generator rotors are generally constructed from single steel forgings made of highly
electromagnetically permeable steel to carry the electromagnetic flux generated by the current
flowing in the rotor winding. In addition, there are extremely high stresses present in specific
parts of the rotor forging, which require careful design attention and generous safety factors. The
forging must therefore be designed with good mechanical properties, as well as good magnetic
characteristics.
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Major Rotor Components
Two-pole rotors (Figure 3-1) are high-speed, 3000 rpm (50-Hz systems) or 3600 rpm (60-Hz
systems) components that are long and slender. Generally, they have a rotor body length-to-
diameter ratio of anywhere from 5–7 to 1. At rated speed, they are almost always found to
operate above the second critical speed. This requires sophisticated balancing to account for both
once per rev and twice per rev issues as well as thermal effects due to the rotor winding and
other components. This means that they also generally have two natural frequencies below the
operating frequency, at which they could go unstable if operated for any length of time. Four-
pole rotors (Figure 3-2) are much larger in diameter and operate at 1500 rpm and 1800 rpm.
Four-pole rotors are generally not as long and slender as two-pole rotors, but the majority of the
larger four-pole rotors still operate above the second critical speed. Four-pole rotors generally
have rotor body length-to-diameter ratios of 4–6 to 1.
The forging acts as the main structure of the rotor, but can be discussed in terms of the different
portions of it. The forging consists of the following elements:
• A main body, in which there are machined rotor winding slots, pole face cross-cuts, and/or
axial slots
• The shaft (which rides on the bearings and supports the entire rotor)
• The turbine coupling (for connection to the driving steam turbine)
• The hydrogen sealing surfaces (to hold the hydrogen cooling gas inside the generator at high
pressure without leaking)
• The main lead slots in the shaft (used to carry the main connectors to the slip rings)
Additional components mounted in or on the rotor consist of the following:

• The copper winding (for carrying the dc excitation current)
• The insulation systems (for insulating the copper conducting components from the forging
components)
• Winding slot wedges (used to hold the copper winding and insulations in the forging slots)
• Endwinding retaining rings (one at each end of the rotor, for restraining the endwinding
portion of the copper winding)
• Balancing or centering rings (installed in the retaining rings to negate ovalizing of the
retaining rings)
• Endwinding blockings (installed between copper winding coils in the endwinding, for
support and restraint from distortion)
• Fans or blowers (used to move the cooling medium around, over, and through the various
generator components to pick up heat for removal by the hydrogen cooling system)
• Main leads (copper leads used to connect the main copper winding of the rotor to the slip
rings)
• Terminal studs (used to carry current from the outer circumference to the inner
circumference of the rotor shaft)
• Collector or slip rings (allow dc current into and out of the rotor winding while spinning at
rated speed)
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• The collector ring cooling fan (used to keep the collector rings cool while carrying high
current)
Figure 3-1
2-Pole Rotor Forging
Figure 3-2
4-Pole Rotor Forging
The rotor teeth in the main body, which separate the winding slots, carry the centrifugal load of
the copper coils and associated insulation while providing as much space for conductors as
possible. Wedges at the top of the slots transmit the radial load of the coils to the teeth. The
magnetic flux is carried by the rotor in the main body and is dc in nature. Therefore, only the
static magnetic saturation characteristics of the forging material need to be considered in the
magnetic circuit design of the rotor body.
There are two areas in the rotor body that carry the main flux. These are the solid forging under
the winding slots, and the poles. Increasing the cross-sectional area in either of these areas
decreases the space available for the copper winding. Both of these regions carry the useful flux,
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which crosses the air gap to the stator. There is also the cross-slot leakage flux of the field
winding, which travels from one rotor winding slot tooth to another.
A borehole is often machined at the center of the rotor forging through its full axial length. This
was done mostly in past due to impurities and porosity in the forgings, which tended to
concentrate in the center. The borehole serves two purposes. The first is to remove the material
defects, and the second is to provide access for performing boresonic (ultrasonic) inspection of
the rotor bore. In modern forgings, the material manufacturing processes are now improved to
the extent that a borehole is not generally required.
The shaft design of the generator rotor is critical with regard to the vibration characteristics of
the rotor itself and when coupled to the turbines. The vertical and horizontal stiffness of the
bearing supports and of the oil film affects the critical speeds and mode shapes. In addition, shaft
diameter and length greatly affect the critical speeds and balance of the rotor. The minimum
shaft diameters are at the bearings and are determined by acceptable torsional stresses under
rated load, with margin for brief high torques during severe electrical transients. The shaft
diameter and bearing length are also selected to place the pressure in the oil film in the range of
stable bearing operation. The larger the shaft diameter, the higher the bending stress due to rotor
misalignment and the higher the bearing losses that must be considered in the efficiency (or heat
rate) of the turbine generator set.
Shaft torsional vibrations are also a concern, since they are undetectable without special
monitoring. Whenever a high-current transient is experienced by the stator winding, a complex
transient torque is felt by the rotor. A 3-phase sudden short circuit, for example, would subject
the rotor to a large decaying alternating torque at the power system frequency, and to a decaying
unidirectional torque whose initial value may be one-third of the initial peak alternating torque.
A single-phase sudden short circuit would add a decaying alternating torque at a frequency twice
that of the power system. Being suddenly applied, these torques would stimulate a number of
torsional natural frequencies. If the stress in the shaft exceeds the torsional endurance limit of the
forging material, it is likely that many cycles will exceed that limit, since the overall torsional
damping is very low. This must be considered in shaft design. Torsional natural frequencies near
the power system frequency and the twice per rev frequency must be avoided, since they can
stimulate the rotor excessively, to the point of catastrophic failure.
3.2 Windings
The rotor winding, or field winding, is installed in winding slots in the forging main body and is
distributed around the rotor between poles. The slots are machined into the solid rotor body. The
winding itself is made up of fully series connected, concentric copper coils, each located in a pair
of slots in corresponding positions on opposite sides of a pole. Each winding turn is insulated
from the other by interturn insulation, and the coils are insulated from the forging as well. (See
Figures 3-3 and 3-4.)
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Figure 3-3
2-Pole Rotor Winding Installed in Rotor Forging
Figure 3-4
4-Pole Rotor Winding Installed in Rotor Forging
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There are numerous copper winding designs employed to remove the heat produced in the field
winding conductors during operation, but almost all large generators have commonality in that
they directly cool the copper winding with hydrogen cooling gas.
Cooling passages are provided within the conductors themselves to eliminate the temperature
drop across the ground insulation and preserve the life of the insulation material. Some of the
design variations are rather significant, as shown in the rotor winding slot cross-section sketches
in Figure 3-5.
Figure 3-5
Various Rotor Winding Slot Content Configurations
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In an axially cooled winding, the gas passes through axial passages in the conductors, being fed
from both ends, and is exhausted to the air gap at the axial center of the rotor. In other designs,
radial passages in the stack of conductors are fed from sub-slots machined along the length of the
rotor at the bottom of each slot. In the air gap pickup method, the cooling gas is picked up from
the air gap, cooling is accomplished over a relatively short length of the rotor, and the gas is then
discharged back to the air gap. The cooling of the end regions of the winding varies from design
to design, as much as that of the slot section.
In smaller turbine generators, the indirect cooling method (similar to the method for indirectly
cooling stator windings) is used, in which the heat is removed by conduction through the ground
insulation to the rotor body.
3.3 Winding Insulation
As in the stator part of the generator, insulation is required to isolate the rotor winding from the
rotor forging, which operates on direct current potential. In addition, the turns within each
winding coil must be separated, since they are wound in series. The insulation system must be
designed to carry out its insulating function at the same time that it must survive the extreme
mechanical duty imposed by the rotational forces in operation.
Rotation imposes a huge centrifugal load on the insulation system. These mechanical effects are
further exacerbated by the temperature changes in the winding, which occur when the generator
is excited and loaded. Cycling of the load causes temperature cycling, which causes the
conductors to expand and contract. This in turn can promote artificial aging and advanced
wear-out of the insulation system. The degree to which the conductors are locked in place by the
centrifugal force affects the actual motions that the insulation must be designed to accommodate.
Field voltage is dc and can reach as high as 700 V on the larger machines. However, the
insulation must be capable of handling the field forcing duty, which is generally twice the rated
field voltage.
The turn-to-turn voltage is normally only a few volts. With only brief occurrences of higher
voltages, it is generally sufficient to provide mechanical separation between turns.
The duty imposed on the winding insulation requires it to be of very high mechanical and
thermal quality, and generally it is selected to have Class F (155ºC) capability. This is for both
the ground and interturn insulation components.
3.4 Winding Slot Wedges
The wedges that hold the field winding against rotational forces are complex in design and are
highly stressed. One of the design features that makes this the case is the fact that the wedges
almost always include radial ventilation holes for cooling gas to escape or enter the copper
winding in the slot below. The wedges must also be allowed to move marginally, due to the
thermal expansion of the copper winding underneath. A certain degree of clearance is always
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entertained; that amount varies from manufacture to manufacturer, depending on their specific
design philosophy.
Differences in design philosophy result in there being numerous basic designs for rotor winding
slot wedges, from short wedges of a few inches in length to full rotor-body-length wedges.
Generally, in modern machines, wedges are made of high-strength aluminum. Brass alloys have
also been used in past, but are not as common in newer machines.
Short steel wedges have been used in past by many of the manufacturers, but are now avoided
because of the fretting fatigue cracking they can cause in the rotor forging. When the rotor body
flexes, the ends of short wedges will rub or “fret” against the rotor body in the lower speed range
during run-up or run-down and cause fretting marks or cracking to occur. If the length-to-body
ratio is high, allowing a high bending stress in the forging, cracks may form in the winding slot
dovetails at the location of wedge ends. If the stress is high enough, these cracks may propagate
to an unrepairable size. There are a few known cases of forgings that had to be retired because of
such significant cracks.
Figure 3-6
Various Rotor Winding Slot (Short) Wedge Configurations
3.5 Endwinding Packings and Blocking
The rotor windings in the slots are naturally separated from adjacent turns by the parts of the
rotor forging itself that are called the teeth. In the end area, however, the copper winding coil
stacks take a 90-degree bend so that they can extend over to the other side of the rotor to form
the actual winding turns. In this area, the winding is called the endwinding. The copper coils are
still required to be separated from one another, and this is accomplished by means of packings
blocks placed between the coils. (Figure 3-7).
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There are many different designs of packings blocks, but all are essentially carrying out the same
function, to keep the copper coils separated. The packings blocks must be allowed to move with
the copper in the endwinding as it expands and contracts from increases and decreases in field
current and load changes. There is considerable mechanical force imposed on the blocks from
this thermal expansion and the centrifugal loading that is applied by weight at speed. In addition,
there are torsional effects from rotation and from any faults that may occur.
The material used for the blocking is generally a very strong epoxy-glass or epoxy-cloth of some
kind to withstand the types of loading described above. In current practice, the material is
generally selected to conform to Class F (155ºC) insulation standards, but at the least it conforms
to Class B (130ºC) standards.
Figure 3-7
Rotor Endwinding Blocking Between Copper Coils
3.6 Damper or Amortisseur Windings
Damper or amortisseur windings (see Figure 3-8) are used to short-circuit parasitic currents that
might otherwise flow in the rotor wedges or forging, during fault conditions. Additionally, the
damper winding is used for suppression of torsional oscillations (usually subsynchronous in
nature) that are induced from the power system.
Damper windings are generally constructed of either aluminum or copper, to provide good
current conduction with low resistance. This is to ensure that any parasitic currents occur in the
damper winding rather than in the higher-resistance forging steel or arcing to wedges. The
dampers may be designed as a separate strap, installed under pole and winding slot wedges;
alternatively, in some designs where full-length aluminum wedges in pole and winding slots are
used, these also serve as the damper winding.
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Regardless of the damper winding design in the slots, the conductors installed for this purpose in
the slots must be short-circuited at their ends to form a “squirrel cage” so that current can
transfer from one side of the rotor to the other in a controlled fashion. The method of making this
end connection varies as widely as the slot portion designs. In some cases, the end connection is
made by large plates formed to fit under the retaining rings in halves, with fingers to slide over
the top of the slot portion of the damper and make a good connection. The contact area is usually
silver-plated to ensure a low-resistance joint. Other methods of end connection include flag-type
extensions that overlap on the end or even using the retaining ring itself for the short-circuit ring.
Figure 3-8
Endwinding Amortisseur
3.7 Main Leads and Wedges

The rotor winding gets its dc current from the excitation system outside the rotor itself and
therefore requires a method to connect to it. This connection starts by taking the end strap of
copper on each end of the total series winding and connecting it to a main lead. There is a main
lead for current in and one for current out of the rotor. This arrangement is common for both 2-
pole and 4-pole rotors. The main lead is installed in slots machined into the rotor shaft, axially,
so that they extend out from under the endwinding copper to the radial terminal studs.
The main leads are made of copper, like the winding, but may be solid in construction or
laminated if higher currents are required. The leads are insulated in the main lead slots from the
forging and held in the slots by steel wedges, to restrain them during rotation.
Figures 3-9 and 3-10 show main leads in place and removed from the rotor.
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Figure 3-9
Main Leads Installed in Axial Slots Cut in the Forging Shaft and Held in Place by Wedges
Figure 3-10
Main Leads Removed
3.8 Radial Terminal Studs
Radially mounted studs are used to connect the main leads to the bore copper and then again
from the bore copper to the collector rings (see Figure 3-11). The studs also act as a seal for
hydrogen inner-cooled machines, since the excitation current must be brought into the generator
without allowing hydrogen to leak out of the machine.
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Figure 3-11
Outboard Radial Terminal Studs Installed Between Collector Rings, for Connection
Between Collector Rings and Bore Copper
3.9 Bore Copper
Generator rotors employ a bore in the forging shaft to allow a power connection from the
collector rings outside the generator to the rotor winding inside the generator. The power
connection is in the form of twin copper conductors, insulated from each other and from the
forging. They run between the inboard and outboard radial terminal studs, also passing under the
collector end rotor bearing and hydrogen seal (see Figure 3-12). One conductor is for dc current
into the rotor winding and the other is for the return path of dc current out of the rotor winding.
In machines with brushless excitation, the bore copper may be found to make a direct connection
to the power leads of the excitation system, right at the shaft interface.
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Figure 3-12
Bore Copper Leads Running Axially Through the Rotor Shaft Between the Inboard and
Outboard Radial Terminal Studs
3.10 Retaining Rings

Unlike the portion of the copper winding in the slot, the endwindings are held in place against
centrifugal force by retaining rings made of very high strength nonmagnetic steel (see Figures
3-13 and 3-14). Nonmagnetic rings are used so as not to overflux the stator core ends, especially
during leading power factor operation (although in earlier designs magnetic steel has been used).
The retaining rings are generally the most highly stressed component in the rotor.
Generally there are two types of retaining ring designs. One is the spindle mount and the other is
the body mount.
In the spindle mount design, the rings are secured outboard of the endwinding on an extension of
the rotor forging. These types of rings flex more easily with rotor bending and have some
operational issues as a result. They are less common than the body-mounted rings, which are by
far the most prevalent design employed.
For body-mounted retaining rings, the inboard end of the ring is shrink-fitted onto a “shoulder”
or “land” on the rotor body. The stress level at the inboard end varies only slightly due to the
radial expansion of the body as the rotor comes up to speed. The outboard end may be only
slightly stressed at standstill, but is fully stressed at speed. Hence both at standstill and at speed
the retaining rings experience a complex pattern of hoop stress and bending. Start/stop cycles
create a low-cycle, high-strain fatigue mechanism in this area, which must be accounted for in
the rotor design.
There are also variations in the design of body-mounted rings. Some retaining rings are of the
barrel-fit type, and others may have a castellated fit that interlocks with fingers machined into the
rotor forging. Regardless of the type of fit, a locking mechanism must also be employed to
restrain the retaining rings against axial movement that would be caused by very high axial
forces due to the expansion of the field winding conductors.
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Figure 3-13
Retaining Ring with Balance or Centering Ring Installed on a Rotor (Axial Type Rotor Fan
Is Also Shown in Photo)
Figure 3-14
Retaining Ring with Balance or Centering Ring Shrink-Fitted into the Back End of the Ring
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Overspeed must also be considered, since the retaining rings are highly stressed even at rated
speed. They are generally designed to retain their shrink fit on the rotor body at up to 120% of
rated speed.
3.11 Balance or Centering Rings for Retaining Rings
Body-mounted retaining rings that are shrunk onto the rotor forging at the inboard end of the ring
have a natural maintenance of their roundness by the shrink to the rotor forging. However, the
rotor winding puts a substantial centrifugal load on the rings, and it is not symmetrical around
the ring circumference. This loading, coupled with the fact that the rings are unsupported at the
outboard end, causes them to ovalize during high-speed operation. To prevent this deformation
and to stop ovalizing flexure, the retaining rings have a steel insert ring shrunk into the outboard
end. This stops the deformation of the outboard end of the retaining ring and allows the retaining
ring to maintain its shape under all circumstances. These insert rings are known as centering
rings.
In addition to serving the purpose discussed above, the centering rings usually also have grooves
cut in the outer surface to allow installation of weights for balancing. The centering ring at each
end of the rotor thus provides a nice balance plane for trim balancing of the rotor on site. Hence
the centering rings are also known as balance rings. Figures 3-13 and 3-14 show retaining rings
fitted with balance or centering rings.
3.12 Locking Rings for Retaining Rings
As mentioned previously, retaining rings are sometimes barrel-fit or castellated-fit to the rotor
forging. In whatever design is used, the retaining ring must not be allowed to move axially once
it is installed and secured in place. Locking rings in various forms are used for this purpose.
They can be found as part of the mechanism within the shrink-fit area between the retaining ring
and the rotor body, or they can be designed to restrain the rings from the outboard end. Figure
3-15 shows locking rings removed from the rotor.
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Figure 3-15
Locking Rings for Retaining Rings
3.13 Fans
Cooling of large generator rotors is accomplished by using either air or hydrogen. Whichever is
used in a particular machine, it is a gas and it must flow over the copper components of the rotor
to cool them. Fans are mounted on the rotor to create the flow required, by using the natural
rotation of the rotor while it is in operation.
Generally, there is one fan installed at each end of the rotor to move the cooling gas through the
generator, but there are also designs with one fan at one end only, as well as designs with two
fans at each end. There are also designs that employ a multistage blower at one end of the rotor.
In addition, the fans may be of the individual blade type (see Figure 3-13) or the centrifugal vane
type. Despite the considerable variation in rotor fan design, all fans have the same purpose.
Rotor fans are a highly stressed component, and they require the same attention to overspeed
capability that the retaining rings require.
3.14 Collector or Slip Rings and Brush Gear
DC current to the field winding is supplied by two different methods. In the first, direct current is
supplied by the exciter through a collector that has two rings on the rotor shaft, one for each
polarity, and a sliding contact through graphite brushes (see Figures 3-11 and 3-12).
In the second method, the exciter produces a polyphase ac output from the winding on its
rotating element. This output is rectified by rotor-mounted rectifiers, and direct current is
delivered to the field winding directly, without requiring a collector. This is commonly known as
a brushless excitation system.
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Collector rings, also know as slip rings, are sized in diameter and length to match the rotational
speed of the rotor and the amount of current required for that particular rotor. In short, the rings
must have sufficient surface area for the current required so that they will not be overloaded and
overheat in service.
To cool the collector rings and maintain good brush-to-ring contact performance, the rings are
cut with helical grooves. There may also be ventilation holes present in the grooves for improved
cooling flow.
Carbon brushes are installed in brush boxes that are mounted on a chassis or harness surrounding
the collector rings. The brushes are designed so they can be removed systematically while the
machine is still in operation. This prevents having to shut down the generator just to change out
old brushes for new ones. Care is required, of course, due to the danger of the rotor’s high-speed
rotation and the electrical charge on the brushes while doing the change-out “live.” Care must
also be taken to ensure that the proper spring tension on the brushes is maintained and that the
same grades of brushes are used. Otherwise, operational problems and even failure may be
likely.
A brush gear air fan is generally mounted on the rotor shaft next to the collector rings and is used
to circulate cooling air during operation.
3.15 Gas Guides or Baffles
Cooling of the rotor winding is accomplished with a series of complex vents and gas paths
designed into the winding circuit and under the retaining rings. It is often necessary to install gas
guides or baffles under the retaining rings as part of the endwinding blocking or support system,
to ensure that the cooling gas is directed properly (see Figure 3-16).
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Figure 3-16
Gas Baffles Installed Under the Endwinding Copper
3.16 Balance Weights

Rotor construction is such that there is not a 100% symmetry in the overall rotor. If one were to
cut a rotor in half axially on any plane, the two parts would come close to having 180°
symmetry, but there would be small differences. Additionally, the components installed in the
rotor may not always match up equally in terms of size and weight. To account for mismatch,
balance holes are machined into the rotor body and the rotor coupling to accommodate balance
weights (see Figure 3-17). The balance weights are installed during factory balancing to offset
any mismatch that may exist, and thus allow the rotor to operate smoothly. Care should be taken
to ensure that the balance weights are properly secured. If a weight comes loose at speed it can
cause considerable damage to whatever it hits as it comes off the rotor.
Balance weights can also be applied, as mentioned earlier, to trim balance planes that may be
found on the centering rings or even on some designs of fan hubs. There is also generally an
accommodation made for a small number of balance weights at the collector rings, but these are
usually placed during factory balancing and are not generally used for trim balancing.
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Figure 3-17
Balance Weights Installed in the Rotor Pole Face
3.17 Zone Rings

One manufacturer uses zone rings, shrunk onto the rotor body, to manage the gas flow in the
machine. These narrow rings are made from the same materials as retaining rings. The zone rings
are positioned axially along the rotor main body such that they are placed between inlet and
outlet radial vent holes in the rotor wedges. The inlets of the rotor match the outlets of the stator
and vice versa. The rings help to keep the cooling gas within its proper zone for improved
cooling efficiency. Because the rings are shrunk on and because they are a dynamic component,
they endure significant stress at rest and in operation. They are susceptible to stress corrosion and
can crack. Failure of a zone ring at speed would cause it to fly out against the stator, and
considerable damage would result if this happened. The zone rings must be inspected
periodically and maintained like any other critical component of the rotor.
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4
FAILURE MECHANISMS
After extended operation, any piece of generating equipment, including a rotor, will reach a point
where a problem arises that interferes with its reliable operation or prevents it from operating
altogether. Depending on the problem encountered and the rotor component involved, the
response to the problem can range from a simple repair all the way to replacement of the rotor. In
the large majority of instances, problems occur in the copper winding, and the indicated repair is
a rewind.
Aside from specific problem occurrences, another reason for performing a rotor rewind can
simply be that the copper winding and/or the insulation has reached the end of its useful life and
the rotor can no longer operate reliably. The noticeable symptoms are usually high vibrations
from shorted turns, rotor ground alarms, or high rotor winding temperatures. In this situation, the
problem is simply age of the equipment leading to wear-out. In other words, a rotor repair is not
always done to address a specific problem; it may simply be done in order to recondition the
rotor and extend its useful life.
The more common problems that typically require a rotor to be reconditioned, repaired, or
rewound are described in this section of the guide. Organized according to specific component
failure mechanisms, the discussion addresses the nature of each problem, the common
symptoms, and the possible remedies.
4.1 Shorted Winding Turns

Shorted turns occur when two or more of the in-series copper turns come in contact with each
another (see Figure 4-1). This may occur due to insulation damage such as wear-out, insulation
migration, or overheating (see Figures 4-2 and 4-3). It may also be due to copper-related
problems, such as failed braze joints (see Figure 4-4), distortion (see Figure 4-5), or softening.
Shorted turns can also occur from debris in the rotor winding, such as copper dust, that allows
electrical tracking from one turn to the other. There are also known cases of shorted turns from
lead carbonate contamination.
When shorted turns occur, an imbalance in the current flow in the copper winding is created, and
as a result a difference in heating in the winding exists from one side of the rotor to the other.
This imbalance in heating most often shows up as a thermal vibration in the rotor. Additionally,
the location of the short may be an area of high resistance and the insulation may be burned
significantly in that location as well. Therefore, a number of things can happen, depending on the
nature of the problem causing the shorted turns.
Regardless of the underlying cause of the short or shorts, fixing shorted turns requires the rotor
to be removed from the stator and the retaining rings to be removed as well. If the shorts are in
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Failure Mechanisms
the slot portion of the winding, then wedges will also have to be removed in order to inspect or
correct the shorts. A repair to shorted turns can sometimes be made easily if they are in the
endwinding and are accessible, and if it is a simple insulation repair. However, often the shorts
are associated with more-significant damage such as distorted copper, and the solution can be as
complicated and expensive as a partial or even full rewind.
When shorted turns are present but the rotor is operable because the vibration is still within the
manufacturer’s recommended levels, it is a common practice to continue operation but adjust the
field current downward. Doing so reduces the heat input to the rotor winding and hence the
thermal bowing effect in the rotor is reduced. This allows continued operation, albeit at lower
reactive capability, until a suitable outage for repairs can take place. At the point where shorted
turns requiring repairs have been found, operation may continue, as long as temperature and
vibration limits are adhered to.
Figure 4-1
Shorted Turns in Rotor Slot—Schematic
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-2
Shorted Turns in Rotor Slot from Overheating
Figure 4-3
Shorted Turns in Rotor Endwinding Due to Friction Heating Against a Packings Block
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-4
Massive Shorted Turns in Rotor Endwinding Due to Failed Joints
Figure 4-5
Coil-to-Coil Short in Rotor Endwinding Due to Copper Distortion
It may also become necessary to reduce load (active power or MW) as well as reactive power if
the shorts are causing excessive vibrations. The operating constraints at this point are due to
thermal instability of the rotor, and the need to fix the problem becomes more imminent. It
becomes a trade-off as to the need for power on the system and the amount of load reduction that
can be tolerated.
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Failure Mechanisms
Another consideration involves how much increased damage will occur as a result of continued
operation. With shorted turns, generally once they are present and there is already damage, the
repair is the same regardless of how much more significant the shorts become. In other words, if
the fix is a rewind, then the whole winding will be removed and reinsulated and the extent of the
damage is a moot point. One could argue that carrying out repairs sooner will lessen the damage,
making only a partial rewind necessary. However, at that point, all of the insulation (not just that
in the shorted area) should probably be replaced, since it is likely to be in distress and at some
point in the near future will likely contribute to a short elsewhere in the winding. It is usually
more cost-effective to do a full rewind and thus avoid having to chase shorts on a piece-by-piece
basis.
Yet another consideration to think about when shorts are present is the fragility of the rotor
during stress events. If the insulation has shorts and is known to be weak in various areas, then
system events that may cause overvoltages and field forcing of the excitation system will
aggravate the shorted areas in the winding.
Additionally, if the damaged insulation in the location of the short becomes severe enough, it
may progress to a rotor ground if the slot liner or retaining ring insulation becomes breached.
When shorted turns are present, there is always a trade-off between the immediate need to
operate and the importance of the particular machine to the system. It is important to know the
equipment and the needs of the power system to make the right decision regarding when to fix
the shorts. It is also necessary to consider whether the repair will be a global fix such as a full
rewind or whether the shorts may be easy to fix in the endwinding.
4.2 Failed Copper Joints
Failed copper joints occur when a joint has cracked from fatigue or excessive stress and is in the
process of separating or has already separated. Once the joint loses its full cross-section, it will
start to lose its current-carrying capability and is likely to overheat and separate. At this point it
can cause melting and collateral damage or simply go open circuit (see Figure 4-6). In this case,
the rotor will not be able to operate at all. The damage could also be much more serious in terms
of the collateral damage from overheating and molten copper splatter, creating multiple shorted
turns and severe damage, as shown in Figure 4-4.
Depending on the extent of the damage, a simple repair to the joint may be possible if it is only a
connector crossover (see Figures 4-7 and 4-8). But the solution could be as troublesome as
removing an entire winding coil (that is, one whole slot) to make the repair if the joint is in the
copper stack itself.
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-6
Failed Pole-to-Pole Connector Joint—Arced Open Circuit
Figure 4-7
Pole-to-Pole Connector Cracking from Fatigue (Not Fully Through)
Figure 4-8
Coil-to-Coil Connector in Process of Failing from Fatigue (Arcing Has Started to Occur)
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Failure Mechanisms
4.3 Copper Dusting
Copper dusting is a condition that can occur with copper windings that have a double-layer
design, where the two layers of copper are in direct contact. It occurs when the rotor is on turning
gear at slow speed. During turning gear operation, the copper winding is loose in the slot because
the centrifugal loading is not enough to lock the copper against the winding slot wedge.
Generally this speed is anywhere from 3 to 40 rpm, depending on the manufacturer. Thus, the
layers rub together in the transverse direction and create copper particles (see Figures 4-9 and
4-10). These particles have a tendency to migrate from between the layers where they are
created. They tend to work their way out of the slot, and this can cause shorts between adjacent
turns. Sometimes grounds are created to the wedges and forging if the particle migration is
significant enough.
Figure 4-9
Copper Dusting Particles Due to Relative Motion Between Two Layers of One Turn of the
Copper Winding
Figure 4-10
Copper Erosion Marks in the Transverse Direction Due to Relative Motion Between Two
Layers of One Turn
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Failure Mechanisms
The solution for this problem is to rewind the rotor and apply a modification to permanently
separate the individual turn layers of the copper winding so that there are no copper-on-copper
interfaces. Alternatively, it is also possible to stop copper fretting and the creation of particles by
bonding the layers together. Every manufacturer has their own method for mitigation of copper
dusting; these include installing layer separators, bonding layers together, and brazing layers
together.
4.4 Rotor Winding Grounds
Grounds in the rotor winding occur when the copper winding is shorted somehow to the forging
or retaining rings. This can occur from copper dusting, as mentioned above, or from failure of
the insulation system somewhere in the rotor winding.
A single rotor winding ground by itself is not generally fatal to the machine, and more often than
not the rotor is capable of continued operation. However, this is not recommended because
where one ground has occurred, a second is highly likely. If a second ground occurs in the
winding, then the current flow through the two ground locations can be very high and can
overheat the rotor, causing a major and possibly catastrophic failure. Generally the best thing to
do on a rotor ground alarm is to bring the unit off line as soon as possible in a controlled fashion,
locate the ground, and repair it (see Section 5.2 regarding rotor winding ground alarms).
Depending on the location of the ground, the fix may be a simple one involving a repair of the
insulation breach if it is from the endwinding copper to the retaining ring and not too severe.
However, if it is in the winding slots and the breach is the slot liner, then removal of the copper
is required and again a partial or even full rewind may be required if the evidence during
inspection shows a continually developing problem in other locations (see Figure 4-11).
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-11
Rotor Winding Ground in the Slot from Copper Dust
Even some single rotor grounds can be quite destructive when they occur in the endwinding
through the retaining ring insulation, to the retaining ring itself (see Figures 4-12 and 4-13). This
is because the retaining ring insulation is substantial and it may take severe damage to the
endwinding and molten copper to produce the ground, meaning that enough heat is generated to
breach the insulation.
Figure 4-12
Rotor Winding Ground to Retaining Ring from Coil-to-Coil Failure
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-13
Corresponding Damage Through Retaining Ring Insulation to Ground (to the Retaining
Ring)
4.5 Mechanically Damaged Interturn Insulation
The interturn insulation is made of organic material and is subject to mechanical aging and wear-
out. It is usually adhered on one side to a copper turn, while the other side is allowed to slip
against the next copper turn. The insulation is under high mechanical loading during operation.
The forces on it are due to thermal expansions, vibrations, bending, friction, and so forth.
Insulation can be cracked, broken, torn, or displaced (see Figures 4-14 and 4-15). Such situations
will allow winding shorts and grounds to occur.
Figure 4-14
Cracked Interturn Insulation in the Slot
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-15
Damaged Interturn Insulation in the Endwinding
In addition to obvious damage, the insulation may simply wear out over time and become
distressed from friction and thermal effects (see Figure 4-16).
Figure 4-16
Worn Out Interturn Insulation in the Endwinding from Aging
4.6 Overheated Interturn Insulation
There are significant temperature rises in the copper winding due to high dc currents flowing.
Cooling is imperative to ensure that the insulation (as well as other materials) does not overheat.
When overheating occurs (see Figures 4-17, 4-18, and 4-19), the insulation may allow shorted
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Failure Mechanisms
turns and grounds from failure. It is imperative that the rotor operating temperature be
maintained within design limits to avoid premature aging of the insulation.
Figure 4-17
Overheated Interturn Insulation in the Slot
Figure 4-18
Overheated Top Channel Insulation in the Slot
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-19
Overheated Interturn Insulation in the Endwinding
4.7 Misaligned Interturn Insulation
Migration of the interturn insulation occurs if the insulation has been damaged by thermal or
mechanical mechanisms (see Figures 4-20 and 4-21). It generally means that there has been a
break in the insulation somewhere, allowing it to move out of position. The danger in this is that
it may cause shorted turns or grounds, or it may shift to a position that causes blockage of
cooling vents. Correcting this type of occurrence means significant dismantling of the rotor,
especially if the problem is in the slot.
Figure 4-20
Misaligned Interturn Insulation in the Slot
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-21
Misaligned Interturn Insulation in the Endwinding
4.8 Distorted Copper Windings
When distortion occurs in copper windings, it generally occurs in the endwinding (see Figures
4-22 and 4-23). It usually happens because the packings and blocking systems are not holding
the winding in the proper position or because the copper has become too soft to retain its form
under mechanical or thermal loading. There is always some amount of distortion that will be
seen when retaining rings are removed, but in most cases it is not significant. However, there are
many known cases in which the distortion has been so extreme that the turns of one coil have
distorted out of position to touch the turns of the adjacent coil, causing a fully shorted coil in the
winding. Rewinding is usually required to address this type of winding damage.
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-22
Mildly Distorted Top Copper Turn in the Endwinding
Figure 4-23
Major Distortion and Deformation of the Copper Endwinding
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Failure Mechanisms
4.9 Elongated Copper Windings
Copper generally elongates when it is too soft and the loading on it causes it to grow beyond
what it was designed to do. This can occur if the copper is already overheated and is not
maintaining its material characteristics, or if it is not receiving sufficient cooling and then
becomes softened. Additionally, any natural elongation that occurs due to field current loading
can become a problem in cases where the copper winding becomes hung up and is not able to
return to its original position when the load is removed. The next time the machine is loaded, the
winding copper can then elongate or distort further (see Figure 4-24).
Figure 4-24
Elongated and Deformed Copper Endwinding
4.10 Misaligned Copper Windings
Misalignment of the copper involves the copper winding being out of design position (see Figure
4-25). The copper can be misaligned axially, radially, or circumferentially. The danger is
collapse of the copper turns onto one another, causing shorted turns. The reasons for misaligned
copper usually involve some problem with design clearance of endwinding packings or blocking.
Windings are packed and blocked so that they move in a controlled manner, and when the
control is altered, the winding can get out of place during loading and changes in speed from run-
up to run-down. Misalignment is most likely to occur over time due to aging effects.
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-25
Misaligned Copper Endwinding
4.11 Crushed Ventilation Paths in Copper Winding
Crushed ventilation paths are fairly common in softer copper or where there has been excessive
heating or undercooling of the copper. Because of the heavy mechanical loading on the copper
winding when the rotor is at speed, the copper can deform by crushing into its own ventilation
passage (see Figures 4-26 and 4-27). This effect becomes more pronounced with higher
temperatures and is usually present in the uppermost turn only.
This effect is generally not severe in most cases, and sufficient cooling is usually still available
for long rotor life. However, when the crushing becomes excessive, the copper turn requires
replacement. Additionally, the root cause needs to be addressed so that it does not recur.
Figure 4-26
Crushed Twin Ventilation Ducts in Endwinding
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-27
Crushing of Copper, Causing Reduced Ventilation
4.12 Slot Liner Damage
The slot liner is the principle insulation between the copper winding and the rotor forging main
body. Damage to the slot liner may be from thermal (see Figure 4-28), electrical, or mechanical
modes of failure. A failure of the slot liner will allow the winding to ground to the rotor forging.
Most slot liners, when removed for an inspection, can be found to have some fretting or rubbing
on the side wall. This is generally more pronounced and most often found at the end of the liners
and the slot exit. Of all the places in the slot, this is the location where the copper winding
movement is greatest, because of the axial elongation being greatest here and the influence of the
retaining rings and packings blocks during load and speed changes. Slot liners have been known
to have such significant rubbing that they have worn completely through (see Figure 4-29). A
rewind is required to correct damaged slot liners.
Figure 4-28
Slot Liner Overheated in the Slot Portion from Undercooling
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-29
Slot Liner Overheated from Copper Friction at the Slot Exit (Top Photo) and Slot Liner
Worn Completely Through to the Forging from Copper Movement and Friction (Bottom
Photo)
If the mechanical stress on the slot liner becomes too great, the slot liner can also crack (see
Figure 4-30). There is a significant axial thermal expansion force on the slot liner, in addition to
the fretting that occurs, due to the copper winding expanding and contracting. This can have such
a significant effect on the slot liner that it overstresses it. If the slot liner is capable of movement
without becoming hung up and broken, it may simply move axially in the slot. This can be
observed by looking under the retaining ring (see Figure 4-31), but it does not always cause a
problem requiring repairs if the slot liner is not capable of moving to a position where it will
cause a rotor winding ground.
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-30
Slot Liner Cracked Near the Slot Exit
Figure 4-31
Slot Liner Axial Migration Observed Under the Retaining Ring
4.13 Endwinding Packings Damage

Endwinding packings are used to keep the copper in uniform position under the retaining rings.
The packings prevent one coil of the winding from touching another, which would cause massive
shorted turns. When packings are damaged, it is usually in the form of cracking, breakage, or
disintegration from heavy forces and vibration effects (see Figures 4-32 and 4-33). A damaged or
missing packings block can eventually allow the copper to distort and cause shorted turns.
Endwinding packings made of epoxy-glass also have a tendency to pick up copper as they rub
against the endwinding turns.
Packings can often be repaired or replaced when they are found to be damaged. During rewinds,
packings are sometimes but not always fully replaced with new packings.
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Failure Mechanisms
Figure 4-32
Endwinding Packings Damaged as a Result of Excessive Forces
Figure 4-33
Endwinding Packings Broken as a Result of Excessive Forces
4.14 Blocked Ventilation
In large turbogenerators, ventilation of rotor windings takes place directly. This means that the
winding is cooled by having either air or hydrogen flowing through or over the copper in direct
contact with the copper. Many different designs can be found in operation, but all have in
common the fact that there are cooling gas entry and exit holes or slots. These ventilation holes
may be found in the endwinding or in the rotor slots.
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Figure 4-34
Blocked Ventilation Passages in the Slot Wedges from Copper Coil Axial Shifting
In the endwinding, the ventilation ports are most often found on the side of the copper winding
turns. Therefore, blockage of these ports usually occurs when the endwinding packings shift so
that they cover the ports. This interrupts the cooling path and causes the copper to elevate in
temperature from lack of cooling.
In the slots, the ports are most often arranged so that it is the interturn insulation, creepage
blocks, or wedges that become out of place to close the ventilation ports and interrupt cooling
gas flow. The copper winding coils have also been known to move out of place in relation to the
vent slots in the creepage blocks or wedges and close the cooling path (see Figure 4-34).
Regardless of the reason for the blockage, the copper will overheat from lack of cooling if this
happens.
4.15 Forging Fretting Fatigue

Where short steel wedges have been used, fretting fatigue cracking can occur in a rotor forging.
When the rotor body flexes, the ends of short wedges will rub or “fret” against the rotor body in
the lower speed range during run-up or run-down, causing fretting marks (see Figure 4-35) or
cracking (see Figure 4-36) to occur. If the length-to-body ratio is high, allowing a high bending
stress in the forging, cracks may form in the winding slot dovetails at the locations of wedge
ends. If the stress is high enough, the cracks may propagate to an unrepairable size. There are a
few known cases of forgings that had to be retired because of such significant cracks. It is not
only winding slot wedges that will cause this type of crack, however. There are known cases of
other short steel components used in rotors (for example, magnetic steel filler blocks in pole face
slots) that have caused fretting fatigue cracks and rotor forging failure. If fretting fatigue marks
or cracks are found on a rotor forging in the dovetails, they are most often repairable by local
grinding and blending out of the cracks. If the cracks are found to be large, then an analysis may
be required to determine if the cracks are repairable and the forging salvageable or if the forging
should be retired. This occurrence is generally found in 2-pole rotors where the length-to-body-
diameter ratio is high and the bending stress in the forging is high. There are no known cases of
4-pole rotors with fretting fatigue cracks.
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Figure 4-35
Fretting Fatigue Marks in Rotor Winding Slot Dovetail, at Wedge End Locations
Figure 4-36
Fretting Fatigue Crack in Rotor Winding Slot Dovetail
4.16 Rotor Tooth Top Cracking
There are some rotor designs with body-mounted retaining rings in which there have been
problems with cracks developing in the shrink-fit area of the tooth, due to the loading of the
retaining rings. In a number of instances the upper portion of the tooth has broken off (see Figure
4-37). In the majority of the known cases, the section of the broken tooth remains in place
because it is trapped in its location until the retaining ring is removed. The concern is that the
shrink pressure is lost on the teeth that have broken and loading may increase on others. This
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damage is most often repairable and the rotor can be returned to service. The procedure requires
some machining and modifications to allow the forging to be repaired and the rings reinstalled.
Figure 4-37
Rotor Forging Tooth Top Cracking, Showing Top of Tooth Broken Away
4.17 Cracked Rotor Wedges
Rotor winding wedges are another a highly stressed component of the rotor. They are used to
restrain the copper winding in the slot and therefore must be capable of carrying the load of the
copper under high centrifugal forces. An added consideration is that there are usually vent holes
in the wedges that match up with vent holes in the copper winding, for cooling gas entry and
exit. This means that the wedges can also be temperature-affected if the cooling is somehow
restricted or lost altogether. The most highly stressed part of the rotor winding slot wedge is the
radius of the wedge between the part of the wedge in the dovetail and the main body of the
wedge. It is in this location that cracking is most likely to occur, if it occurs at all (see Figure
4-38). Cracking is not particularly common in wedges, but it has happened on machines in the
past and it has usually been aggravated by loss of cooling, corrosion from moisture ingress, or
parasitic electrical currents from motoring or negative sequence events. Cracking can occur with
all different types of wedges, whether they are short or full slot length. If during an inspection
wedges are found to be cracked, it is best to identify the cause quickly. If the cause is design-
related, then a major modification may be required. If the cause is due to a significant event that
is known, then it may be the case that the design is fine and no modifications are necessary. In
some cases, wedges can be repaired by improving the radius in the corner of the cracking, but if
the cracks are too tight, then new wedges are required. With new wedges, it is advisable to study
the need for modifications to the wedge radius. Should a wedge actually fail during operation—
and there are known cases of this happening—the result is generally catastrophic in nature.
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Figure 4-38
Cracked Rotor Winding Slot Wedge
4.18 Retaining Ring Aqueous Stress Corrosion Pitting or Cracking
Aqueous stress corrosion is a well-known phenomenon that has been thoroughly studied and
documented. In retaining rings, this type of corrosion was identified as a problem many years
ago, and it has been the cause of a few catastrophic retaining ring failures. The problem is
associated with rings made of 18% manganese and 4–5% chromium steel (18-5 rings). The
combination of this material composition and the fact that retaining rings are under very high
stress makes them highly susceptible to this mechanism of cracking. It is essential to keep
retaining rings dry and moisture-free, and dew point monitoring has been widely used by utilities
for this reason. When too much moisture is present in a generator, it has the possibility of
condensing onto the rings (and onto various other components as well) during times when the
generator is shut down and the cooling gas is not circulating or being kept warm. The moisture
has a tendency to attack the ring material, and the damage may first show up as pitting in linear
arrays and then progress to a crack if the stress is high enough (see Figure 4-39). Pitting and
cracking on a ring are not always easily visible to the naked eye. The best method for finding
pitting or cracking is by liquid or dye penetrant nondestructive examination. More often than not,
any pitting or small cracks found can be blended out locally and the rings put back in service.
The industry trend and recommendation from manufacturers, however, is to replace the 18-5
rings with new rings made of 18% Manganese and 18% Chromium. This material is not
generally susceptible to aqueous stress corrosion. However, 18-18 rings can still be susceptible
to the mechanism if halides or copper ions are present in the moisture. Thus, even 18-18 rings
must be handled with care and properly maintained.
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Figure 4-39
Stress Corrosion Pitting (Left) and Cracking (Right) in Retaining Ring Surface
4.19 Collector Ring Flashover
Collector rings (slip rings) rely on a number of important factors to operate properly. There is
very high dc current transmission between the generator brushes and the collector ring surface.
Therefore, the ring surface must be in good condition with stable parameters for this current
transfer to occur without problems. The surface polish of the rings must be kept within
specification limits, and moisture conditions, brush pressure, ring cooling, and minimal
contamination are also important considerations. Flashovers can occur when one of these
parameters is not being maintained properly. Contamination due to the brush material building
up in the ring area is a very common cause of flashovers. When a flashover occurs, there is a dc
arc drawn from the ring to the forging, and it is very destructive in nature. Flashovers usually
result in forging metal being torn out of the forging next to the rings as a result of melting and
destruction of the brush gear rigging (see Figure 4-40). The forging damage is most often
repairable, but the rotor forging can be damaged beyond repair if the arc is severe and long
enough in duration.
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Figure 4-40
Collector Ring Flashover Damage
4.20 Brush Gear Failure
Generator brushes are generally made of carbon, bonded together with an appropriate binder
material. As mentioned earlier, they are used to transfer current from the excitation system to the
rotor slip or collector rings. All of the brushes are always kept as the same grade of carbon so
that the current transfer is equal between brushes, and not selective. If brushes are mixed, there is
a possibility of too much current going to the brushes with the lowest resistance and less current
going to higher-resistance brushes. The result would be for the brushes carrying excess current to
overheat and fail because they are carrying more current then they are designed for (see Figure
4-41).
The brush pressure and the contact surface with the rings must be managed within recommended
parameters for proper operation. It is also important that the brush gear be well cooled. Because
of the high currents flowing in the brushes, they are designed to operate in conjunction with a
brush gear and collector ring cooling fan and cooling system. Furthermore, no contamination
must be allowed to build up in the brush gear enclosure. Since the carbon material is conductive
it is necessary that no paths to ground be allowed to form and that dc arcs to ground be avoided.
There is usually a filtering system associated with the cooling system, to handle the removal of
carbon dust by-products. Vibration of the brush gear and all the support structure for it can be a
problem if it is not well secured. There have been known cases of brush gear hardware having
support resonances, and therefore it is imperative that the brush gear not be allowed to vibrate
and affect the contact resistance between the brushes and the collector rings. Failure of the brush
gear can cause a significant outage if a flashover also occurs. This would cause destruction of the
brush gear and require total replacement, not to mention the collateral damage to the collector
rings that is likely to occur (see Figure 4-40).
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Figure 4-41
Brush Gear Failure Damage
4.21 Bore Copper Insulation Damage
The bore copper must also be insulated from the rotor forging, since it is at full field voltage like
the rest of the rotor winding. As well as being insulated from the forging (i.e., ground) the two
leads running through the bore of the shaft to connect the positive and negative poles of the
winding must be isolated from each other. Since the voltage level is low dc in nature, the
insulation from ground and between the leads is not the most significant issue. The bore copper
is operating on potential with significant mechanical loading and therefore must be capable of
withstanding these mechanical loads as well as thermal and vibration effects occurring during
operation.
One of the most common damage findings for the bore copper insulation is cracking of the tube
or ground insulation (see Figure 4-42). Cracked tubes are usually repairable by application of an
adhesive filler.
In more modern designs, the two leads may be separately insulated, with no tube existing. Being
separately wrapped, they tend to require less maintenance and have lower failure rates.
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Figure 4-42
Cracked Bore Copper Insulation
4.22 Radial Terminal Stud Damage

The radial terminal studs are used to connect the bore copper at one end to the collector rings
outside the generator and the main leads inside the generator. The rotor shaft is large in diameter
inside the generator and smaller outside. Therefore, there are usually two different lengths of
radial studs in a rotor. The common feature is that they are generally threaded on the ends, since
they are screwed into the bore copper leads and then torqued to a set loading. One of the biggest
problems with the studs is that the more times they are removed and reinstalled, the more the
threads tend to become damaged (see Figure 4-43). It is best not to disturb them if at all possible,
but it is also important to ensure that they are secure. The threads are under significant
mechanical loading from centrifugal force at operating speed, and it is critical that they are
properly installed. There have been some known failures in the past; the result has been the stud
coming out at speed and causing considerable damage to whatever it hit. Inside the machine, this
is generally either the underside of the rotor winding or the stator endwinding.
When the studs are removed, if the condition of the threads is not too bad, it is sometimes
possible to “chase” the threads and reinstall the studs. In many cases, however, the threads are in
an unusable state and the stud needs to be replaced. This is one of the rotor components that is
usually stocked as a spare.
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Figure 4-43
Radial Terminal Stud Threads Damaged Beyond Repair
4.23 Damper Winding Damage
Damper windings come in many different designs, but share a common purpose of
short-circuiting parasitic currents and damping torsional oscillations in the rotor. Because of the
type of duty required, the damper winding is designed in a squirrel cage fashion, to carry and
transfer current at the rotor ends without allowing these currents to go through rotor components
not designed to carry current. This means that the damper is usually made of copper or
aluminum, due to their low resistance properties. The material is therefore relatively soft and is
susceptible to deformation from overheating, if the currents become excessive, or from the high
mechanical loads (see Figure 4-44).
Figure 4-44
Cracked Damper Winding End Connector Overlap
One of the major areas requiring inspection with this component is at the ends, where any joints
are made in forming the squirrel cage. The contact resistance is very important, and sometimes a
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silver plating is used to make a better contact. Overheating can occur quite easily at this location.
Other than this, mechanical damage is the main concern.
4.24 Gas Baffle Damage
Gas baffles are not always present within the rotor endwinding under the retaining ring, but they
are used on some designs. In some cases they are part of the actual packings and blocking system
in the endwinding. In other cases they are independent of the structural part of the endwinding
and are there solely to divert cooling gas to the correct area of the endwinding of the rotor.
Although the gas baffles of some designs do not carry mechanical load, they are attached to the
structural members under the retaining ring and are susceptible to the natural forces, vibrations,
and oscillations that occur. They need to be inspected for damage. Figure 4-45 shows an example
of cracking in a gas baffle.
Figure 4-45
Cracked Hydrogen Gas Baffle Under Retaining Ring
4.25 Arcing and Overheating Due to Negative Sequence Currents
During incidents of phase imbalance in the stator, negative sequence currents are induced in the
rotor surface in the direction opposite to rotation. This causes them to flow at twice the line
frequency. Because they are at a higher frequency, they also tend to act as skin-effect currents
near the rotor surface. As the currents flow in the surface of the rotor body or the damper
winding or rotor wedges, they may arc between components (see Figure 4-46) or overheat the
component (see Figure 4-47) if the material resistance is high.
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Figure 4-46
Arcing at the End of a Winding Slot Wedge to the Retaining Ring (Not in Place) Due to
Parasitic Currents
Figure 4-47
Overheating in the Pole Face Damper Wedge and Rotor Forging Due to Negative Sequence
Heating
Visual inspection is usually enough to find such damage, but determining if the component is in
usable condition may require such procedures as hardness tests if overheating is apparent, or
nondestructive examination for cracks. Arcing damage can usually be polished out locally, but
the material remaining must be confirmed to be mechanically sound. Any joints between
components that are to be low-resistance joints will need to be reestablished by resurfacing or
replating if silver plating is used.
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4.26 Arcing and Overheating Due to Motoring
In more extreme cases of currents flowing in the rotor body, wedges, or damper winding, the
cause can be motoring of the rotor. Motoring currents may flow when there is out-of-
synchronism with the normal excitation, allowing rotor slip frequencies to occur, or when there
is no excitation. These currents are generally quite significant, and therefore damaging. The
result can be substantial arcing at the ends of the wedges and to the forging (see Figure 4-48).
Heavy and widespread erosion of material from the wedges and erosion in the forging are likely
in the more severe cases (see Figures 4-49 and 4-50). If this erosion occurs at wedge ends on
wedges designed to act as the damper circuit, it can drastically reduce the contact area at the
wedge ends, with the effect of diminishing the capability of the rotor to handle specific system
events during on-line operation.
Figure 4-48
Severe Arcing and Heating Damage in the Rotor Surface Between Wedge Ends and the
Forging, Due to Motoring
The necessary repairs may be significant if the material has been damaged beyond its mechanical
strength requirements for the purpose intended. Even replacement of wedges may be necessary.
The forging itself may suffer cracking, and local grinding repairs may be necessary as well.
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Figure 4-49
Severe Arcing Damage in a Rotor Winding Slot Wedge Due to Motoring at Low Speed
(Currents Flowed from Out-Of-Synchronism Slip Frequencies at the End of a Full-Length
Aluminum Wedge to the Rotor Slot Dovetail)
Figure 4-50
Matching Arcing Damage in the Forging from Figure 4-49
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5
ON-LINE MONITORING
When rotor problems occur, or are about to occur, there are various symptoms that can be
interpreted as warning signs. This section of the guide discusses the various methods of detecting
these symptoms and the interpretation of monitoring data.
A rotor generally has minimal instrumentation, due to its dynamic nature. It is a rotating
component, making it impossible to attach instruments unless they can transmit information by
radio signal. However, there are numerous ways to monitor the performance of the rotor
indirectly. Imbalance in the rotor shaft, loose components, or misaligned retaining rings may
show up as increased rotor vibration. Degraded rotor fan or blower performance may be detected
as loss of acceptable differential fan pressure. Parameters that can be monitored include
vibration, field current, field voltage, and vibration for both the exciter and main fields.
Electromagnetic characteristics of the rotor, such as cross-slot leakage flux, can also be used to
look for winding problems in the form of shorted turns. Specialized monitoring equipment is
generally purchased as an option for this function.
5.1 Rotor Winding Temperature

Rotor winding temperature is generally measured as a function of the winding resistance. The
calculation involved is described in IEEE Standard 115. This produces the average temperature
of the winding, but does not indicate the temperature of the hottest part of the winding.
Pinpointing the location of the hot spot in the rotor winding will depend on knowledge of the
rotor winding cooling circuit. Generally, the manufacturer can provide a profile of the
temperature distribution across the axial length of the rotor winding. The difference between the
hot spot and average winding temperatures produces a multiplier factor for calculation of the hot
spot. The multiplier factor is determined as shown in Figure 5-1.
With the hot spot multiplier known, the rotor winding hot spot temperature can be calculated for
any load and cold operating gas temperature as follows:
Ths = (Tave - Tcold H2) x M + Tcold H2
where:
Tave = Rave/Rref (K + Tref) - K (formula from IEEE Standard 115)
Rave = Vf /If , calculated average winding resistance from measured field voltage,
Vf, and field current, If
Rref = winding resistance measured by the manufacturer at the factory, at known
reference temperature, Tref
K = 234.5 (copper constant)
Tcold H2 = measured value of the cold hydrogen gas temperature
M = Ths /Tave , hot spot multiplier from manufacturer winding temperature profile
data
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The rotor winding temperature will vary with field current, hydrogen gas temperature, and
pressure.
Figure 5-1
Rotor Winding Hot Spot Multiplier
High rotor winding temperatures generally occur as a result of overloading or undercooling. The
main causes are excessive field current in the on-line mode, low hydrogen gas pressure, high
hydrogen cold gas temperature, and ventilation problems in the rotor that block the hydrogen
cooling gas from flowing to part of the winding. When the rotor winding temperature is too high,
reducing field current to remove the energy input to the winding will allow the temperature to
come down to a tolerable level and stabilize.
Excessive rotor winding temperatures will cause deterioration of the rotor winding interturn and
ground-wall insulation. Failure of the interturn insulation will cause rotor winding shorted turns,
and failure of the ground-wall or slot liner insulation will cause rotor grounds. The retaining ring
is also insulated from the rotor winding and will be affected by high winding temperatures.
Failure of the retaining-ring insulation also constitutes a rotor winding ground.
Advanced effects of the rotor winding exceeding its temperature limit may be overheating or
burning of the insulation or a rotor thermal imbalance.
5.2 Rotor Winding Ground Alarm
Rotor winding grounds are actually a leakage of field current to ground. As previously stated,
grounds can occur through or track over the slot liner and the retaining ring insulation. In
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addition, grounds can occur to the rotor forging through the insulation systems of the slip rings,
radial terminal studs, bore copper conductors, and rotor winding main leads. Grounds can also
occur externally to the rotor itself, out in the excitation system or in cables connecting the
excitation equipment to the brush gear.
Rotor winding ground protection is used in the generators to provide warning of a ground. The
rotor winding ground alarm is usually connected as an alarm and not an actual generator trip,
although some utilities do use rotor ground as a trip function. When the rotor ground function is
used as an alarm, it is left up to the operator or suitable authority to decide whether the unit
should be taken off line.
While it is common for utilities to operate with a single rotor ground for short periods of time
until a convenient outage, this practice has a high degree of inherent risk. Should a second
ground occur anywhere on the rotor, very high currents will be circulated through the two ground
points, creating overheating in the affected rotor components. The overheating effect will be
extremely serious and damaging to the machine. In all probability a double rotor ground is likely
to cause a catastrophic rotor failure.
When a rotor ground alarm occurs, it should be recognized that if there is one ground, there is a
likely possibility of a second occurring. This is where having a good knowledge of past
performance of the particular rotor will greatly help in determining the risk of a second ground
occurring. There are some rotors that have an intermittent ground on a continual basis and the
utility may know the location and cause. If it is an external ground to the rotor, the utility may
opt to continue running until a more convenient time to address the problem.
In cases of rotors with known insulation problems in the slot or under the retaining ring, there is
reason for heightened concern when a ground occurs. This is because these types of grounds are
usually solidly in place and are highly likely to have a second occurrence and the resulting
significant failure.
An assessment of the risk of a second ground occurring is best backed up by experience with the
particular rotor. When not much is known or when the ground occurrence is a first for the rotor,
it is best to err on the side of caution and shut the unit down to investigate the location and cause
of the rotor ground.
5.2.1 Risk Assessment on Rotor Ground Alarm
Actions and points to consider when a rotor ground alarm occurs include the following:
• No matter how the ground alarm appears, it should be responded to as soon as possible, since
a second ground is likely to have catastrophic effects—where there is one ground, there is
always a medium to high probability of a second ground occurring.
• Determine if the alarm is intermittent or steady.
• Determine if the alarm is due to a ground in the rotor itself, in the brush gear, or in the
excitation system.
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• If the ground is external to the generator and can be located, the fix may be simple, whether it
is intermittent or solid.
• If it is determined that the ground is internal to the rotor, then determining whether it is
intermittent as opposed to solid becomes more critical.
• Some past history of the machine is very helpful at any point in a rotor ground alarm and is
especially useful if there is a known history of internal rotor grounds.
• If the history is well known, there may be less urgency in bringing the machine off line for
investigation, but this is only in cases where there is a high degree of likelihood of the ground
not being threatening in terms of a catastrophic rotor failure.
• There is often a need to keep operating for a short time in order to bring the unit down during
a noncritical operating time, but even an intermittent alarm with well-known history should
not be taken lightly for very long.
• If the ground is in solid and/or the cause or location in the rotor is unknown, then it is
advisable to bring the machine off line in a controlled fashion as soon as possible to
investigate.
• The investigation usually begins with a 500-volt dc insulation resistance test.
• If at rest the test shows good insulation resistance, the ground may be speed dependent and
another test at increased speed may then show a ground.
• If neither test detects a ground, then the ground may be related to both speed and
temperature, in which case a decision may be made to try testing at speed and on open
circuit.
• If the ground was in solid prior to shutting down the machine, it is advisable not to restart
until the ground is resolved.
• If the ground was intermittent and is unresolved by the above testing, the risk of restarting is
much lower, but still exists.
5.3 Rotor Winding Shorted Turns—Detection by Flux Probe
Shorted turns in rotor windings are associated with turn-to-turn shorts on the copper winding as
opposed to turn-to-ground faults. Rotor winding shorted turns, or interturn shorts, can occur from
an electrical breakdown of the interturn insulation, mechanical damage to the interturn insulation
allowing adjacent turn-to-turn contact, or contamination in the slot that allows leakage currents
between turns.
When shorted turns occur, the total ampere-turns produced by the rotor are reduced, since the
effective number of turns has been reduced by the number of turns shorted. The result is an
increase in required field current input to the rotor to maintain the same load point, and an
increase in rotor winding temperature.
At the location of the short, there is a high probability of localized heating of the copper winding
and arcing damage to the insulation between the turns. This type of damage can propagate and
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worsen the fault, so that more turns are affected or the ground-wall insulation becomes damaged
and a rotor winding ground occurs.
One of the most noticeable effects of shorted turns is often increased rotor vibration due to
thermal effects. When a short on one pole of the rotor occurs, a condition of unequal heating in
the rotor winding will exist between poles. The unequal heating will cause bowing of the rotor,
and hence vibration. The extent and location of the shorted turns and the heating produced will
govern the magnitude of the vibration produced.
Off-line methods for detecting shorted turns include winding impedance measurements as the
rotor speed is varied from zero to rated speed, and recurrent surge oscillograph (RSO) tests based
on the principle of time-domain reflectometry. In addition, a short of significant magnitude may
be identified by producing an open circuit saturation curve and comparing it to the design open
current saturation curve. If the field current required producing rated terminal voltage has
increased from the original design curve, then a short is likely present. The number of shorted
turns can be identified by the ratio of the new field current value to the design field current value.
All of the above methods of identifying shorted turns are prone to error, and they only indicate
whether a short exists. They do little to help locate which slot the short is in, and they require
special conditions for collecting the data or for testing. To better identify shorted turns, and to
provide a method that works on-line, the shorted turns detector (STD) or search coil method has
been perfected. Each manufacturer has its own version of the STD, but all work in essentially the
same manner.
The STD is basically a search coil (see Figure 5-2) mounted on the stator core by various
methods, but located strategically in the air gap. The search coil evaluates the variation in
magnetic field produced in the air gap by the rotor as it spins—that is, the rotor cross-slot
leakage flux (Figure 5-3). The energized rotor winding and the slotted effect of the winding arc
cause a sinusoidal signal to be produced in the winding face of the rotor. The pole face, on the
other hand, has no winding and the signal is flatter since the variation in magnetic field is
minimal.
The magnitude of the sinusoidal peaks in the winding face is dependent on the ampere-turns
produced by the winding in the various slots. If there is a short in a slot, then the peak of the
signal for that affected slot will be reduced (Figure 5-4). The amount of reduction will be
dependent on the magnitude of the short. Therefore, as well as knowing which slot the short is in,
an estimate of the number of shorted turns can be made fairly accurately.
Problems due to saturation effects at full load can occur in analyzing the data. Most
manufacturers now have a dedicated monitor connected to the STD to automate the analysis
process. This allows the STD and monitor to act as a stand-alone sensor that activates an alarm
when a short turn is detected, so that the operator is alerted and can investigate.
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Figure 5-2
Flux Probe Installation
Figure 5-3
Flux Probe and Cross-Slot Leakage Flux
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Figure 5-4
Flux Probe Trace
5.3.1 Risk Assessment on Indication of Shorted Turns
When rotor shorted turns are present, as determined either by an on-line monitoring device or by
off-line methods (see Section 6 of this guide), the ability to continue operation becomes the key
question and the focus of the risk assessment. The following are points to consider:
• It is generally accepted in the industry that operation may continue as long as the rotor
vibration levels are maintained within the allowable limits for the machine in question.
• In cases where the vibration continues to increase over time due to worsening of a short or
due to the appearance of additional shorts, there may come a point where the machine is no
longer able to achieve its full design reactive power output.
• In even more severe cases of shorted turns, the vibration may reach the allowable limits even
at the lowest excitation level of field current allowed. In this situation, it becomes necessary
to reduce real power output in order to continue operating and maintaining vibration level
within allowable limits.
• Finally, for any operating condition, if the vibration cannot be maintained within acceptable
levels, the machine should not be operated.
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For the utility, the decision whether to continue to operate is more of an economic decision than
a risk decision and is based on the needs of the power system at the time. In many cases, it is
essential that the machine continue to operate to meet the demands of the power system until a
convenient time when repairs are more economical in terms of replacement energy cost.
If the shorts are in the endwinding, repairs can sometimes be made easily and a rewind is not
required. However, if the shorts are in the slot, then a rewind is the most prudent method of
correction, and the repair therefore becomes substantial. Continuing to operate until the best
available repair time is not likely to make much difference, since the repair is the same in this
case.
5.4 Shaft Speed
Shaft speed refers to the shaft rotational speed. In North America, this is 3600 rpm for 2-pole
generators and 1800 rpm for 4-pole generators. For both 2- and 4-pole machines, this translates
to 60-Hz operation of the generator. For 50-Hz systems, the respective 2- and 4-pole speeds are
3000 rpm and 1500 rpm.
The speed is generally measured by a probe mounted next to the rotor, looking at a toothed
wheel or key-phasor on the rotor shaft. The speed signal is used for monitoring, but the
frequency of the generator is usually taken from the electrical output of the generator in hertz.
Shaft speed monitoring is particularly useful when looking at vibration profile of the rotor during
run-up and run-down, when the generator goes through its first and second critical speeds. Shifts
in critical speeds during run-up and run-down can be an indicator of a change in shaft stiffness
due to some problem within the rotor, such as a cracked shaft.
5.5 Rotor Vibration
Rotor vibration refers to vibration on the shaft and the bearings. Shaft vibration is the movement
of the shaft in relation to the bearing mounts or generator footing, where the vibration probe is
normally mounted. Bearing vibration is the movement of the bearings relative to the generator
footing.
Normally, vibration is measured in units of displacement (thousandths of an inch or micrometers,

peak to peak on the displacement signal obtained). Vibration can also be measured as velocity or
acceleration. By a simple calculation either of these quantities can be converted to displacement.
All generators operate under strict bearing and shaft vibration guidelines and limits that are
usually established by the manufacturer but are often modified by the operator based on
operating experience.
Excessive rotor vibration can damage the rotor or one of its components, such as the bearings,
hydrogen seals, or collector rings. High rotor vibration is caused by a number of mechanical or
thermal imbalance problems.
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Rotor mechanical imbalance can be caused by many conditions, including loss of a balance
weight, oil whirl, bearing loading, coupling alignment, misaligned retaining-rings, hydrogen seal
or oil wiper rubs, foundation resonance, a general rotor structural component problem, cracked
forging, shorted turns, or thermal effects. The level of severity is usually determined by the
magnitude of vibration present, and may require an outage to correct the source of the vibration,
or to apply balancing weights to offset the imbalance. For mechanical vibration problems,
vibration levels generally remain constant regardless of field current changes, but will vary with
the shaft rotational speed and possibly load.
Rotor thermal imbalance is a condition where there is uneven heating in the rotor shaft due to a
number of possible influences, with the resulting effect being high rotor vibration. Some of the
possible causes are rotor shorted turns, negative sequence heating, and blocked rotor winding
ventilation ducts. Vibrations due to thermal imbalance are usually load-dependent. That is,
vibrations increase as field current increases.
Bearing and shaft vibration on both ends of the generator can be monitored to detect any or all of
the above abnormalities, in terms of the magnitude, phase, and frequency of the vibration at
variable load conditions. A frequency analysis can also be applied for detailed analysis of the
vibration pattern. Seismic and proximity vibration sensors, usually two sets placed 90 degrees
apart at each bearing, are used for monitoring. The amplitude of the vibration can be monitored
by a shaft riding accelerometer, a bearing housing mounted accelerometer, or a proximity
detector, or by velocity detecting sensors.
5.6 Torsional Vibration Monitoring
The torsional monitor is a device or system used to monitor the occurrence of shaft torques,
particularly those of a severe nature, which will impact the remaining life of the turbine
generator shaft. By measuring the pertinent parameters and inputting all the event information
into a model of the turbine generator shaft, the loss of life expectancy of the shaft can by
calculated.
Torsional events are generally caused by severe system disturbances or power system resonant
frequencies that are inadvertently stimulated. These cause the turbogenerator shaft to respond by
oscillating subsynchronously on top of the shaft operating speed. The effect is to cause excessive
oscillating torque in the shaft. If not dampened, they can eventually cause a runaway oscillation
that will fail the shaft. Generally, they are dampened and decay to zero. During the event and
decay to normal rotational speed, there is usually no apparent damage. However, there may have
been excess torsional stress on the turbogenerator shaft, with associated loss of life expectancy,
and this needs to be accounted for. The torsional monitor is a monitoring device used for this
purpose. The parameters to be measured are stator current, terminal voltage, and shaft speed.
A power system stabilizer is used for feedback into the control system, and helps dampen the
oscillations that may be stimulated during system events.
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5.7 Shaft Voltage and Current Monitoring
During operation, voltages build on the generator rotor shaft. The sources of shaft voltage have
been identified as voltage from the excitation system due to imbalanced capacitive coupling,
electrostatic voltage from the turbine due to charged water droplets impacting the blades,
asymmetric voltage from asymmetrical stator core stacking, and homopolar voltage from shaft
magnetization. If these voltages are not drained to ground they will rise and break down the
various oil films at the bearings, hydrogen seals, turning gear, thrust bearing, and so forth. The
result will be current discharges and electrical pitting of the critical running surfaces of these
components. Mechanical failure may then follow.
Inadequate grounding of the rotor shaft will also allow these voltages to build up further on the
rotor shaft of the generator. Inadequate grounding may be due to a problem with the shaft
grounding brushes from wear (requiring replacement brushes), or a problem with the associated
shaft grounding circuitry if a monitoring circuit is provided.
High shaft voltages can also be caused by severe local core faults of large magnitude, which
impress voltages back on the shaft from long shorts across the core.
Protection against shaft voltage buildup and current discharges is provided in the form of a shaft-
grounding device, generally located on the turbine end of the generator rotor shaft. The
grounding device consists of a carbon brush or set of brushes, or a copper braid or set of braids,
with one end riding on the rotor shaft and the other connected to ground.
Shaft voltage and current monitoring schemes are also provided, in many cases, to detect the
actual shaft voltage level and current flow through the shaft grounding brushes. This has the
advantage of providing warning when the shaft grounding system is no longer functioning
properly and requires maintenance. There are numerous monitoring schemes available, and each
manufacturer generally has its own system, which is provided with the turbogenerator set when
purchased. For older machines with only grounding and no monitoring, a monitoring system can
usually be retrofitted to the existing grounding brushes. The manufacturer should be consulted
when the shaft monitoring is being upgraded.
5.8 Bearing Metal Temperature
Rotor bearing metal temperature is a function of the lube oil inlet temperature to the bearings. In
addition, bearing temperatures are affected by vibration, alignment, oil condition, bearing
preloads, electrical arcing between the rotor shaft and the bearings, and low lube oil flow to the
bearings. High bearing metal temperatures will also cause high bearing oil outlet temperatures at
the affected bearing. Excessive bearing temperatures may result in an overheated bearing and a
subsequent rub or wipe.
The bearing metal temperatures of the upper and lower bearing halves, or of the individual pads
in a tilting pad bearing, are monitored by thermocouples embedded in the material of the bearing.
One or two sensors are typically located in the bearing lower half, very close to, but not in, the
babbit metal. Because the bearing is insulated, the sensor must also be insulated from the bearing
to prevent it from shorting the insulation.
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5.9 Bearing Inlet Oil Temperature
High inlet oil temperature will cause the bearing temperatures to rise, and may affect bearing
operation.
High inlet oil temperature is almost always a result of poor operation of the bearing lube oil
system, and will affect all generator and turbine bearings. If the bearing oil inlet temperature
exceeds its limits, investigation of the root cause should begin with the lube oil system.
5.10 Bearing Outlet Oil Temperature
Bearing outlet oil temperatures are most commonly indicated by a thermocouple or resistance
temperature detector in the oil outlet stream from each individual bearing. Overheating of the
individual bearings will be indicated by this parameter, and should correlate with the bearing
metal temperature readings.
Bearing outlet oil temperatures may also indicate a global problem with the lube oil system, if all
bearing outlet oil temperatures are high. In this case, it is possible that the bearing inlet oil from
the lube oil system has a temperature problem. It is also possible that a leak of oil from the
system may be causing the bearing to be starved for sufficient oil.
Temperature increase on only one bearing may mean a reduction or loss of lubricating oil to that
bearing, pitting of the babbit by excessive shaft currents, a rub in the bearing, or deterioration of
the babbit material.
5.11 Hydrogen Seal Metal Temperatures
Hydrogen seal metal temperatures are primarily a function of the seal inlet oil temperature. In
addition, hydrogen seal temperatures are affected by mechanical problems such as seal rubs from
misalignment, electrical mechanisms such as arcing, and oil-related causes such as low inlet oil
flow to the seals. High hydrogen seal metal temperatures will also cause high hydrogen seal
outlet oil temperatures for the affected seal.
Overheating of the seal metal can cause a failure of the seal, and subsequent serious damage not
only to the seals, but also to other generator components. A hydrogen seal failure is extremely
dangerous, since hydrogen is likely to escape from the generator casing at the location of the
failure, and ignite not only due to the high temperature from the failure point, but because
hydrogen leaking from a pressure vessel will often self-ignite.
Hydrogen seal metal temperatures are monitored by thermocouples embedded in the seal ring
material.
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5.12 Hydrogen Seal Inlet Oil Temperature
High inlet oil temperatures will cause the hydrogen seal temperatures to rise and may affect
operation of the seals.
High inlet oil temperature is almost always a result of poor operation of the seal oil supply
system, and will affect both generator hydrogen seals. If the hydrogen seal oil inlet temperature
exceeds its limits, investigation of the root cause should begin with the seal oil supply system.
5.13 Hydrogen Seal Outlet Oil Temperature
In general, a TC or RTD in the oil outlet stream from each individual seal indicates hydrogen
seal oil outlet temperatures. Overheating of the individual hydrogen seals will be indicated by
this parameter, and should correlate with the hydrogen seal metal temperature readings.
Hydrogen seal outlet oil temperatures may also indicate a global problem with the seal oil supply
system, if all hydrogen seal outlet oil temperatures are high. In this case, it is possible that the
inlet oil has a temperature problem from the seal oil supply system.
5.14 Hydrogen Seal, Hydrogen/Seal Oil Differential Pressure
A high degree of hydrogen loss from the generator can cause the hydrogen/seal oil differential
pressure to increase. Seal inlet oil pressure to the generator being too high will also cause the
differential pressure to increase. One of the problems with high hydrogen/seal oil differential is
excess seal oil leaking into the generator. This can overload the drainage system and also cause
oil to mist and coat the generator internal components. The problem with this is that oil has a
tendency to promote loosening of components such as the stator wedges.
The differential pressure between the oil inlet to the hydrogen seals and the casing hydrogen gas
pressure is continuously monitored. It is always maintained in the range of 5 to 15 psi, with the
seal oil pressure being the higher of the two. The higher seal oil pressure keeps the hydrogen
from escaping the generator casing.
Loss of the hydrogen seal at either end of the generator will cause hydrogen leakage at the seal,
creating a dangerous condition for both personnel and the internal generator components. When
hydrogen under pressure is allowed to leak uncontrolled, it has the ability to self-ignite. When it
does, the flame is invisible to the eye. The only clues to the presence of a hydrogen fire are heat
given off and the formation of water droplets, since the escaping hydrogen combines with the
oxygen in air to make water.
Another problem associated with reduction in hydrogen pressure is the reduction in cooling of
the generator components.
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5.15 Rotor Fan Differential Pressure

Rotor fan differential pressure is an indication of the operation of the hydrogen cooling circuit
inside the generator. The fan differential pressure is the pressure required to overcome the
pressure drop across the entire hydrogen gas cooling circuit inside the generator, so that there is
sufficient flow of hydrogen to cool the generator components.
A significant increase in the fan differential pressure is an indication that there may be a flow
restriction somewhere in the cooling circuit. Low fan differential may indicate a problem with
the fan itself.
5.16 Dew Point Monitoring
Hydrogen dew point temperature is an indicator of the moisture content in the generator casing
hydrogen gas. Moisture is undesirable for the stator and rotor insulation systems, since it can
initiate insulation failure by electrical tracking, and it is undesirable for various steel components
in the generator due to rusting and corrosive effects. Maintaining the dew point at less than 0°C
is recommended.
High moisture content in the hydrogen gas is usually due to a hydrogen dryer malfunction,
contaminated hydrogen supply, poor seal oil quality, or a malfunction in the seal oil system on
the vacuum treatment plant. Stator cooling water or hydrogen cooler raw water leakage into the
generator can also cause a high dew point, but this is a less common cause. Moisture is most
likely to collect in the generator during shutdown periods when the internal components begin to
cool and the dew point temperature rises.
5.17 Negative Sequence
Negative sequence heating of the rotor is induced by a phase imbalance in the stator winding.
Phase currents that are unbalanced (for whatever reason) cause a 120-Hz current component to
be impressed on the surface of the rotor body, causing these currents to flow in the pole face of
the rotor body. The currents can become quite large, causing rotor thermal imbalance and severe
damage to the rotor in such cases as asynchronous operation (i.e., single phasing). It should be
noted that there is always a certain level of phase imbalance and negative sequence current
present, but this is generally only around 1% and is designed for in large generators.
All generators have strict negative sequence current limits, which are usually specified by the
manufacturer. There is usually also protective relaying applied to the generator (as opposed to
actual monitoring) to alarm or trip the unit should a negative sequence event occur that is judged
to be approaching, or beyond, the design capability of the generator.
5.17.1 Risk Assessment of a Negative Sequence Event
If a negative sequence alarm occurs, it means that a preset limit has been reached and that there
is a negative sequence event occurring due to some level of phase imbalance. The phase
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imbalance is generally due to system issues rather than generator issues, but it is nevertheless
highly detrimental to the generator rotor. The following recommendations apply:
• In the case of an alarm, the strongly recommended response is to reduce load to a minimum
to try and eliminate the alarm, and then investigate.
• If there is obvious correlation to a system problem, it is advisable not to operate above the
output level of the generator at which the negative sequence alarm occurs, until the situation
is resolved.
• If the imbalance is severe enough that the alarm remains even at minimum load, then the
generator should be taken off line and a positive determination made as to whether the
problem is system-related or machine-related.
• If the problem is system-related, then the generator should not be brought back on line until
the problem is resolved.
• If the problem is machine-related (an unlikely case), then an investigation of the machine
itself should be undertaken before any further operation.
Additional points regarding negative sequence events are the following:

• In the case of a fast negative sequence event in which the generator is tripped off line, the
possibility exists that damage to the machine may have occurred.
• Generally, if the generator is tripped as a protective measure there is a low risk of damage
occurring.
• To ensure that this is in fact the case, it is necessary to determine the level of phase
imbalance and the time frame in which the event occurred. (Because negative sequence
events are on an inverse time relationship, it is difficult to determine the total effect, as the
level of negative sequence is changing over the total time of the event. As a worst-case rough
evaluation method, the maximum imbalance can be used for the total time frame of the
imbalance, to get an idea of the energy input to the rotor.)
• It may also be advisable to involve the manufacturer, due to the difficulty in determining the
needed information.
• If investigation results indicate that an event outside the design capability of the rotor has
occurred, then the rotor should be inspected for negative sequence type damage as described
in Section 4 of this guide.
Note: Not all machines are equipped with the capability to capture the phase imbalance and
time-of-occurrence information. It is advisable to have such monitoring and sequence
analysis devices installed, for this type of event as well as for many other types of events
that can occur on a generator in operation.
5.18 Rotor Winding Overvoltage

Rotor winding overvoltage is not very common in terms of operation. The most likely time for it
to occur is during a system event when there is a system voltage sag or drop in frequency. At
such times, the generator would be required to “field force” its excitation system, which means
to increase field voltage to twice rated operating voltage. Field forcing is an to attempt to boost
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the excitation to the rotor and increase generator output to support the system. However,
doubling the excitation output voltage stresses the rotor winding insulation in a number of ways
and incurs some risk for the rotor. The main concern is stressing the interturn insulation and
causing shorts, or even stressing the ground insulation and causing a rotor ground.
5.18.1 Risk Assessment of Rotor Overvoltage
The following points pertain to risk assessment in cases involving rotor overvoltage:
• The determination that there has been an overvoltage on the rotor will most likely be due to a
recorded increase in field voltage.
• There is generally no alarm on high field voltage, and it may even go unnoticed, unless it is
specifically being looked for.
• The following occurrences should cause the operator to check for incidents of excessive field
voltage and hence the possibility of rotor shorted turns or grounds:
– excessive field forcing operation of the exciter
– severe system frequency decrease
– severe system voltage depression
• If shorted turns are present on the rotor, as determined by an on-line monitoring device or
off-line testing, there should be an effort to correlate them to the occurrences mentioned
above.
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OFF-LINE MAINTENANCE TESTING
When rotor problems occur, there are various symptoms that can be interpreted as warning signs.
Off-line testing and analysis is done to further investigate suspected problems, and as part of
general maintenance-related testing to check for unknown problems that might be developing.
This section of the guide covers the common off-line testing procedures performed on generator
rotors, as well as some of the less-common procedures.
6.1 Rotor Nondestructive Examination Inspection Techniques

Nondestructive examination of generator rotors is usually performed in order to look for
corrosion pitting and cracks and inclusions in highly stressed dynamic components.
Nondestructive examination is generally categorized into two types: surface (visual, magnetic
particle, liquid penetrant, and eddy current) and volumetric (ultrasonic).
6.1.1 Visual Inspection

The effectiveness of visual inspection is surprisingly good if the inspector is knowledgeable and
thorough. Problems like surface flaws (cracks, porosity, surface finish irregularities, rusting, and
corrosion), can usually be seen easily, and much can be deduced from this type of inspection.
The visual inspection alone can sometimes provide the information required to make the right
decision for maintenance action.
The advantages of visual inspection are that it is low-cost, simple, and quick. It can be performed
during any type of generator work that is in progress, permitting correction of faults.
Visual inspection has limitations, however. It is applicable to surface defects only and provides
no permanent record unless documented by photographs or video.
Good detailed visual inspection of generator components may require any or all of the following
conditions and equipment:
• Good lighting
• A magnifying glass
• Mirrors with rotating heads
• A digital camera
• Borescope (with video recorder)
• Feeler gauges
• A ruler
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• A straightedge
• Magnets
6.1.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a procedure that is commonly used in rotor component
inspection of forgings, couplings, and steel wedges. It is excellent for detecting surface or near-
surface defects such as cracks in ferromagnetic materials. It is cost-effective and simple to
perform.
Magnetic particle inspection for surface flaws requires no specialized equipment. It does,
however, require high current application to align the magnetic powders that show any
observable flaws. This current is in the range of 200 to 20,000 amps. The magnetic powders are
in dry or wet form and may be fluorescent for viewing under ultraviolet light. Coloring (yellow,
red, black, or gray) is often added to dry metallic powders to make them more visible. In the wet
method, iron particles are coated with fluorescent coloring in water- or oil-based suspension.
Antifreeze may be added to water-based solutions to impede particle mobility.
Magnetization is induced by passing current through a multiturned coil, looped through or

around the part to be examined, with no electrical contact. The magnetization field is parallel to
the axis of coil-longitudinal magnetization. The flux density is proportional to the current times
the number of turns in the coil. With more turns, less current is required. A flux density of one
tesla is satisfactory for most generator applications. Defects that are perpendicular to the
magnetic field produce the most-pronounced indications. The magnetic particles become
attracted to discontinuities due to the high flux concentrations at the affected areas.
For low-carbon steels (with little or no retentiveness), a continuous application of magnetic

particles is made while the magnetizing current is on. The magnetizing current is usually dc,
from rectified ac. It is more penetrating than ac, effective up to half an inch (about 13 mm) below
the surface.
For high-carbon steels (with high retentiveness), magnetizing current is applied, and then the
magnetic particles, after the current is switched off. The magnetizing current is generally ac
stepped down from single phase ac voltage. It is effective to approximately one thousandth of an
inch (about 0.025 mm) below the surface.
Magnetic particle inspection is somewhat limited in that it is applicable to ferromagnetic

materials only, and does require some skill in interpretation of defect indications and recognition
of irregular patterns.
6.1.3 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is widely used for generators, specifically for most rotor
components, since it can be applied to both ferrous and nonferrous materials. It is primarily used
for inspection of retaining rings. It is considered to have greater sensitivity than magnetic particle
inspection, and is also a very cost-effective method of NDE.
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Liquid penetrant examination is able to detect surface cracks and pitting or any discontinuity
open to the surface and not readily visible to the eye. The equipment required generally consists
of fluorescent dye penetrant fluid, developer, application equipment, and an ultraviolet light
source to view any flaws present.
The technique requires a clean surface, so preparation of the surface by cleaning and polishing is
first required. Then the liquid penetrant is applied and given time to weep into discontinuities by
capillary action. Once penetration is complete, any excess penetrant is removed by wiping. Next,
developer is applied, which absorbs the penetrant and acts as a type of blotter. Defects are then
easily seen by the eye with the aid of the ultraviolet light.
The limitations of liquid penetrant inspection are that it only detects surface defects and that it is
temperature-sensitive. LPI should only be used in the range of 60 to 90 degrees F (16 to 32
degrees C). This is due to viscosity issues that occur with the penetrant when the temperature is
outside the specified range.
6.1.4 Ultrasonic Examination
Ultrasonic examination (UT) is probably the second most widely used NDE method for
generator components. It is highly specialized and requires commercial ultrasonic equipment,
either of the pulse echo type or the through transmission type.
UT is able to detect surface and subsurface flaws, including those too small to be detected by
other methods. The size range in subsurface flaws is generally about 2 to 3 mm. Ultrasonic
nondestructive examination is applied to rotor forging bores and retaining rings, and to find
specialized subsurface defects that can occur in high-stress areas of the rotor. It is a very
sensitive technique and can look at areas that are difficult to access by other NDE methods. One
disadvantage of UT is that it is difficult to obtain good, interpretable signals in areas where the
specimen geometry is complex, such as the portion of a retaining ring where castellated fitting of
the shrink-fit area is employed. It also requires an operator with a high degree of training and
skill to carry out the testing and interpret the results.
The two basic UT methods are described below.
6.1.4.1 The Pulse Echo Method
The pulse echo method is the most widely used method of UT. The ultrasonic pulse echo
instrument generates high-voltage electrical pulses of short, evenly timed duration. These pulses
are applied to a transducer, which converts them into mechanical vibrations that are applied to
the material being inspected. The sound reflected back to the transducer is converted back to
electrical pulses, which are amplified and displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) as vertical
pulses. The same transducer is used to transmit and to receive.
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6.1.4.2 The Through Transmission Method
In the through transmission method, two transducers are required, one for sending and the other
for receiving. Either short pulses or continuous waves are transmitted into the material. The
quality of the material being tested is measured in terms of energy lost by a sound beam as it
travels through the material.
To show the location of discontinuities within a test specimen, a horizontal scale on a visual
display unit (VDU) is divided into convenient increments such as centimeters or inches. At a
given sensitivity (gain) setting, the amplitude is determined by the strength of the signal
generated by the reflected sound wave. The VDU displays two types of information: the distance
(time) of the discontinuity from the transducer, and the relative magnitude of the reflected
energy.
There are generally two types of wave applications to the test specimen: longitudinal
(compression), and shear (transverse) waves. Longitudinal waves have particle vibrations back
and forth in the direction of the wave propagation. Shear waves have particle vibrations
perpendicular to the direction of wave motion. Shear waves will not travel through liquids or
gases. In some materials, the velocity of shear waves is about half that of longitudinal waves.
Therefore, the wavelength is shorter (about one-half), permitting smaller discontinuities to be
located.
Grain structure has a great influence on the acoustical properties of a material. A steel forging
generally has a fine grain structure, and has a low damping effect on the sound beam. A casting,
however, generally has a coarser grain structure, which is more difficult for sound to pass
through.
When a discontinuity is not normal (at 90 degrees) to the incident wave, the reflected wave will
be at an angle. The result is a reduction in the amplitude of the discontinuity indication displayed
on the VDU.
Transducers come in many shapes and sizes, and with various physical characteristics. Some
common types include paintbrush, dual-element, single-element, angle beam, focused, mosaic,
contact, and immersion. Single-element transducers may be transmitters only, receivers only, or
both. Double-element transducers may be single transducers either mounted side by side or
stacked. In a double-element transducer, one element is a transmitter and the other is a receiver.
Double-element transducers have better near-surface resolution, because the receiver can receive
discontinuity signals before the transmitter completes its transmission.
6.1.5 Eddy Current Examination
Eddy current examination is not widely used for generator applications, but it has been useful on
occasion, where tight cracks in retaining rings cannot be seen by LPI, MPI, or UT. It is able to
penetrate layers of good material to detect hidden flaws in metals, such as inclusions and tight
cracks. Examples of the types of defects that can be seen by eddy current examination are
surface and near-surface defects, delamination of multilayered components, and inclusions.
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Eddy current examination requires very specialized commercial equipment, consisting of a

vector voltmeter, differential bridge, sensor coils, a frequency generator, a phase sensitive
detector, and an impedance plane display instrument.
The basic principle is that of an alternating current flowing through a coil, producing an
alternating magnetic field in the specimen being tested. When the coil is then placed near a test
specimen that is conductive, the magnetic field causes eddy currents to flow. This flow of eddy
currents depends on the physical and electrical characteristics of the test specimen. The eddy
currents will avoid cracks and seek higher conducting regions in the specimen. As the eddy
currents flow in the test specimen, they generate their own magnetic field. This field interacts
with the magnetic field produced by the coil and changes the coil’s impedance. Specialized
instruments then measure and display these changes in the impedance, allowing the test
technician to interpret information about the test specimen, specifically the presence and size of
flaws in it.
Numerous types of eddy current probes are available, and the type of probe chosen depends on
the material being tested and the application. The basic types of probes are absolute, differential,
reflection, unshielded, and shielded.
The main advantages to the eddy current examination method are its low cost, ease and speed of
use, high sensitivity to microscopic defects, and capacity for automation.
6.2 Rotor NDE Specifics
NDE tests are generally performed on the following generator rotor components:
• The forging
• Fans
• Retaining rings
As discussed previously, the NDE methods typically applied to rotor components are magnetic
particle, liquid penetrant, ultrasonic (and boresonic), and sometimes eddy current. An additional
test that is sometimes done is a hardness test.
6.2.1 Rotor Forgings
NDE is most often performed during rewinding of the rotor, when revalidation of the forging is
required. Testing may include the following:
• Magnetic particle inspection of the rotor fillet radii inboard of the journals, shaft radius at the
slot exit interface, fan seating and keyways, pole face cross-cuts, pole and winding slots, etc.
• Liquid penetrant inspection of the exciter end lead slot radii, inboard and outboard radial
pinholes, and coupling bolt holes
• Ultrasonic (boresonic) testing of the rotor bore
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In addition, the rotor forging generally undergoes full-dimensional checks and run-out or truth
checks.
6.2.2 Fans
Rotor fans are highly stressed components of the rotor. Fan blades and vanes are generally tested
by LPI and UT.
6.2.3 Retaining Rings
Retaining rings receive by far the most scrutiny of any component evaluated during major
overhauls. One of the most comprehensive studies on this topic is provided in EPRI Special
Report EL/EM-5117-SR, Guidelines for Evaluation of Generator Retaining Rings (April 1987).
There are three types of material generally used in retaining rings: Ni-Cr-Mo-Va magnetic steel
(ferritic); 18Mn-5Cr nonmagnetic steel, used in 18-5 rings; and 18Mn-18Cr nonmagnetic steel,
used in the newer 18-18 rings.
Retaining rings constructed from magnetic material are generally sound in terms of strength and
resistance to corrosion. However, they are undesirable with regard to their electromagnetic
characteristics and the resulting effect on the overall machine losses.
The 18-5 rings are highly susceptible to the mechanism of stress corrosion cracking when
exposed to a moisture-laden environment, during operation or at standstill. This has become an
industrywide problem, not limited to the rings of any particular manufacturer. Once a crack has
been initiated, the propagation rate of the crack will depend on the ring design (geometry, stress
levels, etc.), the environment, and the operating conditions. It is extremely difficult to predict
when small cracks will reach the critical crack size at which failure is imminent. (An attempt has
been made and is described in the EPRI document cited above.)
Several ring failures have occurred in the industry, resulting in considerable damage to the
overall generators and their support structures. These incidents were attributed to stress corrosion
cracking caused by exposure to moisture. The rings had apparently not been adequately protected
from the environment.
The recently developed material used in the 18-18 retaining rings is highly resistant to the stress
corrosion cracking mechanism. Manufacturers are advocating the replacement of all 18-5
retaining rings with these newer rings due to the superior material properties and suitability for
the operating environments encountered in large generators. They suggest that installing the
18-18 rings eliminates the need for inspection for stress corrosion cracking. However, it should
be pointed out that this does not eliminate the need to periodically inspect these retaining rings
for all the other mechanical and thermal issues that affect the life of this component. Inspection
is the only means available to assess retaining-ring integrity and provide an opportunity to
correct any problems encountered.
A major area of interest for operators is the ability to perform NDE on large generator rotor
retaining rings without removing the rotors from the generator, or even the retaining rings from
the rotors. This interest is driven by the high cost of rotor removal and subsequent removal of the
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retaining rings from the rotors, and the time involved. In addition, removal of retaining rings is
undesirable because of the concurrent risk of damage to the rings, the rotor forging, and/or the
endwindings. (See additional discussion of in situ testing of retaining rings below, in Section
6.2.3.3.)
6.2.3.1 Retaining Ring Testing Frequency

Depending on availability, it is desirable to conduct retaining-ring inspections during a period of
one to two years following the in-service date, and again 6 to 8 years after that.
The frequency of subsequent inspections will depend on a combination of information gained
during previous inspections and on adverse operating conditions encountered since the last
inspection. Adverse operating conditions include water leakage into the generator, high or
sustained dew point excursions, local system faults, synchronizing errors, high rotor temperature
excursions, continuously changing load requirements or two-shifting, overspeeds, and rotor at
standstill in uncontrolled environmental conditions.
6.2.3.2 Retaining Ring Inspection Procedure When Rings Are Removed from the Rotor
Body
The standard process for assessment of retaining-ring integrity requires complete removal of
both rings from the rotor body, followed by total surface dye penetrant examination. A thorough
cleaning of all ring surfaces is required prior to inspection. The cleaning is achieved by hand
polishing of shrink-fit areas, and by using electrically nonconductive abrasives on all surfaces to
achieve bare metal conditions. The inspection itself is carried out with a detailed dye penetrant
process, using a highly sensitive fluorescent liquid penetrant to expose suspect areas containing
cracks, pits, or defects (see the discussion of liquid penetrant inspection in Section 6.1.3).
When flaws are discovered, local grinding and/or polishing will normally remove them, but there
are limitations on the amount of corrective action allowed. It is essential that after the corrective
action is taken, all of the suspect areas have been removed, and no limits exceeded. Removal of
material from the shrink-fit area is limited to the amount at which 15% overspeed capability is
maintained. The design overspeed capability is 20% above operating. Overspeed trips are set at
10%, thus allowing a minimum 5% margin, should material be removed. The determination of
the depth of the skim to be taken off the shrink fit, when required, should be referred back to the
manufacturer.
6.2.3.3 In Situ Testing

At the present time, the issue of ultrasonic examination of retaining rings assembled on a rotor
body is highly debated among users and testers in the industry. There are some who are staunch
proponents of the in situ technique, while others insist that it is not sensitive enough. And on
rings with castellated fittings, it may not be possible to resolve the indications identified, due to
the complex geometry involved.
It should also be understood that even small-size cracks are of major significance for retaining
rings. Even pitting marks will propagate into cracks when the internal generator hydrogen
conditions are not good. The critical crack size is different for each ring design.
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The bottom line is that even the smallest cracks should be evaluated, especially in the shrink-fit
area. It is the opinion of the authors of this guide that the only way to know for sure if a ring is
free of defects is to remove it for detailed NDE using both surface inspection methods and
ultrasonic or eddy current examination for detection of inclusions.
6.3 Air Pressure Test of the Rotor Bore

The large majority of generator rotors in existence have hollow bores, which extend the full
length of the rotor forging. These boreholes are generally in the range of 3 to 5 inches (about 75
to 125 mm) in diameter, and when the contents of the bore are removed it is possible to see from
one end to the other.
Boreholes were incorporated into past rotor designs mainly because of impurities and porosity in
the forgings, which tended to concentrate in the center. They serve two purposes: the first is to
remove the material defects, and the second is to provide an access for performing boresonic
(ultrasonic) inspection of the rotor bore. In modern forgings, the material manufacturing
processes are now so improved that a full rotor-length borehole is not generally required. Only a
short borehole at the exciter end of the rotor is provided, to accommodate the up-shaft lead,
which connects the rotor winding to the slip rings via the radial terminal studs.
Rotor seals are installed in the shaft, sealing the hole in the shaft where the up-shaft lead or bore
copper is installed. This is between the slip rings and the field winding. The seals are generally
made of rubber-like material, and under pressure (sometimes from a nut) they expand, filling the
area between the bolts connecting the bus/conductor in the hollow of the shaft to the slip rings.
On the excitation end, some rotors have only one set of seals close to the collectors, while other
rotors have a second set of seals, where the leads exit the shaft under the retaining rings. On
rotors with a full-length borehole, the turbine end of the rotor is also sealed by a faceplate
arrangement on the coupling face.
The integrity of the rotor seals is normally checked during major overhauls. Depending on the
design of the rotor, some can be pressure tested by a nipple permanently installed on the shaft, or
by placing a can over the shaft extension and collector assembly, tightly sealed against the rotor
forging, and pressurizing the can.
6.4 Rotor Electrical Testing
6.4.1 Winding Resistance
The field-winding series resistance is measured to determine the ohmic resistance of the total
copper winding in the rotor. Given the relatively low dc series resistance of windings of large
machines, the measurement accuracy requires significance to a minimum of four decimal places.
The purpose of the test is to detect shorted turns, bad or incorrect connections, and open circuits.
The machine should be at room temperature when the test is performed. As with most other
electrical tests, the results should be compared with original factory data, if available.
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6.4.2 Insulation Resistance
The purpose of the insulation resistance (IR) test is to measure the ohmic resistance between the
total rotor winding insulation and ground (i.e., the rotor forging). This test is generally regarded
as an initial test to look for gross problems with the insulation system, and to confirm that further
high-voltage electrical testing can continue relatively safely, in terms of danger of failing
insulation.
Normally, the measurements of IR will be in the megohm range for good insulation, after the
winding is subjected to a dc test voltage usually performed anywhere from 500 to 1000 V, for
one minute. The minimum acceptable reading by IEEE Standard 43 is (Vf in kV + 1) Mohm.
The dc test voltage level is usually specified based on the operating and field-forcing voltage of
the rotor, on utility policy and previous experience, and on knowledge of the present condition of
the insulation in the rotor.
It is essential that the rotor winding be completely dried before any testing, so that any poor
readings will be due to a “real” problem and not residual moisture. The readings are also
sensitive to factors like humidity, surface contamination of the coils, and temperature. Readings
should be corrected to a base temperature of 40°C.
All of the above comments also apply to the rotor bore copper and collector rings.
6.4.3 Polarization Index
Insulation resistance is time dependent as well as being a function of dryness for rotor insulation,
just as in the stator. The amount of change in the IR measured during the first few minutes
depends on the insulation condition and on the amount of contamination and moisture present.
Therefore, when the insulation system is clean and dry, the IR value tends to increase as the
dielectric material in the insulation absorbs the charge. When the insulation is dirty or wet or a
gross insulation problem is present, the charge does not hold, and the IR value will not increase,
due to constant leakage current at the problem area. Thus, the ratio between the resistance
reading at 10 minutes and the reading at 1 minute produces a number, or polarization index (PI),
which is essentially used to determine how clean and dry the winding is.
The recommended minimum PI value for Class B, F, and H insulation is 2.0.
The same instrument used for the IR readings should be used to determine the PI. The PI
readings should be performed at the same voltage as the IR test and can be used as a go/no-go
test before subjecting the rotor to subsequent high-voltage tests, either ac or dc. The IR readings
for the PI test should also be corrected to 40°C, as in the IR test. Performing the high-voltage
tests on wet insulation may result in unnecessary failure of the insulation.
6.4.4 DC Hi-Pot
The dc hi-pot test is used to ascertain if the winding is capable of sustaining the required rated
voltage levels (without a breakdown of the insulation), with a reasonable degree of assurance of
the capability to withstand overvoltages and transients and maintain an acceptable insulation life.
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The test consists of applying high voltage to the rotor winding for one minute. DC hi-pot testing
on rotor windings is normally done at a voltage between 1500 V and up to approximately 10
times the rated field voltage.
6.4.5 AC Hi-Pot
Like the dc hi-pot test, the ac hi-pot test is used to ascertain if the winding is capable of
sustaining the required rated voltage levels (without a breakdown of the insulation) with a
reasonable degree of assurance of the capability to withstand overvoltages and transients and
maintain an acceptable insulation life.
The test consists of applying ac high voltage to the rotor winding for one minute. AC hi-pot
testing on rotor windings is also normally done at a voltage up to 10 times the rated field voltage
at a line frequency of 60 Hz.
6.4.6 Shorted Turns Detection by Low-Voltage DC or Volt Drop
A low-voltage dc or volt drop test can be used to determine the existence of shorted turns in the
rotor winding. The test is entirely different when performed on salient pole rotors than when
performed on cylindrical (round) rotors.
In salient pole machines, a “pole drop” test is done. In this test, the resistance across each
individual pole is measured by the V/I method—that is, applying a voltage of around 100 to 120
volts, 60 Hz, to the entire winding, and then measuring the voltage drop across each pole. A pole
with a lower voltage drop will indicate a shorted turn or a number of shorted turns.
In either salient pole or round rotor machines, the shorted turns are often speed dependent (the
shorts might disappear at standstill). To partially offset this phenomenon, it is recommended that
the pole drop test be repeated a few times, with the rotor at several angles. The gravity forces
exerted on the vertically located poles may activate some short circuits between turns, which
might not show up in, or close to, the horizontal position.
In round rotors the individual windings are generally not accessible, unless the retaining rings are
removed. Therefore, detection of shorted turns is not always possible by the voltage drop test.
6.4.7 Shorted Turns Detection by Low Voltage AC or “C” Core Test
Another test for shorted turns is a low-voltage ac or “C” core test. A C-shaped, wound core is
used to carry out this test, together with a voltmeter, wattmeter, and single phase power supply
(see Figure 6-1).
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Figure 6-1
“C” Core Test Setup
Shorted turns are detected by sharp changes in the direction of wattmeter readings (see Figure
6-2).
In rotors with damper windings, or with the wedges short-circuited at the ends to form a damper
winding, these have to be disconnected at the ends. This operation requires removal of the
retaining rings.
6.4.8 Field Winding Ground Detection by Split Voltage Test
The split voltage test is used to locate rotor grounds as a percentage through the field winding.
For this test to be effective, the resistance to ground of the fault must be less than 5% of the
balance of the rotor insulation, and the voltmeter must have high input impedance in comparison
to the ground fault. The retaining rings should be left on in case the ground is to one of the rings.
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Figure 6-2
“C” Core Test Plotted Results
The test is done by applying up to 150 volts dc, ungrounded, across the slip rings. A
measurement of dc voltage is then taken from the rotor coupling at the turbine end of the forging
to one of the collector rings. The measurement is then made from the other collector ring and the
same location on the rotor coupling at the turbine end. In this way, the two voltage measurements
can be compared to estimate how far into the winding the ground has occurred. If the two
measurements are equal, the rotor ground fault should be found in the middle of the winding. If
there is less than 2% difference between the two readings, then the ground could possibly be at
the collector rings.
This test is very useful in helping to determine how much dismantling will be required to find the
ground. Depending on where the ground is located, it can obviously make a big difference in the
time expended to find the fault (Figure 6-3).
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Figure 6-3
Field Winding Ground Detection by Split Voltage Test
6.4.9 Field Ground Detection by Current Through Forging Test
The current through forging test is another test used to locate rotor-winding grounds. In this
particular application, the test is used to locate the actual axial position of the ground. The
retaining rings should be left on the rotor in case the ground is at one of the rings.
For this test, a dc current of about 500 amps is put through the forging from the tip of the forging
at the slip ring end to the coupling at the other end. A dc ammeter is used to look for the ground
position. This is done by attaching one lead of the ammeter to the most outboard slip ring, and
then using the other lead to probe along the axial length of the rotor forging. At the point where
the ground is, the current should reduce to zero, or if the current is not zero but simply very low,
there will be a polarity change at the ground location (Figure 6-4).
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Figure 6-4
Field Ground Detection by Current Through Forging Test
6.5 Specialized Testing

In addition to normal monitoring and testing (on or off line) there are a number of specific types
of testing that are less commonly performed. These are tests that require either specialized
conditions or special test equipment for specific testing. Some of these are described in this
section.
6.5.1 Shorted Turns Detection by Recurrent Surge Oscillation
In the recurrent surge oscillation (RSO) method, a low-voltage (a few volts) high-frequency (kHz
range) surge wave is injected at each of the collector rings. The two signals are then compared to
determine if the same waveform is observed at each collector ring. If the waveform is identical,
then no shorts are present (see Figures 6-5 and 6-7). Variations in the two waveforms would
indicate that shorts are present. This method is based on the principle of time-domain
reflectometry.
This method has the advantage of allowing the rotor to be spun while the measurements are
being taken, to determine if the shorts are also speed sensitive. In this case there is the added
advantage of taking the mechanical loading effects into consideration. In the “spinning” RSO
test, shorts may reveal themselves that are not seen when the rotor is at rest, because at rest there
is no mechanical load on the winding turns, other than their own weight.
Because the RSO also works on a time-of-flight principle, the location of the coil number where
the shorts are and an indication of which pole is involved are also somewhat discernable by this
method. Shorts nearer the slip rings show up as blips in the RSO pulse nearer the left side of the
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traces (see Figure 6-6). And for the number of turns shorted at the particular location (i.e., that
particular coil), the magnitude of the blip increases as more turns are shorted.
Figure 6-5
RSO Trace for a Two-Pole Rotor—No Shorts
Figure 6-6
RSO Trace for a Two-Pole Rotor—with Shorts, Dual-Trace Plot
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Figure 6-7
RSO Trace for a Two-Pole Rotor—with Shorts, Subtracted Traces
In the “at-rest” test, the recurrent surge oscillograph is connected directly to the winding via the
collector rings. Thus, only the winding impedance is seen by the high-frequency, low-voltage
pulses sent by the RSO. In the “spinning” RSO test, to accommodate the moving rotor, the leads
of the RSO must be connected to the brush rigging, and the connection to the winding is then
implemented via the brushes-collector-rings. However, with this connection anything connected
towards the excitation equipment is also “seen” by the pulses (e.g., leads, contacts, field breaker,
field resistor, and excitation equipment). The principle of operation of the RSO is comparing the
pulses inserted in each polarity terminal of the winding to their reflections. The test is extremely
sensitive to any asymmetry on the path of the pulses. From the point of view of the wave
impedance seen by the high-frequency pulses, the field winding is by nature very symmetrical,
but the excitation system is anything but. Therefore, in order to obtain any significant signature
on the condition of the field-winding, the “noise” originating in the path towards the excitation
must be reduced as much as possible. This is achieved by opening the excitation leads at a
convenient location between the excitation system and the brush rigging. After the leads are
open, only cables of almost exactly equal length are left connected to the brush rigging. The
effect introduced by these cables is generally negligible.
6.5.2 Shorted Turns Detection by Open Circuit Test
By producing an open circuit saturation curve and comparing it to the machine’s design open
circuit saturation curve, it may be possible to identify a shorted turn condition of significant
magnitude. If the field current required to produce rated terminal voltage has increased from the
original design curve, then a short is likely present (see Figure 6-8).
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Figure 6-8
Shorted Turns Detection by Open Circuit
The number of shorted turns can be identified by the ratio of the new field current value to the
design field current value. However, because of the large number of turns in a typical rotor
winding, the changes in open circuit voltage due to a single shorted turn in the field winding may
go unnoticed, since the measurement is too small for a positive identification.
The open circuit stator voltage versus field current characteristics can be measured in all
synchronous machines. This curve, taken with the machine spinning at synchronous speed, is
unique for each machine.
In principle, this test allows the detection of shorted turns in brushless machines, where RSO
techniques are too difficult to perform. It always entails partial disconnection of the rotor leads.
6.5.3 Shorted Turns Detection by Winding Impedance
Impedance measurements taken while the machine is decelerating or accelerating can also be
used to detect a speed-dependent shorted turn. Any sudden change in the readings may indicate a
shorted turn being activated at that speed. A gradual change of impedance of more than 10%
may also indicate a solid short (see Figure 6-9).
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Figure 6-9
Shorted Turns Detection by Impedance
The test is performed by removing all brushes from their brush holders, except one per collector
ring. Having one brush at the positive collector ring and one at the negative collector ring allows
measurement of rotor impedance across the winding, as the rotor is spun from zero rpm to rated
speed. The rotor is then allowed to coast down in speed, once rated speed is attained, and the
measurements are recorded again. Any speed-dependent shorts should show up in the impedance
measurements at the point where the short makes or breaks contact, due to the centrifugal
loading effect.
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7
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
Periodic inspections are a necessary element of condition assessment. Inspection techniques and
areas of inspection are described in this section.
7.1 Limited Access Inspection

Limited-access inspection is a term used to describe types of inspection procedures in which the
generator is not dismantled to any great extent. The term can have a number of meanings, but
generally applies to situations in which the rotor is not removed from the stator. “Limited access”
therefore implies that some portion of the generator will be opened, allowing a certain amount of
viewing of the rotor or other generator components.
In some cases the generator end doors are not removed, and there is very little inspection that can
be done. But in a limited-access inspection, usually at least the top end shield is removed from
the stator, which allows the rotor ends to be seen. Inspection is still difficult, because the rotor is
installed in the stator bore and it is hard to work through or over rotor fans and around stator
components that are in the way. It is possible to use video probes to look under the retaining
rings for any obvious signs of distress, but it is not possible to see the main rotor body and
discover any potential problems that may be present in the vents. Also, although retaining ring
NDE is difficult in this approach, there are now in situ UT inspections being carried out that can
look for surface defects and inclusions of a grosser nature in the rings. The resolution is still not
extensive enough to see the smaller defects, and UT in this manner does not provide good
inspection of shrink-fit areas, especially over castellated types of fits. It is still best to remove
retaining rings for liquid penetrant examination.
The other rotor parts that can be easily inspected without removing the rotor are the collector
rings and radial terminal studs. Additionally, electrical and RSO testing is easily done in this
state. Therefore, even with a limited-access approach, considerable inspection and testing can be
done.
7.2 Robotic Inspection

As mentioned previously, robotic inspections have become possible in recent years, due to the
development of air-gap crawling equipment that can be placed between the stator and rotor and
run by remote control. The air gap varies widely. It can be very small on motors and
hydrogenerators, but as large as 5 inches (about 125 mm) on some turbogenerators. Generally,
though, for most large generators the air gap is in the 3-inch range (about 75–100 mm). It is in
this tight and curved space that the air-gap crawler must function.
The air-gap crawler is basically a motorized trolley with wheels that is magnetically held in place
as it travels through the air gap from end to end. The device is used to mount specific inspection
equipment such as video probes and mirrors, and some test devices such as EL-CID. There are
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Inspection and Maintenance
also air-gap crawlers that are equipped with stator wedge tapping equipment so that a measure of
the tightness of the stator winding wedges can be made without removal of the rotor.
The air-gap crawler has turned out to be a very useful tool in inspection of large generators.
Some models are more effective than others, depending on the specific purpose of device, but
overall they work well and can provide some additional assurance regarding component
condition for the items that can be seen in the air gap of the generator. Their down side is that if
something is detected that requires immediate attention, then time and money have already been
spent but the rotor now requires removal anyway.
7.3 Rotor Removal from Stator for Inspection

The best inspection for both the rotor and the stator always requires removal of the rotor. The
reason this is not always done during an outage is that there may be no perceived need for it at
the time and it requires time and money. Removal of the rotor means disturbing a major
component, which is always good to avoid if it is not necessary. There can often be damage to
some of the machine components during rotor removal; usually it is the stator core that is
damaged (see Figures 7-1 and 7-2).
Generally, the rotor is removed for major overhauls when there is a definite need to carry out
some maintenance function or when the rotor has not been inspected for many years and its
condition is completely unknown. When the condition is unknown and the intent is to keep the
rotor in operation for an extended period of time during which reliability is critical, then it is a
very prudent choice to make a full inspection.
Figure 7-1
Bent Stator Core Laminations Due to Skid Plate Movement During Rotor Removal
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Figure 7-2
Stator Core Damage Due to Skid Plate Insertion for Rotor Removal
7.3.1 Risk Assessment of Removing the Rotor from the Stator Bore
There is usually some type of risk assessment to support the decision whether or not to remove
the rotor for inspection. The risk assessment clarifies the trade-off in savings gained by foregoing
a major inspection of the rotor versus the risks involved if some existing problem is overlooked.
But in reality, it is not just the rotor that is to be considered. Not removing the rotor means that
the stator is also not inspected as well as it could be. So the decision is usually an overall
generator issue, but with the individual components being considered. Basic questions include
the following:
• Is there an overwhelming need to inspect either the stator or rotor more closely, due to some
known reason or event?
• Does the rotor need to be removed in response to the critical maintenance needs of a single
component?
If there is no known issue with either the stator or the rotor that dictates removal of the rotor, a
decision may be based on the following considerations:
• The time since last inspection
• The need for an extensive inspection because of the intent to extend the life of the generator
7.4 Rotor Component Inspection

The following sections provide information about inspection and maintenance of the individual
components of the rotor. Although rotors are considered a major component in and of
themselves, they are built up from numerous parts that must interact together. All of these parts
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perform specific functions, and different parts have different life expectancies. They also have
different requirements for maintenance and replacement and are made from widely varying
materials, ranging from organic insulation to copper and steel.
7.4.1 Collector Rings
A visual inspection of the collector rings, with a record made documenting all abnormalities
found, is common practice. The abnormalities may include, but are not limited to, score marks,
scratches, grease, dirt, heat stains, electrical pitting, and chipping. Depending on the surface
condition found, collector ring resurfacing may be required.
The depth of the helical grooves should be measured to determine the remaining life left in the
collector rings. The minimum allowable depth is usually about 1/16 inch (about 1.5 mm). If the
rings are worn below this value, regrooving is most likely necessary. If the rings are worn to a
depth of 1/8 inch (3.175 mm) or less, but greater than the minimum, check the groove depth at
every opportunity and be prepared to regroove the rings during the next major outage.
Measurement of the concentricity of the rings is required to ensure roundness. The ring
roundness should be within 0.003 inch (0.076 mm). If the ring is out of round by more than this
value, and there are noticeable ring surface problems, then grinding the ring surface may be
required. This will require a judgment call, based on the ring surface condition, the rate of brush
wear in recent operating history, and recent collector ring and brush gear performance
information. An important point to remember in grinding and regrooving the rings is that they
must not be ground to less than the minimum allowable diameter.
An inspection of the lead connections from the collector rings to the outboard radial terminal
studs is needed to ensure that there is good contact at the juncture and that no damage exists on
the leads. Tightness of the bolt connection should be checked and it should be confirmed that the
locking mechanisms are secure. Inspect for thermal damage, mechanical damage, and electrical
arcing on the leads and at the connection to the collector rings.
As a general rule, do not touch the collector rings with bare hands. Acid and oils from hands will
contaminate the ring surface, resulting in poor operation and in damage during operation.
When all ring inspections and measurements are completed, the collector rings should be
covered with protective material that will not contaminate the ring surface. This may be a simple
wrap of Nomex.
If the rings become contaminated, clean them with solvents approved by the manufacturer and
the utility. Wipe off any film from the solvent with a dry clean cloth.
After the rings are covered, clean around and under them with a dry rag. If solvent is required,
make sure none gets on the rings at this point.
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7.4.2 Radial Terminal Studs
The outboard radial terminal studs outside the generator casing have a tendency to collect dust
and debris and should always be checked for cleanliness. The debris is often carbon dust from
the brushes. All built-up debris should be removed from around the connections with a soft-
bristle brush, with care used not to contaminate the collector rings.
There is also generally a locking nut for each terminal stud, whether inboard or outboard, and
this should checked for tightness. Retighten to the design torque if required.
Check that any locking tabs are secure on the inboard and outboard radial pin connections.
Check the hydrogen seal for each of the terminal studs. Perform a pressure test on each terminal
stud if provisions to do the test are available. If leaks are found, it will be necessary to
disassemble and reassemble the studs to reestablish the seal.
7.4.3 Bore Copper
The bore copper is also referred to as upshaft leads, and it is not visible. The bore copper is
accessible through the rotor bore at the collector end of the rotor. It can be tested for insulation
resistance as individual components if the terminal studs are removed. The two leads can then be
checked to ensure that they are isolated from each other and from the forging. In most cases, the
terminal studs are left in place and testing is done in this manner. It is usually not a good idea to
remove the terminal studs from the bore copper, as it disturbs the threads in these components. If
the insulation resistance readings are good with the studs in place, generally no further
dismantling is done.
7.4.4 Fans
Fans may be of the blade type or the vane type, and they are subjected to very high stresses in
operation. They are generally given a visual inspection to look for gross problems. In addition, it
is usually customary to carry out NDE on the fans to look for cracks. There have been many
known cases of cracking in fan blades and vanes due to high stresses.
In addition to the fans themselves, the seating and locking devices should be inspected visually
and by NDE to look for signs of cracking or mechanical damage.
Retaining rings are probably the most highly stressed component on the rotor. There are a
number of types of retaining rings, with different types of mounting arrangements, but it is the
actual material composition that becomes the most critical issue with retaining rings, in terms of
inspection and maintenance.
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As discussed earlier, the materials can be magnetic, 18Mn-5Cr nonmagnetic, or 18Mn-18Cr

nonmagnetic. Magnetic rings are not generally much of a concern in terms of corrosion, but they
should still be removed periodically and checked for mechanical integrity.
The 18-5 rings are susceptible to the aqueous stress corrosion mechanism and should be
inspected regularly (see Section 6.2.3 for details on the NDE of retaining rings).
Although 18-18 rings are not susceptible to the aqueous stress corrosion cracking problem, they
are not impervious to moisture in which halides or copper ions are present. Therefore, it is
imperative that the rings be kept clean and dry and free of any contaminants. In addition, the
rings must not be touched by human hands because of the presence of salts (i.e., halides).
All rings should be inspected for any obvious signs of distress, such as scratches or score marks,
heat staining that would indicate overheating, electrical arcing or pitting (especially at the nose
area), or any other signs of mechanical, thermal, and electrical damage.
When a complete nondestructive examination is to be done on the rings, they are usually
removed and inspected on the inside and outside diameters and in all critical radii and shrink
areas by using dye penetrant. In some cases, dye penetrant examination of only the surface may
be done with the rings still in place on the rotor body. For locating tight cracks and inclusions,
eddy current inspection is often used.
With regard to the surface care of retaining rings, some manufacturers recommend painting 18-5
retaining rings, and others recommend leaving them bare. All magnetic rings are generally
painted, and 18-18 rings are left bare.
7.4.6 Balance or Centering Rings
The balance rings should be inspected for any obvious signs of distress, such as scratches or
score marks, heat staining that would indicate overheating, electrical arcing or pitting, or any
other signs of mechanical, thermal, and electrical damage.
Check that all balance ring balance weights are secure.
7.4.7 Gas Guides and Baffles
The gas guides should be inspected for any obvious signs of distress, such as scratches or score
marks, heat staining that would indicate overheating, electrical arcing or pitting, or any other
signs of mechanical, thermal, and electrical damage.
Check that the securing bolts are tight and that the locking tabs are properly in place.
7.4.8 Retaining Ring to Rotor Body
Measure the gap between the ring and the forging and look for concentricity. Inspect for a
uniform fit and ensure that the retaining ring is not touching the forging in the axial direction.
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Inspect for signs of electrical arcing from the ring to the forging and any other thermal or
mechanical damage that may be present.
7.4.9 Locking Keys or Rings
Ensure that any locking keys, rings, or other mechanisms for locking are securely in place.
Check that any locking screws are double staked and secure. Inspect for any signs of electrical,
thermal, or mechanical damage.
7.4.10 Rotor Body
Inspect the forging on the winding slot teeth and the pole face. Check for signs of scoring, heat
staining, or any other damage. Pay particular attention to pole face cross-cuts for thermal heat
staining at the ends of the cuts nearest the first winding slot. Heat staining may be indicative of a
negative sequence event. Also inspect for any cracks that may be present at the cross-cut ends.
Check rotor body balance weights for tightness and locking peen.
Inspect for cleanliness.
7.4.11 Wedges
Check the tightness of the wedging, both on the winding face and the pole face. The wedges
should be somewhat movable by hand. Record the amount of axial movement available. In
general, there should be very little space between the wedge ends and the retaining ring when the
wedges are pushed away from the retaining ring in the opposite axial direction.
Inspect the wedges for any sign of damage in the form of electrical arcing, thermal heat staining,
or mechanical damage.
7.4.12 Winding Slot Wedges—Radial Vent Holes
Record the amount that each vent hole is covered by the winding insulation or the copper
winding in the slot, under the wedges. Prepare a detailed record for each vent hole in every
wedge.
7.4.13 Balance Weights
Rotor balance weights can be found in various places on the rotor. The locations include the
following:
• The rotor body
• Long winding slot wedges
• Long pole face wedges
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• Balance or centering rings

• Rotor fan hubs or mounts
• The coupling outer diameter
Record the location of all balance weights and the weight of each.
Check for tightness and staking of the balance weights.
7.4.14 Journals
Record the location and depth of any score marks on the bearing journals at locations of the main
bearings and the steady bearing.
7.4.15 Coupling
Inspect the coupling and bolt holes for gouging and other mechanical damage.
Check all toothed wheel gears for damage.
7.4.16 Hydrogen Seal Shaft Collars
Record the condition of the collector end and turbine end running surfaces. Inspect for heat
staining and scoring. Record the location and severity of damage, which is indicative of the seal
not riding properly on the shaft.
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8
MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
The overall goal of a maintenance program is to perform the right amount of maintenance at the
right time and in the most cost-effective manner. This section of the guide discusses the various
industry practices and provides options regarding types of maintenance, extent of maintenance
activities, and frequency of maintenance.
8.1 Approaches to Maintenance
8.1.1 Planned Maintenance

Maintenance planning usually revolves around the specific needs of a generating station. Various
issues are involved, but in some cases major outages may simply be based on the number of
pieces of major equipment at the plant. For instance, in a nuclear station with four units, the
turbine generator line is often comprised of five components—one high-pressure turbine, three
low-pressure turbines, and the generator. Major overhauls are done on half the turbine generator
line every four years, because there are four units. This means that each generator would then
undergo a major inspection every eight years. While this example is rather simplistic in nature,
this basic approach is applied to some extent. However, this would be in cases where the nature
of the turbine generator equipment allows this type of interval, so it fits well with the station
needs and the equipment overhaul requirements.
Planned maintenance schedules such as the one mentioned above are not set up without careful
consideration. They require decision making based on a number of factors: operating experience
acquired with the equipment over many years, the reliability of the equipment, load demand, on
coordination within the whole utility, and manufacturer’s recommendations. In addition to these
factors, in nuclear plants refueling cycles are a major factor in determining maintenance
schedules.
8.1.2 Predictive Maintenance
Predictive maintenance is based on statistical data for the equipment. The main parameter for
this type of maintenance approach is the mean time to failure (MTTF) of the components. This is
calculated using knowledge about the age of the insulation components, the types of insulation in
use, load cycles, and any abnormal operating events (such as close in short-circuits, motoring
events, or asynchronous operation due to loss of excitation).
Probabilistic risk analysis is used in predictive maintenance to estimate reliability probabilities

based on stochastic analysis. The goal is to determine the probable modes of failure for critical
equipment. This information is used along with the MTTF information in an effort to schedule
maintenance in a timely fashion, before a failure becomes probable.
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Maintenance Practices
Although probability assessment tools are sophisticated and very useful, they still cannot
determine the optimal time to inspect, maintain, and refurbish a specific piece of equipment. This
is particularly true for a large turbogenerator, which is a highly complicated piece of equipment.
Planned maintenance and predictive maintenance have been used successfully in many cases
involving less-complicated equipment. However, in today’s deregulated environment, utilities
tend to push maintenance schedules to the limit and perform maintenance only when deemed
necessary. The driving forces are more often economic rather equipment-based.
8.1.3 Condition-Based Maintenance
Condition-based maintenance is the most widely adopted maintenance approach with regard to
generators. The basic premise for this approach is to use monitoring and testing, operating data,
and past maintenance history to establish an estimated condition for the equipment and then base
the need and timing of maintenance on this knowledge—in other words, there is a known
requirement to carry out a particular maintenance function.
Condition-based maintenance only works well when there is significant information known
about the equipment. Operational and maintenance history are extremely useful information for
this purpose. However, the best information about present condition comes from monitoring by
on-line, real-time sensors, as well as from off-line periodic testing routines. Monitoring
parameters for continuous monitoring in a large generator include currents, voltages, rotor
vibration, partial discharges, stator winding vibration, air gap flux probes, dew point, core
monitors, cooling water parameters, and component temperatures.
The condition-based maintenance approach does require higher initial capital investment in
monitoring equipment, but the ability to monitor for developing problems in real time is
considered by most people in the industry to be cost-effective. The larger and more critical the
generator is to the system, the more cost-effective this approach becomes, particularly for
high-output nuclear plants.
8.1.4 Forced Maintenance
Forced maintenance is the least desired approach. Its basis is essentially to carry out repairs only
when it becomes necessary—that is, forced. It is usually chosen for short-term economic gain
with little or no regard to the future of the equipment. Forced maintenance is not generally
chosen as a primary approach in countries with developed economies, or for critical equipment
such as a turbogenerator. However, it is used more widely with smaller components, where
repair is more costly than replacement, and where spare components are kept for just this reason.
In this application, the loss of the particular component during operation would not be critical
enough that it could disrupt generation.
The above comments notwithstanding, unfortunately in the deregulated environment of the

power industry, there have been instances where operation is allowed to continue with little
attention to required maintenance, and machines are sometimes run until failure.
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8.2 Frequency of Maintenance

In a planned or condition-based maintenance environment, frequency of maintenance becomes
critical to overall plant operation and to the reliability of the individual pieces of equipment. A
steadily growing recent trend is to attempt to increase the time between inspections and
overhauls. This can probably be attributed to the effects of deregulation and cost conservation
programs.
No matter how much incentive there is to cut costs by reducing downtime and maintenance, the
maintenance does need to get done or at some point the equipment will fail. Therefore, it is
necessary to determine when to do the required maintenance. The best starting point for setting
the maintenance intervals is probably the equipment manufacturer’s recommendations for the
generator. These are generally based on time or operating hours and known generic issues that
need addressing. The manufacturer has an already-known history for a given generator design,
and knowledge of what problems other utilities with similar machines are experiencing.
From the utility point of view, there are other considerations. Operating hours have been used in
past to schedule a major outage, and still are, to some degree. Additionally, the maintenance
interval is adjusted based on operating duty (for example, increasing the frequency of
maintenance for two-shifting units). But a far more prevalent recent driver is coordination with
grid system requirements. Because of dwindling reserve capacity of most utilities today,
generating equipment is required to run with a higher capacity factor. This means increased
availability requirements and less time for maintenance. Therefore, the maintenance gets planned
for times that are opportune for the grid, and the extent of maintenance done is looked at more
closely to keep the outage time down to a minimum. This is where condition-based maintenance
comes into play so that only the items for which maintenance is absolutely necessary are open
for inspection and refurbishment. The premise here is that knowing the actual equipment
condition will allow increased availability by maintenance interval extension, and that station
maintenance costs will be reduced if a machine is in good condition.
8.3 Extent of Maintenance
The discussion to this point in the section has mostly been about how utilities determine when to
do maintenance. The other important factor in planning generator maintenance is the extent of
the maintenance carried out.
For most utilities, there are two kinds of outages for generator work: minor outages and major
outages. There is a significant difference between the two in terms of the scope of the work done
and the time frame involved. The following is a brief definition and description of the elements
of a minor outage work scope and a major outage work scope.
A minor outage generally implies no major dismantling of the generator. This means that the
rotor is not removed from stator bore and in some cases the stator end doors or end shields are
not even removed. It is possible that in a minor outage, the rotor may not even be accessible for
minimal inspection. In other cases, the end shields are removed and the rotor can be partially
inspected by visual methods only. But in this scenario, an air-gap crawler can also be employed
to look at both the stator and rotor. If any problems are noticed during this robotic inspection, a
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decision can always be made to remove the rotor to perform appropriate repairs or tests in
response. The minor outage is usually only a few weeks in duration and only minimal work is
scheduled, such as consumable replacements like gaskets and O-rings.
A major outage generally means that the rotor is removed from the stator and inspected in some
detail. This does not always mean that the retaining rings will be removed, but that is one
possibility. It does, however, mean that there will be extensive inspection of the rotor and testing
for problems such as shorted turns. Also with a major outage, it is likely that the hydrogen
coolers will be removed (in hydrogen-cooled generators). Additionally, NDE will be scheduled
for critical components where deemed necessary. Basically, there is extensive inspection and
testing of as many components as are accessible, and the outage is generally at least two months
long. This is the time when major repairs and replacements are carried out, such as stator and
rotor rewinds.
The determining factors for whether the outage will be a minor one or a major one are also some
of the same factors that determine the frequency between outages. With regard to the extent of
the work done, the items considered are generally the following:
Operating History
• Operating hours
• Number of starts/stops (cold/warm/hot)
• Stress events
• Fast MW and MVar swings
• Number of trips
• Forced outages
• Load rejections
• Generator rejections
• Overspeeds
• Known operating problems
Maintenance History
• Number of forced outages
• Unit deratings
• Problem components (repairs and/or replacements)
• External data (NERC, EPRI, etc.)
• Need for rewinds and major refurbishment of old components
Identified OEM generic equipment problems

• Technical Information Letters, Service Information Letters, etc.
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9
REPAIR/REFURBISH/REPLACE DECISIONS
The optimum solution to any serious equipment problem needs to take into account the operating
requirements of the plant in question. Consideration must be given to the expected remaining life
of the station and the capacity factor requirements over that remaining life. In finding the “right
solution” to a repair decision, issues such as repair versus replacement must be considered, along
with who is best suited to do the work and where it should be done. Additionally, spare
components are a consideration in terms of what types of spares to keep on hand, and how many.
These issues are discussed in this section of the guide.
9.1 Repair and Replacement Considerations

For most equipment, including large generator rotors, there are always choices to be made when
the component in question is in distress and can no longer function properly. One of the main
decisions is whether the component is repairable or should be replaced. This type of choice
applies to generator rotors as a whole and for the individual parts that make up the rotor. That is
to say, if the rotor cannot operate due to a problem with one if its components, then it may be
easy and cost-effective to repair that component or replace it if a spare is available. If the rotor
cannot operate due to a number of components being in distress or one of the major components
having failed, then it may actually be more technically sound and cost-effective to replace the
entire rotor.
The point is that many considerations come into play in repair or replacement decisions for
rotors. The possibilities may seem limitless at first glance, in light of all the different ways a
rotor can fail. However, the two basic choices—repair or replacement—remain, regardless of
what the failure is. Making that decision for each specific case can be daunting. As a basic rule
of thumb, consider the following generalizations.
Repairs are usually performed when:
• Components are repairable and timeliness is possible.
• Repair is more economical than replacement.
• Reliability of operation will not be compromised by using a repaired component.
Replacement is usually chosen when:

• Components are not repairable.
• Replacement is more cost-effective.
• Reliability of operation could be compromised by using a repaired component.
• Spares are available.
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Repair/Refurbish/Replace Decisions
In some cases, such as when there is a significant crack in the rotor forging or retaining rings, the
obvious choice is replacement. Another example is the case where even though no failure is
involved, one of the components, such as the collector rings, is worn past its allowable limit and
needs replacement in order for the rotor to be operable until the end of its required life.
In other cases, the component may be repairable, and then the decision comes down to when to
do the repair and whether spare components are available. For instance, the collector rings may
be showing signs of extreme distress but only require surface grinding. A repair is the obvious
first choice because it does not require spare components or significant down time to correct the
problem. On the other hand, there may be a gas leak at one of the radial terminal studs and to fix
it would require the generator to be off line and degassed. Upon investigation, the solution could
turn out to be a simple O-ring or gasket replacement using spares on hand. Alternatively, it could
be a problem with the terminal stud itself, requiring removal and repair of the threads. If the
repair is not achievable at the power station, it could require a significant amount of extended
outage time to send the stud out for repairs, get it back, and reinstall it. If a spare part were
available, the old component could be replaced with a new one and the unit put back in service
much more quickly.
There are obvious trade-offs involved in choices regarding repair versus replacement, and
ultimately the decision depends on numerous factors. These vary depending on the problem, and
may even vary for the same problem when it occurs at different operating times. The following
information may be used as a general guide to the various types of choices and situations
described above. The following list below gives some of the most important factors to consider
when making decisions regarding the type and extent of repairs or whether to replace
components.
• The cost to repair versus cost to replace
• The time to repair versus time to replace
• The availability of suitably skilled personnel to do the work
• The cost of down time
• The cost of replacement energy
• The possibility of doing a component exchange to minimize impact on time and cost
• Reliability requirements
• Operating requirements
• Whether system integrity is compromised by component unavailability
• Power delivery contract commitments
9.2 Upgrading and/or Uprating During Rehabilitation Efforts
One of the considerations many utilities today are facing is whether they can get more power out
of their existing equipment. In many cases there is already some margin for increased power
output inherent in the equipment. However, there is always one component of a generating unit
that becomes the limiting piece of equipment when a power uprate is under consideration. In
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many cases, some equipment may be capable of (for example) a 5% increase in power output,
simply because the margin already exists, but other components of the unit will require some
modification or operating change to achieve the 5%. If the 5% is already available due to the
margin, then what happens is the margin gets “used up” in the uprating. If there is no margin and
changes are required to achieve the uprate, then it depends on the limiting factor as to what the
overall disposition of the piece of equipment in question will be.
One of the ways to get more power out of a generator rotor is to make full use of any margin that
exists. The down side of this is that the rotor field current is increased, and the result is a
hotter-running rotor winding. The end result is increased temperature and increased mechanical
stress on probably all of the rotor components, but primarily on the copper winding and
insulations. The effect of increased temperature is a reduction in remaining life of the equipment.
In some cases of rotor uprating, the overall generator may be able to handle an increase in the
hydrogen pressure inside the machine with no modifications to the casing or hydrogen seals. In
this instance, the effect would be to increase the heating in the rotor, but offset it by improved
cooling. Therefore, if a utility wanted to increase the power output based on the ability of the
generator to handle increased hydrogen pressure, then in theory the net effect should be no
change in expected life of the equipment, because there would be no change in temperature.
The more complicated scenario for uprating a generator is when there is little or no margin in the
generator, but considerable margin in the turbine, boiler, etc. In many instances these days,
retrofits for turbines are being done just for the purpose of extended life with increased output. If
the generator cannot match the increase that the other components achieve, then often some
modification or a full rewind is performed to create the margin required. Of course, this means
that the stator as well as the rotor and all the auxiliaries must be factored into the decision. When
this approach is taken, it costs considerably more to achieve the uprating. What is actually
happening is that the existing generator equipment is being rehabilitated or upgraded to achieve
an extended period of life, and is uprated at the same time. Conversely, any time a generator
upgrade is done to extend life, it is generally prudent to incorporate modifications to increase the
available power output, whether a unit uprating is being done or not. This is simply good
business sense and future planning. The cost of carrying out some uprating modifications is
usually negligible when a full rewind is already being performed.
One other way of getting more power out of a generator, while making no changes to the
equipment itself or to the cooling, is to restrict the power factor of generator more towards unity.
This is essentially just rerating the machine and curtailing its lagging power factor capability.
However, this is not a generally accepted method of achieving more power output because of the
system needs for reactive power.
With regard to the actual uprating of a generator, this always requires calculations to extrapolate
operation out to the higher load, based on heat-run testing of the machine at its present maximum
load. Once the limitations are known in terms of the limiting components or features of the
equipment, some redesign can be considered. It is necessary to determine which components
must be replaced, which ones must be modified, what the costs are, and what the time schedule
will be to rehabilitate the equipment to the uprated design.
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The following is a basic summary of the concepts of rehabilitation versus upgrading and uprating
of equipment.
Rehabilitation or refurbishment refers to cases in which:

• A repair is done to the same design.
• There may be some component replacement and some component repair.
• There may be some new materials used.
• The repair maintains the existing design and performance capability.
• The rehabilitation is done to extend operating life and increase reliability.
Upgrading refers to cases in which:

• The repairs done include some design improvements.
• Improved materials are installed.
• The repair is made using the same design or a modified design, but with no output
increase.
• The rehabilitation is to done to extend operating life and increase reliability.
Uprating refers to cases in which:

• Repairs are performed to achieve all of the above and to increase output capability.
9.3 On-Site Versus Off-Site Work Location Considerations
In many cases of generator work, particularly for rotors, there is a need to decide whether to do
the work on or off site. This is a consideration mostly for rotor rewinds. The fact is that rotor
rewinds can be done successfully both on and off site. The work can be performed on site if the
proper conditions, tools, skilled workforce, and space are available. If the work is done on site,
the risks and costs of shipping the rotor are eliminated, but the trade-off is that the rotor will not
be balanced. However, the savings from not shipping the rotor off-site can be a substantial
consideration if the rotor must be shipped thousand of miles. Other issues that need to be
considered are quality control, cost of labor, and expertise of available personnel.
When the work involved is minor, it is almost always done on site, and recently so is most major
work—utilities generally try to keep the work at the power plant whenever possible.
For major work such as a rotor rewind, the decision regarding work location is usually based on
economics and time schedules, as well as on the preference of the utility regarding high-speed
balancing.
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9.4 Contractor Considerations
A current trend in the power industry is to outsource work. This means bringing in contractors to
do a lot of the work that in the past was done by station maintenance staff. Cost is a major
consideration here, but whoever does the work must be competent.
For many procedures that are performed in a power plant, knowledge regarding power plant
equipment and operations is not always necessary. These would be procedures of a more general
nature. However, when it comes to working on large turbogenerators, a high level of skill is
required. The expertise can come from the OEM or from a third-party company in the generator
repair and rehabilitation business. In some cases, the required skill level exists in-house at the
utility, although this only applies to more minor generator work and not to such major jobs as
rewinds.
The following considerations impact decisions regarding who will perform work on a rotor.
Utility staff are used when:
• The plant has the required expertise available.
• Other internal resources, such as a head of office engineering and NDE specialists, are
available.
• The goal is to keep costs down and retain utility control over the work.
The OEM is used when:

• There is need for specific engineering knowledge about the equipment.
• Specialized people are needed and are not available within the utility.
• Specialized tools are required.
• Minimum risk is required for technical correctness.
Specialist contractors (third-party generator specialists) are used when:

• There is a function-specific contractor who has the capability to do the work (often this is a
former OEM employee now working as a contractor).
• Competition to lower cost is required.
9.5 Spares Considerations
Spare parts are always an important factor in any repair or rehabilitation work. Additionally,
major spare components, such as a complete rotor and even a stator, may be options.
What spares a station carries (or should carry) for generators depends on a number of factors,
such as the type of unit, the number of identical units at the plant, and the number of identical
units in other stations within the same utility. Other factors may be the size of the unit, the
criticality of the unit to the system or the owners, the distance from OEMs or distributor centers,
and so forth.
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The manufacturer normally furnishes a basic spare parts recommendation when the machine is
new. Over the life of the generator, the utility may change the parts inventory. For example, a
utility with a number of aging identical units may opt to carry a full spare rotor. The spare rotor
can then be used to facilitate a replacement/rewind program if it becomes necessary. The value is
that the outage is reduced to the component exchange time and the actual rewind takes place
while the unit is back in operation. This allows the least impact on replacement energy cost. This
approach is particularly useful in a multiunit station with the need to embark on a rotor rewind
program.
The following are considerations for managing a spare parts inventory.
Minor spares are usually:

• Parts that are needed for regular maintenance
• General consumable materials (such as gaskets, o-rings, bolts, and stator rewedge material)
• Parts with high failure rates or high wear rates (such as slip-ring brushes, ground brushes,
and brush holders)
• Parts identified as having the potential to create outage extensions if not available (such as
bearings and hydrogen seals)
• Low-cost items
Major spares are usually such items as:

• A spare rotor
• A spare stator
• Spare stator bars
• Terminal bushings
• Items of medium or high carrying cost
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10
SPECIFIC PURCHASED SERVICES
The amount of work required is always an important consideration when a rotor needs service. It
can range from minor repairs to a complete rotor replacement, but rotor rewinds appear to be the
most prevalent rotor work being undertaken in the industry today. This section of the guide
discusses the issues that need to be considered for some of the more critical and common types
of repair scenarios. These main include the following:
• A rotor rewind using existing copper, either on-site or factory rewind
• A rotor rewind using new copper, either on-site or factory rewind
• Using an OEM as opposed to independent service suppliers for repairs or rewinds
• Upgrading of an existing rotor during rewind
• Purchase of a new rotor
This section also discusses general issues involved with the individual rotor components that
should be considered when rotor rewind work is done or a new rotor is purchased, in terms of the
quality achieved.
10.1 Rotor Repair and Rewind Considerations
A number of decisions need to be made prior to any rotor repair, refurbishment, or rewind work.
The fundamental decision to rewind as opposed to replacing an old rotor with a new one can be a
difficult choice in itself and depends on the individual needs of the utility and the expected future
operation of the equipment. The rewind decision will also be based on the known problems as
well as possible or potential problems.
It should also be understood that once work commences, there is a possibility that additional
items will require attention during the rewind process, as problems are discovered. The main
item to consider is the copper winding, and there should be some inspection of the existing
copper winding in considering its reuse. This is especially true for a rotor that has already
expended its design life and been retired.
The following are some of the specific items that should be discussed in relation to rewind
decisions.
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Specific Purchased Services
10.1.1 Partial Versus Full Rewind
Determining whether the rewind will be a complete or a partial rewind is not generally possible
without some visual inspection. In most cases, a rewind is a full rewind, in which all of the
copper is removed. A partial rewind is usually done when there is a known problem with only a
portion of the winding. In some cases, the copper is reused, while in other cases it is completely
replaced. If the copper is to be reused, there may be portions found during the rewind process
that require discrete sections to be replaced. The problem with this is that it isn’t possible to
know which sections will require replacement until they are encountered in the copper removal
process. At that point, the whole rewind job may need to be extended if there is no pre-plan to
have some additional new copper on hand to replace the damaged sections. The rewinder should
advise of the potential for major changes to the work scope and schedule, as well as cost
differences, depending on the condition of the winding once it is inspected.
10.1.2 Reuse of Existing Copper Versus Replacement with New Copper
The decision as to whether the copper can be reused or new copper is required is generally for a
complete rewind. In most cases, it is decided at the beginning whether or not to use all new
copper. Then, if the existing copper is to be reused, it becomes a case of how much needs
replacement. Deciding at the beginning to use new copper is more practical, because then the
work is not continually being delayed as decisions on copper usability are made. Again, the
rewinder should advise of the potential for major work scope and schedule changes, and cost
differences, depending on the extent of replacement copper or on other problems that may
possibly be encountered when the rewind work begins. The condition of the copper may be such
that it is too soft or damaged to re-use. The copper condition may compromise the ability of the
rotor to function correctly.
10.1.3 New Insulation
New insulation is always used in rewinds, because there is always significant damage done to the
insulation system when an existing copper winding is stripped. Insulation is a much lower cost
component than the copper winding and is critical to the overall success and in-service operation
of the winding.
10.1.4 Forging Condition for Reuse
The forging needs to be revalidated by NDE inspection of all critical surfaces and radii, and a
boresonic evaluation of the forging bore should also be performed. There is a need to ensure that
no cracks have formed and are growing that will limit the further useful life of the forging. If
defects are found, then it is necessary to determine if they are removable and if the forging can
still be used.
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10.1.5 Design Arrangement and Functionality
In many cases, the existing design is satisfactory, and the rewind may be carried without design
changes. The problems that would be encountered in these situations would simply be due to
wear-out and the need for extended-life operation.
Whether design changes are needed should always be discussed, however. One question that
always comes up is whether there a need to correct existing defects in the basic design, such as
problems with the geometry, cooling paths, or highly stressed components.
Recognizing the need for design changes to correct existing defects in the basic design requires
knowledge of the problem components. This knowledge comes in most cases from present
operational deficiencies that require correction due to operational limitations. These problems
can involve any part of the rotor and may be general in nature or even OEM-specific.
10.1.6 Design Changes in Materials
The desirability of making design changes in materials to address known deficiencies always
arises. This is because new and better materials are always being developed and when possible it
is advisable to use improved materials, such as improved grades of copper or improved classes of
insulating materials.
Recognizing the need to make design changes in materials (or in assembly procedures) due to
known deficiencies requires awareness of known generic deficiencies. These may or may not
have caused problems up to the present time, but possibly could in future. These problems can
involve any part of the rotor and may be general in nature or even OEM-specific.
10.1.7 On-Site Versus Factory Rewinds
A major consideration for rewinds is whether the work should be done on site or requires a shop
facility to do the work. For instance, a factory setting may be required if the forging requires
some machining modifications.
This decision depends generally on the needs of the utility and on the specific rewind situation. If
the forging requires some extensive machining modifications, for example, and if the rotor is
going to require high-speed balance, it may be best to do the entire job at the vendor’s facility. A
factory setting is always more efficient for doing rotor rewind work, and clean conditions can be
much better controlled. Also, at the end of the job, if there is some problem found during balance
runs or final tests, the rotor can be opened up immediately, fixed, and retested and balanced,
without requiring additional transportation from one site to another. There are limitations with
performing rewinds on site—a generating plant does not have the clean conditions and the
tooling facilities that can be found at a rewind facility.
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10.1.8 Retaining Ring Replacement
As discussed previously, installing retaining rings of the 18Mn-18Cr type will minimize the
future possibility of stress corrosion pitting and/or cracking in this component of the rotor.
Because of the known problems associated with magnetic retaining rings and 18Mn-5Cr rings,
there is always a decision to be made with regard to replacement of these retaining rings.
Although this decision does not change the decision whether to reuse existing copper or replace
it, starting over with new retaining rings does enhance the ability to make modifications to the
copper winding. New retaining rings represent an opportunity to make some design changes to
the endwinding structure of the copper, the amortisseur windings, and other endwinding
components.
10.2 Rotor Rewinding

It is common practice today to rewind generator rotors. In some cases a rewind is performed to
correct problems that are inhibiting operation, and in other cases to extend the life of the rotor
component beyond its original design life.
The purpose of a rotor rewind is to bring the rotor back to an operable condition so that it can
achieve its full design operating range when connected to the power system, or even achieve an
additional design life of operation. In addition, rewinds are done to bring the rotor up to a
condition where it will operate reliably under any of the types of operating duty that it may be
called upon to carry out.
Generally, the rewind entails not only the replacement of the winding and insulation system, but
a major refurbishment of the entire rotor. As just mentioned, it is generally intended that a
rewind will bring the generator rotor back to a condition where it is suitable for another design
life period of operation. This is normally at least 20 more years of service.
A rewind in the most basic sense entails removing the copper winding and all the associated
insulation and then either reconditioning the existing copper or replacing all or part of it, and
installing new insulation.
The first step in a rotor rewind consists of removing all the winding until the forging slots are
emptied. This means taking off the retaining rings and removing all endwinding blocking and
packings. Next, the winding slot wedges are removed, and then the copper winding and
associated interturn insulation. If the copper is not in reusable condition, then new copper must
be used. In all cases, new winding insulation is be used.
The forging and other attached components, such as the slip rings, should be revalidated by
inspections, tests, and/or nondestructive examination methods. Corrections should be made to
any component that is found to be “life-limiting” to the rotor in future operation. Then the
reconditioned or new copper is installed, or “wound,” into the rotor, along with the new
insulation system, and the remaining rotor components are reassembled. During all of these
procedures, there should be tests, checks, and various measurements to ensure quality. Finally,
the rewound rotor is balanced.
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10.3 Industry or Other Standards Applicable to a Rotor Repair or Rewind
There are no official standards that specifically cover repair, refurbishment, or rewinding of a
rotor. However, all of these work functions are generally done so that the repaired or rewound
rotor is again operable in accordance with the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission)
or IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) standards it was designed to when
first manufactured. In other words, the rotor is brought back to a state where it will work to the
temperature rises and design criteria that were originally specified. Any deviations from original
design capability are usually well thought out and proven to be acceptable by calculations and
testing. Any nonconformity should always be called to attention for acceptance before
proceeding, to allow review of the deviation and the data that were used to justify it.
The following are some representative acceptance tests and criteria that would applied to the
rewind of a large generator rotor, at the various stages of work.
10.3.1 Rotor Winding
The rotor windings, insulation, and packings should be designed and assembled such that:
a) No copper dusting should occur, regardless of the operating mode (i.e., normal running or on
turning gear). Copper-on-copper interfaces in any portion of the winding should be avoided.
This is to prevent fretting of the copper surfaces during transverse and axial relative
movement, especially at slow roll, on turning gear.
b) Permanent deformations leading to interturn shorts or ground faults are minimized.
c) The adverse effects of differential expansion on mechanical and thermal balance are
minimized.
d) The negative sequence capability, as specified by the relevant standards for a rotor of this
rating, is achieved and the possibility of local overheating of the rotor surface is minimized.
e) Copper winding pressure on the slot liners should be minimized, particularly ensuring that
corners are fully supported to prevent wear and/or cracking of the slot liners.
f) The endwinding overhang is fully supported, by blocking.
g) Windings are braced such that the rotor is capable of extended turning gear operation.
h) Migration of slot liners and interturn insulation should not occur, as this can cause gas flow
blockages.
The maximum temperatures and temperature rises should be in accordance with the appropriate
standards. Generally, the maximum temperature rise of the rotor winding should not exceed
64°C by rise of resistance of the copper winding. In addition, the sum of the cold hydrogen gas
temperature and the temperature rise of the field winding should not exceed 110°C on average,
and the hot-spot temperature should not exceed the 130°C, Class B insulation limit.
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10.3.2 Winding Insulation
The winding insulation system should be an epoxy/glass, Nomex/epoxy glass composite system,
or the equivalent where possible. This will include the slot interturn and ground-wall insulation
and the axial endwinding insulation systems.
The insulation system employed should be capable of operation in complete accordance with all
applicable specifications and for its intended purpose.
All insulating materials should be new and noncombustible, insulation Class F (155°C) working
to Class B (130°C) temperatures and temperature rise limits, to ensure reliability and long
service life.
10.3.3 Slot Wedges
The rotor slot wedges should be designed to support the continuous centrifugal loading of the
windings at maximum rotor operating temperatures, together with any other cyclical loads which
may result from rotor dynamic or system conditions.
The wedge material should be softer than the rotor forging material to prevent fretting and wear
of the rotor teeth. The wedges must meet applicable safety factor requirements.
Blockage of ventilation holes due to rotor wedge movement should be avoided. The rewinder
should submit details indicating that blockage cannot occur.
10.3.4 Endwinding Packings and Blocking
All endwinding packings and blockings should be new, noncombustible epoxy/cotton or cloth
material with minimum insulation Class B (130°C) and short-time capability of insulation Class
F (155°C). Epoxy/glass should not be used for endwinding packings material, due to its abrasive
nature.
Replacement retaining rings should be made from 18Mn-18Cr nonmagnetic material.
The retaining rings should be of the floating type, located by a single shrink-fit on the rotor body
using a bayonet, castellated, or locking-ring-type axial restraint. The shrink-fit should be
maintained at up to 20% overspeed.
The retaining ring material should undergo mechanical tests and chemical analysis. The results
should be submitted for review to ensure that the 18Mn-18Cr retaining ring forging conforms to
the latest industrial standards. The tests should include a Charpy V-notch impact test. At least two
sets of test samples should be taken at positions 90 degrees from each other at one end of the ring
forging. The elongation should not be less than 10% at any radial location. The retaining rings
should also be examined ultrasonically and by liquid penetrant inspection for flaw detection after
final machining. Any defects found must be reported for purposes of review and acceptance.
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Test certificates are required for:

a) Chemical analysis
b) Mechanical properties, including stress/strain curves
c) Heat treatment temperatures and times
d) Ultrasonic examination
e) Liquid penetrant inspection
10.3.6 Excitation
The rewinder should ensure that the generator rotor windings will be suitable for continuous
operation with a rotating or static thyristor excitation system. The rotor winding must be capable
of operation under excitation conditions of ceiling voltage at 2.0 p.u. and ceiling current of 1.6
p.u. for 30 seconds with no degradation to the any of the rotor components such as the winding,
winding insulation, upshaft leads, radial pins, or slip rings.
10.3.7 Safety Factor
The factor of safety of any part of the rotor and attachments should not be less than 1.5 at 20%
overspeed, based on the calculated nominal stress on the cross section under consideration and
the 0.2% proof stress of the material.
The calculated local maximum stress concentration in the retaining rings should not exceed the
0.2% proof stress of the material, considering the effective friction factor between the ring and
the rotor.
Stress concentrations in the rotor teeth under the retaining ring shrink-fit area are to be avoided.
The maximum compressive stress at any stress concentration should not exceed the 0.2% proof
strength. The calculated local maximum stress concentration in the rotor teeth at synchronous
speed should not exceed 85% of the 0.2% proof stress of the material.
The rotor components should be designed for at least 10,000 startup cycles and 500 overspeeds
to 20% above rated over a remaining life of at least 20 years.
Detailed stress calculations must be submitted for review and acceptance, for any component
having a safety factor less than the above specified values.
10.3.8 Factory Balancing
The rotor should be balanced to the best possible standard. In its tender or proposal, the rewinder
should provide written notification concerning the equipment and procedure to be used for
balancing.
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In the rotor’s final condition, the limits on vibration performance in the rewinder’s high-speed
balancing facility should be as follows:
a) At rated speed, the 1/rev component of shaft absolute vibration, measured near the journals,
should not exceed 35 micrometers in displacement peak to peak, in the vertical and
transverse directions.
b) Over the remainder of the speed range, including passage through the critical speeds, the
corresponding limit is 50 micrometers in displacement peak to peak in both the vertical and
the transverse directions. The critical speeds should be measured and recorded.
c) The thermal stability of the rotor should be checked over a range of temperatures between
ambient and maximum operating temperature after being fully wound. The thermal stability
should be such that the vibration and balance does not exceed 35 micrometers in
displacement peak to peak, at rated speed, at the journals, for the hot balance vibration runs.
From the measurements, the before and after balancing results should be supplied in both
tabulated form and as a bode plot. A record of the amplitude and phase of the 1/rev component
measured at the bearings on either end of the rotor at rated speed should be supplied. This
information is required for each balancing run.
The measurements should be presented in engineering units of micrometers peak to peak,

unfiltered, and phase to be in degrees.
The rewinder should state clearly the balancing quality acceptance standards/criteria which were
used to decide the final state of balance.
A record should be made of the position of all balance weights fitted to the rotor.
The reference datum should be the machined groove presently existing on the rotor shaft at the
turbine end.
The rotor should undergo an overspeed test in the balance pit at 15% above rated speed for 1
minute (a new rotor would undergo a 20% overspeed test).
10.3.9 Critical Speeds
The rewinder should indicate the lateral, torsional, and axial critical speeds of the rotor and
should demonstrate by analytical results (up to 125% of operating speed) that no critical speeds
exist within the ±10% of the operating speed.
10.3.10 Factory Tests
The generator rotor should be tested in accordance with appropriate standards. The following
tests should be performed as a minimum on the rotor in the factory. Test reports should be
provided for review prior to shipment of the rotor.
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10.3.11 Electrical Tests
The following electrical tests should be performed and documented:

a) DC resistance of the field winding.
b) Insulation resistance of the field winding, winding leads, radial pins, upshaft leads, and slip
rings using at least 500 volts dc, to be done at standstill, before balancing and after final
balancing, after overspeed and thermal stability runs.
c) Test for absence of shorted turns, by search coil, on the field winding after overspeed testing.
d) AC impedance test on the field winding. Measure the volts, amps, and watts with the rotor
stationary and at intervals of 200 rpm up to rated speed. Repeat these measurements with the
rotor running down, and get a further reading at standstill. A plot of impedance versus speed
should be produced.
e) RSO (recurrent surge oscillation) tests should be carried out on the rotor at standstill before
balancing and after final balancing, during overspeed and thermal stability runs. There should
be no significant divergence of the traces.
f) Insulation dielectric tests on the field winding should be carried out at rated speed for
1 minute after the overspeed test with the windings hot, at 10 x rated field voltage, ac or
1.7 x ac value, dc.
g) Insulation dielectric tests on the field winding should also be carried out at standstill, at
10 x rated field voltage, ac or 1.7 x ac value, dc, for 1 minute after the overspeed test with
windings hot.
10.3.12 Mechanical Tests
The following mechanical tests should be performed and documented:

a) Mechanical balance of the rotor (both hot and cold).
b) Overspeed, tested once at 20% above the rated speed of 3000 rpm for 1 minute.
c) Measurement of rotor critical speeds.
d) Air leakage test applied to the up-shaft excitation connection and turbine end bore seal during
the work in order to demonstrate the absence of leakage.
10.3.13 Operating Conditions and Performance Requirements
Upon completion of the refurbishment and rewind, the rotor should be capable of operating at the
performance and capability levels originally specified for the station in question. The rewound
rotor will be subject to the same operating conditions and requirements as the original rotors.
10.3.14 Site Performance Testing
When the rotor is returned to the site it should be subjected to capability tests over the full range
of excitation and rated leading and lagging power factors, at the full rated MW load, at the rated
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hydrogen gas pressure. The rotor winding average temperature must not exceed a temperature
rise of 64°C above the measured generator cold hydrogen gas temperature, at continuous rated
load, with the cold hydrogen gas temperature not exceeding 46°C and at the rated gas pressure.
The rotor inlet gas temperature measurement (i.e., the cold hydrogen gas temperature) should be
taken as the average cooler outlet temperature of all hydrogen coolers.
The average temperature of the rotor should be calculated from the rotor resistance, where the
Calculated Rotor Winding Temperature Rise = Calculated Rotor Winding Temperature (°C) -
Cold Hydrogen Gas Temperature (°C).
10.3.15 Negative Sequence Capability
The station generator employing the rewound rotor should be capable of operating with a
continuous value of 8% NPS (negative phase sequence) current, provided the rated current plus
5% is not exceeded in any phase, and a transient (I22t) value of not more than 10 seconds.
Under these conditions of operation, temperatures in the rotor should not be high enough to
permanently affect the physical properties of the material or reduce interference fit to an
operationally hazardous level.
10.3.16 Fault Conditions
The rewound rotor should be capable of withstanding, without damage, a suddenly applied
line-to-line short circuit at the generator terminals from full load and rated terminal voltage
followed by correct operation of the protective gear and main excitation breakers.
The rewound rotor should be constructed to withstand the forces and torques imposed during
conditions (a) and (b) listed below, without sustaining damage:
a) 3-phase, zero impedance short circuit suddenly applied to the generator terminals from rated
voltage open circuit
b) Line-to-line zero impedance short circuit suddenly applied at the generator terminals from
rated voltage open circuit
10.4 New Rotor Purchase

Up until this point the discussion in this guide has been primarily about repairs and rewinds—the
things that need to be done to existing equipment to fix it and extend its useful life. However,
there is always a point in the life of any equipment when it becomes no longer feasible to repair
it, and no longer economical. At this point, replacement is generally required, unless the
equipment is simply being retired and will no longer be operated.
When a new rotor is being purchased as a replacement for an existing plant, the new rotor will
generally be required to fit an existing stator. (Of course this is not the case if a completely new
generator is being purchased.) The rotor needs to fit the existing stator in a number of ways,
including the physical dimensions and the power output. As with any new equipment, though, it
is always prudent to investigate any improvements that can be made. These may take the form of
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new and updated materials or design changes to provide better reliability of the new rotor and an
extended expected life span. Improvements also may include items that allow a higher level of
output within the existing rotor geometry and cooling circuit, because of new materials and
design changes.
When a new rotor is purchased, all the points discussed in Sections 3 and 10.3 of this guide
apply. The latest designs, along with best manufacturing practice, should be considered.
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11
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Air Gap: The air gap is the space or annulus between the generator stator and rotor.
In a large turbogenerator, it is generally 2–3 inches (about 50–75 mm), over
the full length of the rotor body and stator core, when the rotor is installed in
the machine. During operation, it is filled with the hydrogen cooling gas.
Ampere- Ampere-turns is a term used to describe the total magnetomotive force behind
Turns: the electromagnetic flux. It is the product of the total electric current flowing
and the number of turns in the winding that is carrying the current. For a
generator rotor, it is the rotor current times the number of series copper turns
in the rotor winding.
Balancing or A balancing or centering ring is mounted in the end of the retaining ring
Centering opposite the end connected to the rotor forging. It is used to keep that end of
Rings: the retaining ring from ovalizing during operation, when the copper
endwinding exerts a force that tends to stretch the retaining rings
asymmetrically. The balancing rings are constructed in such a way that they
generally have a space for trim balancing weights to be added, should they be
needed.
Brazing: Brazing is the joining of two pieces of copper, using heat and a brazing solder.
Brazing Flux: In the context of brazing, flux is a material used to promote wetting of a copper
joint and remove oxidation products so that the joint will adhere properly.
Coil: A rotor winding coil is the stack of all copper turns in one rotor slot of the
entire winding. The winding is made up of a number of coils, which are in
turn made up of a number of turns. All turns and hence all coils are connected
in series in the overall winding.
Coil-to-Coil Coil-to-coil connectors are used to make the series connections from one
Connectors: stack of copper conductors (i.e., coil) in a rotor winding to the other. They are
found on the excitation end of the generator rotor.
Circulating Circulating currents are generally stray currents that are induced by variations
Currents: in the magnetic field within discrete sections of a machine or by voltage or
phase differences in a particular machine component.
Collector The collector ring cooling fan is generally a shaft-mounted fan. It is used to
Ring move air over the collector or slip rings for cooling during rotation and
Cooling Fan: current conduction periods.
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Glossary of Terms
Collector or The collector or slip rings are used to allow dc current into and out of the
Slip Rings: rotor winding while the rotor is at speed. The rings are made of steel and are
mounted on the rotor forging shaft at the excitation end, or the end of the
machine opposite the turbine drive. The rings are mounted over the top of an
insulating sleeve, to keep them isolated from the steel forging of the rotor,
which is at ground potential. The rings have helical grooves cut in them to
allow cooling as the stationary spring-loaded carbon brushes ride on them
smoothly. DC current is then transferred from the external excitation system,
through the brushes, to the rings, and the rings have a connection internal to
the rotor, which goes to the copper winding.
Creep: Creep is a term used to describe a failure mechanism that occurs due to time,
temperature, and stress.
Critical A critical speed is a speed in a generator at which the inertia forces
Speed: and the elastic restoring forces are in perfect balance for an undamped system.
Uncontrolled or undamped vibration occurs at these speeds. Generally there
are two critical speeds in a 2-pole generator rotor, below the operating speed.
Cross-Slot Cross-slot leakage flux is the rotor or stator flux that does not cross the air
Leakage Flux: gap, but instead jumps from one rotor or stator tooth to the adjacent tooth,
and does no useful work.
Eddy Eddy currents are ac currents induced by electromagnetic flux. They
Currents: are commonly found in the laminated steel sheets in the stator core iron.
Electrical Electrical losses are the losses in a generator due to heating from electrical
Losses: current and magnetic flux. They are commonly referred to as I squared R
losses because they are due to the resistive heating that occurs when currents
flow, either due to conduction or eddy currents.
Electro- Electromagnetic flux is produced whenever electrical current flows. In the
magnetic generator, the electromagnetic flux or field produced by the flowing dc
Flux: current in the rotor is used to induce ac voltage and current in the stator
winding portion of the generator, by the additional action of the rotor
spinning.
Endwinding Blockings or packings are parts made of nonconducting, heat-resistant
Blockings or material (generally epoxy fabric or a similar material) that are fitted between
Packings: the individual copper winding coils in both end portions of the rotor winding
under the retaining rings. Their function is to keep the copper winding in
place and stop excessive movement and distortion.
Fans or Fans or blowers circulate the cooling gas in the generator, for cooling of both
Blowers: rotor and stator components. All rotors have at least one fan or blower,
mounted on the rotor shaft.
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Glossary of Terms
Fatigue: Fatigue is a term used to describe a failure mechanism involving repetitive

mechanical stress on a component.
Field Field forcing is a term used to describe the action of the generator excitation
Forcing: system when it is called to force current in the copper winding. It generally
occurs during system stress events when more excitation is required. The
rotor or field voltage is increased to twice normal during these times.
Generator: A generator is an electric machine used to convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy for use in a power system. The two main components of the
generator are the stator and the rotor.
Hydrogen Hydrogen seals are employed at the interface between the generator stator
Seals: casing and the rotor shaft to allow the application of high-pressure oil to the
rotor shaft at the interface. The hydrogen seals are used to keep the hydrogen
cooling gas inside the generator, by having the seal oil pumped at a higher
pressure to prevent the hydrogen from leaking past the seal.
Hydrogen The hydrogen sealing surface is the portion of the rotor shaft where the
Sealing hydrogen seal running surface contacts the rotor shaft.
Surface:
Insulation Insulation resistance is the ohmic resistance of the principal ground insulation
Resistance: of a voltage-carrying and current-conducting system.
Insulation Insulation system is a term used to collectively describe the various insulation
System: components used in the generator.
Lead Lead carbonate is a contaminant substance that may be found inside the
Carbonate: generator as a result of deterioration of components that are made up in some
part from lead material. It is conducting in nature and may cause rotor shorted
turns.
Main Leads: The main leads are the connection from the copper endwinding to the inboard
terminal studs of the rotor winding.
Main Lead The main lead slots are the slots cut into the rotor shaft to hold the main leads.
Slots: The slots also have a dovetail to accept wedges, which slide over the top of
the main leads to hold them in place when the rotor is at speed. The slots are
also insulated from the main leads, since they carry the full rotor current when
the rotor is in operation.
Megger: Megger is a trade name for a device used to apply dc voltage and measure the
ohmic resistance of the insulation of a voltage-carrying and current-
conducting system. The name has become a term synonymous with insulation
resistance measurement.
Natural Natural frequency is a term used to describe the resonant frequencies
Frequency: of a rotor. During operation of a rotor at a natural frequency, undamped
and amplified vibration can occur and be destructive to the rotor.
NDE: Nondestructive examination, or NDE, is a term used to describe benign
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Glossary of Terms
testing on materials for cracks, inclusions, porosity, and the like. It is

commonly performed on generator rotor forgings, retaining rings, copper
joints, and many other applicable components. Some of the methods include
ultrasonics, dye penetrant inspection, and eddy current inspection.
OEM: OEM is a widely used abbreviation for original equipment manufacturer.
Operating Operating frequency refers to the frequency of the generator in electrical

Frequency: terms. This is either 50 Hz or 60 Hz, depending on the country of operation.
Pole-to-Pole The pole-to-pole connector is the copper conductor used to connect the
Connector: copper winding coils of the rotor on one of its sides (pole 1) to the copper
winding coils of the rotor on its other side (pole 2). This connector allows the
copper winding from both poles in the rotor to be connected in series.
Rated Speed: Rated speed is the actual rotational speed of the rotor, measured in
revolutions per minute.
Retaining Retaining rings are solid steel rings, made of specialized steel material, that
Rings: are used to hold the endwinding portion of the copper winding in place during
high-speed operation.
Rewinder: A rewinder is a company that performs rotor rewinding work.
Rotor: A rotor is the rotating part of a generator. It operates at a single synchronous

speed and carries dc current for excitation of the stator portion of the
machine.
Rotor The forging of a rotor is made of solid steel that is highly magnetically
Forging: permeable, to carry magnetic flux. Slots are cut into the forging to hold the
copper winding and the insulation, to keep the copper from physically
touching the forging. There is a shaft extending from each end of the forging,
for which bearings are used to support the rotor.
Rotor The main body is the part of the rotor forging in which there are machined
Forging rotor winding slots, pole face cross-cuts, and/or axial slots.
Main Body:
Rotor The rotor shaft is the part of the rotor forging that rides on the bearings and
Shaft: supports the entire rotor.
Rotor Rotor wedges are components employed at the entrance to the rotor winding
Wedges: slots in dovetail cutouts over the length of the rotor main body. They hold the
copper winding and the insulation in the slots.
Rotor The rotor winding is the part of the rotor that carries the dc current. It is made
Winding: of copper and is formed into turns and coils. Each turn is insulated from the
next and from adjacent coils. The whole winding is also insulated from the
rotor forging.
Rotor Rotor winding insulation is material, generally organic in composition, that is
Winding used to electrically isolate the copper winding turns from each other and to
Insulation: isolate the whole copper winding from the forging material.
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Glossary of Terms
RSO: RSO is a widely used abbreviation for recurrent surge oscillation. An RSO
test is a method used to electrically test for shorted turns in a rotor winding. It
involves injecting a low-voltage high-frequency surge wave at each one of the
slip rings and comparing the same waveform observed at the other end. This
method is based on the principle of time-domain reflectometry.
SCR: The short circuit ratio, or SCR, is the inverse of the machine reactance. It is
calculated as the “amount of dc rotor current required to raise the stator
voltage to its rated value when not connected to the system” divided by the
“amount of dc rotor current required to raise the stator current to its rated
value when all three phases of the stator winding are short circuited.” It is a
number that gives the relative inherent stability of the machine when
operating connected to the power system. A higher SCR is better for machine
stability when a stress event on the system occurs.
Shrink-Fit The shrink-fit area of the rotor is located on both the forging main body at
Area: both ends and on the mating surface area of both retaining rings. When the
retaining rings are installed on the rotor main body, they must be heated
because their diameter is too small for them to fit over the rotor body end
when at the same temperature as the rotor forging. Because they are installed
by heating, they “shrink” onto the forging once they are installed and cool
down.
Stator: A stator is the stationary part of a generator, in which the rotor is installed.
The stator has a three-phase winding that operates at high voltage and carries
ac current induced by the rotor. It has three terminals, which are connected to
the power system, through which the output of the generator is passed.
Steady State Steady state operation is a term used to describe the mode of operation of a
Operation: generator when it is running normally at synchronous speed.
Terminal Terminal studs are components that are radially mounted and used to connect
Studs: the slip rings to the bore copper of the rotor on the air side of the rotor.
Another set of radially mounted studs, inside the generator, is used to connect
the bore copper to the main leads on the hydrogen side of the rotor inside the
machine.
Thermal Thermal cycling refers to the temperature variations a generator goes through
Cycling: during cycles between off-line periods and on-line operation. Thermal cycling
causes the rotor components to heat up and cool down, and this has the effect
of making the various components in the rotor expand and contract. The
ultimate result is premature aging and wear on the components in the rotor.
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Glossary of Terms
Transient Transient operation is a term used to describe the generator operation when it
Operation: is under some type of stress from a short-acting event. It involves operation
outside normal steady state and can be detrimental to the machine
components.
Turbine The turbine coupling, a component found at the turbine end of the generator,
Coupling: is a large-diameter disk, either integral with the rotor shaft or shrink-mounted
onto it. The coupling has axial-direction bolt-holes used to connect the
generator rotor to the last turbine drive rotor. All of the drive torque is
transmitted through the coupling between the generator and the turbine side
of the whole turbogenerator line, when the machine is in operation.
Turbine Turbine generator is a term used to describe a generator that has its rotor
Generator: driven by a gas or steam turbine. This term is the short form for turbine-
driven generator.
Turbogenerator: Turbogenerator is a term that is synonymous with turbine generator or
turbine-driven generator.
Turning Gear Turning gear operation is a term used to describe the time when a machine
Operation: has been brought off line and is in its cool-down period. It is at this time that
the rotor forging may develop a bow in it from sitting in one position in a
heated state. Therefore, a drive mechanism is provided to slowly roll the
entire turbine generator shaft line so that the bowing effect cannot occur.
Once the machine is sufficiently cooled (generally after 48 hours), the
turning gear is shut down and the machine is allowed to come to rest.
Two-Shifting: Two-shifting is a term used to describe operating a generating unit on a daily
basis. It generally refers to operation during the day and shutdown at night.
This causes thermal cycling of the generator, which has certain detrimental
effects.
Winder: A winder is a worker whose job function involves the winding or rewinding
of generator and motor rotors or stators.
Winding A winding coil is a stack of copper winding turns, connected in series, that is
Coil: associated with the copper turns in a single slot in the rotor body. Each
copper coil is separated from the next in the endwinding of the rotor, by
blocking and packing material.
Winding A winding turn is an individual copper winding conductor that is part of a
Turn: coil stack. Each turn is isolated from the next by insulation material.
11-6
12731594
12
REFERENCES
12.1 EPRI Reports

1. Guidelines for Evaluation of Generator Retaining-Rings—Development of Ultrasonic
Examination Method for Detection of Stress Corrosion Cracking in Generator Retaining-
Rings, EL/EM-5117-SR, April 1987.
2. The Eddy Current Technique for Nondestructive Evaluation of Generator Retaining Rings,
EL 5814, May 1988.
3. Proceedings: Generator Retaining-Ring Workshop, EL-5825, May 1988.
4. Handbook to Assess Rotating Machine Insulation Condition, EPRI Power Plant Series,
Volume 16, November 1988.
5. Generator Retaining Ring Moisture Protection Guide, TR-102949, August 1993.
6. Evaluation of Nonmagnetic Generator Retaining Rings, TR-104209, December 1994.
7. Retaining Ring Failure at Comanche Unit 2: Root Cause Analysis, TR-106640, July 1996.
8. Main Generator On-Line Monitoring and Diagnostics, EPRI - NMAC Tech Note, December
1996.
9. Experience with Limited Access Generator Inspections, 1000100, September 2000.
10. Guide for On-Line Testing and Monitoring of Turbine Generators, 1006861, March 2002.
11. Retaining Ring Cracking at Wisconsin Electric Power Company’s Port Washington Unit 1:
Root Cause Analysis, 1007001, May 2002.
12. Tools to Optimize Maintenance of Generator-Excitation System, Voltage Regulator, and
Field Ground Detection, 1004556, December 2002.
13. Generator Rotor Slot Dovetail Fretting Fatigue Cracks, 1009262, December 2003.
14. Effects of Flexible Operation of Turbines and Generators, 1008351, December 2004.
12.2 Papers
1. “Inter-Turn Short Circuit Detector for Turbine-Generator Rotor Windings,” General Electric
- GER 2668, July 1970.
2. “A Mid-Decade Overview of Generator Rotor Technology,” General Electric - GER 3002,
April 1975.
3. “Fretting Fatigue in Generator Rotors,” NEI Parsons/CEGB Symposium, Newcastle upon
Tyne, UK, January 1979.
4. “Generators for Utility and Industrial Applications,” General Electric - GER 8022,
October 1992.
12-1
12731594
References
5. “Ontario Hydro Experience with Copper Dusting in Large Steam Turbine-Driven Generator
Rotors.” G. Klempner and R. Nold, EPRI, Utility Motor and Generator Preventive
Maintenance and Refurbishment Conference and Exhibition, December 1993.
6. “GE Generators – An Overview,” General Electric - GER 3688B, 1994.
7. “Expert System Techniques for Monitoring and Diagnostics of Large Steam Turbine Driven
Generators,” G. Klempner, IEEE/PES Winter Power Meeting/Panel Discussion Paper, New
York NY, February 1995.
8. “GE Generator Rotor Retaining Rings: Experience and Fleet Data,” General Electric - GER
3930, April 1995.
9. “Turbine Generator Retaining Rings—Supplementary Information on the Inspection of Rings
Manufactured in 18Mn-18Cr Steel,” Electra Magazine, October 1998.
10. “Generator Rotor Thermal Sensitivity—Theory and Experience,” General Electric - GER
3809, April 2001.
11. “GE Generator Rotor Design, Operational Issues and Refurbishment Options,” General
Electric - GER 4212, August 2001.
12. “Rotor Shorted Turns—Detection and Diagnostics,” G. Klempner, EPRI, International
Conference on Electric Generator Predictive Maintenance and Refurbishment, January 20–
21, 2003, Orlando, Florida.
13. “Generator In-Situ Inspections,” General Electric - GER 3954B, April 2003.
14. “Fretting Fatigue Modeling and Repair Evaluation for Generator Rotors,”
General Electric - GT2003-38827, June 2003.
15. “Experience with Rotor Shorted Turns at the South Texas Project: Coping with the Collateral
Damage and Investigation into the Cause,” D. Fisher, STP, EPRI Workshop, Charlotte, NC,
July 2004.
16. “Rotor Shorted Turns: An Original Equipment Manufacturer’s Perspective,” T. Schuchart,
R. Whitener, R. Ashley, Siemens-Westinghouse, EPRI Workshop, Charlotte, NC, July 2004.
17. “Case Study of Shorted Turns Development,” R. Chetwynd, I. Kerszenbaum, Southern
California Edison, EPRI Workshop, Charlotte, NC, July 2004.
18. “Inspection of Three Rotors Used in Large Nuclear Generators,” J. Herigault, EdF, EPRI
Workshop, Charlotte, NC, July 2004.
19. “Generator Rotor Insulation and Winding Issues: A GE Perspective,” R. Zawoysky, GE,
EPRI Workshop, Charlotte, NC, July 2004.
20. “Roxboro Plant Unit 2 Experience with Generator Field Shorted Turns,” T. Reynolds,
Progress Energy, EPRI Workshop, Charlotte, NC, July 2004.
21. “On-line detection of Shorted Turns,” D. Albright, GeneratorTech, EPRI Workshop,
July 2004, Charlotte, NC.
22. “Continuous Automated Flux Monitoring for Turbine Generator Rotor Condition
Assessment,” J. Kapler, S. Campbell, J. Squitiere, Iris Power Engineering, EPRI Workshop,
Charlotte, NC, July 2004.
23. “Contingency Planning,” S. Dallas, Energy Northwest, EPRI Workshop, Charlotte, NC, July
2004.
12-2
12731594
References
24. “A Design for Minimizing Inter-turn Short Circuits in Generator Rotors,” I. Lister, Alstom
Power Services, EPRI Workshop, Charlotte, NC, July 2004.
12.3 Books
1. A.J. Gonzalez, M.S. Baldwin, J. Stein, N.E. Nilsson, Monitoring and Diagnostics of Turbine-
Driven Generators, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995.
2. G.C. Stone, E. A. Boulter, I. Culbert, H. Dhirani, Electrical Insulation for Rotating
Machines, Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Press and Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience, 2004.
3. G. Klempner and I. Kerszenbaum, Operation and Maintenance of Large Turbo-Generators,
New York: IEEE Press, 2004.
12.4 Standards
1. ANSI C50.13-1989, Standard for Cylindrical-Rotor 50 and 60 Hz, Synchronous Generators
Rated 10 MVA and Above.
2. IEEE Std 1-2000, IEEE Recommended Practice—General Principles for Temperature Limits
in the Rating of Electrical Equipment and for the Evaluation of Electrical Insulation.
3. IEEE Std 4-1995, Standard Techniques for High-Voltage Testing.
4. IEEE Std 43-2000, IEEE Recommended Practice for Testing Insulation Resistance of
Rotating Machinery.
5. IEEE Std 56-1977 (Reaff. 1982), IEEE Guide for Insulation Maintenance for Large AC
Rotating Machinery (10 000 kVA and Larger) (ANSI).
6. IEEE Std 67-1990, IEEE Guide for Operation and Maintenance of Turbine Generators.
7. IEEE Std 95-1977 (R1991), IEEE Recommended Practice for Insulation Testing of Large
AC Rotating Machinery with High Direct Voltage.
th
8. IEEE Std 100-2000, The Authoritative Dictionary of IEEE Standards Terms, 7 Edition.
9. IEEE Std 115-1995, IEEE Guide: Test Procedures for Synchronous Machines, Part 1—
Acceptance and Performance Testing; Part II—Test Procedures and Parameter Determination
for Dynamic Analysis.
10. IEEE Std 119-1974, IEEE Recommended Practice for General Principles of Temperature
Measurement as Applied to Electrical Apparatus.
11. IEEE Std 1129-1992, IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring and Instrumentation of
Turbine Generators.
12. NEMA MG1-2003, Motors and Generators.
13. ISO 7919-2 (1996), Mechanical Vibration of Non-Reciprocating Machines—Measurements
on Rotating Shafts and Evaluation Criteria, Part 2: Large Land-Based Steam Turbine
Generator Sets (First Edition).
14. ISO 7919-4 (1996), Mechanical Vibration of Non-Reciprocating Machines—Measurements
on Rotating Shafts and Evaluation Criteria, Part 4: Gas Turbine Sets (First Edition).
12-3
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12731594
A
POSSIBLE ON-LINE MONITORING FOR VARIOUS
FAILURE MECHANISMS
A-1
12731594
On-Line Monitoring Method
A-2
5.6
5.5
5.1
5.4
5.3
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.2
5.1
5.18
5.17
5.16
5.15
5.14
5.13
5.12
5.11
section >
Shaft speed
Rotor vibration
mechanism (on-line)
Negative sequence
Dew point monitoring
12731594
Rotor winding overvoltage
Rotor winding temperature
Rotor winding ground alarm
Bearing metal temperatures

Bearing inlet oil temperature
Bearing outlet oil temperature
Torsional vibration monitoring
Rotor fan differential pressure

X - possible indicator of the failure
Hydrogen seal metal temperatures

Hydrogen seal inlet oil temperature
Hydrogen seal outlet oil temperature
Shaft voltage and current monitoring
Hydrogen seal, H2/seal oil diff pressure

Rotor winding shorted turns by flux probe
X
X
X
X
X
X
4.1 Shorted winding turns
X
X
X
X
X
4.2 Failed copper joints
X
X
X
4.3 Copper dusting
Possible On-Line Monitoring for Various Failure Mechanisms
X
X
X
X
4.4 Rotor winding grounds
X
X 4.5 Mechanically damaged interturn insulation
X
X
4.6 Overheated interturn insulation
X
X
X 4.7 Misaligned interturn insulation

X
4.8 Distorted copper windings

X
X
4.9 Elongated copper windings

X
X
4.10 Misaligned copper windings

X
4.1 Crushed ventilation paths in copper winding
X
X
X
4.1 Slot liner damage

X
X
X
4.1 Endwinding packings damage

X
X
4.1 Blocked ventilation
X
4.2 Forging fretting fatigue
Failure Mechanisms
X
4.2 Rotor tooth top cracking
X
4.2 Cracked rotor wedges
X
4.2 Retaining ring aqueous stress corrosion pitting or cracking

X
X
X
4.2 Collector ring flashover

X
X
X
4.20 Brush gear failure

X
X
X
4.2 Bore copper insulation damage

X
X
X
4.2 Radial terminal stud damage

X
4.2 Damper winding damage

X
4.2 Gas baffle damage

X
X
4.3 Arcing and overheating due to negative sequence currents

X
4.3 Arcing and overheating due to motoring

X
X
X
High bearing temperature

X
X
Bearing lube oil system

X
X
X
High hydrogen seal temperature

X
X
X
Hydrogen seal oil system

X
X
X
X
Hydrogen system
X
X
X
X
X
Excitation system
X
X
X
X
X
Related Rotor Problems
Power system influence

B
OFF-LINE TESTS FOR POSSIBLE DETERMINATION OF
THE EXTENT OF VARIOUS FAILURES
B-1
12731594
Off-Line Tests for Possible Determination of the Extent of Various Failures
Failure Mechanisms
Retaining ring corrosion pitting or cracks
Arcing and overheating due to motoring

Mechanical damage interturn insulation
Crushed vent paths in copper winding
Arcing & overheating - neg sequence

Bore copper insulation damage
Overheated interturn insulation
Endwinding packings damage

Misaligned interturn insulation
Radial terminal stud damage

Misaligned copper windings
Elongated copper windings
Distorted copper windings
Damper winding damage

Rotor tooth top cracking
Collector ring flashover

Forging fretting fatigue
Rotor winding grounds
Cracked rotor wedges

Shorted winding turns
Failed copper joints
Gas baffle damage

Blocked ventilation
Brush gear failure

Slot liner damage
Copper dusting
X - off-line test for possible determination of
the extent of failure
4.10
4.20
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.2
4.3
4.3
section >
6.1 Rotor NDE Techniques
6.1.1 Visual inspection X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
6.1.2 Magnetic particle X
6.1.3 Liquid penetrant X X X X
6.1.4 Ultrasonic X
6.1.5 Eddy current X X
6.2 Rotor NDE Specifics X
6.2.1 Rotor forgings
6.2.2 Fans
6.2.3 Retaining rings
6.3 Air Pressure Test of Rotor Bore X X
6.4 Rotor Electrical Testing
6.4.1 Winding resistance X X X X X
6.4.2 Insulation resistance (IR) X X X X X X
6.4.3 Polarization index (PI) X X X X X X
6.4.4 DC hi-pot X X X X X
6.4.5 AC hi-pot X X X X X
6.4.6 Shorted turns by volt drop X X
6.4.7 Shorted turns by ‘C’ core test X X
6.4.8 Field ground by split voltage test X X
6.4.9 Field ground by current thru forging X X
6.5 Specialized Testing
6.5.1 Shorted turns detection by RSO X X
6.5.2 Shorted turns by open circuit test X X
6.5.3 Shorted turns by winding impedance X X
B-2
12731594
C
ACCESS REQUIRED TO DETERMINE THE EXTENT OF
VARIOUS FAILURES
C-1
12731594
Inspection Access
C-2
section >
No dismantling required
O - Secondary usefulness
Limited access inspection

X - Best inspection method
+ Rotor wedges removed

Rotor removal from the stator
+ Retaining rings removed
12731594
+ Endwinding packings removed
- Terminal box open (collector end)
Externally accessible components opened

- Upper end bracket removed (turbine end)
Robotic (upper end brackets removed one end)
- Upper end bracket removed (collector end)
Access required to determine extent of failure
X
X
X
X
4.1 Shorted winding turns
X
X
X
4.2 Failed copper joints
X
X
X
O
4.3 Copper dusting
Access Required to Determine the Extent of Various Failures
X
X
X
X
4.4 Rotor winding grounds
X
X
X
X
4.5 Mechanically damaged interturn insulation
X
X
X
X
4.6 Overheated interturn insulation
X
X
X
X
4.7 Misaligned interturn insulation
X
X
X
4.8 Distorted copper windings
X
X
X
4.9 Elongated copper windings
X
X
X
X
4.10 Misaligned copper windings
X
X
X
X 4.11 Crushed ventilation paths in copper winding
X
X
X
4.12 Slot liner damage
X
X
X
4.13 Endwinding packings damage

X
X
O
4.14 Blocked ventilation

X
X
X
4.15 Forging fretting fatigue

X
X
Failure Mechanisms
4.16 Rotor tooth top cracking

X
X
X
4.17 Cracked rotor wedges

X
X
O
4.18 Retaining ring aqueous stress corrosion pitting or cracking

X
4.19 Collector ring flashover

X
4.20 Brush gear failure

X
4.21 Bore copper insulation damage

X
4.22 Radial terminal stud damage

X
X
X
4.23 Damper winding damage

X
X
X
O
O
4.24 Gas baffle damage

X
X
X
O
4.25 Arcing and overheating due to negative sequence currents

X
X
X
4.26 Arcing and overheating due to motoring

X
High bearing temperature

X
Bearing lube oil system

X
X
High hydrogen seal temperature

X
Hydrogen seal oil system

X
Hydrogen system
X
Excitation system
related rotor problems
Power system influence

D
OFF-LINE TESTS OR PROCEDURES FOR INDICATING
RELATIVE HEALTH OF VARIOUS ROTOR
COMPONENTS
D-1
12731594
Off-Line Tests or Procedures for Indicating Relative Health of Various Rotor Components
Component Testing
Balance weights on rotor body or wedges

Endwinding gas guides and baffles
Endwinding copper and insulation

Balance weights on balance rings
Retaining ring fit to rotor body
Hydrogen seal shaft collars

Balance or centering rings
Wedges—winding slots
Locking keys or rings
Endwinding packings
Radial terminal studs
Wedges—pole face
Turbine coupling
Bearing journals
Winding in slots
Retaining rings
Collector rings
Bore copper
Rotor body
Fans
X - test to provide some indication of relative health
of the component
section Rotor NDE Techniques
6.1.1 Visual inspection X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
6.1.2 Magnetic particle X X X X X X X X X
6.1.3 Liquid penetrant X X X X X X X X
6.1.4 Ultrasonic X X X
6.1.5 Eddy current X X
Rotor NDE Specific Requirements
Off-Line Maintenance Test or Procedure
6.2.1 Rotor Forgings X X X X X

6.2.2 Fans X
6.2.3 Retaining rings X
6.3 Air pressure test of rotor bore X X

Rotor Electrical Testing
6.4.1 Winding resistance X X
6.4.2 Insulation resistance (IR) X X X X X
6.4.3 Polarization index (PI) X X X X X
6.4.4 DC hi-pot X X X X X
6.4.5 AC hi-pot X X X X X
6.4.6 Shorted turns detection by volt drop X X
6.4.7 Shorted turns detection by “C” core test X X
6.4.8 Field ground detection by split voltage test X X
6.4.9 Field ground detection by current through forging X X
Specialized Testing
6.5.1 Shorted turns detection by RSO X X
6.5.2 Shorted turns detection by open circuit test X X
6.5.3 Shorted turns detection by winding impedance X X
D-2
12731594
E
ACCESS REQUIRED FOR INSPECTION OF THE
VARIOUS ROTOR COMPONENTS
E-1
12731594
Access Required for Inspection of the Various Rotor Components
Component Inspection
Balance weights on rotor body or wedges

Endwinding gas guides and baffles
Endwinding copper and insulation

Balance weights on balance rings
Retaining ring fit to rotor body
Hydrogen seal shaft collars

Balance or centering rings
Wedges—winding slots
Locking keys or rings
Endwinding packings
Radial terminal studs
Wedges—pole face
Turbine coupling
Bearing journals
Winding in slots
Retaining rings
Collector rings
Bore copper
Rotor body
Visual Inspection:
Fans
X - to inspect component completely
O - limited view of some external surfaces only
No dismantling required O O
Limited access inspection
- Terminal box open (collector end) O O O
Access Required
- Upper end bracket removed (collector end) O O O O O O O X

- Upper end bracket removed (turbine end) O O O O O O O X
Robotic (upper end brackets removed one end) O O O O
Rotor removal from the stator X X X X X X X X X X X X X
+ Retaining rings removed X X X X X X X X X X
+ Rotor wedges removed X X X
+ Endwinding packings removed X X
Externally accessible components removed X X X X X
E-2
12731594
12731594
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12731594

Optimized Maintenance of Generator Rotors

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Final Report, November 2004

EPRI Project Manager

(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)

(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT

Nuclear Safety Solutions

This report was prepared by

Nuclear Safety Solutions

This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

Results & Findings

Applications, Values & Use

2 ROTOR BASICS ....................................................................................................................2-1

3 MAJOR ROTOR COMPONENTS ..........................................................................................3-1

6 OFF-LINE MAINTENANCE TESTING ...................................................................................6-1

7 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE......................................................................................7-1

9 REPAIR/REFURBISH/REPLACE DECISIONS .....................................................................9-1

10 SPECIFIC PURCHASED SERVICES ................................................................................10-1

11 GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................11-1

B OFF-LINE TESTS FOR POSSIBLE DETERMINATION OF THE EXTENT OF

C ACCESS REQUIRED TO DETERMINE THE EXTENT OF VARIOUS FAILURES.............. C-1

D OFF-LINE TESTS OR PROCEDURES FOR INDICATING RELATIVE HEALTH OF

E ACCESS REQUIRED FOR INSPECTION OF THE VARIOUS ROTOR

Figure 2-1 3600 RPM, 2-Pole Generator Cross-Section ...........................................................2-2

Table 2-1 Relative Cooling Properties of Various Cooling Mediums Used in

This guide does not cover water-cooled rotors.

The guide provides:

2.1 The Rotor as Part of a Power Generating System

2.2 The Rotor as a Component of the Generator

2.3 Rotor Design Issues

2.3.1 Rotor Windings

2.3.3 Mechanical Issues

2.3.4 Generator Cooling Methods

Hydrogen, for use as a coolant in generators, is provided at a purity of approximately 98%. It is

Specific Specific Flow Cooling

Air 1.00 1.00 1.000 1.0

H2 @ 45 psi 14.36 0.26 1.000 4.0

H2 @ 60 psi 14.36 0.35 1.000 5.0

Oil 2.09 8.48 0.012 21.0

2.4 Rotor Operating Duty and Life Expectancy

3.1 The Forging

Additional components mounted in or on the rotor consist of the following:

3.3 Winding Insulation

3.4 Winding Slot Wedges

3.5 Endwinding Packings and Blocking

3.6 Damper or Amortisseur Windings

3.7 Main Leads and Wedges

3.8 Radial Terminal Studs

3.9 Bore Copper

3.10 Retaining Rings

3.11 Balance or Centering Rings for Retaining Rings

3.12 Locking Rings for Retaining Rings

3.14 Collector or Slip Rings and Brush Gear

3.15 Gas Guides or Baffles

3.16 Balance Weights

3.17 Zone Rings

4.1 Shorted Winding Turns

4.2 Failed Copper Joints

4.3 Copper Dusting

4.4 Rotor Winding Grounds

4.5 Mechanically Damaged Interturn Insulation

4.6 Overheated Interturn Insulation

4.7 Misaligned Interturn Insulation