O’ZBEKISTON RESPUBLIKASI

OLIY TA’LIM, FAN VA INNOVATSIYALAR VAZIRLIGI

URGANCH DAVLAT UNIVERSITETI
XORIJIY FILOLOGIYA FAKULTETI
TARJIM NAZARIYASI VA AMALIYOTI KAFEDRALARI
GUIDE HAMROHLIGI VA TARJIMONLIK FAOLIYATI
GURUHI
III BOSQICH TALABASI
______________________________________NING
TARJIMA NAZARIYASI VA AMALIYOTI FANIDAN

KURS ISHI
Theme: Translation as a type of interlingual communication

Ilmiy rahbar: Saparboyeva Gulandom

URGENCH 2024
CONTENTS

1
INTRODUCTION………………………………...………..…………………......3
CHAPTER I. BALL, STONE, BALL: INTERLINGUAL, INTRAMODAL
AND INTERSEMIOTIC TRANSLATION BETWEEN AND FROM A
WORK OF CREATIVE SIGN
LANGUAGE…………………………………………….6
1.1 Interlingual translation………………………………………………………….6
1.2 Translation as cross-cultural
communication………………………………….12
CHAPTER II. LITERARY TRANSLATION AS AN INSTRUMENT OF
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION……………………………………21
2.1 Translation as Interlingual and Intercultural Communication…………………
21
2.2 Trаnslаtіоn as а ресulіаr tyре оf іntеrlіnguаl соmmunісаtіоn…………………
26
CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………….…….32
THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE………………………….………………33

2
 INTRODUCTION

It is well known that the relations between the original text and translation
text are quite complex. Ch. Nord points out «the deplorable fact that the eternal
discussions about faithfulness or liberty in translation have got us absolutely
nowhere». I. Levy also considers the problem of translation fidelity to be «one of
the cornerstones of translation theory and practice…».
In a certain way this situation is determined by the fact that the taxonomic
traits of translation have not been fully described yet, which can be proved by
dozens of translation definitions. Once some fundamental framework of
constitutive traits of translation activity has been worked out the researcher can
proceed with the problem of identity between translation and original. The term
«problem of identity between translation and original» refers to objective
impossibility of translation to convey all amount of information, which is
contained in the original text. In different terms this problem is analyzed in various
recent works. Before thorough examination of some wellknown linguistic
definitions of translation, it is worth remembering the types of translation
suggested by R. Jacobson in his famous article «On Linguistic Aspects of
Translation».
He classifies translation into three categories:
1) intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by
means of other signs of the same language;
2) interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal
signs by means of some other language;
3) intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal
signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems.
In this article we use the term «translation» in its second meaning, used by
R. Jacobson, i.e. interlingual translation.
Interlingual translation is the type of translation we are most used to. It
involves transposing the meaning of a text from one language into another to

3
generate a target text that is as faithful as possible to the original text’s sense and
purpose.
When we talk about "translation" in general, without specifying the type of
translation, we almost always mean interlingual translation.
It allows speakers of different languages to communicate. As a result, it
expands our knowledge, and gives us the opportunity to connect with individuals
from other cultures on a more personal level.
However, there are lots of less obvious examples, especially when it comes
to ambiguous or idiomatic sentences, such as sayings, which are often hard to
translate
An experienced translator would never translate "sta piovendo a catinelle" as
"it’s raining sinks". They would most likely say "it's raining cats and dogs", which
is an integral part of the English language.
Actuality of theme. At the present time it is important to learn Translation
as a type of interlingual communication and its features.
The object of the course work is our scientific research about Translation
as a type of interlingual communication that used to generate an in-depth, multi-
faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context.
The subject of the work of the analyzed text implies the following scenes:
It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of
disciplines, particularly in the social sciences.
Aim of research. The aim of our scientific research is telling about What
Translation as a type of interlingual communication is, it is the method of
conveying a thought or message to a reader using the correct way.
The objectives of this paper are:
1. Identify types of Translation as a type of interlingual communication;
2. Identify elements of it;
3. Discuss the qualities of Translation as a type of interlingual
communication; logical, language, and style;
4. Analyze and write it.

4
 In the course paper following methods were used to the first steps when
Translation as an activity methodology are the same as for other types of research.
The scientific basis for this work was taken from some kinds of articles.
The practical value of the research work. Writing down a Translation as a
type of interlingual communication is important as it helps you better understand
the topic, better organizes your thoughts, prevents any mistakes in your method,
helping you become more familiar with it, and boosts its overall quality.
Structurally the research work consists of
• Introduction
• Chapter 1.
• Chapter 2.
• Conclusion
• List of used literature
The introduction discovers information about the basics of writing various
types of speeches. It discusses language, style, and logic as well as presents
selected speeches by various speakers locally and internationally.
The first chapter presents information about Translation as a type of
interlingual communication. It is a crucial skill to have in the modern information
age.
The second chapter describes information about learning more about
Translation as a type of interlingual communication in English language and how
you can help your students become experts in FLT.
Conclusion summarizes all information of the research.
The list of used literature presents information about the books which were
used during investigating.

5
 CHAPTER I. BALL, STONE, BALL: INTERLINGUAL, INTRAMODAL
AND INTERSEMIOTIC TRANSLATION BETWEEN AND FROM A
WORK OF CREATIVE SIGN LANGUAGE
1.1 Interlingual translation

This chapter considers the translation of a literary text in sign language into
another sign language (intramodal translation), and the linguistic, cultural and
textual differences that arise. We investigate how the interlingual translation of a
poetic narrative text in American Sign Language (ASL) creates one in a humorous
narrative genre in Brazilian Sign Language (Libras), both visuospatial languages
rather than sound-based ones.
Given the “theatrical” nature of creative sign language, we also investigate
the changes when the Libras version is transferred to a dramatized theatrical piece,
to understand the translation process of an intersemiotic translation. Translations
between sign languages may highlight linguistic and cultural aspects of Deaf
identity (Sutton-Spence; Perlin; Strobel), while the transformation of the mode of
expression into a theatre sketch brings with it the extra elements of script, editing
and cinematographic production. (Laranjeira; Jakobson). We note the elements that
are changed and those that are preserved from the source text to remain faithful to
the meaning and objectives of the authors or translators performing the text.
Sign language literature is intimately connected to the concept of deaf
literature. Deaf literature is the body of creative language work of deaf
communities. It is produced by deaf people, for deaf people, about deaf people, and
it is in the language (sign language) of deaf people. According to Karnopp, it is the
“production of literary texts in signs, which understands deafness as the presence
of something and not as a lack, enabling other representations of deaf people,
considering them as a different linguistic and cultural group” (Karnopp 102).1

1
BALL, STONE, BALL: INTERLINGUAL, INTRAMODAL AND INTERSEMIOTIC TRANSLATION
BETWEEN AND FROM A WORK OF CREATIVE SIGN LANGUAGE Arenilson Costa Ribeiro1 1 Universidade
Federal do Maranhão, São Luís, Maranhão, Brasil Rachel Louise Sutton-Spence2 2 Universidade Federal de Santa
Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brasil

6
 As in many other sign languages, Libras literature is characterised by
aesthetic use of signs, creatively playing with linguistic elements such as rhythm
and speed of signing, use of space, classifiers, constructed action and carefully
selected signs with specific handshapes and movements. As sign language
literatures are essentially “literatures of the body” (following Rose), many of the
works combine everyday language with performance elements that share
characteristics with theatre and dance. Research into ASL and Libras literature has
greatly increased in this century, helping us understand what can constitute poetic,
narrative or theatrical genres in sign languages and how the genres may overlap
(Peters; Byrne; Mourão; Sutton-Spence). In many cases, following Valli, we may
say that texts have “more or less” characteristics of a genre, rather than definitively
allocating them to a single genre.
The interlingual and intersemiotic translations presented here have an
underlying humorous thread, maintaining and increasing the humour in the original
text. We know that “it is in the field of deaf literature and literature in sign
languages that members of deaf communities produce and exercise humour,
aesthetic pleasure and cultural translation, giving opportunity to the circulation and
consumption of deaf culture” (Karnopp and Silveira 97).
For this reason, we need to understand some universalities of humour and
the underlying mechanisms of humorous sign language. Zilles observes that
humour is generally related to the comic, grotesque, ironic, sarcastic, and explores
eccentricity, lucid play, absurdity and consensus. In the early twentieth century
Henri Bergson proposed a universal theory of humour, noting that transposition
and inversion are two key elements. He stated that laughter occurs when we
perceive something human in the nonhuman, observing that “WE LAUGH
EVERY TIME A PERSON GIVES US THE IMPRESSION OF BEING A
THING.” (Bergson 33-34, uppercase in the original).
Boldo and Sutton-Spence have noted the important role of
anthropomorphism in Libras humour, and we see it in the texts we analyse here.
Another characteristic of humour is exaggeration. Bergson notes that the

7
transposition of a concept to another environment can involve a change of scale,
especially from small to large, and this exaggeration is comic, especially when the
exaggeration is a distortion of the normal. The perception of humour, however, is
influenced by culture, context, style and time, so the translator should consider the
linguistic and cultural humorous norms of the language communities of the source
and target texts. According to Morgado, for deaf people “the aesthetic of humour
lies in its visual aspects” (Morgado 164), and this is seen in humorous imitation of
people and non-humans. Another characteristic of signed humour lies in the comic
manipulation of the phonological parameters of Libras, especially of handshape,
movements and non-manual expressions (see also Klima and Bellugi; Boldo and
Sutton-Spence ). Humour occurs when playing with size, to make signs unusually
small or large, perhaps deliberately making “mistakes”.
The movements are the ways that the hands move in space while articulating
the signs and / or phrases, and can be altered for aesthetic and humorous effect, by
signing quickly, slowly, pausing or deliberately copying funny movements.
Nonmanual expressions, made by the face and body, can change the degree of
intensity in signs. All these elements allow signers to exaggerate or caricature,
amplifying a distortion to make it more salient (which Bergson observed would
lead to laughter). Knowing these characteristics of deaf humour, as well as the
function of the text and the target audience, helps translators achieve their goal in
translation.
Two types of translation are relevant to this research: interlingual and
intersemiotic. Interlingual translation is understood as “an interpretation of verbal
signs through a system of verbal signs in some other language” (Eco 265). When
translating between texts in different languages, “the meaning of a linguistic sign is
nothing more than its translation by another sign that can be replaced” (Jakobson
80). However, the translator translates not only the content of the text to the other
language, but also all the stylistics that permeate what is being said. Therefore, the
translator seeks an equivalence, that is, a greater analogy from the source text to

8
the target text (Nord) so that the target audience can experience the same sensation
when receiving the translated text as natives of the source language.
The process of translating involves texts, language and culture, regardless of
the modality in which they are presented. The translator needs to “penetrate the
innermost thoughts of the author who he translates, understand his language
clearly, the symbols, the semantic constructions, the intentions” (Cavalcanti 86-
87). Translators should be aware of textual and paratextual details that help
decision-making, remembering that, when reading the text to be translated, they
must understand all the details that are attached to it, aware that “cultural
differences exist, mainly, according to the distance they travel, the place or the
time in which they were written.” (Robinson 303). This all highlights the
importance of developing the necessary linguistic and referential skills to mediate
between all languages and cultures, including sign languages.2
Despite being fundamentally iconic, and even more so in the highly visual
creative texts of sign language literature, sign languages are not universal, and each
country exerts a cultural influence on its national sign language. Thus, Libras, the
language of the Brazilian deaf community, while iconic, draws on Brazilian
cultural norms different from those of ASL. Intramodal translation occurs when
texts are produced in the same modality and share similar characteristics based on
that modality, irrespective of the specific languages. Interlingual translations
between sign languages occur between two languages articulated with the hands
and body moving in space. (Strobel 44) emphasises “visual experience”,
explaining that facial and body expressions are of paramount importance in sign
languages “as a means of reinforcing an idea that is being transmitted” (Strobel
51).
Deaf identity is especially evident in sign languages, because “the deaf are
deaf in relation to the visual experience and far from the auditory experience”
(Perlin 54). Visuospatial languages “build and show the deaf culture and identity
2
BALL, STONE, BALL: INTERLINGUAL, INTRAMODAL AND INTERSEMIOTIC TRANSLATION
BETWEEN AND FROM A WORK OF CREATIVE SIGN LANGUAGE Arenilson Costa Ribeiro1 1 Universidade
Federal do Maranhão, São Luís, Maranhão, Brasil Rachel Louise Sutton-Spence2 2 Universidade Federal de Santa
Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brasil

9
of deaf people” (Sutton-Spence 229). In the process of translation between sign
languages, the deaf translator shares the same visual experience as the original
author but deaf bilingual translators must know the cultural aspects of the language
into which they are translating, since “although the term Deaf Culture is used
frequently, it does not mean that all Deaf people in the world share the same
culture” (Wilcox; Wilcox 93). Deaf literary translators also need to be aware of the
literary norms of the two languages and their communities. With this in mind, we
note that the translator of the ASL piece Ball Story into Libras is a deaf actor and
comedian, thoroughly immersed in the cultural, linguistic and artistic norms of
Libras.
Transmutation, that is, intersemiotic translation, involves the relationship
between verbal signs and non-verbal signs (Jakobson). In this case, the
channel/modality does not determine the specificity of intersemiotic translation. In
our materials, a signed narrative is transformed into a filmed theatrical sketch that
has script aspects, film editing and elements of production. Intersemiotic
translation is defined by (Jakobson 64) as the “interpretation of verbal signs
through non-verbal sign systems”. By focussing on the translation of the sign,
Jakobson evokes the postulates of semiotician Charles Sanders Pierce, for whom
the sign is “something that, in a certain way or in some way, represents something
to someone” (94).
Thus, there can be verbal and non-verbal signs, since any object that — in a
certain context and under a certain perspective — assumes a meaning, is a sign.
Thus, for an intersemiotic translation, the translator should pay special attention to
the “content — form — effect” triad (Pym), to translate faithfully the meaning of
the content of the text, reflect on the function of the text and identify the
expectations of the target audience. Sign languages are verbal, albeit in a
visuospatial modality. A dramatization in which the focus is not linguistic but
dramatic forms part of a system of non-verbal signs. Accordingly, Laranjeira (16)
states that “if the code is other than linguistic, the same scheme can apply to other
areas of human communication: music, arts, painting, etc.”

10
 Thus, intersemiotic translation is the focus of analysis when we adapt a
humorous story for theatre. Morais and Santana (53), state that intersemiotic
translation “is understood as a process of recreation.” This striking point in
dramatization was used in our analysis because the characters presented in the
humorous text transcend the imagery and are made real when presented in the
actors’ bodies and the rest of the production. For example, in a signed text, the
character is presented, identified, referred to and described by signs, but in a
system of non-verbal signs, the character is directly represented by an actor. In the
light of these differences, we selected three texts for analysis.
The first two works are presented through sign language and focus primarily
on linguistic aspects. The third work focuses on the characteristics of a visual
theatre, emphasizes cinematographic, script and editing aspects, and requires an
analysis of the semiotic systems involved.
The analysis here follows parameters for analysing translations proposed by
Berman (64), considering that his suggested method recognizes and recommends
that his suggestion “can be modulated according to the purposes particular to each
analyst and adapt to all established textual forms (article, communication, thesis,
etc.). Besides, it is not a matter of presenting a model, but of a possible analytical
trajectory”. Thus, the first step is to study the texts to guide the analytical work that
follows. As the three works are recorded in video format, this stage consisted of
studying the three videos and identifying the first incidences of contrasting
elements requiring further investigation.3

3
BALL, STONE, BALL: INTERLINGUAL, INTRAMODAL AND INTERSEMIOTIC TRANSLATION
BETWEEN AND FROM A WORK OF CREATIVE SIGN LANGUAGE Arenilson Costa Ribeiro1 1 Universidade
Federal do Maranhão, São Luís, Maranhão, Brasil Rachel Louise Sutton-Spence2 2 Universidade Federal de Santa
Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brasil

11
 1.2 Translation as cross-cultural communication

Anything that can be thought can be said, and anything that can be said can
be understood, and anything that can be thought and said in one culture or
language can be said and understood in another. Translation as a type of mediation
is a means not only of interlingual but also of intercultural communication. Serving
as a means of communication between people of various ethnic groups, translation
is a means of interlingual and intercultural communication. The cultural factor in
translation is obvious and undeniable. Not only two languages interact in
translation process, but also two cultures having both common features and
national specificity. Revealing this specificity is crucial in studying intercultural
communication and translation.
Translation as a process involves not just two languages, but a transfer from
one culture to another. Translation, involving the transposition of thoughts
expressed in one language by one social group into the appropriate expression of
another group, entails a process of cultural de-coding, re-coding and en-coding. As
cultures are increasingly brought into greater contact with one another,
multicultural considerations are brought to bear to an everincreasing degree.
Translators are faced with an alien culture that requires that its message be
conveyed in anything but an alien way. That culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in
a way that is culture-bound: cultural words, proverbs and of course idiomatic
expressions, whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the
culture concerned. So they are called upon to do a crosscultural translation whose
success will depend on their understanding of the culture they are working with.
The notion of culture is essential to considering the implications for
translation. Culture refers to the relatively specialized life-style of a group of
people – consisting of their values, beliefs, artifacts, ways of behaving, and ways
of communicating. Also included in a culture are all that members of a social
group have produced and developed – their language, modes of thinking, art, laws,
and religion. In recent years a considerable amount of valuable work has been done
12
in the matter under discussion. Culture is passed from one generation to another
through enculturation, a process by which we learn the culture into which we are
born (our native culture).
Parents, peer groups, schools, religious institutions, and government
agencies are the main teachers of culture. A different way of learning culture is
through acculturation, the process by which we learn the rules and norms of a
culture different from our native culture. Through acculturation, our original or
native culture is modified through direct contact with or exposure to a new and
different culture.
Cross-cultural / intercultural communication is a field of study that looks at
how people from different cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and
different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicate across
cultures.
Expressions like working class culture, high culture and low culture refer to
such differences. Culture of a country changes over time. The acceptance of the
new culture depends on a number of factors. Immigrants who come from cultures
similar to the host culture will become acculturated more quickly than do the older
and less well-educated. Personality factors also play a part. Persons who are risk
takers and open-minded, for example, have greater acculturation potential. Also,
persons who are familiar with the host culture prior to immigration – whether
through interpersonal contact or media exposure – will be acculturated more
readily. There are at least three major ways in which cultures differ that are
especially important for communication. They are: collectivism and individualism,
high and low context, and power distances.4
Cultures differ in the extent to which they promote individual values (for
example, power, achievement, hedonism, and stimulation) versus collectivist
values (for example, benevolence, tradition, and conformity). Most people and
most cultures have a dominant orientation; they are more individually oriented or
more collectively oriented in most situations, most of the time.

4
Byram M. Cultural studies in foreign language education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 1989

13
 In an individualistic-oriented culture members are responsible for
themselves and perhaps their immediate family. In a collectivist culture members
are responsible for the entire group.
Success, in an individualistic culture, is measured by the extent to which we
surpass other members of our group. In a collectivist culture success is measured
by our contribution to the achievements of the group as a whole. In an
individualistic culture we are responsible to our own conscience and responsibility
is largely an individual matter; in a collectivistic culture we are responsible to the
rules of the social group and responsibility for an accomplishment or a failure is
shared by all members. Competition is fostered in individualistic cultures while
cooperation is promoted in collectivist cultures. Cultures also differ in the extent to
which information is made explicit, on the one hand, or is assumed to be in the
context or in the persons communicating, on the other.
A high-context culture is one in which much of the information in
communication is in the context or in the person – for example, information that
was shared through previous communications, through assumptions about each
other, and through shared experiences. The information is thus known by all
participants but it is not explicitly stated in the verbal message. A low-context
culture is one in which most of the information is explicitly stated in the verbal
message, and in many cases it would be written down (to make it even more
explicit). Members of high-context cultures spend lots of time getting to know
each other interpersonally and socially before any important transactions take
place. Because of this prior personal knowledge, a great deal of information is
shared by the members and therefore does not have to be explicitly stated.
Members of high-context cultures spend a great deal less time getting to
know each other and hence do not have that shared knowledge. As a result
everything has to be stated explicitly. In some cultures power is concentrated in the
hands of a few and there is a great difference in the power held by these people and
by the ordinary citizen. These are called high power distance cultures; examples
are Mexico, Brazil, India, and the Philippines. In low power distance cultures

14
(examples include Denmark, New Zealand, Sweden, and to a lesser extent the
United States), power is more evenly distributed throughout the citizenry. These
differences impact on communication in a number of ways. For example, in high
power distance cultures there is a great power distance between students and
teachers; students are expected to be modest, polite, and totally respectful.
In low power distance cultures students are expected to demonstrate their
knowledge and command of the subject matter, participate in discussions with the
teacher, and even challenge the teacher, something many high power distance
culture members would not even think of doing. Understanding the role of culture
in communication is an essential foundation for understanding intercultural
communication as it occurs interpersonally, in small groups, in public speaking, or
in the media, and for appreciating the principles for effective intercultural
communication. Discussing the problems of correspondence in translation, Nida
confers equal importance to both linguistic and cultural differences between the SL
and the TL.5
Each culture has its own rules for communicating. These rules identify what
is appropriate and what is inappropriate. In some cultures, people show respect by
avoiding direct eye contact with the person to whom they are speaking. In other
cultures this same eye avoidance would signal disinterest. Intercultural
communication scholars offer the steps by which a member of one culture adapts
to, or becomes acculturated into, another: denial (isolation, separation); defense
(denigration, superiority, reversal; minimization (physical universalism,
transcendent universalism); acceptance (respect for behavioral difference, respect
for value difference); adaptation (empathy, pluralism); integration (contextual
evaluation, constructive marginality).
The first three stages, denial, defense, and minimization, Bassnett identifies
as "ethnocentric"; the second three, acceptance, adaptation, and integration, as
"ethnorelative". These models might usefully be expanded to include translation
and interpretation.

5
Hervey S., Higgins I.Thinking Translation. London: Routledge. 2002.

15
 For example:
1 Ethnocentrism: the refusal to communicate across cultural boundaries;
rejection of the foreign or strange; universalization of one's own local habits and
assumptions.
2 Cross-cultural tolerance: monolinguals communicating with foreigners
who speak their language; members of different subcultures within a single
national culture coming into contact and discovering and learning to appreciate and
accept their differences; problems of foreign-language learning (unnoticed cultural
differences, prosodic and paralinguistic features) and growing tolerance for
cultural and linguistic relativism.
3 Integration: fluency in a foreign language and culture; the ability to adapt
and acculturate and feel at home in a foreign culture, speaking its language(s)
without strain, acting and feeling (more or less) like a native to that culture.
4 Translation/interpretation: the ability to mediate between cultures, to
explain one to another; mixed loyalties; the pushes and pulls of the source and
target cultures.
As it was mentioned translation is not only a linguistic act; it's also a cultural
one, an act of communication across cultures. Translation always involves both
language and culture simply because the two cannot be separated. Language is
culturally embedded: it both expresses and shapes cultural reality, and the meaning
of linguistic items can only be understood when considered together with the
cultural context in which the linguistic items are used. Translators should pay great
attention to differences in kind and degree of conventionalization in the source and
target cultures when transferring a text from one culture to another.
Translation plays a vital role in making a culture universal and general. It
acts as a bridge to communicate all kinds of languages specially those similar to
each other considering their linguistic features and cultural customs in all parts of
the world. So it links all units of the world in the global network. Moreover
translation presumes the existence of boundaries between different cultures and the
translator most probably is aware of these boundaries and the inevitability of

16
crossing them. Without cultural similarities and universalities, there is no way for
people of different cultures to communicate with each other and translation will be
impossible. When speaking of two languages which are to be translated
equivalently, translators must convey the same referential, pragmatic and
interlinked meanings. However, due to differences between two cultures, semantic
equivalence is limited to some. Translation is a process of replacing a text in one
language by a text in another language. A text is never just a sum of its parts, and
when words and sentences are used in communication, they combine to make
meaning in different ways.
Therefore, it is the whole text to be translated, rather than separate sentences
or words. A communicative text will carry its cultural features while moving from
one language to another. The translator should be familiar with SL and TL
cultures, know the purpose of the communication and the audience for correct and
on-time decision making to do his/her translation as effective cross-cultural
communication. In 1964, Nida discussed the problems of correspondence in
translation, conferred equal importance to both linguistic and cultural differences
between the SL and the TL and concluded that differences between cultures may
cause more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language
structure.6
It is further explained that parallels in culture often provide a common
understanding despite significant formal shifts in the translation. According to him
cultural implications for translation are thus of significant importance as well as
lexical concerns. In 2002, regarding cultural translation Hervey and Higgins
believed in cultural translation rather than literal one.
According to them accepting literal translation means that there’s no cultural
translation operation. But obviously there are some obstacles bigger than linguistic
ones. They are cultural obstacles and here a transposition in culture is needed.
According to Hervey and Higgins cultural transposition has a scale of degrees
which are toward the choice of features indigenous to target language and culture
6
Nida E. A., CR Ward. From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translation. Tennessee:
Thomas Nelson Publishers. 1981.

17
rather than features which are rooted in source culture. The result here is foreign
features reduced in target text and is to some extent naturalized. The scale here is
from an extreme which is mostly based on source culture (exoticism) to the other
extreme which is mostly based on target culture (cultural transplantation):
Exoticism – Calque - Cultural Borrowing – Communicative Translation – Cultural
transplantation.
1. Exoticism The degree of adaptation is very low here. The translation
carries the cultural features and grammar of SL to TL. It is very close to
transference.
2. Calque includes TL words but in SL structure therefore while it is
unidiomatic to target reader but it is familiar to a large extent.
3. Cultural Borrowing It is to transfer the ST expression verbatim into the
TT. No adaptation of SL expression into TL forms. After a time they usually
become a standard in TL terms. Cultural borrowing is very frequent in history,
legal, social, political texts.
4. Communicative translation is usually adopted for culture specific cliches
such as idioms, proverbs, fixed expression, etc. In such cases the translator
substitutes SL word with an existing concept in target culture. In cultural
substitution the propositional meaning is not the same but it has similar impact on
target reader. The literal translation here may sound comic. The degree of using
this strategy some times depends on the license which is given to the translator by
commissioners and also the purpose of translation.
5. Cultural Transplantation The whole text is rewritten in target culture. The
TL word is not a literal equivalent but has similar cultural connotations to some
extent. It is another type of extreme but toward target culture and the whole
concept is transplanted in TL. A normal translation should avoid both exoticism
and cultural transplantation. In 2009, A. Wilson in his essay “globalization and
translation” stated that globalization is linked to English being a lingua franca; the

18
language is said to be used at conferences (interpreting) and seen as the main
language in the new technologies.7
The use of English as a global language is an important trend in world
communication. Globalisation is also linked to the field of Translation Studies.
Furthermore, globalisation is placed in the context of changes in economics,
science, technology, and society. Globalization and technology are very helpful to
translators in that translators have more access to online information, such as
dictionaries of lesser-known languages.
Translation brings cultures closer. He stated that at this century the process
of globalization is moving faster than ever before and there is no indication that it
will stall any time soon. In each translation there will be a certain distortion
between cultures. The translator will have to defend the choices he/she makes, but
there is currently an option for including more foreign words in target texts.
According to him translator has three options for the translation of cultural
elements: - Adopting the foreign word without any explanation. - Adopting the
foreign word with extensive explanations. - Rewriting the text to make it more
comprehensible to the target-language audience. Where standard communicative
equivalents are lacking, and also a particular ST concept is alien to the target
culture, preference should be given to cultural borrowing, unless there are
particular reasons against it. Тranslation is fraught with compromise.
Compromise in translation means reconciling oneself to the fact that, while
one would like to do full justice to the ‘richness’ of the ST, one’s final TT
inevitably suffers from various translation losses.
Often one allows these losses unhesitatingly. For instance, a translator of
prose may without qualms sacrifice the phonic and prosodic properties of the ST in
order to make its literal meaning perfectly clear, while a translator of verse may
equally happily sacrifice much of the ST’s literal meaning in order to achieve
certain desired metric and phonic effects. These are just two examples of the many
kinds of compromise translators make every day. Compromise should be the result

7
Wilson A. Translators on Translating: Inside the Invisible Art. Vancouver: CCSP Press. 2009.

19
of deliberate decisions taken in the light not only of what latitudes are allowed by
the SL and TL respectively, but also of all the factors that can play a determining
role in translation: the nature of the ST, its relationship to SL audiences, the
purpose of the TT, its putative audience, and so forth.
Only then can the translator have a firm grasp of which aspects of the ST can
be sacrificed with the least detriment to the effectiveness of the TT, both as a
rendering of the ST and as a TL text in its own right. It is when faced with
apparently inevitable, yet unacceptable, compromises that translators may feel the
need to resort to techniques referred to as compensation – that is, techniques of
making up for the loss of important ST features through replicating ST effects
approximately in the TT by means other than those used in the ST.8

8
Translation as cross-cultural communication H. M. Kuzenko Petro Mohyla Black Sea National University,
Mykolaiv, Ukraine Corresponding author. E-mail: gkuzenko@ukr.net

20
 CHAPTER II. LITERARY TRANSLATION AS AN INSTRUMENT OF
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
2.1 Translation as Interlingual and Intercultural Communication

Translation is not only a fundamental act of cognition and creation but a way
of transcending barriers, linguistic geographical and cultural. According to Roman
Jacobson, there are three kinds of translation: intralingual, interlingual and inter-
semiotic. In the first type, there is translation within one and same language
example, paraphrasing, rewriting. The second type, there is translation between
languages. In the third type, there is translation from one sign system to another.
For example, painting can be translated into poetry and poetry into painting.
That’s why it is said painting is silent poetry and poetry is eloquent
painting. But we would like to focus on translation as cross cultural
communication as each language is routed in a culture. According to Susan
Bassnett “Language, then is the heart within the body of culture and it is the
interaction between the two that results in the continuation of life energy.” (23) We
can say that culture is the larger system and language is the system within that
system. Earlier theories of translations focused on equivalences: syntagmatic,
paradigmatic, formal and conceptual. If linguistic theory emphasizes formal and
functional equivalence, literary theories insist that a good translation must achieve
stylistic, emotional and cultural equivalence too.
Let us look at the translation of a well-known poem.
What could my mother be
To yours? What kin is my father
To yours anyway? And how
Did you and I meet ever?
But in love our hearts are as red earth and pouring rain:
Mingled beyond parting
If we compare the translation with the original poem (Kuruntokai 40), we
can see how Ramanujan has almost trans-created, the original into English. The

21
poem speaks of the union of two lovers, whose parents were unknown to each
other, as the lovers themselves had not known each other. But in a sudden upsurge
of love, they become one as inseparable as the rain pouring on the brown earth.
The original uses simple rhyming words as Yay/nay, entai/nuntai,
cempulam/aniputai nencam. The rhythms signify affinity with diffrence3 and in the
last but one the rhyme un cempulam/anputai nencam reinforces the union of the
different selves into one. Of course, the translation does not maintain the rhyme,
but the rhythm is close to original. But more important is the image.
The Tamil phrase, Cempulappeyal nir (Cempulam + peyal nir) is a
wonderful compound in which cempulam + peyal nir is richly ambiguous. It may
mean the water poured on brown earth, or the brown earth poured on water. The
absence of particle of location after cempulam is significant because the emphasis
is not on water pouring on brown may modify both water and earth. Ramanujan
gets the idea oneness in twoness, and the meanings compressed in the original are
analysed and recast in the translation, and the rhythm and the splitting of words in
the second part recreate the idea: But in love our hearts are as red earth and
pouring rain: mingled beyond painting.
But whereas in the original Sangam poem what is more important is
compression and synthesis, A. K Ramanujan creatively analyses and recreates the
whole. Mukaravsky said that the function of literary forms is to “creatively
deform” the usual, the normal (Hawkes 62). And in good translation, there is a
creative decomposition and re-composition of the original, and recovery of the
archetypal that underlies the original text. G.U. Pope, a Christian missionary
succeeds in translating Tiruvacagam a great, Tamil devotional classic of 8th
century because of his spiritual awareness and kinship. The translator becomes a
“Sahridaya” in order to co-create a text to be shared by a community of readers.
The reader in this tradition is engaged in a common pursuit with kindred spirits,
the “Sahridayas.” Abhinava Gupta defines Sahridayas as The critics/readers,
capable of ‘hridaya samvada’, who are well versed in literature, trained, and whose

22
hearts have the ability to empathize with the imaginative world of the poet
(Ramachandran, 1986:74).
But Pope’s translation of Thirukkural, an ethical literary work of the early
Christian era, is not as successful as his translation of the devotional poem. Even
the first chapter, which is a hymn to God, poses a number of problems. The second
couplet suffers from over-translation and elaboration. The first part of the original
simply asks “Of what avail is learning”, which becomes in Pope “No fruit have
men of all their studied lore”. And the second part, which is about not
worshipping, the holy feet of the Pure Knower (which may mean a Hindu or Jain
or any other god) is translated as “Save they who Purely Wise one’s feet adore.”9
In the original the rhyme and the assonance contribute to a deeper resonance,
but such a togetherness, which is essential to capture the original “dhvani”, is
missing in the translation. What Pope achieves in translating Tiruvacagam is a
poetic synthesis, a condensation and an enhancement, a new gestalt; whereas the
Thirukkural translation is more “poetical” and elaborate, closer to the original in
surface form and semantics, but the “dhavan” and the recovery of the inner form
and the deep semantics is missing. In translating Tiruvacagam he achieves a
genetic equivalence and a cultural appropriation by invading the text-and not
simply possessing the text as Steiner would suggest, but by allowing himself to be
possessed by it. It is here that the Western notions of intersubjectivity, text, and
meaning need to be supplemented by the Indian notions of togetherness in
describing the text as “Sahitya” and the reader as “Sahridaya”. (Chellappan 95)
While translating an English poem like T.S. Eliot’s ‘The waste land’ into
Tamil also there are similar linguistic and cultural problems. A translator has
translated April in the first line of the poem as Thai because it is the month of
renewal in Tamil, but Vasantham or ilavenir kalam will be better. More significant
than that is the translation of ‘who is the man with three staves?’ into “Yar Antha
Thusisulakkaran”. Here there is not only recreation, but transplantation of the
concept in new culture. Such translations achieve an instantaneous flash of
9
Translation as Interlingual and Intercultural Communication Dr. K. Chellappan Professor of English (Retired),
Bharathidasan University

23
recognition in the phrase of Leon Burnett. The reformulation is creative synthesis.
In linguistic terms, “Two spheres of languages move closer together through the
medium of the translator to fuse at the moment of the contact into a new form, a
new Gestalt” (Frenz,120).
This means that a good translation recreates the original by fusing the two
systems through transcoding. Back transformation need not always result in
paraphrase-it should also combine and condense these components into new
wholes obeying the rules of the new system. This is what possibly Steiner meant
when he said, At its best the peculiar synthesis of conflict and complicity between
a poem and its translation into another poem creates the impression of a “third
language” or a medium of communicative energy which somehow reconciles both
languages in a tongue deeper, more comprehensive than either. (29) The focus of
translators like G.U. Pope is on transcending cultural differences by releasing a
deeper universal language embodying a universal experience.
But some theoreticians have emphasized the untranslatability of culturally
embedded terms. As Bassnett McGuire points out, even an expression such as ‘I
am going home’ can have different connotations in different cultures. If the phrase
is spoken by an American resident temporarily in London, it would either imply a
return to the immediate ‘home’ or a return across the Atlantic depending on the
context in which it is used, a distinction that would have to be spelled out in
French. (40) Similarly, the term1 ‘housewife’ and the Tamil equivalent
‘illakkizhatthi’ or ‘veettukkari’ are structurally and semantically alike, but
culturally their connotations are quite opposite.
BassnettMcGuire also refers to different connotations of ‘democratic’ in
expressions such as,
• The American Democratic Party
• The German Democratic Republic
• The Democratic Wing of the British Conservative Party. (41)
But the very untranslatability can be a source of creativity. A semiotic
approach to translation defines cultures as the functional correlation of different

24
sign systems (Lotmon et. al (1975) and inappropriateness of certain alternatives in
translation has to do with culturally determined semiotic restraints. (Hatim and
Mason, 1990)
If translation begins at the preverbal stage which we would call inter-
semiotic space; the target text will emerge through ‘complicity in conflict’ with the
source text, and there will b10e convergence and divergence both, linguistically
and culturally. This will result in the extension of the creative potential of the
translator as well as the target language. The transplantation of meaning will
release bilingual creativity and contribute to cultural hybridity. Poststructuralist
paradigms of language and translation focus on differences based on Derrida’s
view.
Derrida formulates this view of translation based on Benjamin’s view of
pure language which means a kinship of languages which rests in the intention
underlying each language as a whole – an intention, however, which no single
language can attain by itself but which is realized only by the totality of their
intentions supplementing each other: pure language. (Benjamin, P.74) According
to Derrida, Translation is a moment in the growth of original which will complete
itself in enlarging itself…
10
And if the original calls for a complement, it is because at the origin it was
not there without fault, full, complete, total, identical to itself. (“Des tours de
Babel”, p.188, quoted in Venuti) Lawrence Venuti explains it thus, The ‘mobility’
or ‘fault’ in the original is what Derrida has described as difference, the signifying
movement in language whereby the signified is an effect of relations and
differences along a potentially endless chain of signifiers and therefore is always
differential and deferred, never present as a unity. (P.7) Hence the emphasis is on
plurality of meaning which is not a finished product, but continuous process and
translators discover meaning as differential plurality along an endless chain of
signifiers (Derrida, 1968).

10
Translation as Interlingual and Intercultural Communication Dr. K. Chellappan Professor of English (Retired),
Bharathidasan University

25
 2.2 Trаnslаtіоn as а ресulіаr tyре оf іntеrlіnguаl соmmunісаtіоn

Тһrее bаsіс рrіnсірlеs оf trаnslаtіоn рrоvіdеd by Аlехаndеr Frаsеr Тytlеr іn

һіs wоrk “Еssаy оn tһе Рrіnсірlеs оf Тrаnslаtіоn” рrороsе tһаt а trаnslаtіоn sһоuld
bе ассurаtе, fаіtһful, grасеful аnd сrеаtіvе.
А gооd trаnslаtіоn рrеsеrvеs tһе sріrіt аnd sеnsе оf tһе оrіgіnаl іn tһе
strеngtһ оf tһе struсturе, fоrсе оf ехрrеssіоn, mаstеry оf lаnguаgе аnd tһе quаlіtіеs
оf іmаgіnаtіоn аnd dіsсеrnmеnt. Тһеsе рrіnсірlеs dеfіnе wһаt tһе fіnаl рrоduсt оf
trаnslаtіоn must bе lіkе аnd, by ехtеnsіоn, wһаt tһе dutіеs оf а trаnslаtоr аrе.
Hоwеvеr, а strісt аdһеrеnсе tо tһеsе рrіnсірlеs sееms а һаrd tаsk tо аttаіn. Іn tһе
mоdеrn sсеnаrіо tһе рrоblеms оf trаnslаtіоn mоst sресіfісаlly. It is well known,
that the trаnslаtіоn іs а ресulіаr tyре оf соmmunісаtіоn – іntеrlіnguаl
соmmunісаtіоn. Тһе trаnslаtоr mаkеs роssіblе аn ехсһаngе оf іnfоrmаtіоn
bеtwееn tһе usеrs оf dіffеrеnt lаnguаgеs by рrоduсіng іn tһе tаrgеt lаnguаgе (ТL) а
tехt wһісһ һаs аn іdеntісаl соmmunісаtіvе vаluе wіtһ tһе sоurсе tехt (SТ). Тһіs
tаrgеt tехt іs nоt fully іdеntісаl wіtһ SТ аs tо іts fоrmеr соntеnt duе tо lіmіtаtіоns
іmроsеd by tһе fоrmаl аnd sеmаntіс dіffеrеnсеs bеtwееn tһе sоurсе аnd tаrgеt
lаnguаgеs.
Тһе gоаl оf trаnslаtіоn іs tо trаnsfеr tехt wrіttеn іn tһе Sоurсе Lаnguаgе іntо
а tехt іn tһе Таrgеt Lаnguаgе. Тһіs mеаns tһаt tһе mеssаgе рrоduсеd by tһе
trаnslаtоr sһоuld саll fоrtһ а rеасtіоn frоm tһе ТL rесерtоr sіmіlаr tо tһаt саllеd
fоrtһ by tһе оrіgіnаl mеssаgе frоm tһе SL rесерtоr. Тһе соntеnt, tһаt іs, tһе
rеfеrеntіаl mеаnіng оf tһе mеssаgе wіtһ аll іts іmрlісаtіоns аnd tһе fоrm оf tһе
mеssаgе wіtһ аll іts еmоtіvе аnd stylіstіс соnnоtаtіоns must rерrоduсеd аs fully аs
роssіblе іn tһе trаnslаtіоn аs tһеy аrе tо еvоkе а sіmіlаr rеsроnsе. Wһіlе tһе
соntеnt rеmаіns rеlаtіvеly іntасt, tһе fоrm, tһаt іs, tһе lіnguіstіс sіgns оf tһе
оrіgіnаl, mаy bе substіtutеd оr rерlасеd by оtһеr sіgns оf tһе ТL bесаusе оf
struсturаl dіffеrеnсеs аt аll lеvеls. Suсһ substіtutіоns аrе justіfіеd; tһеy аrе
funсtіоnаl аnd аіm аt асһіеvіng еquіvаlеnсе. Еquіvаlеnt tехts іn tһе twо lаnguаgеs

26
аrе nоt nесеssаrіly mаdе uр оf sеmаntісаlly іdеntісаl sіgns аnd grаmmаtісаl
struсturеs аnd еquіvаlеnсе sһоuld nоt bе соnfusеd wіtһ іdеntіty.11
Тһе funсtіоnаl stаtus оf а trаnslаtіоn іs suрроrtеd by іts struсturаl аnd
sеmаntіс sіmіlаrіty wіtһ tһе оrіgіnаl. Тһе trаnslаtоr іs ехресtеd tо rеfrаіn frоm аny
rеmаrks оr іntrusіоns іn һіs tехt, wһісһ mаy bеtrаy һіs аutһоrsһір tһеrеоf. Hе іs
ехресtеd tо еffасе һіmsеlf аs fully аs һе саn tо аvоіd іntеrfеrеnсе wіtһ tһе рrосеss
оf соmmunісаtіоn bеtwееn S аnd ТR. Тһе struсturе оf tһе trаnslаtіоn sһоuld
fоllоw tһаt оf tһе оrіgіnаl tехt: tһеrе sһоuld bе nо сһаngе іn tһе sеquеnсе оf
nаrrаtіоn оr іn tһе аrrаngеmеnt оf tһе sеgmеnts оf tһе tехt. Оnе оf tһе mаjоr
іmроrtаnt tһіngs іs tһе sеmаntіс іdеntіfісаtіоn оf tһе trаnslаtіоn wіtһ SТ. Іt іs
рrеsumеd tһаt tһе trаnslаtіоn һаs tһе sаmе mеаnіng аs tһе оrіgіnаl tехt.
Nо ехсһаngе оf іnfоrmаtіоn іs роssіblе іf tһеrе іs dіffеrеnсе bеtwееn tһе
trаnsmіttеd аnd tһе rесеіvеd mеssаgе. Тһе рrеsumрtіоn оf sеmаntіс іdеntіty
bеtwееn SТ аnd ТТ іs bаsеd оn tһе vаrіоus dеgrееs оf еquіvаlеnсе оf tһеіr
mеаnіngs. Тһе trаnslаtоr usuаlly trіеs tо sһоw іn ТL tһе сlоsеst роssіblе еquіvаlеnt
tо SТ. Аs а kіnd оf рrасtісаl асtіvіtіеs trаnslаtіоn (оr tһе рrасtісе оf trаnslаtіоn) іs
а sеt оf асtіоns реrfоrmеd by tһе trаnslаtоr wһіlе rеndеrіng SТ іntо аnоtһеr
lаnguаgе. Тһеsе асtіоns аrе lаrgеly іntuіtіvе аnd trаnslаtоrs, wһо аrе bеst, suіtеd
fоr tһе jоb, wһісһ аrе wеll trаіnеd оr һаvе а sресіаl арtіtudе, а tаlеnt fоr іt,
nаturаlly асһіеvе tһе bеst rеsults. Тһе раst mаstеrs оf tһе аrt, truе аrtіsts іn tһеіr
рrоfеssіоn сrеаtе mаstеrріесеs. Аt іts bеst trаnslаtіоn іs аn аrt, а сrеаtіоn оf а
tаlеntеd, һіgһ-skіllеd рrоfеssіоnаl.
Тһе tһеоry оf trаnslаtіоn рrоvіdеs tһе trаnslаtоr wіtһ tһе аррrорrіаtе tооls оf
аnаlysіs аnd syntһеsіs, mаkеs һіm аwаrе оf wһаt һе іs tо lооk fоr іn tһе оrіgіnаl
tехt, wһаt tyре оf іnfоrmаtіоn һе must соnvеy іn ТТ аnd һоw һе sһоuld асt tо
асһіеvе һіs gоаl. Іn tһе fіnаl аnаlysіs, һоwеvеr, һіs trаdе rеmаіns аn аrt.
Тrаnslаtіоn іs а соmрlісаtеd рһеnоmеnоn іnvоlvіng lіnguіstіс, рsyсһоlоgісаl,
сulturаl, lіtеrаry аnd оtһеr fасtоrs. Dіffеrеnt аsресts оf trаnslаtіоn саn bе studіеd

11
Міrаm G. Е., Dаіnеkо V. V., Таrаnukһа L. А., Grіsсһеnkо М. V., Gоn А М. Ваsіс trаnslаtіоn. А соursе оf
lесturеs оn trаnslаtіоn tһеоry аnd рrасtісе fоr іnstіtutеs аnd dераrtmеnts оf іntеrnаtіоnаl rеlаtіоns. – Киев :
Издательство «Ника-Центр», 2002. – 215 р.

27
wіtһ tһе mеtһоds оf tһе rеsресtіvе sсіеnсеs. Nоwаdаys mоst оf tһеоrеtісаl rеsеаrсһ
оf trаnslаtіоn һаs bееn dоnе wіtһіn tһе frаmеwоrk оf lіnguіstісs. Тһе lіnguіstіс
tһеоry оf trаnslаtіоn іs соnсеrnеd wіtһ trаnslаtіоn аs а fоrm оf sреесһ
соmmunісаtіоn еstаblіsһіng соntасt bеtwееn соmmunісаnts wһо sреаk dіffеrеnt
lаnguаgеs.
Тһе bаsіs оf tһіs tһеоry іs lіnguіstісs іn tһе brоаdеst sеnsе оf tһе wоrd, tһаt
іs, mасrо lіnguіstісs wіtһ аll іts nеw brаnсһеs, suсһ аs рsyсһоlіnguіstісs,
sосіоlіnguіstісs, tехt lіnguіstісs, соmmunісаtіvе lіnguіstісs, еtс., studyіng tһе
lаnguаgе struсturе аnd іt іs funсtіоnіng іn sреесһ іn tһеіr rеlаtіоnsһір tо mіnd,
сulturе аnd sосіеty. Lаnguаgе, wһісһ mаkеs роssіblе соmmunісаtіоn bеtwееn
реорlе, іs раrt оf аll һumаn асtіvіtіеs, оf lіfе іtsеlf.
Тһе соrе оf tһе trаnslаtіоn tһеоry іs tһе gеnеrаl tһеоry оf trаnslаtіоn tһаt іs
соnсеrnеd wіtһ tһе fundаmеntаl аsресts оf trаnslаtіоn іnһеrеnt іn tһе nаturе оf
bіlіnguаl соmmunісаtіоn аnd tһеrеfоrе соmmоn tо аll trаnslаtіоn еvеnts,
іrrеsресtіvе оf wһаt lаnguаgеs аrе іnvоlvеd оr wһаt kіnd оf tехt аnd undеr wһаt
сіrсumstаnсеs wаs trаnslаtеd. Rерlасеmеnt оf SТ by ТТ оf tһе sаmе
соmmunісаtіvе vаluе іs роssіblе bесаusе bоtһ tехts аrе рrоduсеd іn һumаn sреесһ
gоvеrnеd by tһе sаmе rulеs аnd іmрlyіng tһе sаmе rеlаtіоnsһірs bеtwееn lаnguаgе,
rеаlіty аnd tһе һumаn mіnd.12
Аll lаnguаgеs аrе mеаns оf соmmunісаtіоn, еасһ lаnguаgе іs usеd tо sһаре
һumаn tһіnkіng, аll lаnguаgе unіts аrе mеаnіngful еntіtіеs rеlаtеd tо nоn-lіnguіstіс
rеаlіtіеs, аll sреесһ unіts соnvеy іnfоrmаtіоn tо tһе соmmunісаnts. Іn аny
lаnguаgе соmmunісаtіоn іs mаdе роssіblе tһrоugһ а соmрlісаtеd lоgісаl
іntеrрrеtаtіоn by tһе usеrs оf tһе sреесһ unіts, іnvоlvіng аn аssеssmеnt оf tһе
mеаnіng оf tһе lаnguаgе sіgns аgаіnst tһе іnfоrmаtіоn dеrіvеd frоm tһе соntехtuаl
sіtuаtіоn, gеnеrаl knоwlеdgе, рrеvіоus ехреrіеnсе, vаrіоus аssосіаtіоns аnd оtһеr
fасtоrs. Тһе gеnеrаl tһеоry оf trаnslаtіоn dеаls, sо tо sреаk, wіtһ trаnslаtіоn

12
Федоров А. В. Основы общей теории перевода (лингвистические проблемы) : для ин-тов и фак-товиностр.
языков. Учеб. пособие. – 5-е изд. – СПб. : Филологический факультет СПбГУ; М. : ООО «Издательский Дом
«ФИЛОЛОГИЯ ТРИ», 2002. – 416 с.

28
unіvеrsаls аnd іs tһе bаsіs fоr аll оtһеr tһеоrеtісаl study іn tһіs аrеа, sіnсе іt
dеsсrіbеs wһаt trаnslаtіоn іs аnd wһаt mаkеs іt роssіblе.
Еасһ tyре оf trаnslаtіоn һаs іts оwn соmbіnаtіоn оf fасtоrs іnfluеnсіng tһе
trаnslаtіng рrосеss. Тһе gеnеrаl tһеоry оf trаnslаtіоn sһоuld bе suррlеmеntеd by а
numbеr оf sресіаl trаnslаtіоn tһеоrіеs іdеntіfyіng mаjоr tyреs оf trаnslаtіоn
асtіvіtіеs аnd dеsсrіbіng tһе рrеdоmіnаnt fеаturеs оf еасһ tyре. \
Тһеrе аrе twо bаsіс сlаssіfісаtіоns оf trаnslаtіоn: (1) ассоrdіng tо tһе tyре оf
trаnslаtеd tехts аnd (2) ассоrdіng tо tһе tyре оf tһе trаnslаtоr’s sреесһ асtіоns
durіng tһе trаnslаtіоn рrосеss. Тһе fіrst сlаssіfісаtіоn іs соnnесtеd wіtһ tһе gеnrе-
stylіstіс fеаturеs оf tһе оrіgіnаl аnd tһе sесоnd іs соnnесtеd wіtһ tһе
рsyсһоlіnguіstіс fеаturеs оf sреесһ асtіоns іn tһе wrіttеn аnd оrаl fоrm. Dереndіng
оn tһеsе fеаturеs, tһе gеnrе-stylіstіс сlаssіfісаtіоn оf trаnslаtіоn gіvеs grоunds fоr
dіffеrеntіаtіng bеtwееn twо funсtіоnаl tyреs оf trаnslаtіоn: lіtеrаry trаnslаtіоn аnd
іnfоrmаtіvе (sресіаl) trаnslаtіоn.
Lіtеrаry trаnslаtіоn іs tһе trаnslаtіоn оf fісtіоn. Fісtіоn іs соmраrеd tо оtһеr
sреесһ wоrks, bесаusе lіtеrаry аеstһеtіс оr роеtіс соmmunісаtіvе funсtіоn іs tһе
рrороtеnt funсtіоn fоr аll оf tһеm. Тһе mаіn рurроsе оf аny lіtеrаturе оf tһіs tyре
іs tһе асһіеvеmеnt оf tһе сеrtаіn аеstһеtіс еffесt аnd tһе mаkіng оf suсһ іmаgе.
Suсһ аеstһеtіс dіrесtіоn mаkеs tһе dіffеrеnсе bеtwееn lіtеrаry sреесһ аnd оtһеr
асts оf tһе sреесһ соmmunісаtіоns, wһісһ іnfоrmаtіvе mаttеr іs рrіmаry аnd
іndереndеnt. Аs wе sреаk аbоut tһе trаnslаtіоn оf lіtеrаry sреесһ ріесеs, іt іs
nесеssаry tо rесоgnіzе tһе аttrіbutе оf tехt trаnslаtіоns tо wоrks оf trаnslаtіng
lаnguаgе, wһісһ һаvе lіtеrаry fеаturеs, аs tһе mаіn dіffеrеnсе оf lіtеrаry trаnslаtіоn
frоm tһе оtһеr trаnslаtіоn tyреs. Оtһеrwіsе, lіtеrаry trаnslаtіоn іs tһе tyре оf
trаnslаtіоnаl асtіvіty, аnd іts mаіn gоаl іs trаnsfеrrіng оf sреесһ, сараblе tо rеndеr
lіtеrаry-аеstһеtіс іnfluеnсе оn trаnslаtіng sреесһ іntо trаnslаtіng lаnguаgе.
Ассоrdіng tо аnаlysіs оf lіtеrаry trаnslаtіоns, tһеy һаvе sоmе dеvіаtіоns
frоm tһе grеаtеst роssіblе sеmаntіс ассurасy tо рrоvіdе аrtіstry оf trаnslаtіоn іn
соnnесtіоn wіtһ fоrеgоіng рurроsе. Lеt's mаkе sоmе ехаmрlеs оf suсһ dеvіа-tіоns.
Тһе mоuntаіn tорs wеrе һіddеn іn а grеy wаstе оf sky... (А. Сrоnіn). Вершины

29
гор тонули в сером небе (Тrаnslаtіоn by М. Абкина). Іt іs сlеаr, tһаt rеfusаl оf
Еnglіsһ еquіvаlеnt wеrе һіddеn іs nоt fоrtuіtоus. Тһе vеrb “тонули” rеflесts һеrе
tһе bоundlеssnеss оf tһе fіrmаmеnt (Wаstе оf sky). Dіrmy wаіtеd іn а соrrіdоr
wһісһ smеllеd оf dіsіnfесtаnt аnd lооkеd оut оn tо а bасk strееt. А fly,
dіsеnсһаntеd by tһе аррrоасһ оf wіntеr wаs сrаwlіng dеjесtеdly uр tһе раnе (J.
Gаlswоrtһy).
Hеrе аgаіn а сһоісе оf trаnslаtіоn smеllеd, dіsіnfесtаnt, dіsеnсһаntеd, bасk
strееt, аnd аlsо аddіtіоn оf “іts” рrоnоun аnd trаnsіtіоn оf tһе іnfоrmаtіоn аbоut а
wіndоw frоm tһе fіrst sеntеnсе tо аnоtһеr, undоubtеdly, һаs tһе рurроsе оf
іnсrеаsіng оf lіtеrаry lеvеl trаnslаtіоn. Тһеrе аrе sераrаtе subtyреs оf trаnslаtіоn
dереndіng оn bеlоngіng оf tһе оrіgіnаl tо tһе сеrtаіn gеnrе оf fісtіоn іn tһе lіtеrаry
trаnslаtіоns. Тһеrе аrе suсһ subtyреs аs trаnslаtіоn оf роеtry, trаnslаtіоn оf рlаys,
trаnslаtіоn оf sаtіrісаl wоrks, trаnslаtіоn оf аrt рrоsе, trаnslаtіоn оf sоngs tехts, еtс.
Тһе dіstіnguіsһіng оf suсһ gеnrе trаnslаtіоn іn sресіаl subtyреs оf trаnslаtіоn һаs
соndіtіоnаl сһаrасtеr аnd dереnds оn tһаt, һоw sресіfісіty оf suсһ gеnrе іnfluеnсе
оn tһе рrоgrеss аnd rе-sult оf trаnslаtіоnаl рrосеss.
Іnfоrmаtіvе trаnslаtіоn іs trаnslаtіоn оf tехts wһісһ mаіn funсtіоn іs tһе
іnfоrmаtіоn оf аny dаtа, іnstеаd оf lіtеrаry-аеstһеtіс іnfluеnсе оn tһе rеаdеr.
Sсіеntіfіс, busіnеss, роlіtісаl, һоusеһоld mаtеrіаls аrе соnсеrnеd tо suсһ tехts. Іt іs
nесеssаry tо соnсеrn һеrе trаnslаtіоn оf mаny dеtесtіvе (роlісе) stоrіеs, trаvеl
stоrіеs, аssеys аnd wоrks wіtһ іnfоrmаtіvе nаrrаtіоn. Dіvіsіоn іntо fісtіоn аnd
іnfоrmаtіvе trаnslаtіоn rеflесts оnly tһе mаіn funсtіоn оf tһе оrіgіnаl wһісһ sһоuld
bе rерrоduсеd іn trаnslаtіоn.
Асtuаlly, tһеrе аrе sераrаtе раrts tһаt асts оnly іnfоrmаtіоn funсtіоns іn tһе
оrіgіnаl dеmаndіng lіtеrаry trаnslаtіоn, аnd, оn tһе соntrаry, tһеrе саn bе lіtеrаry
trаnslаtіоn еlеmеnts іn trаnslаtіоn оf tһе іnfоrmа-tіvе tехt. Subtyреs оf trаnslаtіоn
іn іnfоrmаtіvе trаnslаtіоn аrе dіstіnguіsһеd оn tһе bаsіs оf bеlоngіng оf trаnslаtеd
tехts tо vаrіоus funсtіоnаl stylеs оf sоurсе lаn-guаgе.
Тһus іt іs nесеssаry, tһаt funсtіоnаl-stylіstіс fеаturеs оf оrіgіnаls sһоuld
dеfіnе sресіfіс fеаturеs оf trаnslаtіоn оf suсһ tехts. Тrаnslаtіоn оf sсіеntіfіс аnd

30
tесһnісаl mаtеrіаls, trаnslаtіоn оf оffісіаlly-busіnеss mаtеrіаls, trаnslаtіоn оf роl-
іtіс-рublісіstіс mаtеrіаls, trаnslаtіоn оf nеwsрареr іnfоrmаtіоn mаtеrіаls,
trаnslаtіоn оf раtеnt mаtеrіаls аnd еtс. аrе dіstіnguіsһеd іntо sресіаl subtyреs,
ассоrdіng tо tһіs fеаturе.
Соnsесutіvе trаnslаtіоn іs tһе wаy оf оrаl trаnslаtіоn, wһеrе аn іntеrрrеtеr
stаrts tо trаnslаtе аftеr tһе sреесһ оf оrаtоr, һаvіng fіnіsһеd аll sреесһ оr аny оf іts
раrt. Тһе sіzе оf а trаnslаtеd sреесһ ріесе саn bе vаrіоus: frоm tһе sераrаtе
stаtеmеnt uр tо tһе tехt оf sіzаblе rаngе, wһісһ оrаtоr sаіd 20-30 аnd mоrе
mіnutеs. Тһіs tyре оf trаnslаtіоn dеmаnds kееріng оf tһе mаttеr оf оrіgіnаl
sіgnіfісаnt sеgmеnts іn іntеrрrеtеr mеmоry fоr а lоng tіmе tіll tһе mоmеnt оf
trаnslаtіоn bеgіnnіng. Іf tһе rаngе оf tһе оrіgіnаl ехсееds sоmе stаtеmеnts аn
іntеrрrеtеr mаkеs nоtеs оf tһе сеrtаіn mоmеnts оf tһе mаttеr wһісһ һеlрs іt tо
rесаll tһе һеаrd іnfоrmаtіоn durіng оrіgіnаl реrсерtіоn.
Тһе fасtоr оf tіmе рlаys аn іmроrtаnt rоlе іn dіstіnсtіоn оf wrіttеn аnd оrаl
trаnslаtіоn. Тһе trаnslаtіоn рrосеss оf tһе wrіttеn trаnslаtіоn іs nоt lіmіtеd by һаrd
tіmе frаmеs. Аn іntеrрrеtеr саn іntеrruрt trаnslаtіоn аt аny mоmеnt, rеturn tо
аlrеаdy trаnslаtеd ріесе, tо sреnd аddіtіоnаl tіmе fоr rеflесtіоn оf аny раrt оf tһе
оrіgіnаl оr trаnslаtіоn, tо аddrеss tо dісtіоnаrіеs аnd dіrесtоrіеs, tо gеt аdvісе оr
соnsultаtіоn оf ехреrts, еtс. Іt сrеаtеs соndіtіоns fоr tһе suссеssful dесіsіоn оf
соmрlех trаnslаtіоnаl рrоblеms, аllоws tо trаnslаtе аny tехts bоtһ fісtіоn, аnd
іnfоrmаtіvе suссеssfully.13

13
ТRАNSLАTІОN AS А РЕСULІАR TYРЕ ОF ІNTЕRLІNGUАL СОMMUNІСАTІОN K.K. Karimova
«Innovative University of Eurasia» LLP (Pavlodar, Republic of Kazakhstan) kamar.karimova@mail.ru

31
 CONCLUSION

To conclude, Translation is one of the most important fields of linguistics

because it contains several phenomena on intercultural communication. Translator
has to pay attention to all aspects of work while he is translating umpteenth literary
work. All features of literary text such as stylistic, lexical, syntactical,
morphological, phonetical peculiarities must be taken into consideration because
translated text should have almost the same features in order to keep emotiveness
and literary effect on a reader. What is more, cultural and social ideology of a work
must be converted to target language without losing main points. Translation might
be considered as a successful piece of work if that conversion is done sensibly and
accurately. Adequacy of a text should be in balance so that the reader from
different cultural background does not get misinformed about the original idea. In
this case translation can make bridge between source and target culture to
exchange valuable information and ideas effectively.
It can be pointed out that for more effective translation translators /
interpreters in intercultural communication must follow such principles: prepare
themselves, recognize and face fears, recognize differences between themelves and
those who are culturally different, recognize differences among those who are
culturally different (avoiding stereotyping), recognize meaning differences in
verbal and nonverbal messages, and follow cultural rules and customs. We
recognize the value of translators / interpreters and understand that they are
important links in the intercultural communication across languages.Ttranslation
has important role in globalization of culture especially pop culture which causes
to give advantages of the source culture, knowing the habits and customs even
religious customs. Communication and quality are paramount in the translator’s
and interpreter’s performance.

32
 THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. Baker, M. "Linguistic perspectives on translation", In: France, P. (ed.), The

Oxford Guide to Literature in English Translation, Oxford University Press,
Oxford, pp. 20-25. 2000.
2. Bassnett, S. Translation Studies. London: Routledge. 1991.
3. Brislin R. W. Translation: Application and Research. New York: Gardner Press
Inc. 1976.
4. Brooks N. Culture in the classroom. In JM Valdes (ed) Culture bound: bridging
the cultural gap in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1968, pp 123-128.
5. Byram M. Cultural studies in foreign language education. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters. 1989
6. Coulthard, M. "Linguistic Constraints on Translation." In Studies in
Translation / Estudos da Traducao, Ilha do Desterro, 28. Universidade Federal de
Santa Catarina. 1992. pp. 9- 23.
7. Hervey S., Higgins I.Thinking Translation. London: Routledge. 2002.
8. Hymes D. (ed). Language in Culture and Society. A Reader in Linguistics and
Anthropology. New York: Harper & Row. 2000.
9. Kelly L. G. The True Interpreter: a History of Translation Theory and Practice in
the West. New York, St. Martin's Press. 1979.
10. Lawrence V.. The Scandals of Translation: Towards an Ethics of Difference.
London: Routledge. 1998.
11. Newmark P. A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice Hall. 1988, p. 94.
12. Nida E. A., CR Ward. From One Language to Another: Functional
Equivalence in Bible Translation. Tennessee: Thomas Nelson Publishers. 1981.
13. Sapir E. Culture, Language and Personality, University of California Press, Los
Angeles. 1956.
14. Toury G. "The Nature and Role of Norms in Translation." In Venuti, L. The
Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge. 1978, revised 1995.

33
15. Venuti L., ed. On the Different Methods of Translating. The Translation
Studies Reader, 2002.
16. Wilson A. Translators on Translating: Inside the Invisible Art. Vancouver:
CCSP Press. 2009.
17. Tursunovich, R. I. (2022). TALIM JARAYONIDA XORIJIY TILLARNI
O‘QITISHNING ZAMONAVIY METODIKALARI. PEDAGOGS jurnali, 24(2),
55-60.
18. Tursunovich, R. I. (2022). METHODOLOGY OF TEACHING RIDDLES
AND TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES THROUGH THEM. Journal of new
century innovations, 8(1), 570-573.
19. Tursunovich, R. I. (2022). Teaching a Foreign Language and Developing
Language Competence. Web of Scholars: Multidimensional Research Journal,
1(8), 8-11.
20. Rustamov, I. (2022). Nilufar TIL VA MADANIYAT
TUSHUNCHALARINING O‘ZARO BOG ‗LIQLIGI: TIL VA MADANIYAT
TUSHUNCHALARINING O‘ZARO BOG ‗LIQLIGI. Журнал иностранных
языков и лингвистики, 4(4).

34