LEVELING ERRORS AND AJUSTMENTS - It is important to always set up the tripod rigidly
Instrument Errors – these errors are attribute to
imperfections in the instruments either from faults in
their manufacture or from improper adjustment.
 Instrument Out of Adjustment
- The most common instrument error is caused by
the level being out of adjustment.
- Particularly significant is when the line of sight of
the telescope is not parallel to the axis of the
level vial.
- The line of sight will be inclined either upward or
downward when the bubble is not brought to the
center of the tube.
- When a reading is taken on the rod, the results is
an error consistently either plus or minus, and
with a magnitude which is proportional to the
distance between the instrument and the rod.
- This source of error can be eliminated or kept at
a minimum by frequently testing the instrument
and keeping it always in good adjustment.
- The error will also be greatly minimized or
eliminated if the backsight and foresight
distances are kept nearly equal.
- Since it would be difficult to predict when an
instrument goes out of adjustment, the latter
method is the more certain and should always be
used for careful leveling.
 Rod Not Standard
- It is possible to have inaccurate graduation or
divisions on a rod.
- This is usually due to imperfections in their
manufacture.
- Inaccurate rod graduation can cause errors in
measured vertical distances like those resulting
from incorrect markings on a tape.
- In any case, a rod of incorrect length will
introduce a systematic error in leveling work.
- It is important that rod lengths are compared
periodically with a standardized steel tape.
- Any error in length should be determined and
necessary corrections applied to all
measurements made with the rod. Also, the rod
must always be handled carefully.
- A Philadelphia rod is easily damaged when the
upper part of the rod is allowed to slide down so
rapidly that the blocks on the two sections are
crushed. Its bottom should be kept clean when
used in muddy areas or where the ground is
relatively soft. If the rodman is not careful, he
may easily have some amount of soil, clay, dirt,
or mud sticking to the bottom of the rod. This can
cause severe errors in leveling.
 Defective Tripod
- The movement of the level due to setting of the
tripod legs can cause possible errors in leveling
work.
- The tripod usually settles in soft ground or due
to vibration caused by passing vehicular traffic.
as this can lead to erroneous measurements and
waste of time.
- Bolts and nuts at hinged joints of the tripod
should be checked regularly and tightened.
- To avoid sliding of tripod legs due to vibrations,
the instrument should be set up only at firm and
stale ground.
- Smooth surfaces such as concrete pavements
and steel plates should be avoided.
Personal Errors – although it occur largely due to the
limitations of the senses of touch, sight, or hearing of
individuals, the skills, training, and teamwork of the
members of a leveling party are also major factors to be
considered.
 Bubble not Centered
- Rod readings will be in error when the bubble is
not centered in the level vial.
- The magnitude of the error depends on how
sensitive the vial has been designed.
- There are various conditions in the field which
may cause the bubble not to remain centered,
- It could be caused by a tripod leg setting in soft
ground, the instrument may not be leveled
properly, or it may be out of adjustment.
- These are factors which could all be attributed to
carelessness on the part of the instrument man.
 Parallax
- If a pressure gauge or any graduated circular
meter is viewed from different angles, one will
notice that a number of slightly divergent values
could be read. This is due to the effect of
parallax.
- However, if the pointer and scale of the gauge
were positioned at exactly the same plane,
parallax would be totally eliminated.
- A similar condition occurs when sighting through
the telescope to read a leveling rod.
- The effect of parallax is to cause relative
displacement between the image of the cross
hairs and the image formed by the focusing lens.
- Parallax can be eliminated by careful focusing of
the telescope until no apparent movement of
the horizontal hair relative to the rod can be
detected when the eye is moved up and down
while sighting.
 Faulty Rod Readings
- An incorrect rod reading is usually the result of
the length of sight, poor weather conditions, and
the skill of the instrument man and the rodman.
- In ordinary leveling work it is advisable that the
length of sight should not exceed 90 meters. The
number of reading errors is significantly reduced
when short sights are taken.
- When long sights could not be avoided, a series
of readings should be taken on the distant rod
and only the mean readings should be taken on
 the distant rod and only the mean reading should
be used.
- Extra-long sights are common such as when
leveling across a wide river or a deep ravine.
- In precise leveling work, instruments used are
equipped with three horizontal hairs. Three
readings are usually recorded at each sighting.
- Since the two extra hairs (or stadia hairs) are
equally spaced from the center middle hair, the
difference between the readings of the middle
and lower hair should be equal to the difference
between the readings of the middle and upper
hair.
- The instrument man should take time to
compare these two quantities before
transferring to another set up since it is an
effective precaution against faulty rod readings.
 Rod Not Held Plumb
- Aside from the holding of the rod on a firm and
definite points, it should also be held as nearly
vertical as possible.
- If it is held off the vertical, it will be intersected
by the line of sight farther from the base and the
reading will be much greater than what it should
really be.
- The reading on the rod will be lowest when it is
held plumb.
- Appreciable inclinations of the rod should be
avoided particularly when a high rod is used.
- In differential leveling, errors due to non-
vertically of the rod tend to compensate at
turning points, however, if the foresight readings
are consistently greater than the backsight, the
error becomes cumulative.
- It is easy to determine if the rod is held plumb or
not since it can be checked if it is held parallel to
the vertical cross hair.
- However, the instrument man cannot check if
the rod is leaning toward or away from the
instrument.
- This type of error can be avoided either by
waving the rod or attaching a rod level to it to
facilitate holding it plumb.
- The use of a rod level allows the rodman to
plumb the rod by simply centering the bubble.
- Its use is preferable to swinging or waving the
rod.
 Incorrect Setting of Target
- It is important to always handle the leveling rod
carefully.
- The rodman at times falls to set properly the
target when a high rod reading is made with it.
- During use, the target may slip downward
because it is not clamped firmly at the exact
position signaled by the instrument man.
- To avoid this type of error, the instrument man
should always take a second sight on the target
after it is clamped by the rodman in order to be
sure that it has not slipped.
 Unequal Backsight and Foresight Distances
- In leveling work, it is usually good practice to
make backsight and corresponding foresight
distances nearly equal.
- In such a practice, errors due to imperfect
adjustment of the instrument and also those due
to curvature and refraction are reduced or
totally eliminated since the error in the backsight
is equal to that in the foresight.
- It is sufficient to approximate only by eye
foresight and backsight distances in ordinary
leveling work.
- For more precise work, pacing, direct taping, or
stadia measurements are employed in
determining sight distances.
- Balancing foresight and backsight distances,
however, may not always be practical or
possible.
- This situation may occur when the terrain is
extremely rugged or when leveling across wide
rivers.
- For example, in leveling up a steep slope the
distance to the foresight will be about one-half
the distance to the backsight.
- The two distances could still be kept nearly equal
by properly positioning the level a certain
distance from the straight line between the
turning points.
- The whole length of the level route is traversed
by a zig-zagging manner in order to eliminate this
source of error.
Natural Errors – these errors are which are due to natural
sources and could not be totally removed but their
effects can be reduced by applying corrections and using
good judgment.
 Curvature of the Earth
- The effect of curvature of the earth is to increase
the rod reading.
- From this source the error amounts to about 0.7
cm per 100 meters.
- This error is introduced even if the instrument
used is in perfect adjustment. It, however, only
occurs in extra-long sights and when backsight
and foresight distances are not made equal.
- Since sight distances in ordinary leveling do not
vary significantly, the resultant error arising from
this source is so small and is considered a
negligible quantity.
- When long sights could not be avoided, the error
may be eliminated by applying a correction to
the computed difference in elevation or by
employing the method of reciprocal leveling.
- In other situations, the error due to curvature
can be eliminated by keeping the backsight and
foresight distances from the same set up nearly
equal.
 Atmospheric Refraction
- The presence of heat waves on a hot day is a sign
of rapidly fluctuating refraction in the
atmosphere.
- Reading errors are likely to occur when heat
waves are present since it marks the rod appear
unsteady when a sight is taken on it.
- Since the refraction is usually larger when sights
are taken close to the ground surface, the line of
sight should be established at least one meter
above the ground.
- Because it may be impossible to read the rod
when heat waves are particularly intense,
leveling work should only be resumed when heat
waves subside.
- To reduce the effects of atmospheric refraction
only short sights should be taken.
- Balancing the lengths of backsights and
foresights also eliminates error due to refraction.
- Its effect is negligible in ordinary leveling but in
precise leveling, combined corrections for
curvature and refraction are applied to observed
rod readings.
 Temperature Variations
- Changes in temperature causes leveling rods to
either expand or contract and these could
introduce errors when taking rod readings.
- To guard against such errors, invar of nilvar
graduated strips are used on rods for precise
leveling work.
- Heat also causes warping or twisting of the parts
of a level. The liquid in the level vial expands and
the bubbles shortens when it is heated.
- This temporarily disturbs the adjustment of the
instrument and may affect the accuracy of rod
readings.
- It is preferable to use a surveying umbrella since
this will prevent the rays of the sun from falling
directly on the level and thus reduce the effects
of heat.
 Wind
- A strong wind can shake a leveling instrument
making it difficult to center the bubble in the
level vial.
- It can also exert a sufficient amount of force to
cause and extend rod to vibrate making it stand
unsteady and hard to read or plumb.
- If leveling has to be performed during windy
days, the instrument man should either exert
effort to shelter the instrument or wait for a lull
in the wind.
- Setting up the level behind a building or close to
a large tree trunk should reduce the effects of
the wind.
- In an open field, long sights should reduce the
effects of wind. In an open field, long sights
should be avoided to limit the use of a high rod.
 Settlement of the Instrument
- In soft or thawing ground, mud, and swamps the
instrument may settle in the interval of time
between rod readings.
- This source of error is cumulative since every
settlement of the instrument increases the
computed elevations of all other observed points
by the amount of the settlement.
- Errors due to settlement can be avoided if the
instrument man takes the necessary precautions
to ensure that the level is always set up on a firm
and stable ground.
- It is also important that as little time as possible
should be taken between rod readings.
 Faulty Turning Points
- In differential leveling work, a poorly chosen
turning point may be a source of error.
- This condition is similar to that resulting from
settlement of the instrument.
- It is a cumulative type of error. Since two word
readings are always taken at a turning point from
different set ups of the level, it is important to
select firm and solid turning points. They must
also be easily identified.
- Care should be taken not to strike the rod against
the turning point or to exert any pressure on it.
- In soft and unstable ground, it is advisable to use
a peg or a steel plate as a support to prevent
settlement of a turning point.
- The instrument man should guard against
movement of the turning point and the rod
should be held at exactly the same point when
another reading is to be taken on it.
Mistakes in Leveling
 Misreading the Rod
- During leveling, the instrument man may
occasionally read the rod incorrectly; for
example, he may read 2.75 m instead of 1.75 m.
- This mistake most frequently occurs when the
line of sight to the rod is partially obstructed by
vegetation or other objects in the field.
- It is important that the instrument man always
carefully note the full meter marks above and
below the observed rod reading.
- Also, it is preferable to call out readings as they
are taken to use a target and have the
instrument man and the rodman take and
compare their respective readings.
 Incorrect Recording
- The recorder should always call out the reading
as he records them in order to prevent the
recording of incorrect values.
- To detect mistakes in recording rod readings, the
best method is to read the rod, record the
reading, and then sight the rod again to check if
the value recorded is the correct readings.
 - It is important that the recorder understands the
leveling process. He should be able to visualize
the operation for which he makes his recordings.
- For example, he should know in which column
backsight and foresight readings should be
entered.
 Erroneous Computations
- Although level notes only require simple
additions and subtractions, mistakes in these
computations are still committed.
- For this reason, mathematical checks should
always be performed to ensure that only correct
values are determined.
 Rod Not Fully Extended
- When using a Philadelphia rod it is important
that it is fully extended when reading the high (or
long) rod.
- The two sliding sections should lock properly into
position.
- The clamp should also be tightened firmly to
avoid the upper portion of the rod from sliding
downward.
 Moving Turning Points
- A turning point carelessly or accidentally moved
out of its position by a rodman will cause a
serious mistake in leveling work.
- This mistake could be prevented by using only
stable and clearly defined turning points or by
making the position of the rod with paint, lumber
crayon, or chalk.
- The mark should be made on the selected point
before the first sight is taken on it and the
rodman should be careful to use the same
marked spot when another reading is to be
made.
Leveling Adjustment
 Adjustment of the Cross Hairs
- The reticle of the cross-hair ring is adjusted to
see to it that the horizontal cross hair lines in a
plane perpendicular to the vertical axis of the
instrument.
- If this particular requirement is not satisfied, an
error will occur each time a reading is made.
a. Procedure of Testing
- The instrument is first approximately leveled
then one end of the horizontal cross hair is
focused and sighted on some well-defined
stationary point.
- The telescope is slowly turned about the vertical
axis using the tangent screw to see if the point
sighted appears to move along the hair
throughout its length.
- If the point sighted remains on the horizontal
hair, the cross hairs are in adjustment; if it
departs from the cross hair, an adjustment is
necessary.
b. Making the Adjustment
- The adjustment is made by loosening two parts
of capstan headed screws which hold the reticle.
- An adjustment pin is inserted into one of the
holes of the screws to turn it slowly while using
the pin as a lever.
- The reticle is then turned as necessary by trial of
trapped lightly with a light object to allow it to
move into a correct position.
- The testing procedure and the process of
adjustment are repeated until the point no
longer departs from the horizontal cross hair.
The screws are then tightened upon completion
of the adjustment.
 Adjustment of the Level Vial – the purpose of this
adjustment is to make the axis of the level vial
perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument.
 Adjustment of the Line of Sight
- The line of sight is adjusted to make it parallel to
the axis of the level vial.
- There is always the possibility that the line of
sight of a dumpy level will be inclined either
above or below the horizontal.
- Such a condition will introduce corresponding
errors when determining differences in
elevation.
- When this adjustment is made the line of sight is
truly horizontal when the bubble is centered on
the level vial.
- To check and adjust the line of sight, a procedure
known as the two-peg test is employed.
- There are two ways by which the test is
undertaken. One procedure is described in this
lesson; another is explained in the succeeding
lesson.
a = rod reading on A with instrument set up near A
b = rod reading on B with instrument set up near A
c = rod reading on B with instrument set up near B
d = rod reading on A with instrument set up near B
a. Procedure of Testing
- Two pegs, 60-90 meters apart are established on
the ground.
- It is preferable that the two pegs have a
considerable difference in elevation in order to
arrive at more accurate test results.
- The instrument is set up and leveled in a location
such that the eyepiece is 20 cm or less in front of
the rod held on one of the pegs at A.
- A rod reading, a, is taken on the rod held at point
A by sighting through the objective end of the
telescope.
 - In this procedure, the cross hairs will not be
visible, but the field of view will be so small that
its center may be determined easily by holding a
pointed pencil on the rod.
- The telescope is then turned toward the rod now
held over the other peg at B and a rod reading b,
is taken on it.
- The instrument is next moved, set up, and
leveled near B where a second set of rod
readings, c, and d, are taken on the rod held at B
and A, respectively. The computed difference in
elevation for the two set ups are:
𝑫𝑬𝒂 = (𝒂 − 𝒃) ; 𝑫𝑬𝒃 = (𝒅 − 𝒄)
- If the two differences in elevation are equal, the
line of sight is in adjustment.
- When the light of sight is inclined from the
horizontal, the error in the line of sight for this
distance AB is e or the difference between d and
d’ as shown in figure.
- Considering the rod readings taken with the
instrument set up near A and also near B, the
true difference in elevation between A and B for
each set up would be:
𝑻𝑫𝑬𝒂 = 𝒂 − (𝒃 − 𝒆) ; 𝑻𝑫𝑬𝒃 = (𝒅 − 𝒆) − 𝒄
𝑻𝑫𝑬𝒂 + 𝑻𝑫𝑬𝒃 (𝒂 − 𝒃) + (𝒅 − 𝒄)
𝑻𝑫𝑬 = = CURVATURE AND REFRACTION
𝟐 𝟐
- if DEa is not equal to DEb, the correct rod reading
at A with the instrument still setup near B is:
(𝒂 − 𝒃) + (𝒅 − 𝒄)
𝒅′ = 𝒄 + 𝑻𝑫𝑬 = 𝒄 +
𝟐 are presented in figure.
- If d is greater than d’, the line of sight is inclined
upward; if d is less than d’, it is inclined
downward.
- It is important to remember that the values of
TDE and d’ must always be solved with due
regard to signs.
- Also, it is always advisable to draw a sketch of the
set up and the observations made in the field to
avoid confusion.
b. Making the Adjustment
- Before making any adjustment, the bubble is
brought to the center of the level vial.
- The adjustment is then made by moving the
cross-hair ring vertically until the line of sight
cuts the rod at d’.
- If the line of sight is inclined upward, the capstan
screw on top at the reticle is loosened and the
capstan screw at the bottom is tightened.
- The opposite is done if the line of sight is inclined
downward.
- Two or more trials may be necessary to obtain
the final adjustment.
Example (Two-Peg Test):
In the two-peg test of a dumpy level in figure, the
following observations were taken:
Instrument Set Instrument Set
Rod Reading
up Near A up Near B
On Point A 1.505 m 0.938 m
On Point b 2.054 m 1.449 m
Requirement:
a. Determine if the line of sight is in adjustment and
explain your answer.
b. If the line of sight is not in adjustment, determine the
correct rod reading on A with the instrument still set
up near B.
c. Determine the error in the line of sight for the net
distance AB.
d. Explain how the line of sight of the instrument should
be adjusted.
The effects of earth curvature and atmospheric
refraction are taken into account in leveling work since
the measurements are made in vertical planes and these
effects all occur in the same plane. The combined effects
Due to the earth’s curvature, a horizontal line departs
from a level line by 0.0785 m in one kilometer, varying as
the square of the length of the line.
This expression for earth’s curvature is based on the
mean radius of the earth which is about 6371 km.
In the given figure the vertical distance between the
horizontal line and the level line (or BD) is a measure of
the earth’s curvature.
In Physics, we learned that when a ray of light passes
through a stratum of different densities, it is refracted or
bent downward towards the denser medium. This
bending is referred to as a refraction.
The effect of refraction is greatest when the line of sight
passes near the ground or when it skims through bodies
of water where temperature differences are large.
It is here that large variations in air densities occur.
During summer, heat waves or boiling air indicates
rapidly changing refraction.
Atmospheric refraction varies with atmospheric
conditions. Under ordinary conditions, it is
approximately equal to 0.0110 m in one kilometer, also
varying directly as the square of the length of the line.
This is about one-seventh the effect of curvature of the
earth.
In figure, it can be seen that due to refraction, a ray of
light which apparently is the straight-line AB actually
follows the curved path AC.
The point observed through the level (at A) appears to be
point B but is actually point C.
The angular displacement resulting from refraction is
variable.
Determine the combined effects of the earth’s curvature
and atmospheric refraction on sight distances of 60, 90,
120, 150, and 500 meters.
Example (Curvature and Refraction):
Two points, A and B, are 525.850 meters apart. A level is
set up on the line between A and b and at a distance of
240.500 m from A. if the rod reading on A is 3.455 m and
that on B is 2.806 m, determine the difference in elevation
between two points, taking into account the effects of
curvature and atmospheric refraction.
Example (Curvature and Refraction):
A woman standing on a beach can just see the top of a
lighthouse 24.140 km away. If her eye height above sea
level is 1.738 m, determine the height of the lighthouse
above the sea level.

It depends upon the angle the line of sight makes with

the vertical and the surrounding atmospheric conditions.
The combination of the earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction causes the telescope’s line of
sight to vary from a level line by approximately 0.0785 Example (Curvature and Refraction):
minus 0.0110 or 0.675 m in one kilometer, varying as the Two hills A and C have elevations of 600 m and 800 m
square of the sight distance in kilometers. This may be respectively. In between A and C is another hill B which
represented by a mathematical equation as follows: has an elevation of 705 m and is located at 12 km from A
ℎ′ = 0.0675𝐾 2 and 10 km from C.
Where h’ is the departure of a telescope of a line of sight Requirement:
from a level line (in meters) and K is the length of the line a. Determine the clearance or obstruction of the line of
of sight (in kilometers). sight at hill B if the observer is at A so that C will be
visible from A.
The value 0.0.675 is called the coefficient of refraction.
Its value actually varies to a certain degree for different
elevation but is taken with an average value of 0.0675.
For surveys of ordinary precision, corrections for the
combined effects of curvature and refraction may be
omitted.
The correction is only necessary in precise leveling work
and where the difference in elevation in length of
backsight and foresight distances are great.
For surveys of ordinary precision, corrections for the
combined effects of curvature and refraction may be
omitted.
The correction is only necessary in precise leveling work
and where the difference in elevation in length of b. If C is not visible from A, what height of tower must
backsight and foresight distances are great. be constructed at C so that it could be visible from A
with the line of sight having a clearance of 2 m above
If the backsight distance were exactly equal to the hill B.
foresight distance for each set up of the instrument, the
errors caused by atmospheric refraction and the earth’s
curvature would cancel each other.
Since refraction changes rapidly with changes in
temperature, it is advisable to undertake precise leveling
during cloudy days or at mid-afternoon on sunny days
when the ground and air are uniformly warm.

Example (Curvature and Refraction):

c. What height of equal towers at A and C must be
constructed in order that A, B, and C will be
intervisible.