Analog Devices and Circuits

UNIT - III: Operational Amplifier and Applications

Course content:
Ideal Operational amplifier, Inverting amplifiers, Non-inverting amplifiers, Voltage
follower, Differential Amplifier, Summing amplifier, Instrumentation Amplifier,
Voltage to current and current to voltage converters, Precision diode, Peak detector,
Comparator.

Course Objectives
• To inculcate the operation and applications of OP-Amps and timer ICs

Course Outcomes
CO4: identify different configurations of op-amp and demonstrate different
applications using op-amps

1.0 Prerequisites:

• Network Theory

Course Content:

3.1 Introduction:

➢ Op-Amp is a direct coupled high gain differential amplifier, which consists of

one or more difference (differential) amplifiers, and is followed by a level
translator and the output stage.
➢ Op-Amp is a versatile device that can be used to amplify AC as well as DC
input signals and designed for computing mathematical functions such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, integration and differentiation.
➢ Op-Amp has two inputs and one output. The input marked as “–” known as
Inverting input and input marked with “+” is known as Non-inverting input.
Block diagram:
➢ The Op-Amp is mainly divided into four main blocks as shown in figure 3.1.
o Input Stage
o Intermediate Stage
o Level Shifting Circuit
 o Output Stage

Fig. 3.1 Block Diagram of an Operational Amplifier

Input Stage:
➢ The input stage is a dual input, balanced output differential amplifier shown
in figure. The basic requirements at the input stage of the Op-Amp are;
- High voltage gain
- High input impedance to avoid loading on the source
- Two input terminals
- Small input offset voltage
- Small input offset current
- High CMRR
- Low input bias current
➢ All such requirements are achieved by using the dual input, balanced output
differential amplifier as an input stage.

Fig. 3.2 A Dual Input Balanced Output Differential Amplifier

➢ Input stage provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier and also
establishes the input resistance of the Op-Amp.
Intermediate Stage:
➢ The intermediate stage shown in figure 3.3, is dual input, unbalanced output
differential amplifier, which is driven by the output of the first block.
 ➢ The overall gain requirement of the Op-Amp is very high and it is achieved by
the intermediate stage.
➢ Basically, the intermediate stage is not a single amplifier but it is a chain of
cascaded amplifiers.

Fig. 3.3 A Dual Input Un-balanced Output Differential Amplifier

Level Shifting Circuit:
➢ The Level Shifting circuit is an emitter follower, using a constant current
source.
➢ The Op-Amp also amplifies the DC signals and the DC quiescent voltage level
of earlier blocks which may get amplified and applied as the input to the next
block affecting the output which may result in distortion.
➢ Due to direct coupling, the dc voltage level at the output of the intermediate
stage is well above the ground potential. Therefore, the level shifting block is
used to change the DC level at the output to zero with respect to ground, when
no signal is applied at the input terminals.
➢ Figure 3.4 shows an emitter-follower hence also called as a buffer that can
provide impedance matching.

Fig. 3.4 An Emitter follower circuit

Output Stage:
➢ The output stage is generally a complementary push-pull amplifier is given in
figure 3.5. This amplifier increases the output voltage swing and raises the
current supplying capability of the Op- Amp and also provides low output
impedance.
➢ The requirements of Output Block are:
- Large output voltage swing capability
 - Large output current swing capability
- Low output impedance
- Low quiescent power dissipation
- Short circuit protection
➢ A class AB or class B amplifier is suitable for the Output stage.

Fig. 3.5 A Complementary Push-Pull Amplifier

Op-amp Circuit symbol:

➢ The most commonly used schematic symbol of an op-amp is shown in fig.3.6
which consists of two inputs and one output.
➢ Since the input differential amplifier stage of the op-amp is designed to be
operated in differential mode, the differential inputs are non-inverting input
designated as (+) and inverting input designated as (-).
➢ An AC or DC signal applied to the non-inverting terminal produces an in phase
signal at the output. On the other hand, if the signal is connected to inverting
terminal produces an out of phase signal at the output terminal.

Fig. 3.6 Schematic Symbol of an Op-Amp.

Where, V+ : Non-inverting input (volts)
V- : Inverting input (volts)
Vout : Output (volts)
VS+ : Positive power supply (volts)
VS- : Negative power supply (volts)
Equivalent Circuit:
➢ Figure 3.7 shows the equivalent circuit of an op-amp.
 Fig. 3.7 Equivalent Circuit of an Op-Amp

➢ AVid is an equivalent thevenin voltage source and R 0 is the thevenin equivalent

resistance looking into the output terminals of an op-amp.

➢ The output voltage is

V0 =AVid = A (V1-V2)

Where, A = large signal voltage gain; Vid = differential input voltage

▪ V1 = voltage at the non-inverting terminal with respect to

ground

▪ V2 = voltage at the inverting terminal with respect to ground

➢ The above equation indicates that the output voltage is directly proportional
to the algebraic difference between the two input voltages.

➢ In other words, the op-amp amplifies the difference between two input signals
not the individual inputs.

IC 741- Pin diagram:

➢ The 741 integrated circuit looks like any other ‘chip’. However, it is a general
purpose op-amp. As shown in figure 3.8 the important pins are 2, 3 and 6
because these represent inverting input, non-inverting input and output.

Fig. 3.8 Pin diagram of IC 741

➢ Pin 1 (Offset Null):
 Offset nulling, since the op-amp is the differential type, input offset voltage
must be controlled so as to minimize offset. Offset voltage is nulled by
application of a voltage of opposite polarity to the offset. An offset null-
adjustment potentiometer may be used to compensate for offset voltage. The
null-offset potentiometer also compensates for irregularities in the operational
amplifier manufacturing process which may cause an offset.
➢ Pin 2 (Inverted Input): All input signals at this pin will be inverted at output
pin 6. Pins 2 and 3 are very important to get the correct input signals or the
op amp cannot do its work.
➢ Pin 3 (Non-Inverted Input): All input signals at this pin will be processed
normally without inversion. The rest is the same as pin 2.
➢ Pin 4 (-V): The V- pin (also referred to as Vss) is the negative supply voltage
terminal. Supply-voltage operating range for the 741 is -4.5 volts (minimum)
to -18 volts (max), and it is specified for operation between -5 and -15 Vdc.
The device will operate essentially the same over this range of voltages without
change in timing period. Sensitivity of time interval to supply voltage change
is low, typically 0.1% per volt.
➢ Pin 5 (Offset Null): Same as pin 1, and offset nulling.
➢ Pin 6 (Output): Output signals polarity will be the opposite of the inputs
when this signal is applied to the op-amps inverting input.
➢ Pin 7 (+V): The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage
terminal of the 741 Op-Amp IC. Supply-voltage operating range for the 741 is
+4.5 volts (minimum) to +18 volts (maximum), and it is specified for operation
between +5 and +15Vdc. The device will operate essentially the same over this
range of voltages without change in timing period. Actually, the most
significant operational difference is the output drive capability, which
increases for both current and voltage range as the supply voltage is
increased. Sensitivity of time interval to supply voltage change is low, typically
0.1% per volt.
➢ Pin 8 (N/C): The ´N/C´ stands for ´Not Connected´. There is no other
explanation. There is nothing connected to this pin, it is just there to make it
a standard 8-pin package.

Manufacturer’s designation for Linear ICs:

3.2 Ideal Operational amplifier

• The schematic symbol of an op-amp is shown in Figure 3.3. (a). It has two
input terminals and one output terminal. Other terminals have not been
shown for simplicity. The – and + symbols at the input refer to inverting and
non-inverting input terminals respectively.
• If v1 = 0, output vo is 180ᵒ out of phase with input signal v2. And when v2 = 0,
output vo will be in phase with the input signal applied at v1.

Figure 3.2 (a) Ideal op-amp (b) Equivalent circuit of an op-amp

This op-amp is said to be ideal if it has the following characteristics.

• Open loop voltage gain AOL = ∞
• Input impedance Ri = ∞
• Output impedance Ro = 0
• Bandwidth BW = ∞
• Zero offset, i.e., vo = 0 when v1 = v2 = 0
It can be seen that
(i) An ideal op-amp draws no current at both the input terminals i.e., i1 = i2 =
0. Because of infinite input impedance, any signal source can drive it and
there is no loading on the preceding driver stage
(ii) Since, gain is ∞, the voltage between inverting and non-inverting terminals,
i.e., differential input voltage vd = (v1 – v2) is essentially zero for finite output
voltage vo.
(iii) The output voltage vo is independent of the current drawn from the output
as Ro = 0. The output thus can drive an infinite number of other devices.
(iv) Infinite bandwidth so that any frequency signal can be amplified.
(v) Infinite CMRR so that output common mode noise voltage is zero.
(vi) Infinite slew rate so that output voltage changes occur simultaneously
with input voltage changes.
The above properties can never be realized in practice. However, the use of such an
ideal op-amp model simplifies the mathematics involved in op-amp circuits. There
are practical op-amps that can be made to approximate some of these characteristics.
3.2.2 Practical op-amp specifications:

➢ Very high voltage gain AOL 2×105.

➢ Very high input resistance 2MΩ.
➢ Output resistance is about 75 ohms.
➢ Band width 1MHz.
➢ Output voltage / offset voltage (2mV) when input voltage is zero.
➢ The input bias current is about 80 nA
➢ The input offset current is about 10 nA
➢ The common mode voltage should be within +/-12V for +/-15V supply
➢ The voltage gain rolls off 6dB per octave starting at 100 KHz.
➢ The slew rate is 0.5V/microsecond.

3.2.3 Open loop operation of op-amp

• The simplest way to use an op-amp is in the open loop mode. Refer to Figure
3.2 (c) where signals v1 and v2 are applied at non-inverting and inverting
input terminals, respectively.

Figure 3.2. (c) Open loop circuit

• Since the gain is infinite, the output voltage v0 is either at its positive
saturation voltage (+ Vsat) or negative saturation voltage (- Vsat) as v1 > V2 or
v2 > v1 respectively.
• The output assumes one of the two possible output states, that is + Vsat or –
Vsat, and the amplifier acts as a switch only
• This has a limited number of applications such as voltage comparator, zero
crossing detector, etc.

3.2.4 Feedback in ideal op-amp

 • The utility of an op-amp can be greatly increased by providing negative
feedback. The output in this case is not driven into saturation and the circuit
behaves in a linear manner
• Two important negative feedback circuits: (i) Inverting amplifier and (ii) Non-
inverting amplifier
• In order to understand the operation of these circuits, we make two realistic
simplifying assumptions

(i) Current drawn by either of the input terminals (non-inverting and inverting)
is negligible

(ii) The differential input voltage vd between non-inverting and inverting input
terminals is essentially zero.

3.3 Inverting amplifiers:

Open Loop Inverting Amplifier:

➢ If a voltage Vin is applied at the inverting input keeping the non-inverting input
at ground, then Op-Amp is in the inverting mode is shown in figure 3.9.
V1=0, V2= Vin
V0 = -AOL. Vin

Fig. 3.9 Open Loop Inverting Amplifier

➢ The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect
to input by 180° or is of opposite polarity. Thus the input signal is amplified by
gain A and also inverted at the output.

Open Loop Non-Inverting Amplifier:

➢ If a voltage Vin is fed at the non-inverting input keeping the inverting input at
ground then Op- Amp is in non-inverting mode is shown in figure 3.10.
V1=Vin, V2=0 V0 = AOL. Vin
 Fig. 3.10 Open Loop Non-Inverting Amplifier

➢ This means that the input voltage is amplified by Op-Amp and there is no phase
reversal at the output.

Closed Loop Inverting Amplifier:

➢ Virtual short means the differential input voltage between the non-inverting and
inverting input terminals is essentially zero.
Example: If output voltage is 10V and the open loop gain is 105 then,
V0 = A0L.Vd
Vd = 10/105 = 1 mV
Hence difference voltage is very small.
➢ As open loop gain is infinity the difference voltage is equal to zero. Therefore, the
difference voltage is given as, Vd =V1-V2=0.

Fig. 3.11 Closed Loop Inverting Amplifier

➢ An inverting amplifier shown in fig. 3.11 is one whose output is amplified and is
out of phase by 180 degrees with respect to the input.
➢ The current entering into the op-amp is zero.

➢ The point V1, is called virtual ground and is equal to zero. By applying KVL,
Vi – i1.R1 =0
  i1 = Vi/R1
and
0-i1.Rf-V0= 0
 V0 = -i1. Rf
= (Vi / R1). Rf
ACL = V0 / Vi = -Rf / R1

3.4 Non-inverting amplifiers:

Closed Loop Non-Inverting Amplifier:

➢ If a signal (ac or dc) is applied to the non-inverting input terminal, the feedback
is given as shown in the Figure 3.12.
➢ In non-inverting amplifier the input is applied to non-inverting terminal of the
op-amp.
➢ It is also a negative feed-back system, as output is being feedback to the inverting
input terminal.
➢ As the differential voltage at the input terminal of the op-Amp is zero.
➢ A non-inverting amplifier is one, whose output is amplified and is in phase with
the input.

Fig. 3.12 Closed Loop Non-Inverting Amplifier

➢ Rf and R1 forms a potential divider, hence apply potential divider rule to find the
drop across R1
Vi = V0/(R1+Rf).R1
 V0/Vi = (R1+Rf)/R1
ACL = V0/Vi =1+Rf/R1
3.5 Voltage follower:

• In the non-inverting amplifier circuit, shown in Figure 3.13 (a), if Rf = 0 and

R1 = ∞, we get the modified circuit of Figure 3.13 (b).

Figure 3.13 (a) Non-inverting amplifier (b) Voltage follower

• Using the Closed loop gain expression of non-inverting amplifier, we get
Vo = Vi Since Rf = 0
• That is the output voltage is equal to input voltage, both in magnitude and
phase.
• In other words, we can also say that the output voltage follows the input
voltage exactly.
• Hence the circuit is called a voltage follower
• The use of the unity gain circuit lies in the fact that its input impedance is
very high (i.e., in MΩ order) and output impedance is zero
• Therefore it draws negligible current from the source
• Thus a voltage follower may be used as a buffer for impedance matching, that
is, to connect a high impedance source to a low impedance load.

3.6 Summing amplifier:

• Figure 3.14 shows the summing amplifier with three inputs.

Figure 3.14 Three input summing Amplifier

 In this simple summing amplifier circuit, the output voltage, ( Vout ) now
becomes proportional to the sum of the input voltages, V1, V2, V3, etc. Then we
can modify the original equation for the inverting amplifier to take account of
these new inputs thus:

However, if all the input impedances, ( Rin ) are equal in value, we can simplify
the above equation to give an output voltage of:

• Note that when the summing point is connected to the inverting input of
the op-amp the circuit will produce the negative sum of any number of
input voltages.

• Likewise, when the summing point is connected to the non-inverting input

of the op-amp, it will produce the positive sum of the input voltages.

3.6 Differential Amplifier:

• A circuit that amplifies the difference between two signals is called a difference
or differential amplifier. This type of amplifier is very useful in instrumentation
circuits.
• A typical circuits is shown in Figure 3.15.
 Figure 3.15 Differential amplifier

• Since the differential voltage at the input terminals of the op-amp is zero,
nodes ‘a’ and ‘b’ are at the same potential, designated as v3.
• The nodal equation at ‘a’ is:
• Such a circuit is very useful in detecting very small differences in signals,
since the gain R2 / R1 can be chosen very large.
• For example, if R2 = 100 R1, then a small difference v1 – v2 is amplified 100
times.
• Consider the basic differential amplifier as shown in fig.3.15. It can be easily
seen that the output voltage Vo is given by,

Multiply and divide the second term in the right hand side by R3,

Rearranging the terms, we get

Taking R3 to denominator in second term,

 Rewriting the same,

3.8 Instrumentation Amplifier:

➢ Instrumentation amplifier is a kind of differential amplifier with additional
input buffer stages. The addition of input buffer stages makes it easy to match
(impedance matching) the amplifier with the preceding stage.
➢ Instrumentation is commonly used in industrial test and measurement
application. The instrumentation amplifier also has some useful features like
low offset voltage, high CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio), high input
resistance, high gain, high gain stability with low temperature coefficient, low
output impedance etc.
➢ The circuit diagram of a typical basic differential amplifier using op-amp is
shown in fig. 3.16. An improved instrumentation amplifier is given in fig. 3.17.
Using transducer as a bridge is shown in fig. 3.18.
➢ There are specially designed op-amps such as μA725 to meet the above stated
requirements of a good instrumentation amplifier.
➢ Monolithic (single chip) instrumentation amplifier are also available
commercially such as AD521, AD524, AD620, AD624 by Analog Devices,
LM363.XX (XX -->10,100,500) by National Semiconductor and INA101, 104,
3626, 3629 by Burr Brown.
 Fig. 3.16.Basic Differential Amplifier

➢ Consider the basic differential amplifier as shown in fig.3.16. It can be easily

seen that the output voltage Vo is given by,

➢ In the circuit of fig. 3.16 source V1 sees an input impedance = R3+R4 (=101K)
and the impedance seen by source V2 is only R1 (1K).

➢ This low impedance may load the signal source heavily. Therefore, high
resistance buffer is used preceding each input to avoid this loading effect as
shown in fig.3.17.

➢
➢ Fig. 3.17 An Improved Instrumentation Amplifier

➢ The op-amp A1 and A2 have differential input voltage as zero. For V1=V2, that
is, under common mode condition, the voltage across R will be zero. As no
current flows through R and R’ the non-inverting amplifier.

➢ A1 acts as voltage follower, so its output V2’=V2. Similarly op-amp A2 acts as

voltage follower having output V1’=V1. However, if V1≠V2, current flows in R
and R’, and (V2’-V1’) > (V2-V1).
➢ Therefore, this circuit has differential gain and CMRR more compared to the
single op-amp circuit of fig. 3.16.

➢ The output voltage Vo can be calculated as follows:

➢ The voltage at the (+) input terminal of op-amp A3 is R 2 V1 ’

R1+R2

Using Super position theorem, we have

Vo = - V2’ + (1+ ) [( R2 V1’ ) /R1 + R2]

Using the same assumptions from basic differential amplifier:

Vo = (V1’ – V2’)

Since no current flows into op-amp the current I flowing in R is I= (V1-V2)/R

and passes through the resistor R1.

V 1 ’ = R ’ I + V1 = [R ’ / R (V1 – V2)] + V1

V2’ = - R’ I + V2 = - [R ’ / R (V1 – V2)] + V2

Putting the values of V1’ and V2’ in eq. , we obtain,

Vo = [ (V1-V2) + (V1- V2)]

or

Vo = (1+ ) (V1 - V2)

➢ The difference gain of this instrumentation amplifier R, however should never

be made zero, as this will make the gain infinity. To avoid such a situation, in
a practical circuit, a fixed resistance in series with a potentiometer is used in
place of R.

➢ Figure 3.18 shows a differential instrumentation amplifier using Transducer

Bridge.
 Fig. 3.18 Instrumentation Amplifier Using Transducer Bridge

➢ The circuit uses a resistive transducer whose resistance changes as a function

of the physical quantity to be measured.

➢ The bridge is initially balanced by a dc supply voltage V dc so that V1=V2. As

the physical quantity changes, the resistance RT of the transducer also
changes, causing an unbalance in the bridge (V1≠V2).

➢ This differential voltage now gets amplified by the three op-amp differential
instrumentation amplifier.

➢ There are number differential applications of instrumentation amplifier with

the transducer bridge, such as temperature indicator, temperature controller,
and light intensity meter to name a few.

3.9 Voltage to current and current to voltage converters:

3.9.1 Voltage to current converter (Transconductance amplifier)

In many applications, one may have to convert a voltage signal to a proportional
output current. For this there are two types of circuits possible:
(i) V-I Converter with floating load
(ii) V-I converter with grounded load
Figure 3.18 shows a voltage to current converter in which load ZL is floating.
Voltage to current converter with (a) floating load (b) Grounded load
3.9.2 Current to Voltage converter (Transresistance amplifier)
• Photocell, photodiode and photovoltaic cell give an output current that is
proportional to an incident radiant energy or light
• The current through these devices can be converted to voltage by using a
current to voltage converter and thereby the amount of light or radiant energy
incident on the photo-device can be measured.
• Figure 3.15 shows an op-amp used as I-to-V converter.

Figure 3.15 Current to voltage converter

• Since the negative (-) input terminal is at virtual ground, no current flows
through Rs and current is flows through the feedback resistor Rf.
• Thus the output voltage vo = - is * Rf
• It may be pointed out that the lowest current that this circuit can measure
will depend upon the bias current IB of the op-amp.
• This means that µA741 (IB = 3 nA) can be used to detect lower currents
• The resistor Rf is sometimes shunted with a capacitor C f to reduce high
frequency noise and the probability of oscillations.
3.10 Precision diode:

➢ The signal processing applications with very low voltage, current and power
levels require rectifier circuits. The ordinary diodes cannot rectify voltages
below the cut-in voltage of the diode.
➢ A circuit which can act as an ideal diode or precision signal – processing
rectifier circuit for rectifying voltages which are below the level of cut-in voltage
of the diode can be designed by placing the diode in the feedback loop of an
op-amp.

Precision Diodes:

➢ Figure 3.14 shows the arrangement of a precision diode. It is a single diode

arrangement and functions as a non-inverting precision half – wave rectifier
circuit. If Vi in the circuit is positive, the op-amp output VOA also becomes
positive. Then the closed loop condition is achieved for the op-amp and the
output voltage V0 = Vi. When Vi < 0, the voltage VOA becomes negative and the
diode is reverse biased. The loop is then broken and the output V 0 = 0.

Fig. 3.14 Precision Diode with Input and Output Waveform

➢ Consider the open loop gain AOL of the op-amp is approximately 104 and the
cut-in voltage Vγ for silicon diode is ≈ 0.7V. When the input voltage V i > Vγ /
AOL , the output of the op-amp VOA exceeds Vγ and the diode D conducts. Then
the circuit acts like a voltage follower for input voltage level V i > Vγ / AOL (i.e.
when Vi > 0.7/104 = 70μV), and the output voltage V0 follows the input voltage
during the positive half cycle for input voltages higher than 70μV as shown in
figure. When Vi is negative or less than Vγ / AOL, the output of op-amp VOA
becomes negative, and the diode becomes reverse biased.

➢ The loop is then broken, and the op-amp swings down to negative saturation.
However, the output terminal is now isolated from both the input signal and
 the output of the op-amp terminal thus VO =0. No current is then delivered to
the load RL except for the small bias current of the op-amp and the reverse
saturation current of the diode.

➢ This circuit is an example of a non-linear circuit, in which linear operation is

achieved over the remaining region (Vi < 0). Since the output swings to
negative saturation level when Vi < 0, the circuit is basically of saturating
form. Thus the frequency response is also limited.

➢ The precision diodes are used in half wave and Full-wave rectifier, peak value
detector, clipper and clamper circuits. It can be observed that the precision
diode can be operated in the first quadrant with Vi > 0 and V0 > 0. The
operation in third quadrant can be achieved by connecting the diode in reverse
direction.

Half – Wave Rectifier:

➢ A non-saturating half wave precision rectifier circuit with the input and output
waveforms are shown in fig.2.15. When V i > 0V, the voltage at the inverting
input becomes positive, forcing the output V OA to go negative. This results in
forward biasing the diode D1 and the op-amp output drops only by ≈ 0.7V
below the inverting input voltage. Diode D2 becomes reverse biased. The
output voltage V0 is zero when the input is positive. When Vi < 0, the op-amp
output VOA becomes positive, forward biasing the diode D2 and reverse biasing
the diode D1. The circuit then acts like an inverting amplifier circuit with a
nonlinear diode in the forward path. The gain of the circuit is unity when R f =
Ri .

Fig.2.15 Half-Wave Rectifier with Input and Output Waveform

The circuit operation can mathematically be expressed as

and
 The voltage VOA at op-amp output is

and

The op-amp in the circuit must be a high speed op-amp. This accommodates the
abrupt changes in the value of VOA when Vi changes sign and improves the
frequency response characteristics of the circuit. The advantages of half wave
rectifier are it is a precision half wave rectifier and it is a non saturating one. The
inverting characteristics of the output V 0 can be circumvented by the use of an
additional inversion for achieving a positive output.
Full Wave Rectifier:

➢ The Full Wave Rectifier circuit commonly used an absolute value circuit is
shown in fig.2.16 with input and output waveform. The first part of the total
circuit is a half wave rectifier circuit and the second part of the circuit is an
inverting.

Fig.2.16 Full wave Rectifier with Input and Output Waveform

➢ For positive input voltage Vi > 0V and assuming that RF =Ri = R, the output
voltage VOA = Vi . The voltage V0 appears as (-) input to the summing op-amp
circuit formed by A 2 , The gain for the input Vo’ is R/(R/2), as shown in figure.

➢ The input Vi also appears as an input to the summing amplifier. Then, output
is V0 = -Vi -2Vo’ = -Vi -2(-Vi ) = Vi Since Vi > 0V, Vo’ will be positive, with its
input output characteristics in first quadrant. For negative input V i < 0V, the
 output V’0 of the first part of rectifier circuit is zero. Thus, one input of the
summing circuit has a value of zero. However, V i is also applied as an input
to the summer circuit formed by the op-amp A2 .

➢ The gain for this input is (-R/R) = -1, and hence the output is V0= -Vi . Since
Vi is negative, v0 will be inverted and will thus be positive. This corresponds
to the second quadrant of the circuit. To summarize the operation of the
circuit,V0 = Vi when Vi < 0V and V0 = Vi for Vi > 0V, and hence V0 = |Vi | It can
be observed that this circuit is of non-saturating form.

3.11 Peak detector:

• The function of a peak detector is to compute the peak value of the input. The
circuit follows the voltage peaks of a signal and stores the highest value
(almost indefinitely) on a capacitor.
• If a higher peak signal value comes along, this new value is stored.
• The highest peak value is stored until the capacitor is discharged.

Figure 3.16 (a) Positive peak detector

• Consider the circuit of Fig. 3.16 (a). When input Vi exceeds Vc, the voltage
across the capacitor, the diode D is forward biased and the circuit becomes a
voltage follower.
• Consequently, the output voltage Vo follows Vi as long as Vi exceeds Vc
• When Vi drops below Vc, the diode becomes reverse biased and the capacitor
holds the charge till input voltage again attains a value greater than Vc.
• Figure 3.16 (b) shows the voltage wave shape for the positive peak detector
 Figure 3.16 (b) Output Vo corresponding to arbitrary input Vi
• It may be noted that the peak at time t’ is missed, the reason is obvious
• The circuit can be reset, that is the capacitor voltage can be made zero by
connecting a low leakage MOSFET switch across the capacitor.
• The circuit can be modified to hold the lowest or most negative voltage of a
signal by reversing the diode.
• Peak detectors find application in test and measurement instrumentation as
well as in amplitude modulation (AM) communication.

3.12 Comparator:
• A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input
of an op-amp with a known reference voltage at the other input.
• It is basically an open loop op-amp output +/- Vsat (= Vcc) as shown in ideal
transfer characteristics of Figure 3.17 (a)

Figure 3.17 The transfer characteristics (a) Ideal comparator (b) Practical
comparator
• However, a commercial op-amp has the transfer characteristics of Fig. 3.17
(b)
• It may be seen that the change in the output state takes place with an
increment in input Vi of only 2 mV.
 • This is the uncertainty region where output cannot be directly defined. This
region is due to input off-set voltage and off-set null compensating techniques
can be used to eliminate this.
• There are basically two types of comparators
(i) Non-inverting comparator
(ii) Inverting comparator
3.12.1 Non-inverting comparator:
• The circuit of Figure 3.18 (a) is called a non-inverting comparator. A fixed
reference voltage Vref is applied to (-) input and a time varying signal Vi is
applied to (+) input.

Figure 3.18 (a) Non-inverting comparator

• The output voltage is at – Vsat for Vi < Vref, and Vo goes to + vsat for Vi > Vref.
• The output waveform for a sinusoidal input signal applied to the (+) input is
shown in Fig. 3.18 (b and c) for positive and negative Vref respectively.

Figure 3.18 (b)

 • In a practical circuit, Vref is obtained by using a 10 KΩ potentiometer which
forms a voltage divider with the supply voltages V+ and V- with the wiper
connected to (-) input terminal as shown in Figure 3.18 (d).

=
Figure 3.18 (d) Practical non-inverting comparator

• Thus a Vref of desired amplitude and polarity can be obtained by simply

adjusting the 10 KΩ potentiometer.

3.12.2 Inverting comparator:

• Figure 3.19 (a) shows a practical inverting comparator in which the reference
voltage Vref is applied to the (+) input and Vi applied to (-) input.
• For a sinusoidal input signal, the output waveform is shown in Fig. 3.19 (B)
and (c) for Vref positive and negative respectively.

Figure 3.19 (a) Inverting comparator

• Output voltage levels independent of power supply voltages can also be
obtained by using a resistor R and two back to back Zener diodes at the output
of op-amp as shown in Fig. (d).
 Figure 3.19 (a) Comparator with Zener diode at the output
• The value of resistance R is chosen so that the Zener diode operated at the
recommended current.
• It can be seen that the limiting voltages of V are (Vz1 + V D) and – (Vz2 + VD)
where VD (~0.7 V) is the diode forward voltage.