Analog Devices and Circuits

UNIT - I: PN-Junction Diode

Course content:
Drift and Diffusion currents, PN-junction with open-circuit terminals, PN-
junction with an applied voltage, Capacitive effects in PN-Junctions, Terminal
characteristics of junction diodes, Modelling the diode forward
characteristics- ideal diode model, piece wise linear model and constant-
voltage-drop. Special Diodes: LED, Photo Diode, Tunnel Diode, Varactor Diode
(only characteristics) and applications of special diodes.

Course Objectives
• To familiarize with the operation and characteristics of electronic
devices.

Course Outcomes
CO1: study the characteristics and models for diodes and use them for
various applications.

1.0 Prerequisites:

• Semiconductor physics

Types of materials

Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a conductivity between that of a good
conductor and that of an insulator. The three semiconductors used most frequently in the
construction of electronic devices are Ge, Si, and GaAs.

Atom structure of popular semiconductors:

Atomic structure of three popular semiconductors namely silicon, Germanium, and

Gallium Arsenide are shown in Figure.
Covalent bond

In a pure silicon or germanium crystal the four valence electrons of one atom form a bonding
arrangement with four adjoining atoms, as shown in Fig. 1. 4. This bonding of atoms,
strengthened by the sharing of electrons, is called covalent bonding.
 • Although the covalent bond will result in a stronger bond between the
valence electrons and their parent atom, it is still possible for the
valence electrons to absorb sufficient kinetic energy from external
natural causes to break the covalent bond and assume the “free” state.
• The term free is applied to any electron that has separated from the
fixed lattice structure and is very sensitive to any applied electric fields
such as established by voltage sources or any difference in potential.
• The external causes include effects such as light energy in the form of
photons and thermal energy (heat) from the surrounding medium.

Energy band diagram

The electronic band structure (or diagram) is an energy schema to describe

the conductivity of solids (namely conductors, insulators, and
semiconductors). There are three types of energy bands.
1. Filled Band: As the name implies, it is completely filled with electrons
and it is near to the nucleus. There are no free electron in this band.

2. Valence Band: The last band of the atom is called valence band and the
electron of that band is called valence electron. The energy of the
valence electron is more as compared to electrons in the filled band.
When valence electron gain some energy then they leave that band and
cross the energy gap and goes into the conduction band. Because of
this the current flow starts in the material.

3. Conduction Band: When the free electrons escape from its permanent
atom they move into conduction band and this process is called
conduction. The energy difference between valence and conduction
band is called energy gap. Energy gap of solids decides the conductivity
of the materials.
Energy levels: (a) discrete levels in isolated atomic structures; (b) conduction
and valence bands of an insulator, a semiconductor, and a conductor.

In conductors, both the valance band and conduction band overlap

each other. So there is zero band gap in a conductor. In semiconductor, there
is a small band gap approximately of 1 eV. In an insulator, there is a large
band gap of nearly 5 eV.

Semiconductor types:
A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process is
called an extrinsic material. There are two extrinsic materials used for
semiconductor device fabrication: (i) n -type and (ii) p -type materials.

• An n -type material is created by introducing impurity elements

that have five valence electrons (pentavalent), such as antimony,
arsenic , and phosphorus.
• Note that the four covalent bonds are still present. There is,
however, an additional fifth electron due to the impurity atom,
which is unassociated with any particular covalent bond.
• This remaining electron, loosely bound to its parent (antimony)
atom, is relatively free to move within the newly formed n -type
material.
• The p -type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or
silicon crystal with impurity atoms having three valence
electrons. The elements most frequently used for this purpose are
boron, gallium, and indium.
• Note that there is now an insufficient number of electrons to
complete the covalent bonds of the newly formed lattice.
• The resulting vacancy is called a hole and is represented by a
small circle or a plus sign, indicating the absence of a negative
charge, since the resulting vacancy will readily accept a free
electron.
 In an n-type material the electron is called the majority carrier and the
hole the minority carrier. In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier
and the electron is the minority carrier.
The direction of conventional current flow is the direction of hole flow.
Semiconductor materials have a negative temperature coefficient.

Mass action law:

The law of mass action states that the product of number of electrons
in the conduction band and the number of holes in the valence band is
constant at a fixed temperature and is independent of amount of donor and
acceptor impurity added.
Mathematically it is represented as
np = ni2 = constant
Where ni - the intrinsic carrier concentration

n - number of electrons in conduction band

p - number of holes in valence band

Continuity equation:

The continuity equations are "bookkeeping" equations that take into account
all of the processes that occur within a semiconductor. Drift, diffusion, and
recombination-generation are constantly occurring in a
semiconductor. Although we have studied these processes individually, they
take place at the same time. These carrier actions change the carrier
concentration in the semiconductor as a function of time and space, and
because carriers transport a charge, a current will result.

Continuity equations:
n 1 J n ( x) n
For electrons: = − + GL
t q x n
p 1 J n ( x) p
=− − + GL
t q x p
 For holes:

As per the law of conservation of charge, rate of change of number of

electrons inside the semiconductor = the number of electrons entering per second -
number electrons leaving + Number of electrons generated per second by observing
light source (GL) – number of electrons lost due to recombination (Δn / τn or Δp / τp)

Hall effect:

The Hall effect is when a magnetic field is applied at right angles to the
current flow in a thin film where an electric field is generated, which is
mutually perpendicular to the current and the magnetic field and which is
directly proportional to the product of the current density and the magnetic
induction.

In the above figure, Pink color box – Thin conducting wire or thin semiconductor

Direction of current flow in the wire - X

Direction of magnetic field (B) applied – Z

Direction of Electric field (E) generated – Y

Course Content:
1.1 Drift and Diffusion currents

Electrons and holes cannot mysteriously appear or disappear at a given point,

but must be transported to or created at the given point via some type of
carrier action.
There are two distinctly different mechanisms for the movement of charge
carriers and hence for current flow in semiconductors: drift and diffusion.
Drift and diffusion are responsible for generating current in semiconductors
and the overall current density is the sum of the drift and diffusion currents.

1.1.1 Drift Current

When an electrical field E is established in a semiconductor crystal, holes are

accelerated in the direction of E, and free electrons are accelerated in the
direction opposite to that of E.

Figure 1.1 An electric field E established in a bar of silicon causes the holes
to drift in the direction of E and the free electrons to drift in the opposite
direction.

The holes acquire a velocity vp-drift given by

--- (1.1)

where µp is a constant called the hole mobility: It represents the degree of

ease by which holes move through the silicon crystal in response to the
electrical field E.

For intrinsic silicon µp = 480 cm2 / V. Sec.

The free electrons acquire a drift velocity vn-drift given by

--- (1.2)

result is negative because the electrons move in the direction opposite to E.

For intrinsic silicon µn = 1350 cm2/V.s.

Note that µn is about 2.5 times µp, signifying that electrons move with much
greater ease through the silicon crystal than do holes.
The drift velocity increases with increasing electric field and contributes to the
mobility μ of the carriers. The drift current follows Ohm’s law and is mainly
influenced by the external field and charge carrier concentration.

Derivation for the Drift Current:

Let the concentration of holes be p and that of free electrons n. We wish to

calculate the current component due to the flow of holes.

Consider a plane perpendicular to the x direction. In one second, the hole

charge that crosses that plane will be (Aqpvp-drift) coulombs, where A is the
cross-sectional area of the silicon bar and q is the magnitude of electron
charge.

Then hole component of the drift current flowing through the bar is given by:

--- (1.3)

Substituting for vp-drift from eqn. (1.1)

--- (1.4)

We are usually interested in the current density Jp, which is the current per
unit cross sectional area,

--- (1.5)

The current component due to the drift of free electrons can be found in a
similar manner.

--- (1.6)

Substituting for vn-drift from Eq. (1.2),

--- (1.7)

The total drift current density can now be found by summing Jp and Jn from
Eqs.

--- (1.8)
This relationship can be written as

--- (1.9)

or

--- (1.10)

where the conductivity is given by

--- (1.11)

and the resistivity is given by

--- (1.12)

1.1.2 Diffusion Current

The movement of charge carriers from higher concentration to lower

concentration generates diffusion current. This occurs when a semiconductor
is doped non-uniformly then there is a non-uniform distribution of carriers or
a concentration gradient.
The diffusion of charge carriers gives rise to a net flow of charge, or diffusion
current.

As an example, consider the bar of silicon shown in Fig. 1.2(a).

Fig. 1.2 (a) A bar of silicon into which holes are injected, thus creating the
hole concentration profile along the x axis

This continuous hole injection gives rise to and maintains a hole

concentration profile such as that shown in Fig. 1.2(b).
This profile in turn causes holes to diffuse from left to right along the silicon
bar, resulting in a hole current in the x direction. The magnitude of the
current at any point is proportional to the slope of the concentration profile,
or the concentration gradient, at that point,

--- (1.13)

Where Jp is the hole-current density; q is the magnitude of electron charge,

Dp is a constant called the diffusion constant or diffusivity of holes; dp/dx is
the carrier concentration gradient, which is negative in this case.

Figure 1.2 (b) The holes diffuse in the positive direction of x and give rise to a
hole diffusion current in the same direction.

A similar relationship applies, giving the electron-current density,

--- (1.14)

Where, Dn is the diffusion constant or diffusivity of electrons. For holes and

electrons diffusing in intrinsic silicon, typical values for the diffusion
constants are Dp = 12 cm2/s and Dn = 35 cm2/s.

Relationship between D and µ:

A simple but powerful relationship ties the diffusion constant with the
mobility is given by:

--- (1.15)

This relationship is known as the Einstein relationship. In this V T = kT/q .

The parameter VT is known as the thermal voltage. At room temperature, T =
300 K, and VT = 25.9 mV.
1.2 PN-junction with open-circuit terminals

1.2.1 Physical Structure:

Figure 1.4 shows a simplified physical structure of the pn junction. It consists

of p-type semiconductor (e.g., silicon) brought into close contact with an n-
type semiconductor material (also silicon).

Figure 1.3 Simplified physical structure of the pn junction.

1.2.2 Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

Figure 1.3 shows a pn junction under open-circuit conditions—that is, the

external terminals are left open. The “+” signs in the p-type material denote
the majority holes.

Diffusion Current ID : Because the concentration of holes is high in the p

region and low in the n region, holes diffuse across the junction from the p
side to the n side; similarly, electrons diffuse across the junction from the n
side to the p side. These two current components add together to form the
diffusion current ID, whose direction is from the p side to the n side.

Figure 1.4 (a) The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited

terminals). (b) The potential distribution along an axis perpendicular to the
junction.
Depletion Region: The holes that diffuse across the junction into the n region
quickly recombine with some of the majority electrons present there and thus
disappear from the scene.

This recombination process results also in the disappearance of some free

electrons from the n-type material. Thus some of the bound positive charge
will no longer be neutralized by free electrons, and this charge is said to have
been uncovered.

Since recombination takes place close to the junction, there will be a region
close to the junction that is depleted of free electrons and contains uncovered
bound positive charge. Due to similar reasons in the p material close to the
junction, there will be a region depleted of holes and containing uncovered
bound negative charge. This carrier-depletion region—or, simply, depletion
region—is also called the space-charge region.

Barrier Potential: The charges on both sides of the depletion region cause an
electric field E to be established across the region in the direction indicated in
Fig. 1.4. Hence a potential difference results across the depletion region, with
the n side at a positive voltage relative to the p side, as shown in Fig. 1.4(b).

Thus the resulting electric field opposes the diffusion of holes into the n region
and electrons into the p region. In fact, the voltage drop across the depletion
region acts as a barrier that has to be overcome for holes to diffuse into the n
region and electrons to diffuse into the p region. The larger the barrier voltage,
the smaller the number of carriers that will be able to overcome the barrier
and hence the lower the magnitude of diffusion current.

With no external voltage applied, the barrier voltage V 0 across the pn junction
can be shown to be given by

--- (1.16)

where NA and ND are the doping concentrations of the p side and n side of the
junction, respectively. Thus V0 depends both on doping concentrations and
on temperature. It is known as the junction built-in voltage. Typically, for
silicon at room temperature, V0 is in the range of 0.6 V to 0.9 V.

The Drift Current IS and Equilibrium:

In addition to the current component ID due to majority-carrier diffusion, a

component due to minority carrier drift exists across the junction.

Specifically, some of the thermally generated holes in the n material move

toward the junction and reach the edge of the depletion region. There, they
experience the electric field in the depletion region, which sweeps them across
that region into the p side.

Similarly, some of the minority thermally generated electrons in the p material

move to the edge of the depletion region and get swept by the electric field in
the depletion region across that region into the n side.

These two current components—electrons moved by drift from p to n and

holes moved by drift from n to p—add together to form the drift current IS.

Under open-circuit conditions (Fig. 1.4) no external current exists; thus the
two opposite currents across the junction must be equal in magnitude:

ID = IS

Width of and Charge Stored in the Depletion Region Figure 1.5 provides
further illustration of the situation that obtains in the pn junction when the
junction is in equilibrium.

In Fig. 1.5(a) we show a junction in which , a typical situation in practice.

Note that we have denoted the minority carrier concentrations in both sides
by and pn0, with the additional subscript “0” signifying equilibrium (i.e.,
before external voltages are applied).

Observe that the depletion region extends in both the p and n materials and
that equal amounts of charge exist on both sides. Also, the width of the
depletion region in the p side by xp and in the n side by xn.
Figure 1.5 (a) A pn junction with the terminals open circuited. (b) Carrier
concentrations; note that NA >> ND.

we can express the magnitude of the charge on the n side of the junction as

--- (1.17)

and that on the p side of the junction as

--- (1.18)

where A is the cross-sectional area of the junction in the plane perpendicular

to the page. The charge equality condition can now be written as

--- (1.19)

The width W of the depletion layer can be shown to be given by

--- (1.20)

where εs is the electrical permittivity of silicon.

1.3 PN-junction with an applied voltage

Having studied the open-circuited pn junction in detail, we are now ready to

apply a dc voltage between its two terminals to find its electrical conduction
properties.
If the voltage is applied so that the p side is made more positive than the n
side, it is referred to as a forward bias voltage.
Conversely, if our applied dc voltage is such that it makes the n side more
positive than the p side, it is said to be a reverse-bias voltage.

Qualitative Description of Junction Operation: Figure 1.6 shows the pn

junction under three different conditions: (a) the open-circuit or equilibrium
condition studied in the previous section; (b) the reverse-bias condition, where
a dc voltage is applied; and (c) the forward-bias condition where a dc voltage
is applied.
Figure 1.6 The pn junction in: (a) equilibrium; (b) reverse bias; (c) forward bias

Observe that in the open-circuit case, a barrier voltage Vo develops, making

n more positive than p, and limiting the diffusion current to a value exactly
equal to the drift current Is, thus resulting in a zero current at the junction
terminals

Consider now the reverse-bias case in (b). The externally applied reverse-bias
voltage is in the direction to add to the barrier voltage, and it does, thus
increasing the effective barrier voltage to as shown. This reduces the number
of holes that diffuse into the n region and the number of electrons that diffuse
into the p region. The end result is that the diffusion current is dramatically
reduced.

We next consider the forward-bias case shown in Fig. 1.6(c). Here the applied
voltage is in the direction that subtracts from the built-in voltage, resulting in
a reduced barrier voltage across the depletion region.

This reduced barrier voltage will be accompanied by reduced depletion-region

charge and correspondingly narrower depletion-region width W. Most
importantly, the lowering of the barrier voltage will enable more holes to
diffuse from p to n and more electrons to diffuse from n-to-p region. Thus the
diffusion current increases substantially.

The current I in the external circuit is of course the difference between ID and
IS

Current–Voltage Relationship of the Junction

Now we find an analytical expression that describes the current–voltage

relationship of the pn junction
Assume that diode is in forward bias with forward applied voltage V and derive
an expression for the current I that flows in the forward direction (from p to
n).

Figure 1.7 Minority-carrier distribution in a forward-biased pn junction. It is

assumed that the p region is more heavily doped than the n region; N A >> ND.

Let us now consider the holes injected into the n region.

--- (1.21)

That is, the concentration of the minority holes increases from the equilibrium
value of Pno to the much larger value determined by the value of V
The forward-bias voltage V results in an excess concentration of minority
holes at x = xn, given by

--- (1.22)

The total hole concentration in the n material will be given by

--- (1.23)

Substituting for the “Excess concentration” from Eq. (1.2) gives

--- (1.24)

The exponential decay is characterized by the constant Lp, which is called the
diffusion length of holes in the n material.
we can now find the value of the hole–diffusion current density by

--- (1.25)

Substituting for Pn(x) from Eq. (1.24) gives

--- (1.26)

As per the diagram, Jp(x) is highest when x = xn

--- (1.27)

--- (1.28)

--- (1.29)

Substituting for

We get

--- (1.30)

--- (1.31)

Where,

--- (1.32)
Figure (1.8) shows the I–V characteristic of the pn junction (Eq. 3.40). Observe
that in the reverse direction the current saturates at a value equal to –IS. For
this reason, Is is given the name saturation current.

Figure 1.8 The pn junction I–V characteristic.

Reverse Breakdown:

At a reverse-bias voltage –V, with V >> VT, the reverse current that flows across
the junction is approximately equal to and thus is very small.

However, as the magnitude of the reverse-bias voltage V is increased, a value

is reached at which a very large reverse current flows.

Observe that as V reaches the value VZ , the dramatic increase in reverse

current is accompanied by a very small increase in the reverse voltage;
That is, the reverse voltage across the junction remains very close to the value
VZ. The phenomenon that occurs at V = VZ is known as junction breakdown.

If a pn junction breaks down with a breakdown voltage Vz < 5 V, the

breakdown mechanism is usually the zener effect. Avalanche breakdown
occurs when Vz is greater than approximately 7 V.

For junctions that break down between 5 V and 7 V, the breakdown

mechanism can be either the zener or the avalanche effect or a combination
of the two.
Figure 1.9 The I-V characteristic of the pn junction showing the rapid increase
in reverse current in the breakdown region.

Zener Breakdown

• It occurs when the electric field in the depletion layer increases to the
point of breaking covalent bonds and generating electron-hole pairs.
• The electrons generated in this way will be swept by the electric field
into the n side and the holes into the p side.
• Thus these electrons and holes constitute a reverse current across the
junction. Once the zener effect starts, a large number of carriers can be
generated, with a negligible increase in the junction voltage.
• Thus the reverse current in the breakdown region will be large and its
value must be determined by the external circuit, while the reverse
voltage appearing between the diode terminals will remain close to the
specified breakdown voltage VZ.

Avalanche Breakdown
• It occurs when the minority carriers that cross the depletion region
under the influence of the electric field gain sufficient kinetic energy to
be able to break covalent bonds in atoms with which they collide.
• The carriers liberated by this process may have sufficiently high energy
to be able to cause other carriers to be liberated in another ionizing
collision.
• This process keeps repeating in the fashion of an avalanche, with the
result that many carriers are created that are able to support any value
of reverse current, as determined by the external circuit, with a
negligible change in the voltage drop across the junction.

1.4 Capacitive effects in PN-Junctions: There are two charge storage

mechanisms in the pn junction. One is associated with the charge stored in
the depletion region, and the other associated with the minority carrier charge
stored in the n and p materials as a result of the concentration profiles
established by carrier injection.
While the first is easier to see when the pn junction is reverse biased, the
second is in effect only when the junction is forward biased.

1.4.1 Depletion or Junction Capacitance

When a pn junction is reverse biased with a voltage V R, the charge stored on

either side of the depletion region is given by,

--- (1.33)

Thus, for a given pn junction,

--- (1.34)

Where α is given by

--- (1.35)

Figure 1.10 The charge stored on either side of the depletion layer as a
function of the reverse voltage VR.

Thus QJ is nonlinearly related to VR, as shown in Fig. (1.20). This nonlinear

relationship makes it difficult to define a capacitance that accounts for the
need to change QJ whenever VR is changed. We can, however, assume that
the junction is operating at a point such as Q, as indicated in Fig. 1.20, and
define a capacitance CJ that relates the change in the charge to a change in
the voltage ,

--- (1.36)

Using Eq. (1.36) together with Eq. (1.34) yields

 --- (1.37)

The value of CJ at zero reverse-bias can be obtained from

--- (1.38)

which enables us to express CJ as

--- (1.39)

Where CJ0 is given by Eq. (1.38) or alternatively if we substitute for α from

Eqn. (1.35)

--- (1.40)

• Abrupt junction : PN junction where the doping concentration is made

to change abruptly at the junction boundary.
• Graded junction : PN junction in which the carrier concentration is
made to change gradually from one side of the junction to the other

Formula for the junction capacitance (Eq. 1.39) can be written in the more
general form:

--- (1.41)

where m is a constant called the grading coefficient, whose value ranges from
1/3 to ½ depending on the manner in which the concentration changes from
the p to the n side.

1.4.2 Diffusion capacitance (C D)

Diffusion capacitance is also sometimes referred as storage capacitance.

Consider a forward-biased pn junction. In steady-state, minority carrier

distributions in the p and n materials are established, as shown in Fig. 1.11.
Thus a certain amount of excess minority carrier charge is stored in each of
the p and n bulk regions (outside the depletion region).

Figure 1.11 Minority-carrier distribution in a forward-biased pn junction. It

is assumed that the p region is more heavily doped than the n region; N A >>
ND.

If the terminal voltage V changes, this charge will have to change before a new
steady state is achieved. This charge-storage phenomenon gives rise to
another capacitive effect, distinctly different from that due to charge storage
in the depletion region.
To calculate the excess minority carrier charge, refer to Fig. 1.11. The excess
hole charge stored in the n region can be found from the shaded area under
the exponential as follows:

--- (1.42)

we know that,

--- (1.43)

Hence, we can rewrite as --- (1.44)

We know that
 Hence, hole current, --- (1.45)

Comparing eqn. (1.44) and Eqn. (1.45) enables us to express Qp

--- (1.46)

The factor (Lp2/Dp) that relates Qp to Ip is a useful device parameter that has
the dimension of time (s) and is denoted τp

--- (1.47)

Thus,

--- (1.48)

The time constant τp is known as the excess minority carrier (hole) lifetime.
It is the average time it takes for a hole injected into the n region to recombine
with a majority electron.
A similar relationship can be developed for the electron charge stored in the
p region,

--- (1.49)

Where τn is the electron lifetime in the p region. The total excess minority
carrier charge can be obtained by adding together

--- (1.50)

This charge can be expressed in terms of the diode current I = Ip + In

--- (1.51)

Where τT is called the mean transit time of the junction.

For small changes around a bias point, we can define an incremental

diffusion capacitance as

--- (1.52)

and can show that

 --- (1.53)

where I is the forward-bias current. Note that Cd is directly proportional to the

forward current I and thus is negligibly small when the diode is reverse biased.
Also note that to keep Cd small, the transit time τT must be made small, an
important requirement for a pn junction intended for high-speed or high-
frequency operation.

1.5 Terminal characteristics of junction diodes

In this section we study the i–v characteristic of the pn junction diode in detail
in order to prepare ourselves for diode circuit applications.

➢ The characteristic curve consists of three distinct regions:

1. The forward-bias region, determined by v>0
2. The reverse-bias region , determined by v>0
3. The breakdown region, determined by v< -Vzk
➢ These three regions of operation are described in the following sections.

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.12: (a) The i-v characteristics of silicon diode (b) The diode i-v
relationship with some scales
1.5.1 The Forward-Bias Region
➢ The forward-bias of operation is entered when the terminal voltage V is
positive.
➢ In the forward region the i-v relationship is closely approximated by
i = Is (eV/ηVT - 1) --- (1.54)
 ➢ In this equation, Is is constant for a given diode at a given temperature
and is usually called as the saturation current. Another name which is
occasionally used is scale current. Is is directly proportional to the
cross-sectional area of the diode.
➢ For small-signal diodes, Is is of the order of 10-15 A. It doubles in value
for every 10oC rise in temperature.
➢ The voltage V T is a constant called the thermal voltage and is given by
VT = kT/q --- (1.55)
Where, k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 * 10-23 joules/kelvin
T = the absolute temperature in kelvins = 273 + temperature in
oC

q = the magnitude of electronic charge = 1.60 * 10-19 coulomb

➢ At room temperature the value of V T is 25.2mV. Approximately we shall
use VT= 25mV in circuit analysis.
➢ The constant n in diode equation has a value between 1 and 2,
depending on the material and physical structure of the diode.
➢ For appreciable current in the forward direction, specifically for i >>Is,
the equation for i can be approximated as
i = IS. eV/ηVT
This relationship can be expressed alternatively in the logarithmic form
as
V = ηVT ln (i/IS)
Let us evaluate current i1 corresponding to a diode voltage V1:
i1 = IS. eV1/ηVT
Similarly, if the voltage is V2 , the diode current I2 will be
i2 = IS eV2/ηVT
These two equations can be combined to produce
i2/i1 = e(V2-V1)/ ηVT
which can be re written as
V2 - V1 = ηVT.ln (I2/I1) or
V2 - V1 = 2.3ηVT.log (I2/I1) --- (1.56)
➢ This equation states that for a decade change in current, the diode
voltage drop changes by 2.3ηVT, which is approximately 60 mV for n=1
and 120 mV for n=2.
 ➢ The i-v characteristics in the forward region reveal that the current is
negligibly small for V smaller than about 0.5V. This value is usually
referred to as the cut-in voltage.
1.5.2 The Reverse - Bias Region
➢ The reverse-bias region of the operation is entered when the diode
voltage v is made negative.
➢ Equation predicts that if v is negative and a few times larger than V T
(25mV) in magnitude, the exponential term becomes negligibly small
compared to unity, and the diode current becomes
i = -IS
➢ That is, the current in the reverse direction is constant and equal to IS.
This constancy is the reason behind the term saturation current.
➢ Real diodes exhibit reverse currents that, though quite small, are much
larger than IS.
➢ Typical value of reverse saturation current Is is on the order of 10 -14 A
to 10-15 A.
➢ A large part of the reverse current is due to leakage effects. These
leakage currents are proportional to junction area. Temperature
dependence of the reverse current doubles for every 10 oC rise in
temperature.

1.5.3 The Breakdown Region

➢ The breakdown region is entered when magnitude of the reverse voltage
exceeds a threshold value of a particular diode, called the Breakdown
Voltage.
➢ This is the voltage at the "knee" of the i-v curve and is denoted as VZK,
where, Z stands for Zener and k stands for knee.
➢ In the breakdown region the reverse current increases rapidly, with the
associated increase in voltage drop being very small.
➢ Diode breakdown is normally not destructive provided that the power
dissipated in the diode is limited by external circuitry to a “safe” level.
➢ This safe value is normally specified on the device datasheets
➢ It is therefore necessary to limit the reverse current in the breakdown
region to a value consistent with the permissible power dissipation.
 ➢ The diode i-v characteristics in breakdown are almost a vertical line
which enables it to be used in voltage regulation.

1.6 Modelling the diode forward characteristics

➢ To model the diode forward characteristic, we need to analyse the circuit
employing forward conducting diodes as shown in Fig. 1.1.
➢ It consists of a dc source VDD, a resistor R and a diode.

Figure 1.13 A simple circuit used to illustrate the analysis of

circuits in which the diode is forward conducting.
➢ We wish to analyze this circuit to determine the diode voltage V D and
current ID.
➢ Toward that end we consider developing a variety of models for the
operation of the diode.
i) The ideal diode model:
➢ If we neglect the diode voltage drop while calculating the diode current,
it results the Ideal-diode model. i.e.,
For ID > 0 ;
VD = 0

➢ This model can be used in determining which diodes are ON and which
are OFF in a multi diode circuit. The ideal diode model of diode forward
characteristic and its equivalent circuit representation are shown in Fig.
1.14.
Fig. 1.14: The ideal diode model of the diode forward characteristics and its
equivalent circuit representation.

1.7 piece wise linear model:

➢ In this model, the exponential curve is approximated by two straight

lines, line A with zero slope and line B with a slope of 1/rD .

Fig. 1.15: Approximating the diode forward characteristic with two straight
lines: the piecewise-linear model
➢ Over the current range of 0.1 mA to 10 mA, the voltages predicted by
the straight line model shown differ from those predicted by the
exponential model by less than 50 mV.
➢ The straight lines of piecewise-linear model shown in Fig. 1.15 can be
described by
iD = 0, vD ≤ VD0
 iD = (vD – VD0) / rD, vD ≥ VD0 ------- (1.57)
where, VD0 is the intercept of line B on the voltage axis and rD is the
inverse of the slope of line B.
➢ The piecewise-linear model described by equation (1.57) can be
represented by the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 1.16. An ideal diode
included in this model is to constrain iD to flow in the forward direction
only. This model is also known as the battery – plus – resistance
model.

Fig. 1.16: Piecewise-linear model of the diode forward characteristic and its
equivalent circuit representation

1.8 Constant-voltage-drop model:

➢ It can be obtained by if we use a vertical straight line to approximate

the fast-rising part of the exponential curve.
➢ The resulting model says that a forward-conducting diode exhibits a
constant-voltage-drop VD which is 0.7 V.
➢ This model predicts the diode voltage to within ±0.1 V over the current
range of 0.1 mA to 10 mA. The constant-voltage-drop model can be
represented by the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 1.17
➢ If we assume this model while analyzing the diode circuits, we get
For iD > 0, VD = 0.7 V
VD = 0.7 V iD = (vDD – 0.7) / R ------- (1.58)
Fig. 1.17: Development of constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward
characteristics. A vertical straight line B is used to approximate the fast-rising
exponential.

1.9 Special Diodes: (only characteristics and applications of special

diodes).
➢ In this section, we discuss briefly some important special types of
diodes
1.9.1 LED:
➢ A PN junction diode, which emits light when forward biased, is known
as Light Emitting Diode (LED).The amount of light output is directly
proportional to the forward current.
➢ The circuit symbol of LED is shown in figure

Fig. 1.17 Circuit symbol of Light Emitting Diode

➢ A P-type layer is grown on the N-type layer. When an external positive

voltage is applied to the P- type region with respect to N- type, both the
depletion region width and the resulting potential barrier are reduced
and the diode is said to be forward biased.
 Fig. 1.18 Constructional diagram of LED
➢ When LED is forward biased, the electrons and holes moves towards
the junction and recombination takes place.
➢ After recombination, the electrons lye in the conduction band of N-
region, holes lye in the valence band of P-region.
➢ The difference of energy between the conduction band and valence band
is radiated in the form of light energy.
Eg = hf =hc/λ ---- (1.59)
=> λ=1.24/Eg
Where, λ= wave length of light
h=Plank’s constant =6.626*10-34Jsec
c= Velocity of light=3*108 m/sec

➢ Materials used: GaAs (Infrared light(invisible)), GaAsP (red or yellow

visible light), GaP ( red or green visible light)
➢ Advantages
• Very low voltage and current are enough to drive the LED.
• Voltage range – 1 to 2 volts.
• Current – 5 to 20mA.
• Total power output will be less than 150 mW
• The response time is very less – only about 10 nanoseconds.
• The device does not need any heating and warm up time.
• Miniature in size and hence light weight.
• Have a rugged construction and hence can withstand shock and
vibrations.
• An LED has a life span of more than 20 years.
➢ Disadvantages
• A slight excess in voltage or current can damage the device.
 • The device is known to have a much wider bandwidth compared to
the laser.
• The temperature depends on the radiant output power and
wavelength.
➢ Applications
LEDs are used in a wide variety of applications. Some typical
applications of LEDs include:
• On-off indicator
• Traffic lights
• Visual displays
• Medical applications
• Signs and indicators
• in remote controls
• in optical communications as Opto-couplers and opto-isolators

1.9.2 Photo Diode:

➢ Photodiode is a light sensitive device, also called photo detector, which
converts light signals into electrical signals.

Fig. 1.19 Circuit symbol of photodiode

➢ The diode is made of a semiconductor PN junction kept in a sealed
plastic or glass casing. The cover is so designed that the light rays are
fall on one surface across the junction.
➢ When light falls on reverse biased PN photodiode junction, electron-hole
pairs are created.

Fig. 1.20 Basic biasing arrangement and construction of photodiode

 ➢ The movement of these electron-hole pairs in a properly connected
circuit results in current flow.
➢ The magnitude of photocurrent depends on the number of charge
carriers generated.
➢ This current is also affected by the frequency of the light falling on the
junction of photodiode.
➢ The magnitude of the current under large reverse bias is given by
I = Io [exp(V / ηVT) - 1]
Where, Io is reverse saturation current or dark current, η =1 for Ge and
2 for Si.

Fig. 1.21 Photo Diode characteristics

➢ Advantages
• Low resistance
• Very good spectral response
• Fastest photo detector
➢ Disadvantages
• Light sensitive device
• Dark current increased with temperature
• Should not exceed the working temperature limit specified by the
manufactures.
➢ Applications:
• Light detector
• Demodulators
• Encoders
• Optical Communication System
 • High speed counting and switching circuits

1.9.3 Tunnel Diode:

➢ The tunnel diode was first introduced by Leo Esaki in 1958. Its
characteristics, shown in Fig. 1.22 (a), are different from any diode
discussed thus far in that it has a negative-resistance region.
➢ In this region, an increase in terminal voltage results in a reduction in
diode current.

➢ Figure 1.22 (a) Tunnel diode characteristics

➢ The tunnel diode is fabricated by doping the semiconductor materials
that will form the p – n junction at a level 100 to several thousand times
that of a typical semiconductor diode.
➢ This results in a greatly reduced depletion region, of the order of
magnitude of 10−6 cm, or typically about 1/100 the width of this region
for a typical semiconductor diode.
➢ It is this thin depletion region, through which many carriers can
“tunnel” rather than attempt to surmount, at low forward-bias
potentials that accounts for the peak in the curve of Fig. 1.22 (a).
➢ For comparison purposes, a typical semiconductor diode characteristic
is superimposed on the tunnel-diode characteristic of Fig. 1.22 (a)
➢ This reduced depletion region results in carriers “punching through” at
velocities that far exceed those available with conventional diodes.
 ➢ The tunnel diode can therefore be used in high-speed applications such
as in computers, where switching times in the order of nanoseconds or
picoseconds are desirable.
Circuit symbol for Tunnel diode:

Figure 1.22 (b) Circuit Symbol

Applications:
➢ The availability of a negative-resistance region can be put to good use
in the design of oscillators, switching networks, pulse generators, and
amplifiers.
1.9.4 Varactor Diode:
➢ As we know that reverse biased pn junctions exhibit a charge storage
effect that is modelled with the depletion layer or junction capacitance
Cj.

➢ Where, Vo – Junction built-in voltage (0.6 to 0.8 V)

➢ VR – Reverse voltage applied across the junction
➢ m – constant, called the junction grading coefficient, whose value
ranges from 1/3 to 1/2 depending on the manner in which the
concentration changes from the p to the n side.
➢ In a pn junction, when the doping concentration is made to change
abruptly at the junction boundary, such a junction is known as an
abrupt junction (m = 1/2).
➢ There is another type of pn junction in which the carrier concentration
is made to change gradually from one side of the junction to the other.
 This is called a graded junction (m = 1/3).
➢ Also, the intrinsic junction capacitance, (before applying any potential)

➢ Where, A – Cross sectional area of the junction

➢ NA, ND – Doping concentrations of the p-side and n-side of the junction
➢ εs – permittivity of silicon = 11.7 εo = 1.04 x 10 -12 F/cm
➢ q – Charge of Electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C
➢ Varactor diode is basically a reverse biased PN junction, which utilizes
the capacitance of depletion layer. It is also known as varicap, voltcap
or tuning diode. It is used as voltage variable capacitor.
➢ When the reverse bias voltage increases, the depletion region widens.
This increases the dielectric thickness, which in turn reduces the
capacitance.
CT => CT α 1/w => as ‘w’ increases, C T decreases
➢ When the reverse bias voltage decreases, the depletion layer narrows
down. This decreases the dielectric thickness, which in turn increases
the capacitance. The depletion layer acts as insulator preventing
conduction between the N and P regions of the diode, just like a
dielectric, which separates the two plates of the capacitor.

Fig. 1.23 Varactor diode construction and its symbol

Fig. 1.24 Varactor diode characteristics

➢ Applications
• used in FM radio receivers
• used in TV Receivers