CURRENT ELECTRICITY P f Electric current (I) — Current is defined as the rate of flow of charge |Scator quantity | $I Unit- ampere (A) rection of current through a cross section is the direction of flow of positive charge. — Ifthe net charge that flows through 2 cross-section isnegative, it implies a current in the backward direction. Instantaneous current Average current la = da/dt boe= Ba/Ot f Electric current in conductors Conductors: Materials which allow current to pass through them easily, The charge carriers inside metallic conductors are free electrons. When an electric field is applied, the free electrons experience a force end an electric current is setup inside the conductor. Note: Charge carriers in v us conductors- Metals-free electrons | Electrolytes +ve and ve ions | semiconductors: free electrons and holes Inside a conductor- A) In absence of electric field — In the absence of electric field, the free electrons move due to thermal eneray. During this thermal motion the electrons collide with each other and the fixed positive ions. After a collision with ave ion, the electron emerges with the same speed as before. However, the direction of its velocity will be completely random. Thus, on average, the number of electrons moving in @ particular direction will be equal to the number of electrons moving in the opposite direction. So, there will be no net electric current in the conductor in the absence of an electric field. B) In presence of electric field- When a constant electric fleld is applied to the ends of a conductor, the free electrons, experience a force in a direction opposite to that of electric fleld and hence start moving in and therefore anet electric current is setup in the direction of electric field (flow of positive charge). This electric current will remain as long as the field is appied, Ohm’s Law (Ohm's law states that at constant physical conditions (temp ete), the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends, Val [V=7R) Where R isa constant of proportionality and is called the Resistance of the conductor | si Unit- ohm (0) Ris dependent on both the material and dimensions of the conductor. Also, i Rel ve=ipt 1 ns Rat L Rape [prea] Where pis called the resistivity of the material- Current density (i) Current density is defined as the current per unit area (taken normal to the current) | SI Unit A! Consider an electric field E in 2 conductor of length |, then potential difference across it, V= E.|. Then from ohm’s law- Where o is called the conductivity of the material and o = 1/ p|o depends on nature of the material and not dimensions ‘Vector form of current density- According to definition, Where 0 is the angle between direction of current and normal to the area, Note: j's directed along (current) and is also parallel to € f Drift velocity (va) (PYQ.2016, 2012) It is defined as the average velocity with which the free electrons move towards the +ve end of a conductor under the influence of applied electric field, Let electric field be E, the force Fon each electron and hence its acceleration a will be- F=-eE Fama ma=eE (Where m is mass of each electron) ee aap Let initial velocity of electron be u and velocity after timer be v. From Newton's first equation of motion- (The average inital velocity s zero as before sere field is applied, chere is no specified rection in which elecerons move.) (The ve sign inentesthatVelacty le opp eo ld)Note: Average relaxation time (taw.)- It is the average time interval between b/w two successive collisions of a free e Relation between drift velocity and current Ina conductor of cross-sectional area, A, let number of free Electrons per unit volume be n. Consider a potion of length x ‘The total number of electrons (1) in it can be written es- N=nAx Q=eN =endx (itisnegative because direction of flow Of electrons is opposite to that of current) f ‘Vector form of ohm’s law (PYQ.2016) We know, j j j E Where |"@"F | isa constant is called conductivity . Similarly, we know p=1/s therefore p= ™ net Note: - In Electrodynamic condition (chorges are moving) Eleciric field inside conductor is not zero. - | Thermal speed of electron (root mean squared speed) (NCERT eg 3.1) (Ke is Boltzmann's constant)Mobility (11) (PYQ 2019, 2014) Mobility of free electrons in a conductor is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric fi Id| St unit- m2/Vs & Limitations of ohm’s law There are certain materials used in electric circuits where the proportionality between Vand | does not hold- 1. Vceases to be proportional to | 2. Therelation between V and | depends on the sign of V ie. If lis the current For a certain V, then reversing the direction of V keeping its magnitude same, does not produce a current of the same magnitude as | in the opposite direction, For e.g. diode i 0 3. The relation between V and lis not unique’i.e, there is more than one value of V for the same current I, eg. GaAs (Gallium Arsenide) i £) jNontnear eis a i ; eo al) - wa Voltage V 7) —> w «i fg Commercial resistors 1. Alloys [PYQ.2017, 2015}- Alloys like constantan, manganin, nichrome etc are used to make wire bound resistors. Thisis because their resistivities remain almost constant even with change in temperature. 200 400 600 800 Temperature TK) —* 2. Carbon resistors They are compact and inexpensive. Their values are given by a color code which is explained as follows- (Removed for 2023-24) Fun mnemonic to remember the colors: BB RO’ of Great Britain has Very Good [qeBlack ° 1 Brown 1 10? Red 2 10? Orange 3 10° Yellow 4 10% Green S 10° Blue 6 10° Violet 7 107 Gray 8 108 White 9 10" Gotel 10! 5 ‘Silver 107 10 ‘No colour 20 The resistors have a set of co-axial colored rings. The first two bands from the end indicate the first two significant, figures of the resistance in ohms, The third band represents the decimal multiplier. Sometimes we even have a fourth bband which represents the tolerence/ percentage error in the calculation of resistance. Foreg. (Removed for 2023-24) Votes ate Be ct QA A= 4 BZ XIE oH RaATXW4 5% - Temperature dependence of resistivity 1. Metals- For metals, the resistivity increases with increase in temperature. This is because the resistivity p oc 1/t 's become more frequent) ‘And with the increase in temperature the average relaxation time decreases (as coll © 3) 109 140 {graph PvQ.2014) Tempeatse Tis) Over a narrow range of temperatures, the resistivity of metallic conductors is approximately given by: p (sat Where P; is the resistivity at temperature T and p, is same at a reference temperature T,, «is called as the temperature Coefficient of resistivity. For some metals, ctis positive.2. Semiconductors (PYQ 2015} For semiconductors, resistivity decreases with increase in temperature this is because pis directly proportional to number of free electrons per unit volume (n) and with the increase in temperature, for a semiconductor, n increases greatly with increase in temperature and more than compensate for the decrease int But for metals, n remains almost constant with the change in temperature therefore the resistivity increases with the decrease in t, when temperature increases. r\\ ne Important pvas Qaues: How does mobility of an electron change when the potential difference across the conductor is doubled keeping @~ the length and the temperature constant (PYQ 2019) ‘Ans: We know, E= V/r > Els 2u/;E =2€ of E >! = W2iLe. the mobility of electrons will be halved. {2dves: Graph song he variation ofewrent vers votags framers Gas shown inthe figure. Wdentify the region of = Gg (@ where Ohm'slawisobeyed, (FYQ 2015) “a {) where Ohmislaw is obeyes Voltage V > ‘Ans: i) OE ii) AB Ques: Why are alloys like constantan and manganin used to make standard resistors? (PYQ 2016) ‘Ans: Alloys like constantan and manganin are used to make standard resistors because their resistivities remain almost constant with increase in temperature si lar PYQ. £Qves When electrons drift in a metal from lover potential to higher potential does it mean that “al” free electrons of the metal are moving in the same direction? (PYQ 2012) ‘Ans: No, all e's don’t mave in the same direc’, but the net movement of charge is towards the +ve end of the conductor. Pr Electrical energy, Power (PYQ 2020, 2019, 2017, 2011) We have seen that when an external field is applied, electrons in the conductor experience a force and move. But according to this, electrons should accelerate but that is not the case as electrons move with a steady drift velocity. Thisis because as electrons move, they collide with each other and with the fived ions and atoms. The energy gained is shared with the fixed atoms and the atoms start vibrating more vigorously i.e. the conductor heats up. So, a part of the energy is dissipated as heat. Consider a conductor with a potential difference of V across its ends and current |. The heat dissipated in time t can be wweitten as: H=IVAt The energy dissipated per unit time is the power dissipated (P) [pPavi Using Ohm's law- V=IR pale R P=PR reves G Ques: ‘Two resistors Ry and Ra of 4 0 and 6 O are connected in parallel across a battery. The ratio of powor dissipated in them, P, :P2 will be (PYQ 2020) (A) 4:9 (B) 3:2 (c) 9:4 (D) 2:3 ‘Ans: P= V'/R; since they are connected in parallel, Vis same therefore, P./P: = Re/Rs & PyP2= 3:2 —(B) {Qoavex: The potential difference applied across a given resistor is altered such that the heat produced increases by a factor of 9. By what factor did the potential difference change? (PYQ 2037) ‘Ans: ATQ, P’ = 9P and we know, P=V"/R = V=vRP 3 Vi=vRP’ ‘VOR? =3 VRP Ques: Two bulbs are rated (P,, Vand |P2, V) are connected in i) series and then in ji) parallel. Calculate the power dissipated in both cases in terms of P, and P. (PYQ 2019, 2011) asasudloou > Viysledior niamtoleadinbiaibeveener- wee nel 1) Inseries Pe R=RHR, ww 2 Pot, R Va AP ve i | vee P)tN) inparaltel oo fF Combination of resistors 1. Series combination Consider two resistors R; and R:, connected in series. The current through both will be the same. The sum of potential difference across R; and that across R, will give the total potential drop acrass the combination. & Re % “ v V=V4V, VIR FIR, If the two resistors are replaced by a single resistor of resistance equal to that of the combination (Rec) then, IR, R,=R4R, ] TR, + IR. 2. Parallel combination Consider two resistors Rs and R; connected in parallel. The sum of the current through both resistors will be equal to the total current through the circuit. a\Ques: A wire of resistance &R is bent in the form of a circle as shown. What is the resistance between the ends of diameter AB? (P¥Q.2010) ‘Ans: The part of the wire above and below AB can be imagined a B As two resistors of resistance 4R each connected in parallel. 7 Therefore, the equivalent resistance between ABis— Reo= 4RX 4R/ 48 + 4R= 2K ¥ Cells, EMF, and internal resistance (PYQ.2020, 2018, 2016, 2015, 2013, 2012) An electrolytic cell is a device which maintains a steady currentin an electric circuit. é i. n a EMF (e) The potential difference across the electrodes of a cell when no current is drawn from itis called the EMF (c) of the cell on ‘The work done in complete circulation of a unit positive charge| Si Unit- Volt (V} or JC* Note: EMF € is potential difference and not a force. Internal resistance (r) The electrolyte through which current flows hes a finite resistance which is called the intemal resistance of the cell (r) Terminal voltage (V) ‘The potential difference across the terminals of a cell whan currents drawn from itis callad the terminal voltage. “Now let us calculate the terminal voltage in the following cases 11. No load condition (oad is any device to which energy Is supplied like bulb etc) i.e. current (I) in circuits zero R “There will be ro potential drop across since the current in the circuits © Terminal volage = EMF 2. Discharging (providing energy to load) q ane 3 % = y7a R+PF_ (Since rand R are in series) Note: For ideal cell, terminal voltage =e, always. (r=0) f Cells in Series and Parallel 1. In Series Consider two cells of EMF €; and e; and internal resistance r) and r2 connected in series as shown in the fig. a & fa I o<—fp-_ +4, <. on AT B . c Aq | c " Potential diffacross AB- Van =Vi- Ve In, Potential dffacross BC- Vc =Vg-Veres-Ir, Potential dif across AC- Vic=(Vy-V,)4(Va-Ve) Se, Init ey: Irs Vie(ete)-Mritr) -O Thus, we can sey that 1). The equivalent emf of a series combination of n cells is just the sum of their individual emfs 2) The equivalent internal resistance of a series combination of n cells is just the sum of their individual internal resistances 2. In Parallel (PYQ 2020, 2018, 2016) Consider two cells of EMF e1 and €2 and internal resistance n and r2 connected in parallel as shown in the fig.For the first cell ‘The net current™ sum of current through the cells Ven =V0-Ve inj tate, For the second cell Vee =Va-Vs Replacing the two cells by a single cell of emf e.. and internal resistance ra, we get- . eta t ery lr rs ba = a ntl, OR For n cells, Important PYQs £2 Ques: a cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected across variable load resistor R. Draw plots of) terminal voltage V ii) current | as a function of R It is found that when R= 40, I= 1A and when Ris increased to 90 current reduces to 0.5.A. Find E and r. (PYQ.2015) Ans: i) Wetnon, 1) Wewow. VEIR Vese-fr (Compare yanase) ot v ae Senet Freml.2 ® f “Tree wi be eo petins ofthe graph Wren Resse fw be very sma 2.When R>3>V wal be simon constant£ Ques: The emf of a cell is ahways greater than its terminal voltage explain why? (PYQ.2013) ‘Ans: The emf of cell is always greater than the terminal voltage because the cell has an internal resistance due to Which there is a potentis! drop se the terminal voltage is always less than the emf of the cell. This can be illustrated from the following V,-Vi= IR \Ques: A cell of emf and intennal resistance r is connected to two external resistances R; end Ri and a perfect ammeter. The current in the circuit is measured in four different situations: () Without eny external resistance in the circuit (i) With resistance R; only (ii) With R: and R, in series combination (iv) With &; and R in parallel combination ‘The currents measured in the four cases are 0.42 A, L.OSA, 1.44, and 4.2, but not necessarily in that order. Identify the currents corresponding to the four cases mentioned above. (PYQ 2012) ‘Ans: First let us calculate the net resistances in each condition- 1) Ray= Fsince there is no other resistance in the circuit, 2) rand Ry are connected in series s0, Reg=r-+Ri 3). r Ri, and Rp are all in series so Rey =r+Ri + Re 4) Riand Rrare connected in parallel so their net resistance will be R,R,/R:+R: and this netis in series with r so, Rog = + RaRa/RiARe Now let us calculate the current in each case- 1) I= E/r We know that in a series combination, the net resistance is greater 2) 1=E/r4R than the net resistance for the same resistors in a parallel combination 3) |= E/r4RtRe and that the net resistance in parallel is less than each individual R. 4) |= E/ (e+ RiRo/Ri*Ro) So, the order of current will be- 1>4>2>3 Soin case 1) I= 4.28 2)I=1An 3)1= 1.05.4 Als 0a2 A £ Kirchhoff’s laws (PYQ 2019, 2018, 2015, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011) ‘A) Junction faw (PYQ 2014) x, ‘At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is ‘equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction. This is based €n the law of conservation of charge because when currents are steady, = os there is no accumulation of charges at any junction or at any point in the wire m Ths, total current flowing in must be equal to the total current flowing out.B) Loop law (PYQ2014) The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and the cellsin the lop is zero. Thisis based on the law of conservation of energy. ‘Some conventions: 1. Potential across resistor is-ve in the direction | Potential across @ resistor is +ve in the direction opposite of current tocurrent R = Vi-Vi=IR 2. Potential isgeined on crossing a battery from -ve | Potential dropson crossing a battery irom *ve to—ve to +ve terminal terminal z =e Pha te V.-Vize Vie-Wy importantes @ Lawes: A 10V battery of negligible internal resistance is connected across @ 200V battery and resistence of 380 as shown in the figure. Find the value of current in the circuit. (PYQ 2013) lov i ila 38 "zeov ‘Ans: Let current in circuit be |, using Kirchhoff’ loop law in loop ABCD, 10 +200-38/=0 TAN GAICIESIETTSS 38/ = 190 1=5A 2V.210 5 £ Ques: Using Kirchhoff’ rules calculate the potential difference between Band D 4———4 it In the circuit diagram as shown in the figure. (PYQ 2018) KS + 2 Aiy Ans: In loop DCBD In oop BAD te a D KE -M43-7-1-27420, 1427-2,=0 3430 . -61+21,42=0 21-5) +1=0 3I-1,=1 She On solving we get 64 fa2s B dj alyPotential difference Between B and D when you are made to sve questions hots law v, Cs é Vy 2 +2 of, Poon rior nee ee x karwalihe hai {2Ques: Using Kirchhoff’s rules calculate the current through the 400 and 200 Resistors in the following circuit. (PYQ 2019) Ans: Inloop ABCD soy ny =z 2a 89-201-401,=0 ‘ : 5 W=4 ] 40a In foop CFED pp-—_—-ww_ 10 (1-1)-4404.401,=0 yea ete shed elf], ah ne On solving 14a hada Ques: Using Kirchhoff’s rules determine the Value of the unknown resistance R In the circuit such that no current flows through the 40 resistance. Also find the Potential difference between A and D. (PYQ2011) ‘Ans: Let current in the branch EB be zero and apply Kirchhoff’s law in loop CBEDC -3+6+0-1R=0 IR Now, apply Kirchhof’s law in loop BAFEB 9-1-140-6=0 2r=3 1-5xXR=3 R=22 2. Potential diference between A and D- V,-94+3+/R=V, Note: 1, Potential across a short circuit is zero VVa 2.Potential across an open circuit is infinite. LC 3 Vi-Ve v fF Wheatstone Bridge (PYQ.2015, 2013) It is an application of Kirchhoff’s rules. os re Balanced bridge (PYQ 2013, 2015) ! When the resistors are such that the current through the galvanometer is zero (I_ = 0}, itis called a balanced Wheatstone Let us derive the relation for this condition using Kirchhof’s rules. Since |, =O, using junction law, ly= l, and hy= Ih Using Kirchhoff: law in loop ABDA. From |,2 we obtain -1,R,+0+41,R,=0 LR LR=1R, —O LOR Using Kirchheffs law in loop BCDB Hence, “1.R.+04+1R.=0 > LR=LR, —O Application of Wheatstone bridge It can be used to find the value of an unknown resistance Re keeping R: and R: constant while varying R: tll galvanometer shows null deflection (also known as Meter Bridge)Construction It consists of a wire of 1m and uniform cross section stretched taught and clamped between two thick metallic st bent at right angles. The metallic strip has two gans across which resistors can be connected. The end points where the wire is damped are connected to the cell through a key. One end of a galvanometer is connected to the metallic strip midway b/w the two gaps. The other end of the galvanometer is connected to 2 jockey. The jockeys essentially a metallicrrod whose one end has a knife edge which can slide over the wire to make electrical connection, Working (PYQ 2020, 2017) Inthe fig, the arms AB, BC, DA, CD, with resistances R, S, A.l and A{100-)) where Ais the resistance per unit cm of the wire, form a Wheatstone bridge. If the jockey is moved along the wire, then there will be one position where the galvanometer will show no current. Let the distance of the jockey from the end A at the balance point be | = ly. The four resistances forming the bridge will be R, S, Al, A(100-). The balance condition gives- R__ A 5 700-7) Rh 3” 10-7 =STo0m7 Note: The percentage error in R can be minimized by adjusting balance point near the middle of the bridge i.e. when his close to 50cm rmponnee C5) ewes: win ent eror ina mete bee? How overcame ? The essences in he Wo ofthe mtr begs re R= $a § eset Whe the resnince i shunted wit an eg reine, he new balan nth Jou be 15, Wes she alin nh. Cale aie SY 201) (Ferroved tor 2008-28) ‘ ae Pe 4h ooh od jf» oe? tT = 7 cs ‘Ans: As we use thick metallic strias in between the gaps, the resistance of which is unknown some errors arise in the observations. This error is known as end error. It can be overcome by taking multiple observations and then taking the mean. We know, Shee Sishuneed (yr) wieh smother resizance of he sane value Substituting in | 100 3 199-22, 3 s=0Q(Ques: In the meter bridge experimental setup shown in the figure, the null point D is obtained at distance of 40cm from end A of the meter bridge. if a resistance of 100 is connected in series with Ps, the null point is obtained at AD= 60cm, calculate the value R. and Rs. (PYQ,2013) (Removed for 2008 24) Ans: Substituting fin 2 G2Ques: In the meter bridge experiment, balance point was observed at J with Adm. (i) ‘The values of R and X were doubled and then interchanged. What ‘would be the mew position of balance point ? Gi) If the galvanometer and battery are interchanged at tho balance position, how will the balance point get affected ? (Pro 2011) ‘Ans: i) Welvow Comparing sumerstor and denominator of 1.2 r=100-1 ) re gavanometer and ne batery i r ‘exchanged, the balance point wil oe or befocted R_ 10-0” _@ xP fQues: in a meter bridge, the null point is found at a distance of 40 cm from A. If ia resistance of 12 @ is connected in parallel with S, the null point occurs at 50.0 em. from A, Determine the values of R and S, (pvq 2010) (emmoved for 2023-24) Ba ® al 8 DERTERITerrRrrrnPrenrrEROTNETNPotentiometer (PYQ 2020, 2016, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2010) (Removed for 2023-24) It is a device which used to measure the potential difference/ EMF without drawing any current from the voltage source. E ple it works on the principle that when steady current flows through a uniform wire, the potential drop across a segment is diractly proportional to the length of the segment i.. A= where @ is the potential drop per unit length of the wire Applications 1. Comparing EMFs of two cells Consider two cells of emf e; and ¢2. First, we close the key of eand then move the jockey along the potentiometer wire. There will be a point(N,) on the wire where if the jockey is kept, the current in the galvanometer becomes zero (balance condition). Let the distance of the balance point from A be |. Using kirchhofi’s law in the loop AN,G31A, $l, 40-2, =0 =a, Now closing the key for €2 we get a balance point N. ata distance |: from A. using Kirchhoff’s rule in loop AN> gl +0-e, Ol. Dividing both the equations we get, e -This way we can compare emf of two cells and even calculate the emf of one cell if emf of the other is known2. Calaulating internal resistance of a cell (PYQ.2010] (Removed for 2023-24) Consider a cell with emf E and internal resistance r, connected across a resistance box through a key Ky. Keeping Ks open we obtain the balance point at a length h; so, we can write ma, Now Ks is closed then balance point is obtained at a length |, Vegi, Advantage Advantage of potentiometer is that it gives the actual value of potential as it draws no current from the voltage source that is being measured Important Pras Ques: A potentiometer can measure emf of a cell because (A) the sensitivity of potentiometer is lange. (B) no current is drawn from the cell at balance. (C) no current flows in the wire of potentiometer at balance. (D) internal resistance of cell is neglected. (pyQ 2020) (Ans- C) Loaves: In he following potentiometer AB is a uniform wire of length 1 m and resistance 10 Q, Calculate the potential gradient along the wire and bakance length AO (=). (PYQ 2016) (Removed for 2023-24) 032KAns: To calculate the pot. Drop- To calculate the balancing length- KR, = 52+ WQ=252 fetid R+r 124+0- V=IR=1x03=0-3V val Vv 0:3 @ 08 2Ques: A potentiometer wire of length 1m has a resistance of 100, It is connected to a 6V battery in series with a resistance of 50, Determine the emf of the primary cell which gives a balance point st 40cm. (PYQ2014) (Removed for 2023-24) ‘Ans: To calculate emnf we have to first calculate the potential gradient R=W+5-152 ol =4x 40 4x06 VaIRy=2xW0=4 tov Vary V 7 m Ques: Write two possible causes for one sided deflection in a potentiometer (PYQ.2013) (Removed for 2023.24) Ans: 1. The emfof the cell whose emfis to be calculated is greater than the total potential drop across the potentiometer wire 2. The +ve and -ve terminals of the cell (whose emf is to be calculated) and the source battery may not be connected to the same terminal of the potentiometer wire _£2.Ques: In the figure, a long uniform potentiometer wire AB having a constant potential gradient along its length. The null points of two primary cells of ernfs e: and €: connected in manner shown are obtained at a distance of 120cm and 300 cm from the end A. Find (i) / €2 and (i) position of null point for celle: How is the sensitivity of a potentiometer increased? (PYQ 2010) (Removed for 2023-24)‘Ans: We can increase the sensitivity of a potenticmeter by increasing the length of the potentiometer wire. Dweknow thas Vet (i) £28 _ 120 1, ete=dl Ere 300 #1204300 _ 420 ~:~ "300- 20 ~ 180 2