Lecture 11

;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 2
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 2
2 Euler-Lagrage . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 6
3 Euler-Lagrage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4 Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5 Euler-Lagrage Sturm-Liouville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6 Hamiltonian !! . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 4
7 "#$ (Canonical Transformation) ........................ 4
8 Liouville %& . . . . . . . . ........................ 4
9 Hamilton-Jacobi . . . . . . . . . ........................ 4
10 '()* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 4
11 +, { -) (action{angle varables) ........................ 4
12 ./01 (Small Oscillation) . . . . . ........................ 4
13 203&4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 4
14 56&4 (Lattice Theory) . . . . . . ........................ 4
1
789 :
'* (Calculus of Variations) :)<<=>?@AB'CDEFGH:.
I'JKLDMNOPQRGSDT)<U&< (mathematical physics) @VWDXY
Z\\]^_@-`Dab*cdef< (classical mechanics) g,@JhijDk
Scl4 (eld theory) mnSn_op
7 1 qrst :
1. uvwxy (Brachistochrone problem):

'*@z{D:\|}~ (Brachistochrone problem) Da: John Bernoulli
@ M0 M1 K@D M0 M1 DAb M0 M1 Dc
_f@DE
c cA¡¢K~@£ M0(0 0) D M1 (x1 y1 ) ¤

A¥¦§@¨©ªAU«¬c¨©D®¯_f+,ML°\¨©§ ±D²
a¥¨©³´Dµ¶gU«c·¸§ .
¹ºF»¼~
y = y(x) y(0) = 0 y(x1 ) = y1 0 x x1

M «½U« y ¾(¿ , E}À v = 2gy. ÁÂÃ v = ds
p
dt Ä
2
p
1p+ (y )2
dt = dsv = pds 2gy dx
0
2gy =
Å»ÆÇÈ·
Z p Z x1 p
x1
1p+ (y )2 p1 1 + (y )2
T= dx py dx
0 0
2gy = 2g 0
0
GÉb Ê
Z x1 p
p1 1 + (y )2
py dx y(0) = 0 y(x1 ) = y1 (1:1)
0
min
y 2g 0
hD» ËÌÍÇÎÏÐÑÒÓÔ@)<ÕÖ×ØÙÚÛÜØ Jacob Bernoulli Ø
L'Hospital Ø p»G¿D'<ÝÞßVWàAáâ@)<'ãpäå Bernoulli æ
çDÖ×èé@Eêëì,áâ@íîïðÍ}ñ¼~ DòÍNOØN
óPQ Eular(1707-1783) D Lagrange(1736-1813) D Weierstrass(1815-1897) D Ostrogradskii(1801-
1862) ëµVWôÆÉ@&4p Eular àõÓª'<@ Ê .' (Euler-
Lagrange ) p
2. ö÷øùúûüýþ (resolution of minimal surface):
cKÿ%A~ c»~;@D,A¼~»£ÁAÿ%
~ SD ²»¼~g « I / ? « I½
3
Z x2 Z x2 p
A = 2 yds = 2 y 1 + (y )2dx
0
x1 x1
G Ê
Z x2 p
min
y
y 1 + (y )2 dx 0
y(x1 ) = y1 y(x2 ) = y2 (1:2)
x1
3.Plateau xy :
c ·< ( · ) A¼~+ Dc¯z¼ (
) Dcaz@¼<D² I /@¼ ?
»¼´ z = u(x y). Å»¼I'½

ZZ
A= (1 + u2x + u2y )1=2 dxdy

Taylor W´½
ZZ
AA = 0
1 + 12 (ux2 + u2y ) dxdy

G Ê
ZZ
min
u
(u2x + u2y )dxdy uj@ = '(x y) (1:3)

4
4. !xy (isoperimetric problem):
²A¼~DE!Àÿ%Á"I # ? $A%&F¼~ '(
)D)F* x K'
G Ê
Z Z p
max y(x)dx y(0) = y() 1 + (y )2 dx = l
0
(1:4)
0 0
a +FÊ Z xp
s= 1 + (y )2d
0
0 s l
0
ò r
2
ds2 = dx2 + dy2 =) dx = 1 ; dy
ds ds
Å» Ê Z r 2
y 1 ; dy
l
max ds ds (1:4 )
0
y 0
,-'<@*D./>b0 :
123 (direc method): ª Ê n b4)|5@ DÁ¿6 n ! 1 7 c
ah<8 9h:< .
<23 (indirect method): ª Ê .' ( =>: Euler-lagrange )
5
7?@ : ABCDE (Functional Calculus)
aF@GoH@:IJ \ j( "(functional) @KLpj(@MLNOÓg,cPé

)<@'CQ'RpÁcU&<_o@S,X:f< , TEc Feynman I'<Y
Z\<U@-`p'*oïð@|5 DVWW:Ab()cA@|5Á
XDY:o²c=Zaÿ%@><8 |5p¹ºR\\@()ML
:Ab()c]b@5pòh¹º^_'*@Ñ`Dabab½cV¶d]
¹º@ÈoDef'*g:.I'@! (corollary) ÁXh
¹ºoi&@: \ ()@() " j j( (functional) ()#@kl:Pc
@) (argument) :()ÁmD f(x) pj(@MLFnà()SHzD
f (x) = x2 D g(x) = e x Df
;
y g(f (x)) = e ;f (x) =e ; x2
abo@() g W x >pDÁ):() f (x) >ppaX:j( (functional) (

) (function) #@kqD=>¹ºr,<stS uj(D y = gf ] DG()>
vqp¹ºFGwxb D8 f (x) = x2 :
Z 1 Z 1
y = gf (x)] f (x)dx = x2 dx
0 0
» y @5 f c 0,1] Ébv·@5r>pab&D>mj myz@ (unlocal) p

Á@() f DX{>@5D
Z 1 pxdx
y = gf (x)] =
0
|¹º%}
Z w
y = gf (x) w] = f (x)dx
0
f y W: f (x) DÁ)m: w @()p

6
j(./F~à)@()D8 N bÔ x1 x2 xN D85 u1 =
f (x1 ) uN = f (xN ) D¹ºF8A:<>b)() gN (u1 uN ) S kj(
Z 1
gf (x)], gf (x)] = x2dx D»() f (x) = x2 x 2 0 1] ªv· 0,1] 'à
0
N :
x0 = 0 x1 = x xk = kx
Á f (x) = x2 ca5
x20 x21
Å» ( ì, Riemann ML )
N
X ;1 Z 1
gN (x0 x1 xN 1) =
; x x gx ] =
2
k
2 x2 dx
k=0 0
mX:h N ! 1 D gN gx2] klXS/p
( functional derivatives )
¹ºFG.I'@%}
: j( ( functional ) F '] .'
F '] = lim 1 fF '(x) + h(x ; )] ; F '(x)]g
'() h 0 h !
»ij(.' ( functional derivative ) F ']='() : @()p

y : ²j( Z
(1) F '(x)] = g(x)'(x)dx
Z
(2) F '(x)] = '(x) = '( )(x ; )d
j(.'
7
: (1) %}
F '(x)] = lim 1 fZ g(x)'(x) + h(x ; )]dx ; F '(x)]g
'() h 0 h Z !
= hlim0 h1 g(x)h(x ; )dx = g()

!
(2) &F
F '] = lim 1 f'(x) + h(x ; ) ; '(x)g = (x ; )
'() h 0 h !
: | ~x : n ·@ , f@%}bà , AoH@: , » ()o

.ï
F '(~x)] = lim 1 fF '(x~ + ~h(~x ; x~ ))] ; F '(~x)]g
~ h 0h
0 0
'(x )
0 !
E< (~x ; x~ ) = j (xj ; xj )

0 0
, () , ¹ºF%}j(.' . a~ : c() '(x) @k8A:<=@

() h |./@ 1 ( perturbation ) , fj(.'F»%}
F = lim F '() +R h(x )] ; F '()]
'(x) h 0 ! h (x )d
y : ²j( F j(.'
Z 1
F g(x) y ] = K (x y)g(x)dx

0
: ¹ºª'qG£@%}S\¡
(1)
F g y] = lim 1 fZ K (x y)g(x) + h(x ; )]dx ; F g y]g
1
g() h 0 h Z 0
!
= hlim0 h1 K (x y)h(x ; )dx = K ( y)

1
!
0
Äj(.' F=g() = K ( y) ¯: y @()
8
(2)
Z 1
Z 1
F = F g(x)+ (x)] ; F g(x)] = K (x y)g(x)+ (x)]dx ; F g(x)] = K (x y ) (x)dx

0 0
Ä
F = K (x y)
g
y : L X½()D%}j( S
Z T
S x(t)] = L(x x_ )dt
0
²Ej(.'
: ¹º%}ôV
S = lim 1 Z T L;x( ) + h(t ; ) x_ + h_(t ; )d ; Lx]
x(t) h 0 h 0
!
1 Z T ; @L @L
= hlim0 h _
d h(t ; ) @x + L(x x_ ) + h @ x_ ;Lx]
!
0
Z T
= hlim0 h d h(t ; ) @L
1 _ @L )
;
@x + h @ x_
!
0
Z
= hlim0 h1 d @L d ( @L )h(t ; )
; T
;
@x d @ x_
!
0
= @L ; d ( @L )
@x dt @ x_
$¢£H
S x] = @L ; d ( @L )
x @x dt @ x_
a:\@ Euler-Lagrange D:'*<_o@.'p
9
72 Euler-Lagrage ¤¥ :
h¦~AIÂAID ¦¢DW¦} v1 oÊ (
v2) DÁ)¦~@moÊD¿S W. Snell *§)<Õ¨©ªVPD¦~
@:a«@A¬~D¯g v1 G v2 ® sin 1 G sin 2 pÁ¯¿°± (Fermat)
²ÍDa¬~m:È·³@~D´µ¹º=j °±\&p
¶·¸¹ (Fermat principle): ¦~ALºÂA»¼D½
È·¾p
¿ÀÁ :
°Â\&Ã4Ý:ÄÅ%Æ : ¦~ P (a b) ÇZÈAI¾cÉÊ
@A X = (x 0) Å_È£IDË Q(c d) D³à_Å- 1 DÄÅ- 2 D
ÁcI<}À'q v1 v2 Df¦~ P ÇZ X º Q È·
p p
(x ; a)2 + b2 + (c ; x)2 + d2
t = t(x) = v1 v2
E.'®Ì
t (x) = 0 =)
0
p
x;a = p
c;x
v1 (x ; a)2 + b2 v2 (c ; x)2 + d2
ò
sin 1 = p x ; a2 2 sin 2 = p c ; x2 2
(x ; a) + b (c ; x) + d
ÄF ÄÅ%Æ
sin 1
= sinv 2
(2:1)
v1 2
GÍoÎÏAITÐ @ÄÅÑDXFG½ÒbIJTÄÅÑD
ÂÃFGÓÎ@:g¹º±Î¢<@¦}D{VP ¦ÔDÁ¾Õ:
ÄÅÑDa:=Ö×@AØÙDÅ ÄÅÑFÇ-ÎÁ p
10
; ;
!!" #$%&' (
)* +,-./0 1234 !"567#$ 8% 9: << =
+#$>?@A B%CDE
FGHIJKL :
MNOP (Fermat principle) QRS TUVW"XY Z \S\]<
^_àOP bcdS eSfg =hW2i ? jk < lmn
_oOP (least action principle) pqrMNOPstZuE
lmn_oOP ; 18 vw xPSy (Pierre L. M. deMaupertuis) 5z {|
3} ~MOP}\S\] P4 \ n
_ o 58 t< n_ {
¡S@ ¢£o ¤¥ mE "
Maupertuis lmn_oOP2¦ TU7§¨\S S z
2}OP t§©ª{dS«¬ ®¯°OPZ± ²³
®¯ @´µ ¶}·¸S¹ºE
» Maupertuis 34 Euler ¼©ª«½¾¿ÀhrÁÂ\Sn§Ã ÄÅ
@´;ÁÆÇÈÉÊË+Ì¸SyÍt \ QRSy " ÎÏ}¿Tt/ÐS x
ZÑÑ QRSy / ¾}ÒÓÔÕ ¡SÖE× lmn_oOP M
ØxPS(cÙÚÔÛ ÜÝ ÞßcËàáâãäfE
åæc}ç A èéê;ëìí}è B( îïðñòó ) ·ç}ô

+,õOö A÷ A @ø B í}Dùi!"úûçní}ë
ìïüý5þ ®u}+,õ< A ç7ÿ B ç lmn_oOP;!" :
11
ï-ç}·A÷@ ì¥ã ç A¥ , 4 ëì
, ¾+,nÀ . 7 ¡ , }.>?@ >8À .
3 ^ZT F = ma pq t : }·ëìx{
x Bì¥rBA¥ t}m !"^ ;ö=
º æ x tç3 {ì¥ A¥À 12 m(x_ )2 mgx +Àt
Z t 12
S= 2 m(x_ ) ; mgx dt
2
t1
-3 t S ÕÚ3tn_o (action) åæ t1 t2 c!8 !" ¡S!

"<#t$%2&°8 n_olm 'z( +Z Ñ) ï*À
(+m !", t+ ¾- \ .¡ " Ù \ ç " , /·!">?
@ ¿Àh !"E·0 ¿Àh<t4ö 1.À23¡SÀ4n§5
86n tS!c}78 t§9:¿Àh !"<< E
Hamilton OP3=>?
m ddt2r ; f = 0
2
(2:2)
@YA5c38% r + r {( r BC

rt1 = rt2 = 0
(2:3)
(2.1) qr r Dõ4À
Z t d2r
2

m dt2 r ; f r dt = 0 (2:4)
t1
E_À7À¶}F#t
Z t d2r
2
h dr it Z t dr dr 2
rdt = m dt r t ; dt dt dt
2
m
t dt2
1 t 1 1
12
; r 3°G (2.3) H r BC

dr dr = 1 dr
2
dt dt 2 dt
(2.4) q3¶}q>?@< ì¥ (kinetic energy)
; 12 m ddtr
2
= ;T
5^ (2.4) qIt Zt 2
(T + f r)dt = 0 (2:5)
t1
ï f t}JK\ µA¥.¡ (potential function) BC
f r = (2:6)
5^ (2.5) LMIt Zt 2
(T + )dt = 0 (2:7)
t1
}!"NOP_A¥ V = ; Q Hamilton OP3pqt
Zt 2
(T ; V )dt = 0 (2:8)
t1
ïR Lagrangian t L = T ; V + Hamilton OPSTC3pq
Zt 2
Ldt = 0 (2:9)
t1
Hamilton KL (Hamilton principle): }·ëì\];+, t1 +, t2

{Uëì8 À ( n_o )
Zt 2
S= L(x x_ t)dt L=T ;V (2:10)
t1
cm ß .
13
,H Lagrange t L(x x_ t) {n_o (action) t
Zt 2
S= L(x x_ t)dt (x = q)
t1
{¿À (variation) t
Zt 2 Zt 2
S = L(x + x x_ + x_ t)dt ; L(x x_ t)dt
Zt1t2 @L @L Z t2 t1
= L + @x x + @ x_ x_ dt ; L(x x_ t)dt
t1 t1

d @L x = @L d (x) + d @L x
dt @ x_ @ x_ dt dt @ x_

@L t2 Z t2 @L d @L
S = @ x_ x + ; xdt
t1 t1 @x dt @ x_
5^V+clm <<{°Gt
S = 0 =) d @L ; @L = 0
dt @ x_ @x
< Euler{Lagrage DW , <¹º§
XY : :% : x = x(t) tÕZ x(t1 ) = x1 x(t2 ) = x2 \ç tn_o
Zb
S= L(x x_ t)dt
a
3 (extreme). V®\V BC Euler{Lagrange DW

d @L ; @L = 0 (2:11)
dt @ x_ @x
ï L c n ·¿¡
L = L(q1 qn q_1 q_n t)
14
Euler{Lagrange DWt
d ( @L ) ; @L = 0 i = 1 2 3 n (2:12)
dt @ q_i @qi
]^ : ûE_ Euler{Lagrange DW_º\ç,3l`:%ta%

p
b : !"Sc0 L = 1 + x_ 2 t Lagrangian +
@L = 0 @L = p x_
@x @ x_ 1 + (x_ )2
Euler{Lagrange DWt
@L ; d ( @L ) = 0 =) d ( p x_ ) = 0
@x dt @ x_ dt 1 + (x_ )2
=) p1 +x_ (x_ )2 = c

x_ = c1 =) x = c1t + c2 ( a% )
Vd_ef
Zt 2
Zp Z q 2
s= ds = dr + r d =
2 2 2 r2 + r2 d
t1 1
Euler-Lagrange DWt
d p r ; p r =0
d r + r
2 2 r + r2
2
gé4 < :%3:h (curvature)

rr ; 2r2 ; r2 = 0 (2:13)
(r2 + r2 ) 32
:h3 i? a% !
15
]^jû+ÑAó@3`:%
bjc0klt
ds = (d2 + sin2 d'2 ) 12
- ' mt 3.¡ (' = '()) ; Euler-Lagrange DWH
d q ' sin2 = 0 ) q ' sin2 = c
d 1 + '2 sin2 1 + '2 sin2

) ' = p c2sec 2 2
2
1 ; c ; c cot
Àn
' = ; sin;1(k cot )
ta0eft
k cot = sin( ; ) =) kz = x sin ; y cos (2:14)
·DWqÌ}ÕZOç Bù rÑAóop }q < r%

(geodesic)
]^ : ,H Lagrangian
X1
2 gij x_ i x_ j
L=
ij
(gij ) t Riemann o û+{ Euler-Lagrange DW
b : a*À X
pi = @@L
x_ = gij x_ j ( ìo )
i j
@L = X 1 @gij
Fk = @x 2 @x 1 x_ i x_ j (\)
k ij k
Euler-Lagrange DWt
16
d f @L g = @L ) dpk = X 1 @gij x_ x_ (pk = Fk )
dt @ x_ k @xk dt ij 2 @xk i j
s pk ¾ t *ÀE_ (gij ) t¾3t>
dpk = d (X g x_ )
dt dt j kj j
X X X @gkj
= gkj xj + x_ j ( ) @xi x_ i
j j i
X X @gkj
= gkj xj +
@xi x_ i x_ j
j ij
X X kj X 1 @gki
= gkj xj + 12 @g
@x x_ i x_ j + 2 @x x_ i x_ j
j ij i ij j
Euler-Lagrange DWt
X X kj @gki @gij
gkj xj + 21 ( @g + @x ; @x )x_ i x_ j = 0
i ij @xi j k
E_ gmk gkj = mj @q#ut

X
xm + pmij x_ i x_ j = 0
ij
pmij = 21 gmk ( @g kj + @gki ; @gij )

@xi @xj @xk
}·r%DWq (Riemann ot gij ) E
]^jû9%!"
bjæ A tOç A = (0 0) åæ s tc0
v = ds
dt ( ) ) dt = ds
v
vwxW5y+,t
Z B ds
t= v
A
17
æ:%t y = y(x) c0t
p
ds = 1 + (y0 )2 dx
åæç A 3zt 0 ;¥oK{H

Zx s
p
v = 2gy ) t =
0 1 + (y0 )2 dx = Z x0 Ldx
0 2gy 0
Euler-Lagrange DWt
@L ; d @L = 0 ) y(1 + y0 2) = c
@y dx @y0
| y0 = tan
y = 1 + c(y0 )2 = c sin2 = 2c (1 ; cos 2)
dx = 1 dy = c tan sin 2 = c(1 ; cos 2)
d y0 d
À
x = 2c (2 ; sin 2)
s = 0 + x = 0 y = 0 | c = 2A 2 =
x = A( ; sin ) y = A(1 ; cos ) (2:15)
}%~% (Cycloid) 3¡q : @}ç 2ö :%
]^jû+Bù@nýç (x1 y1 ) (x2 y2 ) 3 ( ¾ x ) lmù

bj;3ùH
Zx 2 p
S= 2 y 1 + (y0 )2 dx (t ! x)
x1
p
+ L(q q_) = L(y y0 ) = 2 y 1 + (y0 )2 5^ Euler-Lagrange DWt
18
p1y(+y ()y0 )2 ; yp1 + (y0 )2 = c1
0 2
#ut
q
cy0 = y2 ; c21
E_À¿¡ À
Z
y + y2 ; c21 + c
p
x = c p dy = c log c1
y2 ; c21 1 2

x ; c2
y = c1 cosh c1 % (Catenary) (2:16)
]^j (lm:ù (minimal surface)) û+}ô:%53lmù3:ù

bjæ:ùDWq3 z = z(x y ) {:ùÀ (surface integral) t
ZZ q
1 + zx2 + zy2 dxdy
R
+ Euler-Lagrange DWt

@ q zx @ q zy

@x 1 + zx2 + zy2 + @y 1 + zx2 + zy2 = 0
gé4< lm:ùDWq (minimal surface equation)
zxx(1 + zy2 ) ; 2zxzy zxy + zyy (1 + zx2 ) = 0 (2:17)
·*ÀDW ; Lagrange 5¦@ × lm:ù!"^YA' p :

ZZ
S1(u) = (u2x + uy2 )dxdy
R
19
}· Dirichlet À , + Lagrangian t L = ux2 + u2y Euler-Lagrange DWt
@ (u ) + @ (u ) = u + u = u = 0
@x x @y y xx yy
u t}.¡ ,(}:%@}ùlm !"#t}ô

3 °G3C +}.¡ u = u(x y) !" .
Euler-Lagrange
lÂ Euler-Lagrange DW ;ÁÂ\Sö YA}ëìDWq{ì¥t T =
1 m(x_ 2 + y_ 2 + z_2 ) F = (F F F ) t}JK\¡ .
2 x y z
@V @V @V
F = (Fx Fy Fz ) = ;rV = ; @x @y @z (2:18)
V A¥ +3 Lagrangian t
L = T ; V = 12 m(x_ 2 + y_ 2 + z_2 ) ; V (2:19)
n_o (action) t
Zt 1
Zt 1
S= Ldt = (T ; V )dt
t0 t0
{ Euler-Lagrange DWt
d @L ; @L = 0 d (mx_ ) + @V = 0
dt @ x_ @x dt @x
d @L ; @L = 0 d (my_ ) + @V = 0 (2:20)
dt @ y_ @y dt @y
d @L ; @L = 0 d (mz_ ) + @V = 0
dt @ z_ @z dt @z
(x y z) BC :
mx = Fx my = Fy mz = Fz

20
Hamilton OPT¢3£¤
¥¦§¨
ÁÂ\S£©@;wx Ý sÙlwª pq {(l
l ^«aef (Cartesian Coordinates) öþ s!@- îï¬ë
ì ^«aefö Ý Ù®?3pq ¯{c!\S!" \Ù^ºp
q2@ cV°± ef\] ïef óef q²ef ...... 3 !"
-3ÕtRef (generalized coordinate) E
ÁÂ\S!"OP^Ref (generalized coordinates) ö Ýëì\] :
q1 q2 qs Ref (generalized coordinates)
q_1 q_2 q_s R (generalized velocities) (2:21)
R³ (generalized acceleration)
q1 q2 qs
îï´µ,}·c n ·ç3\] ïc ·¶·°G ±c 3n ; ;
!"V° s = 3n ; ·¸¢¡öRç A÷ |
r i = (xi yi zi ) i = 1 2 s (2:22)
{(eft
xi = xi (q1 q2 qs ) yi = yi (q1 q2 qs) zi = zi (q1 q2 qs)
;x*ÀH
dxi = @x i dq + + @xi dq
@q1 1 @qs s
@yi dq + + @yi dq
dyi = @q
1
1
@qs s
@zi dq + + @zi dq
dzi = @q 1
1 @q s s
~
21
@xi q_ + + @xi q_
x_ i = @q
1
1
@qs s
@yi q_ + + @yi q_
y_i = @q (2:23)
1
1
@qs s
@zi q_ + + @zi q_
z_i = @q
1
1
@q s s

X
s
dsi = dxi + dyi + dzi =
2 2 2 2
gkli dqk dql (2:24)
kl=1
{(
@xi @xi + @yi @yi + @zi @zi = @ ri @ ri
gkli = @q (2:25)
k @ql @qk @ql @qk @ql @qk @ql
gkli mt Riemann o (Riemann metric) \]3ì¥t

X
n m;
i
T= x
_ 2
i + y
_ 2
i + z
_i
2
i=1 2
Xn m ds 2 1 X s (2:26)
= i i =2 aklq_k q_l (akl = alk )
i=1 2 dt kl=1
T ¾R q_k ýM (quadratic form) a*À3q
X
s @T
2T = @ q
_ q_
=1
ïRRìot
p = @@Tq_ (2:27)

@qu#t
X
s
2T = pq_
=1
Rìo3R¹ïC :
22
@T @ Xn m;
i x_ 2 + y_ 2 + z_ 2
p = @ q_ = @ q_
i=1 2 i i i
X n @ x_ i @ y_i @ z_i
= mi x_ i @ q_ + y_i @ q_ + z_i @ q_
i=1
X n @xi @yi @zi
= mi x_ i @q + y_i @q + z_i @q (2:28)
i=1
X n @xi @yi @zi
= mi(x_ i y_i z_i ) @q @q @q
i=1
X n @ ri
= miri @q
i=1
p mtìo mi(x_ i y_i z_i ) q D!3ðº (projection) ¾a0ef ìo
(momentum) t
px = mx_ py = my_ pz = mz_
·t><ï6 : S Lagrangian t L = T = 21 m(x_ 2 + y_ 2 + z_2 )
@L = @T = mx_ = p
@ x_ @ x_ x
@L = @T = my_ = p (2:29)
@ y_ @ y_ y
@L = @T = mz_ = p
@ z_ @ z_ z
U Rìo (generalized momentum) 3R¹ RìotÕÚ!"5»¼ ìo
3
åæA÷ rk = (xk yk zk ) 3\t fk = (Xk Yk Zk ) U kl
X
n X n
dW = fk drk = (Xk dxk + Yk dyk + Zk dzk )
k=1
Xn X
s
k=1 ! X s @y ! X s @z !
= Xk @x k dqi + Yk k dqi + Zk k dqi
k=1 " @q i @q i @q i
s @z #
i i i
s @x s @y
=1 =1 =1
Xn X X X
= Xk @qk dqi + Yk @qk dqi + Zk @qk dqi (2:30)
k=1 " i i i=1 !# i
Xs
i=1
Xn ! X
i=1
n ! Xn
= @x
Xk @q +k @y
Yk @q +k Zk @z k dq
i
i=1 k=1 i k=1 i k=1 @qi
Xs
= Qi dqi
i=1
23
{( n @x
X k @y k @z k
Qi = Xk @q + Yk @q + Zk @q
k=1 i i i
Xn @xk @yk @zk Xn (2:31)
= (Xk Yk Zk ) @q @q @q = fk @@qrk
k=1 i i i k=1 i
<to½ Ref qi 3R\ (generalized force) {QR¹Rmt\ (Xk Yk Zk )
qi D!3ðº (projection) E_Ref-¶ýëì
miri = fi () mi (xi yi zi ) = (Xi Yi Zi )
IïC : ¾¿
X
s X
s X
s
mi xi @q = mi dt (x_ i ) @q = mi dtd x_ i @q
@x i d @x i @xi ; x_ d @xi
i dt @q
=1 =1 =1
s 0s 1 s
@ x_ i = @ @ @xi q_ A = X @ @xi q_ = d @xi
X
@q @q @q
=1 @q @q dt @q
=1
@xi = @ x_ i
@q @ q_

X
s Xs
mixi @q = mi dtd x_ i @@qx__ i ; x_ i @q
@x i @ x_ i
=1 =1
Xs d @ @ 1 (2:32)
= dt @ q
_ ; @q 2 mi x_ 2i
=1
uP¾ yi , zi ¼cou3Àq/P

d @T ; @T = X n
@xi @yi @zi Q

dt @ q_k @qk i=1 ( X i Yi Z i ) @qk @qk @qk k (2:33)
LM7 Lagrange DW .
ïE_Rìo@qt

dpk = d @T = Q + @T
dt dt @ q_k k @q (2:34)
k
24
@T 3 a0efÁF @T Z2
5^¶ k ·Rìo3¿#3 R\ Qk r @q
k @qk
@ îïBùëìêfþ{ì¥t
2
T 21 m ds
dt = 1 m r_2 + r2 _2
2
(2:35)
Rìot
pr = @T
@ r_ = mr_ p = @T_ = mr2 _
@
íÂ
@T = mr_2 @T = 0
@r @
Lagrange DWt
dpr = Q + mr_2 (Qr : radial force)
dt r
dp = Q (2:36)
dt (Q : torgue)
Qr Q ef¿43/F~ÁF
Euler-Lagrange DW¶}·Ãè; Hamilton OPö6

Zt 2
S = L(x x_ ) dt L=T ;V
t1
;OPÄ§W23Â /; {pqo?uÅ (compact) ÆÇ<
È3ÉcE ¯{ïÊSË? Lagrangian !";OPW2ÁÂ
ÌÍSP ÎoÏ\SE
Euler-Lagrange DW¶ý·Ãè< -ÁÂ\S !"Ã±^Ref (generalized
coordinates) öÿ <^}Ð\S ÆÇ}«aef ÑÒ=
E_ Euler-Lagrange DW ¾!"^/UÓ ÍÔ ¾ÕCÖ ^l£Ë efö
Ý!"E
]^j}çÃ\¡ g :% y = ax4 ëìû+{ëìDWq
25
bjæç3ot m {ì¥rA¥À
T = m2 (x_ 2 + y_ 2 ) = m2 (1 + 16a2x6 )x_ 2
V = mgy = mgax4
{ Lagrangian t
L = T ; V = m2 (1 + 16a2x6 )x_ 2 ; mgax4
Euler-Lagrange DWt

d @L ; @L = d hm(1 + 16a2 x6 )x_ i + 4mgax3 = 0
dt @ x_ @x dt
QëìDWqt
mx + 4mgax3 = 0
]^ : ,H}ëì\]{A¥±rRefc× V = V (q1 q2 qs ) û+{ Euler-

Lagrange DW
b : ;x*ÀH
;V = = Q1 q1 + Q2 q2 + + Qsqs
{( Qi qi mt ( U = \ Aø ) ; Hamilton OP
Zt 2
(T ; V )dt = 0
t1
{ Euler-Lagrange DWt
d @ (T ; V ) + @ (T ; V ) = 0
dt @ q_i @qi
t @V
@ q_ = 0 QëìDWqt
i
26

d @T ; @T = Q
dt @ q_i @qi i
]^j,H}Ñ}ëì{0t l o m ì¥rA¥t
T = 21 m(l_)2 V = mgl(1 ; cos )
û+{ Euler-Lagrange DW ( ëìDWq )

bj+3 Lagrangian t
L = T ; V = 12 m(l_)2 ; mgl(1 ; cos )
Euler-Lagrange DWt
d @L ; @L = d ml2_ + mgl sin = 0
dt @ _ @ dt

+ gl sin = 0
]^jû+×Ñ}ëì3 Euler-Lagrange DW ( ëìDWq )

bj;üpH{ef3×Øt
x1 = l1 sin 1 y1 = ;l1 cos 1
x2 = l1 sin 1 + l2 sin 2 y2 = ;l1 cos 1 ; l2 cos 2

x7 ì¥rA¥t
27
T = 12 m1(x_ 21 + y_12 ) + 21 m2(x_ 22 + y_22 )
= 12 (m1 + m2)l12_12 + m2l1 l2_1 _2 cos(1 ; 2 ) + 12 m2l22_22
V = m1 gy1 + m2gy2 = ;(m1 + m2)gl1 cos 1 ; m2gl2 cos 2
Euler-Lagrange DWt
d @L ; @L = 0 d @L ; @L = 0
dt @ _1 @1 dt @ _2 @2

(m1 + m2)l11 + m2l2(2 cos + _22 sin ) + (m1 + m2)g sin 1 = 0
l11 cos + l2 2 ; l1_12 sin + g sin 2 = 0 = 1 ; 2
E_¿Àh ÙÚ^Û/R Lagrangian L = L(qi q_i qi t) +n

_ot Z b
S= L(qi q_i qi t)dt (2:37)
a
{¿À
n @L
Z bX @L @L
S = @qi qi + @ q_i q_i + @ qi qi dt
a i=1
À7À
Z bXn @L d @L d2 @L q dt
S = ; + dt i
a i=1 @qi dt @ q_i 2 @ q
i
5^ Euler-Lagrange DWt
d2 @L ; d @L + @L = 0 i = 1 2 n (2:38)
dt2 @ qi dt @ q_i @qi
ï k Ü*À Euler-Lagrange DWt
k
(;1)k dtd k @L d @L + @L = 0
+ + (;1)1 dt @ q_i @qi i = 1 2 n (2:39)
@ ddtq
k
k
i
(;1)k þÀ7À k M
28
]^j,H}çëì{ Lagrangian L = ; m2 qq ; k2 q2 , û+{ëìDWq
bja*À
@L = ; m q ; kq @L = 0 @L = ; m q:
@q 2 @ q_ @ q 2
5^ Euler-Lagrange DW ( ëìDWq ) t
d2 ; m q ; d 0 + ; m q ; kq = 0 =) mq + kq = 0
dt2 2 dt 2
]^ : V t\·¸¢ ¿¡ Lagrangian t
L = 8 2m 5 5 + V + 4h i ( ;
h
2
) (2:40)
û_º{ëìDWqt Schrodinger DW
ih @ = ; h2 52 + V (2:41)
2 @t 8 2m
{( t Schrodinger Ý.¡ h Plank Ú¡
29
]^ : ,H Lagrangian t
L = _ _ ; c2r r ; 20c2 (2:42)
û¹{ëìDWqt Klein-Gordon DW
; c12 @@t2 ;
2
2
0 =0 (2:43)
ï Lagrangian t
Z 1
_ _
L= 2 ( ; k1r r ) ; k2 cos dx
{ëìDWqt Sine-Gordon DW
@ 2 ; k ; k sin = 0 (2:44)
@t2 1 2
XYj,H}\]{ LagrangianL r+, t Þ×

@L q_ ; L
E = @q (2:45)
i
i
t}Ú¡·Ú¡t Jacobian À
bja*ÀE_ Euler-Lagrange DW

dE = d @L q_ + @L q ; @L q ; @L q_ ; @L
dt dt @ q_i i @ q_i i @ q_i i @qi i @t
= dtd @@L
q_i ; @L q_ ; @L = ; @L = 0
@qi i @t @t
ßjÕÚ Jacobian À E ¥o Lagrangian À9t
30
L = L2 + L1 + L0 ( ýM ) + ( }M ) + ( iM ) (2:46)
HIJàáâ:
]^jû+;ãÏ3n_o
bj¾;ãÏ{ Lagrangian t L(x_ ) = 12 x_ 2 , Euler-Lagrange DW ( ëìDW
q)t
d @L ; @L = 0 =) x = 0
dt @ x_ @x
{Õ9t
x = x0 + vt
n_ot
Zt Zt1 1 v2t = 1 (x ; x0 )2
S= Ld = 2 x
_ 2
d = 2 2 t
0 0
]^j,H}çëì{ Lagrangian t L(x x_ ) = m2 x_ 2 ; m2 w2 x2 û+{n_o
bj Euler-Lagrange DW ( ëìDWq ) t
d @L ; @L = 0 =) x + w2x = 0
dt @ x_ @x
}·ýÜÚ*ÀDW{Õ9t
x(t) = A sin(wt + )
n_oä;Ú*ÀDW3Õ9öåÛ
31
Zt 2
m Z t2
S = L(x x_ )dt = 2 (x_ 2 ; w2x2 )dt
t1 t1
m t2
m Z t 2
d2
= 2 xx_ ; 2 x(t) dt2 + w x(t)dt
2
t1 t1
= m x(t2 )x_ (t2 ) ; x(t1 )x_ (t1 )]
2
Ú*ÀDW3Õ9t
x(t) = A sin(wt + )
= A sinw(t ; t1) + (wt1 + )]
= A sinw(t ; t1)] cos(wt1 + ) + A sin(wt1 + ) cosw(t ; t1 )]
íÂ
x(ti ) = A sin(wti + )
i = 1 2
x_ (ti) = Aw cos(wti + )
9It
x(t) = w1 x_ (t1 ) sinw(t ; t1)] + x(t1 ) cosw(t ; t1)]
a*À ;
x_ (t1 ) = sinw(tw ; t )] x2 ; x1 cosw(t2 ; t1 )]
2
w
1
;
x_ (t2 ) = sinw(t ; t )] ; x1 ; x2 cosw(t2 ; t1 )]

2 1
5^ ;
x(t1 )x_ (t1 ) = sinw(tw ; t )] x1 x2 ; x21 cosw(t2 ; t1)]
2
w
1
;
x(t2 )x_ (t2 ) = sinw(t ; t )] ; x1x2 ; x22 cosw(t2 ; t1 )]

2 1
on_o
S = 2 sinwmw
;(x2 + x2 ) cosw(t ; t )] ; 2x x
(t2 ; t1)] 1 2 2 1 1 2
mw ;(x2 + x2 ) cos(wT )] ; 2x x T = (t ; t ) 6= n
= 2 sin( wT ) 1 2 1 2 2 1
32
]^j,H}çëì{ Lagrangian t L(x x_ ) = m2 x_ 2 ; m2 w2x2 + F (t)x, û+{n
_o
bj¾¿; Lagrangian HëìDWqt
d @L ; @L = 0 =) mx + mw2x = F (t)
dt @ x_ @x
}·ÙæMýÜÚ*ÀDW{Õ9ä; Green .¡
m dtd 2 + mw2 G(t ) = (t ; )

2
{ Green .¡t 8 sinw(t ; )] t >

1 <
G(t ) = mw : 0 t<
QÙæMýÜÚ*ÀDW{Õ9t
x(t) = xh (t) + xp (t) = ( æM9 ) +( '9 )
1 Zt
= a cos wt + b sin wt + mw sin w(t ; )F ( )d
0
tuç| x(t1 ) = x1 x(t2 ) = x2

1 Zt
x(t) = x1 cosw(t ; t1)] + A sinw(t ; t1)] + mw sin w(t ; )F ( )d
t1
t2 3 t (T = t2 ; t1)
1 Z t2
x(t2 ) = x2 = x1 cos wT + A sin wT + mw sin w(t2 ; )F ( )d
t1
Ú¡ A t
1 1 Z t2
A = (x2 ; x1 cos wT ) sin wT ; mw sin wT sin w(t2 ; )F ( )d
t1
|
33
1 Z t2
H (t1 t2) mw sin wT sin w(t2 ; )F ( )d = sin1wT K (t2 )
t1
1 Z t
K (t) mw sin w(t ; )F ( )d
t1
1 Zt
0
K (t) m cos w(t ; )F ( )d
t1
Q*ÀDW{Õ9t
w(t2 ; t) + x sin w(t ; t1) ; H (t t ) sin w(t ; t ) + K (t)
x(t) = x1 sinsin wT 2
sin wT 1 2 1
{*Àt
w(t2 ; t) + wx cos w(t ; t1) ; H (t t )w sin w(t ; t ) + K 0 (t)
x_ (t) = ;wx1 cossin wT 2
sin wT 1 2 1
!"@èén_o ä;À7À
Zt 2 Zt m m2
S= L(x x_ )dt = 2 x_ 2 ; 2 w2x2 + F (t)x dt
t t
m
1
t 2
m Z t
1
2
d2 Zt 2
= 2 xx_ ; 2 x(t) dt2 + w2 x(t)dt F (t)xdt
t1 t1 t1
Z t
=m 1 2
x t 2 )x_ (t2 ) ; x(t1 )x_ (t1 )] +
2 ( 2 t1 F (t)xdt
;êù3À2H
cos wT 1 1 Z t2
x_ (t1 ) = ;wx1 sin wT + wx2 sin wT ; m sin wT sin w(t2 ; )F ( )d
t1
1 cos wT cos wT Z t2
x_ (t2 ) = ;wx1 sin wT + wx2 sin wT ; m sin wT sin w(t2 ; )F ( )d
t1
1
Z t2
+m cos w(t2 ; )F ( )d
t1
èé ( ì¥78 ):

m (x x_ ; x x_ ) = m w (x2 + x2 ) cos wT ; 2x x +
2 2 2 1 1 2 sin wT 2 1 1 2
x Z t2 x Z t2
+ mw2
sin w( ; t1)F ( )d + mw
1
sin w(t2 ; )F ( )d
t1 t1
34
A¥78 t
1 Z t2 F (t)xdt = 1 Z t2 x sin w(t2 ; t) + x sin w(t ; t1 )
2 t1 2 t1 1 sin wT 2
sin wT
sin w ( t ; t 1)
Z t2 1 Z t2
; mw sin wT sin w(t2 ; )F ( )d + mw sin w(t ; )F ( )d
t1 t1
mw
Z t2 h x1 x2 sin w(t ; t )
= 2 sin wT F (t) mw sin w(t2 ; t) + mw 1
t1
sin w ( t ; t 1)
Z t2 sin wT Z t2 i
; (mw)2 sin w(t2 ; )F ( )d + (mw)2 sin w(t ; )F ( )d dt
t1 t1
¿Àëì
sin wT Z t2 F (t) Z t2 sin w(t ; )F ( )ddt = 0
(mw)2 t1 t1
Zt 2
Zt 2
sin w(s ; t1)F (s)ds sin w(t2 ; t)F (t)dt
t1 t1
Zt Zt2 2
=2 F (t)F (s) sin w(t2 ; t) sin w(s ; t1)dsdt
t1 t1
Qn_ot
mw
2 x Z t2
S = 2 sin wT (x2 + x1 ) cos wT ; 2x2x1 + mw sin w(t ; t1)F (t)dt
2 2 2
t1
2 x Z t 2 2 Z t2
Z t2

+ mw 1
sin w(t2 ; t)F (t)dt ; (mw)2 F (t)F (s) sin w(t2 ; t) sin w(s ; t1 )dsdt
t1 t1 t1
35
í 3 Euler-Lagrage îïðñòó :
ôõö÷ø (Jacobian):
!"YAo?R ¿¡¿
yi = 'i (x1 xn ) i = 1 2 : : : m (3:1)
;x*À
X
n @'
i
dyi = dxj (3:2)
j =1 @xj
tùú3pq
0 dy 1 0 @'1 @'1 : : : @'1 1 0 dx1 1
B 1
C B
B @x1 @x2 @xn C
C
.
@ .. A = B C @ ... A (3:3)
dy
@ @'m @'m @'m A dxn
m : : : @x
@x1 @x2 n mn
~ßt
dy = @@ ((xy1 yx2 yxm )) dx
1 2 n
{(
dy = (dy1 dym )t dx = (dx1 dxn )t
m n ùú
0 @'1 @'1 @'1 1
: : :
@ (y1 y2 ym ) B
B @x1 @x2 @xn C
C
B
@ (x1 x2 xn ) @ @' @' C (3:4)
m m @'m A
@xn @xn : : : @xn mn
t Jacobian ùúEï z1 zl û y1 ym .¡
dz = (dz1 dzl)t = @@((yz1yz2yzl )) dy

1 2 m

36
dz = @@((yz1yz2yzl )) @@((xy1 yx2 yxm )) dx (3:5)
1 2 m 1 2 n
íÂ; z r x 3×ØH
dz = @@((xz1xz2 xzl )) dx (3:6)
1 2 n
Q Jacobian ùú hh
@ (z1 z2 zl) = @ (z1 z2 zl ) @ (y1 y2 ym ) (3:7)
@ (x1 x2 xn ) @ (y1 y2 ym ) @ (x1 x2 xn )
qmtü (chain rule ) !opq3E? m = n = l ® z1 = x1 zn = xn
@qTt
I = @@((xy1 yxn)) @@((xy1 yxn )) (3:8)

1 n 1 n
~ß
@ (y1 ym ) = @ (x1 xn) ;1
@ (x1 xn) @ (y1 yn)
¿ Jacobian Dú3 O¿ Jacobian Dú3ùúE
t§Zr Jacobian ùúoý !"R (m = n)
D(y1 yn) det @ (y1 yn ) = @ (y1 yn )

D(x1 xn) @ (x1 xn ) @ (x1 xn ) (3:9)
þ Jacobian Dú @@((xy1 xyn )) þq ~ßt Jacobian ;þq3ÿH

1 n

D(x1 xn ) = D(y1 yn ) ;1
D(y1 yn ) D(x1 xn ) (3:10)
Riemann J (Riemann metric)

× Riemann o ( Riemann metric ) gij 3;ö;c03 ; ½ö6
37
ds2 = dx21 + + dx2n
@x @x
2 @x @x
2
n n
= @y dy1 + + @y dyn + + @y dy1 + + @y dyn
1 1
n n (3:11)
X1 1
= gij dyi dyj

ij
{(
X @xk @xk
@r @r
gij = = r (x1 x2 xn ) (3:12)
t
k @y @y
i j @yi @y j
<tR gij t Riemann metric t _öro E
X : Riemann o ( Riemann metric )gij t
X @x @x @r @r
gij ] = (J );1 J ;1 =
t k k = (3:13)
k @yi @yj ij @yi @yj ij
{(
J ;1 = @@((xy1 yxn))
1 n
Riemann o3 ùút

X @yi @y ;
gij = gij ];1 = (J t);1 J ;1];1 = JJ t = j = ry ry (3:14)
@xk @xk i j ij
k
þq !"-3 t
g = detgij ] = det(J t);1 J ;1] = (det J );2 (3:15)
ÑA cCþ3×Øq
@ (x x )
dx1 dxn = @ (y1 y n) dy1 yn = pgdy1 dyn (3:16)
1 n
]^ ( ): ûÛBùef3 Riemann o
38
b : Bùeft
x = r cos
(x y) ! (r )
y = r sin
+
J ;1 = @@((x y ) = cos ;r sin detJ ;1 = r
r ) sin r cos
c0t
ds2 = dx2 + dy2 = (cos dr ; r sin d)2 + (sin dr + r cos d)2
= dr2 + r2 d2
1 0 dr
= (dr d) 0 r2 d
Riemann ot
1
gij ] = 0 r02 (3:17)
? gij ] ; J +
gij ] = (J t);1 (J ;1 )
]^ ( ûÛq²ef3 Riemann o
):
b: 8 x = r cos '
>
<
> y = r sin ' (x y z) ! (r ' z)
: z=z
+ 2 cos ' ;r sin ' 0 3
J ;1 = @@((x y z) = 4 sin ' r cos ' 0 5
r ' z) detJ ;1 = r
0 0 1
c0t
ds2 = dx2 + dy2 + dz2 = dr2 + r2 d'2 + dz2
Riemann ot
39
21 0 03
gij ] = 4 0 r2 0 5 (3:18)
0 0 1
]^ ( ûÛóùef3 Riemann o
):
b:
x = r cos ' sin
y = r sin ' sin (x y z) ! (r ')
z = r cos
+ 2 cos ' sin r cos ' cos ;r sin ' sin 3
J ;1 = @@((x y z ) = 4 sin ' sin r sin ' cos r cos ' sin 5
r ') cos ;r sin 0
c0t
ds2 = dx2 + dy2 + dz2 = dr2 + r2 d2 + r2 sin2 d'2
Riemann ot 21 0 3
0
gij ] = 4 0 r2 0 5 (3:19)
0 0 r sin2
2
Euler-Lagrange à
!"YAef¿
(x y) 7! (u v)
a*À-n_o (action)
Zb
S (y) = L(x y y0 )dx (3:20)
a
#t± n_o
40
Zb 1 y u + y v v

0 Z b1
S~(v) = 0
L x(u v) y(u v) x + x v0 (xu + xv v )du = L~ (u v v0 )du (3:21)
a1 u v a1
Oö3 Euler-Lagrange DW
d @L ; @L = 0 (3:22)
dx @y0 @y
#t
d @ L~ ; @ L~ = 0 (3:23)
du @v0 @v
Euler-Lagrange DW ;ef¿{pqµªZ¿ 7±ef\
DWq y2± Lagrangian ¾;ãÏ{ Lagrangian t L = m2 v2
s;3RH
ds 2
= ((ds )
2
v = dt
2
dt)2
¾ Zuef\] y c0BD qÏ 2ö7;ãÏ La-
grangian
L = m2 (x_ 2 + y_ 2 + z_2 ) ( a0ef )
L = m2 (r_2 + r2 _ 2 + z_2 ) ( q²ef ) (3:24)
L = m2 (r_2 + r_2 _2 + r2 _ 2 sin2 ) ( óùef )
]^jûW2×ëì3 Euler-Lagrange DW
bj!"æ{(3}tOç (0 0) ãÏ3ot m ¾ ¬ëì !"
~ 7< E_efn
q1 = r q2 =
+3ì¥ A¥À
T = m2 (r_2 + r2 _2 ) V = ; km
r
41
; Lagrangian
L = T ; V = m2 (r_2 + r2 _2 ) + km
r
Euler-Lagrange
d ( @L ) ; @L = 0 =) mr ; mr_2 ; km
dt @ r_ @r r 2 =0
d ( @L ) ; @L = 0 =) d mr2 _ = 0
dt @ _ @ dt
;
mr2 _ = l mr ; mrl 3 ; km
r2 = 0 l
L
@L = mr2 _ ) r2 d = h
@ dt

d2r ; r( d )2 = ; k
dt2 dt r2

!! : Laplace u = 0 Dirichlet "

Z Z
J (u) = F (x1 x u u 1 u )dx1 dx
n x xn n (3:25)
# Euler-Lagrange $%
F (x1 x u u 1 u ) = u2 1 + u2 2 + + u2
n x xn x x xn (3:26)
&' : J (u) # Euler-Lagrange

F ;rF @ @ @F @F
= 0 ; @x @x @u @u
u uxi
1 n 1 x xn
= ;2(u 1 1 + + u ) = ;2 u
x x xn xn
42
()* .
+ , : -./ Euler-Lagrange #0 012304 (invariant under change of
variable) *5
X @ 2u 1 X @ p @u n n
u = @x2 = pg @y g g @y (3:27) ij
j i
j =1 j ij =1
&' : Dirichlet "

Z Z
J (u) = F (x1 x u u 1 u )dx1 dx
n x xn n
Z Z
= F (x1 (y1 y ) u 1 u ) @@((xy1 xy )) dy1 dy
n y yn
n
n
1
Z Z n
@ ( x
= (y1 y u u 1 u ) @ (y1 xy )) dy1 dy n
n y yn n
1 n
6
F1 = (y1 y u u 1 u ) @@((xy1 yx ))
n y yn
n
1 n
X @u @u ;1 p X @u @u
F1 = g @y @y J = g g @y @y ij ij
i j i j
ij ij
J1 # Eular-Lagrange
X @ p X @u
@y g g @y
ij
j i
j i
7 Laplace 89:<< Jacobian (

u = p1g @y@ (g pg @y
X @u ) ij
j i
ij
=>?@./ABC 2DEF*5
!! : G u HIJC
1 X @ p @u
X @ 2u
n n
u = @x2 = pg @y g g @y
ij
j i
=1 j =1 k ij
43
&' : 8! 2 C01(), KL"@)
Z XZ X Z @u @!
@ 2u
u!dx = 2 !dx = ; dx
@x @x @x
k k k
X Z @u @y @! @y p
k k
=;
@y @x @y @x gdy
i i
i k i k
X Z @u @! p
ijk
=; @y @y g gdy
ij
i i
X Z @u
ij
= ( g pg @u )!dy ij
@y @y i i
Z
ij
= p1g @y@ (g pg @y
X @u )!dx ij
i i
ij
89MNO ()*
+, ( PQR ): *5OS Laplacian TUVWX
u = u + u = @@rV2 + 1r @V 1 @ 2V
2
xx yy +
@r r2 @2 (3:28)
$%
x = r cos y = r sin
V (r ) = u(x y) = u(r cos r sin )
YZ : K\\] (chain rule) ^

@u = @V @r + @V @
@x @r @x @ @x
@u = @V @r + @V @
@y @r @y @ @y
_
x2 + y2 = r2
à x y )
@r = x = cos @r = y = sin
@x r @y r
44
K x = r cos y = r sin à y x )
@r cos ; r sin @ = sin cos ; r sin @
0 = @y @y @y
0 = @x@r sin + r cos @ = cos sin + r cos @
@x @x

@ = cos @ = ; sin
@y r @x r
bcd5e , =>f#Wgh
2 @u 3 2 @u
@u 3 2 @u 3 2 32 3
cos ; sin @u
6 @x 7 = 6 @x
@x @r 5 = 4
7 6 7 6 r 5 4 @r 75
7 6
4 @u 5 4 @u
@u 5 4 @u cos @u
@y @y @y @ sin r @
Hi#j @kK Jacobian ghFb

@ (r ) = @ (x y) ;1 = cos sin ;1
@ (x y) @ (r ) ;r sin r cos 2 3
sin
= 1r rr cos ; sin = 64 cos ; r 75
sin cos sin cosr
l./\\]@)
@ 2 u = cos2 @ 2 V + 2 cos sin @ 2V ; 2 sin cos @ 2 V
@x2 @r2 r2 @ r @r@
+ sinr @V sin @ V
2 2 2
@r + r2 @2
@ u = sin2 @ V ; 2 sin cos @ 2 V + 2 sin cos @ 2V
2 2
@y2 @r2 r2 @ r @r@

+ cosr @V cos @ V
2 2 2
@r + r2 @2
+, : -mnop2OSIq# Laplacian
r : op2OSIq#01
45
(x y) ! ( ) R = (x y)
s#tu
2
ds = dx + dy = @x
2 2
@ d +2@x d 2 + @y d + @y d
@ @ @
= Ed2 + 2Fdd + Gd2

E
= (d d) F G dF d
$%
E = @R
@ @
@R F = @R
@ @
@R G = @R
@ @
@R
; Laplacian
u = p 1 2 @ p ; Fu2 + @
@ Gu @ pGu ; Fu
(3:29)
EG ; F EG ; F EG ; F 2
+, ( vwQR ): *5xS Laplacian yqUV (x y z) ! (r ') WX

u=u +u +u xx yy zz
(3:30)
= r2 @r r @r + r2 sin @ sin @ + 2 1 2 @@'V2
1 @ 2 @V 1 @ @V 2
r sin
$%
x = r cos ' sin y = r sin ' sin z = r cos
V (r ') = u(x y z) = u(r cos ' sin r sin ' sin r cos )
z : G g12 = g13 = g23 = 0 s{|01 (Orthogonal transformation) Riemann }~

(Riemann metric) 2 3
1 0 0
6
6 g11 7
7
; 6 1 0 777
g ] = g ] = 66 0 g
ij 1
ij (3:31)
22
4 5
0 0 g1
33
s Laplacian r r r
1
u = pg g g @y @y@ @u g 22 g33 @ @u g 33 g11 @ @u g 11 g22
11 22 33 1 1 g11 + @y2 @y2 g22 + @y3 @y3 g33
46
4 Lagrange :
(isoperimetric problem) T2 -û
}#q"k2@ ¡¢£?¤ ¥¦

x = x(t) y = y(t) t1 t t2 (4:1)
;K Green §¨^$#q"

Z 2 Z 2 x y
1
A= 2 dy dx 1
x dt ; y dt dt = 2 dx dy dt
t t
(4:2)
1t 1 dt dt t
tu s
2 2
Z
L= dx t2
+ dy dt (4:3)
1 dt
t dt
;©ª«¬® (4.3) #¯- A #T°±²¨³2´µ¶·
Lagrange ¸¹ (Lagrange multiplier)
Lagrange multiplier º
µ) f (x y ) »¼T±2½·¾¿ÀÁ ÂÃ
f (x y ) = f (x y ) = 0
x y
_GÄsµ½ÅÆª g(x y) = c
df = f dx + f dy = 0
x y
dg = g dx + g dy = 0
x y
./8ÇÈ^
f = f ;
x y
g g x y
1ÉÊË
f + g = 0
x x f + g =0
y y (4:4)
47
<ÌÂ3ÍÎoÏ®¯Ð F (x y ) = f (x y) + g(x y) #T±
@F = @f + @g = 0
@x @x @x
@F = @f + @g = 0 (4:5)
@y @y @y
@F = g(x y) = 0
@
Ñ Lagrange ¸¹ (Lagrange multiplier) ./ f ÒÓ)
@f ; @f @g
@x
= 0 g(x y) = 0 (4:6)
@x @y @g
@y
(4.5) #Ð Lagrange ¸¹ ÔÕÖ× #±Ø)ÐÅÄsÆª g(x y) = c H

j #ÙÏpB : ÚÛ f (x y ) #Ü ÝX¥¦Þ«¬® g(x y ) = c
¯ f #T± \ ßà " A ½ «¬Ðáâª g(x y) = c f #Ü<
ã2ä· (4) #ÙÏpB
Ä¨GåæH#«¬®ç f (x1 x2 ) #T±Íè®
g (x1 x2 ) =
i i = 1 2 (4:7)
<ÌÂ
F = f + 1g1 + 2g2 + (4:8)
48
#T±
+,é- y = y(x) \ê (0 0) (1 0) ë½ x ì#q"
réÂ"#T±
Z 1 Z 1p
max ydx 1 + (y0 )2 dx = L y(0) = y(1) = 0
0 0
K Lagrange multiplier @í
p
F =y+ 1 + (y0 )2
; Euler-Lagrage
d ( p y0 ) ; 1 = 0
dx 1 + (y0 )2
îï
y00 1
p 3 =
0
1 + (y ) ] 2
2
¹ðñ=> ( Gòª ) ó (curvatue) 1 #áâ2

LôÌâõê"
p
y0 = x ; c1
1 + (y0 )2
Ð) y0 #Nl"
(x ; c1)2 + (y ; c2)2 = 2
(4:9)
¹ðñ=>ö÷ #2Lôøáâ ( K#4ù )
1<L< 2
./ú x = x(t) y = y(t) ©"#T±

Z 2 Z 2p
1 t
max 2 (xy_ ; yx_ )dt x_ 2 + y_ 2dt = L

t
1 t 1 t
49
./ Lagrange multiplier @í
p
F = 12 (xy_ ; yx_ ) + x_ 2 + y_ 2
; Euler-Langrange
d (; 1 y + p x_ ) ; 1 y_ = 0
dt 2 x_ 2 + y_ 2 2
d ( 1 x + p y_ ) + 1 x_ = 0
dt 2 x_ 2 + y_ 2 2
")
;y + p 2 x_ = ;c1 x + p 2 y_ 2 = c2
x_ + y_ 2 x_ + y_
G@Ð x ; c2 y ; c1
(x ; c2)2 + (y ; c1)2 = 2
;ö÷ #¢£?@ûæTUVFb
Z2 Z 2 q
1
max 2

r2 d L= r2 + r2 d

0 0
s
F = 12 r2 + (r2 + r2 ) 12
$ Euler-Lagrange
r + r(r2 + r2 ); 12 ; dd r (r2 + r2 ); 12 = 0

ü
rr ; 2r2 ; r2 = 1
(4:90 )
(r2 + r2 ) 32
¹ ( ý ) WXóÂ 1 #
G L #u} A $#q" L A #È
50
A L4
2
3 Ñ3 (isoperimetric inequality): þÿ§u}2 2 ; I

q%2q"
!!é ( Iq23 ) IqHþÿ§u}2 ; %#q
"1#G L ; C 2u} A C 2q"
L2 ; 4 A 0 (4:10)
ø s C ÔÕ
&' : ÝX¦ g g0 ëI õ C <ãÂ P Q ë½ s = 0 s0 `
P Q #ú => ö÷ r 2 C õ g g0 `<ãÂ P
Q ë½¥¦$
7½ C #ú
'(s) = (x(s) y(s)) (x(0) y(0)) = (x(L) y (L))
C #ú
'(s) = (x(s) y(s))
$%
x(s) = x(s)
p
p r ; x (s)
y(s) = ; 0 s s0
2 2
r ; x (s) s0 s L
2 2
u} L # 2q"@./"FWX
51
Z Z Z Z
xy0 ds = ; yx0 ds = 1 (xy0 ; x0 y)ds
L L L L
A= xdy = 2
0 0 0 0
f / C C )
Z
xy0 ds
L
A=
0
Z Z
A = r = ; yx0 ds = ; yx0 ds
L L
2
0 0
ë <è Z
(xy 0 ; x0 y)ds
L
A+ r = 2
0
Z p L
= (xy 0 ; x0 y)2 ds
0
Z p L
()
= (x2 + y2)(x0 )2 + (y0 )2 ] ds
0
Z p L
x2 + y2 ds
0
;ë 2ÙÏI °ÂüÂ >2 I
p p 2 1
A r 2 (A + r2 ) 12 Lr
íI·3
L2 ; 4 A 0
ª¥¦ A r2 2ÙÏI I <
A = r2 L=2 r
;õ g g0 2 op2; C ª2 <Ä# };

Z
(xy 0 ; x0 y)ds
L
A+ r = 2
0
Ô²² `
(xy0 ; x0 y)2 = (x2 + y2)(x0 )2 + (y0 )2]
52
Â p
x = ; y = p x2 + y2 = r
y0 x0 (x0 )2 + (y0 )2
K ( ) ^$8± r {
x = ry0 y = ;rx0
x y |1H Å y = rx0 ;@)
x2 + y2 = r2
Â*5 C
3 ?@./ Fourier #¨nF*5=> *5 Wirtinge ¨

!!é (Wirtinge Lemma) f (t) 2 #\ C øþ\ 2Á
f 0 (t) G
Z 2
f (t)dt = 0
0

Z 2 Z 2
jf 0 (t)j2 dt jf (t)j2 dt (4:11)
0 0
ø #®
f (t) = a cos t + b sin t (4:12)
&' : f f (t) îï Fourier

1
a0 + X
f (t) 2 =1(a cos nt + b sin nt)
n n
; f 0 (t) \ 2$ Fourier @

1
X
f 0 (t) (nb cos nt ; na sin nt)
n n
n =1
53
;
Z 2
f (t)dt = a0 =) a0 = 0
0
K Parseval @) Z 1
2 X
jf (t)j dt = 2 (a2 + b2 )
n n
0 n=1
Z 2 1
X
0
jf (t)j dt = n2(a2 + b2 )
2
n n
0 n=1
;
Z 2 Z 2 1
X
jf 0 (t)j2 dt ; jf (t)j dt =
2
(n2 ; 1)(a2 + b2 )
n n
0 0 n=1
H ÂÃÔÕ
a =b =0
n n 8n > 1

f (t) = a1 cos t + b1 sin t
Z 2
!!&' : ; ¦ L = 2 ø x(s)ds = 0 <ÌÂË2 ! ª x ìH
0
( I ±ÂÃ ) 2u} q"
Z 2 Z 2
2 = (x0 )2 + (y0 )2 ds A= xy0 ds
0 0
;
Z 2 Z 2
2( ; A) = (x0 )2 ; x2 ds + (x ; y0 )2ds
0 0
! " " O"áâÂÂÃ;

A
·3 G ÔÕ
54
x = a cos s + b sin s y0 = x
Â)
x = a cos s + b sin s
y = a sin s ; b cos s + c
{ C
+,é-"
ZZZ
S () = h 2 (2 + 2 + 2) + V 2 dxdydz (4:13)
R 2m
x y z
¾¿«¬®
ZZZ
2dxdydz = 1 (4:14)
R
#T±
ré"# Lagrangian
h
2
L = 2m (2 + 2 + 2 ) + V 2 = ( #$ ) + ( Ü $ )
x y z
K Lagrange ¸¹^ %& Lagrangian

L~ = 2hm (2 + 2 + 2 ) + V 2 + 2
2
x y z
; Euler-Lagrange
! ! !
@ @ L~ + @ @ L~ + @ @ L~ ; @ L~ = 0
@x @ @y @
x @z @ @ y z z
ü
h
2
; 2m 4 + V = ; (4:15)
3þs ' t 2 Schrodinger 2ÿ± V Ü $ ;0¶ðñ=
> Schrodinger 2ÿ± ( Â
55
5 Euler-Lagrage )* Sturm-Liouville :
Sturm-Liouville +, Hÿ± (eigenvalue problem) 0¶ (calcu-
lus of variation) T - ã#È ./ ¯ Sturm - Liouville
d p(x) du ; q(x)u(x) + (x)u(x) = 0
dx dx (5:1)
u(a) = u(b) = 0
=>f# 0 1 C (functional)
Z
p(u0 )2 + (q ; )u2]dx
b
I u(x)] = (5:2)
a
2 Euler-Lagrange _ 2 3 3 4 ; 3 3^ 5 =>@

1 Ë¶{ª®
Z b
J u(x)] = u2dx = (5:3)

a
#¯
Z
p(u0)2 + qu2]dx
b
I u(x)] = (5:4)
a
#T°±s Lagrange ¸¹ (Langrage multiplier) 6

R
b
p(u0 )2 + qu2 dx
= a
R (5:5)
u2dx
b
a
; 7 Ë¶ 8 <ÌÂ 1 C
K u(x)] = JI uu((xx)])] (5:6)
#T°± , 8± (ratio) Ñ# Rayleigh 9 (Rayleigh quotient)

#0
= JI J;2 IJ = J1 (I ; J ) (5:7)
$%
56
Z
I = 2pu0u] (pu0 )0 ; qu udx
b
b
a ;2
Z
a
b
J = 2 uudx
a
R 00
pu0u] ; b b
(pu ) ; qu + u udx
=2 a a
R (5:8)
u dx a
b
2
; = 0 <ÌÂ Sturm-Liouville ( { Euler-Lagrange )

d p(x) du ; q(x)u(x) + (x)u(x) = 0
dx dx (5:9)
pu0 ] = = pu0 ] = = 0
x a x b
+, : - :<
d2u + u = 0 u(0) = u(1) = 0
dx2
#°ÿ±
r : => < -C u = x(1 ; x)
R 1 02
u dx 1
0 R01 2 = = 10
3
0 u dx
1
30
= ¤± = 2 <Ìê > ?@ @lÚÛC

u = x(1 ; x)(1 + c1x + ::::)
0 # c Ø) Rayleigh 9 T°± A= ¤2 :<

i
+, : - :< 2BC 2 D# , $a2
k2 = wc2
2
u + k2u = 0 uj = = 0 0 r a
r a
#°ÿ±
57
r : =>@ < -C u = 1 ; ar
RR
k0
2 jr j
R R 2 dxdy =
u 2
= a62
u dxdy a2
6
$ = ¤± 2
k0 = 2:405
2
a
::: 5a:78
2
z : ./0¶ :< °ÿ± , $´µ EF ªÂ GHI Ì2 < -C (test function),

J4 2 < -C ÔÕþ K x® :
L ¾¿ MN ®
O b P F Q 2ÿC RS @ $ Ù< T
U µØ) K u(x)] # <V ~ ;
+, : - :<WD ¹2 Schrodinger , $a2
H = ; ddx2 + x2 = E
2
;1 < x < 1
#°ÿ±
r : =>@ < -C = (1 + x2 ) exp(;x2 )
E0 h h H i= 5
4 ; 8 + 43

64
2
i 1 + 2 + 163 2

=>@0 # Ø) !M T° , {
232 + 56 ; 48 = 0 ) = 0:6718
(
E0 1:034 ( = ¤± E = 1 u0 exp(; x2 ))
2
58
+,é-./ Ritz ¶Ð0
Z 1
max (y0 )2 ; y00 ; 2xy dx y(0) = y(1) = 0
0
réK MN ®=>@¥¦
'1(x) = x(1 ; x) '2(x) = x2 (1 ; x)
@) >T Ð
7 x3 ; 8 x2 + 71 x
y = 41 369 369
*¯@ X Elar-Lagrange )2Ð
y = sin x ;x
sin1
# Y < Z 10;4
59
0s¯ \ # 2 6 :
Z Z
J = L(' ' ')dtdx = 0
t x
R
;µ89°{ :< ; \ µ ]^ (norm) 2DE :

khk = max jhj + max jh j + max jh j t xi
./ Taylor îï
Z Z
J (' + h) ; J (') = 5L(h h h)dtdx + 0(khk2)
t xj
Z Z R
= (L h + L h + L h)dtdx + 0(khk2)
't t 'j xj '
R
$% ' WX @' KL" _ ./ h ª @R 0 @)

j @xj
Z Z
J ' h] = @ L ; @ L + L ghdtdx
f; @t
R
@x 't
j
'j '
í ` 2 h @jn
@ L + @ L ;L =0
@t @x 't
j
'j '
L a Abc 2Á H
@ L ; @ L + @2 L + @2 L
L ; @t + @ @@ L
2
; = 0
'
@x '2
't
@t@x j
'j
t
'tt
j
'tj
xj xk
'jk
$% d < ' ;L"2 e (

=>fÙ f 2 g $ Lagrangian W \ ¯ :
(1) ' ; 2 r2' + 2' = 0
tt L = 21 '2 ; 12 2 '2 ; 12 2'2 t xi
(2) ' ; 2 r2' = 2 r2'

tt L = 21 '2 ; 12 2'2 + 21 2'2
tt t xi txi
(3) ' + 2'

tt = 0 L = 21 '2 ; 12 2'2
xxxx t xx
(4) ' + ' + ' = 0 L = 21 + 12 2 ; 12 2

t x xxx t x x xx (' = )
x
60

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;

1. uvwxy (Brachistochrone problem):

c cA¡¢K~@£ M0(0 0) D M1 (x1 y1 ) ¤

y = y(x) y(0) = 0 y(x1 ) = y1 0 x x1

2. ö÷øùúûüýþ (resolution of minimal surface):

»¼´ z = u(x y). Å»¼I'½

aF@GoH@:IJ \ j( "(functional) @KLpj(@MLNOÓg,cPé

y  g(f (x)) = e ;f (x) =e ; x2

abo@() g W x >pDÁ):() f (x) >ppaX:j( (functional) (

» y @5 f c 0,1] Ébv·@5r>pab&D>mj myz@ (unlocal) p

f y W: f (x) DÁ)m: w @()p

mX:h N ! 1 D gN  gx2] klXS/p

 ( functional derivatives )

»ij(.' ( functional derivative ) F ']='() :  @()p

= hlim0 h1 g(x)h(x ; )dx = g()

 : | ~x : n  ·@ , f@%}bà , AoH@: , »  ()o

E< (~x ; x~ ) = j (xj ; xj )

,  () , ¹ºF%}j(.' . a~ : c() '(x) @k8A:<=@

F g(x) y ] = K (x y)g(x)dx

= hlim0 h1 K (x y)h(x ; )dx = K ( y)

F = F g(x)+ (x)] ; F g(x)] = K (x y)g(x)+ (x)]dx ; F g(x)] = K (x y ) (x)dx

åæc}ç A èéê;ëìí}è B( îïðñòó ) ·ç}ô

-3 t S ÕÚ3tn_o (action) åæ t1  t2 c!8 !" ¡S!

Hamilton OP3=>? 

Hamilton KL (Hamilton principle): }·ëì\];+, t1 +, t2

3 (extreme). V®\V  BC Euler{Lagrange DW

]^ : ûE_ Euler{Lagrange DW_º\ç,3l`:%ta%

gé4 < :%3:h (curvature)

k cot  = sin( ; ) =) kz = x sin ; y cos (2:14)

·DWqÌ}ÕZOç Bù rÑAóop }q < r%

E_ gmk gkj = mj @q#ut

pmij = 21 gmk ( @g kj + @gki ; @gij )

åæç A 3zt 0 ;¥oK{H

 }%~% (Cycloid) 3¡q : @}ç 2ö :%

]^jû+Bù@nýç (x1 y1 ) (x2 y2 ) 3 ( ¾ x  ) lmù

]^j (lm:ù (minimal surface)) û+}ô:%53lmù3:ù

gé4<  lm:ùDWq (minimal surface equation)

zxx(1 + zy2 ) ; 2zxzy zxy + zyy (1 + zx2 ) = 0 (2:17)

·*ÀDW ; Lagrange 5¦@ × lm:ù!"^YA' p :

u t}.¡ ,(}:%@}ùlm !"#t}ô

L = T ; V = 12 m(x_ 2 + y_ 2 + z_2 ) ; V (2:19)

mx = Fx my = Fy mz = Fz

xi = xi (q1 q2 qs ) yi = yi (q1 q2 qs) zi = zi (q1 q2 qs)

gkli mt Riemann o (Riemann metric) \]3ì¥t

T ¾R q_k  ýM (quadratic form) a*À3q

miri = fi () mi (xi yi zi ) = (Xi Yi Zi )

Euler-Lagrange DW¶}·Ãè; Hamilton OPö6

L = T ; V = m2 (1 + 16a2x6 )x_ 2 ; mgax4

]^ : ,H}ëì\]{A¥±rRefc× V = V (q1 q2 qs ) û+{ Euler-

T = 21 m(l_)2 V = mgl(1 ; cos )

û+{ Euler-Lagrange DW ( ëìDWq )

L = T ; V = 12 m(l_)2 ; mgl(1 ; cos )

]^jû+×Ñ}ëì3 Euler-Lagrange DW ( ëìDWq )

x1 = l1 sin 1 y1 = ;l1 cos 1

x2 = l1 sin 1 + l2 sin 2 y2 = ;l1 cos 1 ; l2 cos 2

E_¿Àh ÙÚ^Û/R Lagrangian L = L(qi q_i qi t) +n

]^ : V t\·¸¢ ¿¡ Lagrangian t

L = _ _ ; c2r r ; 20c2 (2:42)

;

c cA¡¢K~@£ M0(0 0) D M1 (x1 y1 ) ¤

»¼´ z = u(x y). Å»¼I'½

y g(f (x)) = e ;f (x) =e ; x2

abo@() g W x >pDÁ):() f (x) >ppaX:j( (functional) (

» y @5 f c 0,1] Ébv·@5r>pab&D>mj myz@ (unlocal) p

f y W: f (x) DÁ)m: w @()p

mX:h N ! 1 D gN gx2] klXS/p

( functional derivatives )

»ij(.' ( functional derivative ) F ']='() : @()p

= hlim0 h1 g(x)h(x ; )dx = g()

: | ~x : n ·@ , f@%}bà , AoH@: , » ()o

E< (~x ; x~ ) = j (xj ; xj )

, () , ¹ºF%}j(.' . a~ : c() '(x) @k8A:<=@

F g(x) y ] = K (x y)g(x)dx

= hlim0 h1 K (x y)h(x ; )dx = K ( y)

F = F g(x)+ (x)] ; F g(x)] = K (x y)g(x)+ (x)]dx ; F g(x)] = K (x y ) (x)dx

åæc}ç A èéê;ëìí}è B( îïðñòó ) ·ç}ô

-3 t S ÕÚ3tn_o (action) åæ t1 t2 c!8 !" ¡S!

Hamilton OP3=>?

Hamilton KL (Hamilton principle): }·ëì\];+, t1 +, t2

3 (extreme). V®\V BC Euler{Lagrange DW

k cot = sin( ; ) =) kz = x sin ; y cos (2:14)

·DWqÌ}ÕZOç Bù rÑAóop }q < r%

E_ gmk gkj = mj @q#ut

åæç A 3zt 0 ;¥oK{H

}%~% (Cycloid) 3¡q : @}ç 2ö :%

]^jû+Bù@nýç (x1 y1 ) (x2 y2 ) 3 ( ¾ x ) lmù

]^j (lm:ù (minimal surface)) û+}ô:%53lmù3:ù

gé4< lm:ùDWq (minimal surface equation)

·*ÀDW ; Lagrange 5¦@ × lm:ù!"^YA' p :

u t}.¡ ,(}:%@}ùlm !"#t}ô

mx = Fx my = Fy mz = Fz

gkli mt Riemann o (Riemann metric) \]3ì¥t

T ¾R q_k ýM (quadratic form) a*À3q

miri = fi () mi (xi yi zi ) = (Xi Yi Zi )

Euler-Lagrange DW¶}·Ãè; Hamilton OPö6

]^ : ,H}ëì\]{A¥±rRefc× V = V (q1 q2 qs ) û+{ Euler-

T = 21 m(l_)2 V = mgl(1 ; cos )

L = T ; V = 12 m(l_)2 ; mgl(1 ; cos )

x1 = l1 sin 1 y1 = ;l1 cos 1

x2 = l1 sin 1 + l2 sin 2 y2 = ;l1 cos 1 ; l2 cos 2

E_¿Àh ÙÚ^Û/R Lagrangian L = L(qi q_i qi t) +n

]^ : V t\·¸¢ ¿¡ Lagrangian t

ßjÕÚ Jacobian À E ¥o Lagrangian À9t

]^j,H}çëì{ Lagrangian t L(x x_ ) = m2 x_ 2 ; m2 w2 x2 û+{n_o

x(t) = w1 x_ (t1 ) sinw(t ; t1)] + x(t1 ) cosw(t ; t1)]

m dtd 2 + mw2 G(t ) = (t ; )

{ Green .¡t 8 sinw(t ; )] t >

tuç| x(t1 ) = x1 x(t2 ) = x2

D(y1 yn) det @ (y1 yn ) = @ (y1 yn )

þ Jacobian Dú @@((xy1 xyn )) þq ~ßt Jacobian ;þq3ÿH

Riemann o3 ùút

g = detgij ] = det(J t);1 J ;1] = (det J );2 (3:15)

]^ ( ): ûÛBùef3 Riemann o

!! : Laplace u = 0 Dirichlet "

&' : J (u) # Euler-Lagrange

&' : Dirichlet "

7 Laplace 89:<< Jacobian (

+, ( PQR ): *5OS Laplacian TUVWX

+, ( vwQR ): *5xS Laplacian yqUV (x y z) ! (r ') WX

z : G g12 = g13 = g23 = 0 s{|01 (Orthogonal transformation) Riemann }~

;K Green §¨^$#q"

(4.5) #Ð Lagrange ¸¹ ÔÕÖ× #±Ø)ÐÅÄsÆª g(x y) = c H

Ä¨GåæH#«¬®ç f (x1 x2 ) #T±Íè®

¹ðñ=> ( Gòª ) ó (curvatue) 1 #áâ2

./ú x = x(t) y = y(t) ©"#T±

G L #u} A $#q" L A #È

3 Ñ3 (isoperimetric inequality): þÿ§u}2 2 ; I

;õ g g0 2 op2; C ª2 <Ä# };

3 ?@./ Fourier #¨nF5=> 5 Wirtinge ¨

&' : f f (t) îï Fourier

; f 0 (t) \ 2$ Fourier @

! " " O"áâÂÂÃ;

·3 G ÔÕ

2 Euler-Lagrange _ 2 3 3 4 ; 3 3^ 5 =>@

J u(x)] = u2dx = (5:3)

#T°±s Lagrange ¸¹ (Langrage multiplier) 6

K u(x)] = JI uu((xx)])] (5:6)

#T°± , 8± (ratio) Ñ# Rayleigh 9 (Rayleigh quotient)