Creativity and The Schizophrenia Spectrum

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Creativity and the Schizophrenia Spectrum: More and

More Interesting
Ruth Richards
Published online: 08 Jun 2010.
To cite this article: Ruth Richards (2001) Creativity and the Schizophrenia Spectrum: More and More Interesting, Creativity
Research Journal, 13:1, 111-132, DOI: 10.1207/S15326934CRJ1301_13
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Creativity Research Journal Copyright 2000–2001 by
2000–2001, Vol. 13, No. 1, 111–132 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Creativity and the Schizophrenia Spectrum: More and More Interesting More and MoreR.Interesting
Richards
Ruth Richards
Saybrook Graduate School
University of California, San Francisco
McLean Hospital and Harvard Medical School
Downloaded by [University of California, San Francisco] at 19:01 17 December 2014
ABSTRACT: There is great promise in the articles from ciated with individual or family creativity … but its
this special issue and their focus on schizophrenia- levels were generally lower than those of affective psy-
spectrum disorders and creativity. It becomes all the chosis” (p. 306). These were the days, however, when
more important, then, to proceed with caution and to do a heterogeneity of conditions were being lumped to-
good service to patients, their families, and, indeed, to gether under the designation of schizophrenia, so that
our greater human potential. After a note on the study one could not draw firm conclusions. I also had to add,
of bipolar disorders and creativity, I introduce 8 gen- “In the only study using more restrictive diagnostic cri-
eral considerations regarding creativity–pathology re- teria, sampling bias was such that nonappearance of
lations, followed by 8 specific points about the schizophrenia cannot be interpreted” (p. 307).
theoretical articles on schizophrenia spectrum. I bring At that time, Kinney and Matthysse (1978) had al-
in findings from the only empirical article in this set ready proposed the possibility of a compensatory ad-
that actually involves participants at risk for schizo- vantage to genes that increase vulnerability to various
phrenia, for which I was co-investigator. It is possible behavioral disorders. In a happy conjunction of inter-
that familial schizophrenic risk carries “creative ad- ests, I began work with Kinney and others (at McLean
vantages” distinct from (and potentially combinable Hospital and Harvard Medical School) on the assess-
with) those related to bipolar disorders, advantages ment of everyday lifetime creativity (Kinney, Rich-
that are again broad and valuable in everyday life and ards, & Southam, in press; Richards, Kinney, Benet, &
from which we may all learn. However, one must take Merzel, 1988), to explore whether creative phenomena
care to define issues fully, replicate important data, may reflect such a compensatory advantage, with a fo-
and to not “throw out the baby with the bath water” by cus on the spectrum of bipolar disorders (Richards &
creating artificial either–or situations between schizo- Kinney, 1990; Richards, Kinney, Daniels, & Linkins,
phrenia-spectrum and bipolar-spectrum disorders. 1992; Richards, Kinney, Lunde, Benet, & Merzel,
There may be new worlds that await us in situations we 1988). We prepared to study schizophrenia as well, all
are only beginning to understand. in conjunction with Kety and associates’ (e.g., Kety,
1983; Wender et al., 1986) remarkable Danish adop-
tion studies. At the same time, in the Diagnostic and
In 1996, at the American Psychological Association
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed.
(APA) annual meeting in Toronto, I was sitting with
[DSM–III]; American Psychiatric Association, 1980),
Louis Sass and David Schuldberg in a restaurant, and
they asked if I would be a discussant for a symposium
on schizophrenia-spectrum disorders and creativity. I
said, “Yes I will—but I think it’s all bipolar.” I wish to thank Dennis Kinney, Stanley Krippner, Sandra Russ, Louis
Sass, and David Schuldberg for their helpful suggestions.
Well, at least that’s how it had seemed at the time.
Correspondence and requests for reprints should be sent to Ruth
Actually, almost 20 years ago, in a monograph on Richards, Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center, 450 Pa-
creativity and psychopathology (Richards, 1981), I cific Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94133. E-mail: rrichards@
had concluded that schizophrenia “was typically asso- saybrook.edu.
Creativity Research Journal 111

R. Richards
two of the criteria for the hypomanic phase of cause of our success in finding creative advantages
cyclothymic personality disorder involved productiv- linked to subtle clinical or subclinical manifestations
ity and sharpened and unusually creative thinking. At for bipolar disorders in the affected individuals or their
first unknown to us, Andreasen and colleagues relatives.
(Andreasen, 1978; Andreasen & Canter, 1974; As with bipolar disorders, this evidence on schizo-
Andreasen & Powers, 1974) and Jamison, Gerner, phrenia-related features is consistent with a compensa-
Hammen, and Padesky (1980) had also published criti- tory advantage, one perhaps operating among the
cal studies. It was one of these fertile times of semi-in- better functioning relatives of the more severely af-
dependent and mutually reinforcing efforts. flicted; one may compare the situation for carriers of
The next decade or so brought varied positive find- sickle cell anemia (e.g., Richards, Kinney, Benet, &
ings and many interesting perspectives on affective Merzel, 1988), where the full-blown syndrome can be
disorders and creativity from different researchers (see devastating, yet the carrier state can be rather mild,
Richards, 1981, 1990, 1997, 1999a; see also Akiskal & with the additional compensatory advantage: resis-
Akiskal, 1988; Eysenck, 1993; Jamison, 1989, 1990, tance to malaria. Such an advantage involving creativ-
1993; Kinney et al., 2000–2001; Ludwig, 1992, 1995; ity, this time, could show a curvilinear and optimal
Richards & Kinney, 1990; Richards et al., 1992; Rich- relation with pathology, as Schuldberg (2000–2001)
ards, Kinney, Lunde, et al., 1988; Runco & Richards, also pointed out, and a relation consistent with our pro-
1997; Schuldberg, 1990, 1999). Some principles from posed inverted-U association between creativity and
this work now seem potentially relevant to schizophre- psychiatric symptomatology (Richards, 1999a; Rich-
nia as well. Jamison’s (1993) influential book, ards & Kinney, 1990; Richards, Kinney, Lunde, et al.,
Touched With Fire: Manic–Depressive Illness and the 1988; see also Eysenck, 1993; Schuldberg, 1990).
Artistic Temperament, was welcomed as a great gift by Where symptoms are concerned, there is a key inter-
bipolar clients I worked with, as was Jamison’s (1995) mediate range, and more is not necessarily better. We
later, and autobiographical, An Unquiet Mind. Indeed, will continue to touch base on findings with bipolar
in just over a couple of decades, the work on bipolar disorders to see where the latter may inform the new
disorders and creativity went from relative obscurity— work on the schizophrenia spectrum.
or mindless rejection—to mainstream acceptance, Moderation seems to be key. Turning to state and
even reaching the editorial page of The New York trait effects, creativity has been linked with milder clini-
Times (“Making Art of Madness,” 1993). cal states in bipolar disorders and with mild mood eleva-
Now here we are, at the dawn of a new millennium, tion in particular. It has also been tied to milder overall
with a highly promising perspective on creativity and disorders or ongoing trait characteristics (Richards &
the schizophrenia spectrum. There are even new data Kinney, 1990; Richards et al., 1992; Richards, Kinney,
(Kinney et al., 2000–2001) that are consistent with older Lunde, et al., 1988; see also Andreasen, 1987; Eckblad
but less methodologically rigorous data showing higher & Chapman, 1986; Eysenck, 1993; Jamison, 1990;
creativity among healthier relatives of schizophrenics Schuldberg, 1990). These should be important areas as
(e.g., Heston, 1966; Karlsson, 1970; Kauffman, well in the study of schizophrenia-related creativity.
Grunebaum, Cohler, & Gamer, 1979; Richards, 1981). Beyond this, it was found, initially to my surprise,
Our data were still forthcoming when Sass and that not all “normalcy” is created equal. Psychological
Schuldberg first proposed this collection, and it has been normalcy itself can predict for creativity, when linked
rewarding indeed to see this fresh new perspective with a positive family history of bipolar disorders
emerge from theory on creativity in the arts and humani- (Richards, Kinney, Lunde, et al., 1988). Coryell et al.
ties and data from more general samples on primary pro- (1989) extended this by finding a general advantage
cess and thought disorder even as our creativity results for achievement (and not specifically creativity) in the
on relatives of schizophrenics became available. first-degree relatives of bipolar individuals. This
Our data, from Kinney et al. (2000–2001), have breadth of effect is important, and critical, too, is the
linked an advantage for everyday creativity to a subtle presence of a creative advantage in everyday life. The
clinical picture, two-plus schizotypal signs in a (rela- discussion, whether about schizophrenia or bipolar
tively healthy) sample at risk for schizophrenia. We disorders, is after all not (only) about eminent artists
looked at such subtle possibilities in the first place be- and their exceptional expressions, be their work ro-
112 Creativity Research Journal

More and More Interesting
mantic or postmodernist in nature. It is potentially ity as conceived and defined within a complex and
about anything and everything that we do. evolving society. We also need to resist those who
Findings on normals tell us something else and would bring simplistic or premature closure to the dis-
something critical: Creativity will not necessarily (or cussion. After a recent meeting of the APA, I was con-
not always) be linked with great pain and suffering. cerned to hear an attendee talk about creativity and
One may argue in fact that creativity often opens the schizophrenia versus creativity and bipolar disorders.
door to psychological wholeness, transformation, and He thought these were mutually exclusive. This was
healing and to ongoing personal growth and evolving not the content he had encountered, and it is certainly
concern toward a greater whole. Such effects may help not the position of the articles in this issue (see Sass &
explain the intertwining of creativity with illness and Schuldberg, 2000–2001), yet this was the message that
even aspects of its evolutionary significance (Goodwin was received. One may seize too readily on false di-
& Jamison, 1990; Kinney, 1992; Rhodes, 1990; Rich- chotomies in a culture bred on distinctions and
ards, 1981, 1993b, 1997, 1999a, 1999c, in press-a; competition.
Runco & Richards, 1997; see Eysenck, 1993, for a con- A quick look at results on everyday creativity and at
trary viewpoint). So one should not necessarily assume arguments that suggest genetic factors, thus looking
that we are concerned primarily with illness. We may beyond creative arts and the eminent, opens us to new
be—or we may not. sorts of questions, as discussed later. The very exis-
tence of the mosaic of ways in which creativity can
arise, from health, illness, or this pathology or that,
Road Sign: Proceed With Caution may carry powerful implications for human conscious-
ness and for better adaptation in a troubled world
Now enter this proposed and vitally important con- (Richards, 1993c, 1996a, 1996b, 1997, 1999b).
nection between creativity and individual or familial
schizophrenia. At its most interesting, this relation
may involve direct links between schizophrenia-re- Many Roads to Creativity
lated thought processes and key aspects of creative
ability. This is what Sass (2000–2001) and Ogilvie I first note with caution that many other factors, mo-
(2000–2001) compellingly propose for certain intel- tivational factors as well as ability-related ones, indi-
lectual and artistic activities that could benefit from rect as well as direct, nonspecific as well as specific,
features including a schizotypal hyperreflexivity and can mediate a creativity–psychopathology relation
alienation. Beyond such issues of thought process and (Richards, 1981, 1990, 1997, 1999b). These can ap-
cultural creativity, there are important underlying pos- pear in multiple and overlapping forms as well, as is
sibilities of familial factors, genetic and even evolu- detailed later. There is promise in these potential rela-
tionary effects, involving a more broadly applicable tions but also a caveat. It can make a huge difference
creative process that may occur in the population at whether a relation involves everyday or eminent cre-
large. ativity (e.g., artistic or nonartistic endeavor) or is fo-
This connection with creativity—and perhaps not cused more on work or leisure. In addition, a relation
just for certain artists with schizotypal features, but in with schizophrenia-spectrum pathology may assume a
general—is such an important possibility that we must role in a broader picture of multicausal creative pat-
proceed with caution and put the picture in the proper terns and roles within an evolving society. The larger
frame. We do not want to make a mistake and saddle cultural picture is also relevant.
patients with yet another expectation or create unreal-
istic hopes for patients’ families. Yet, it would be
tragic indeed to miss an opening into an important and Eight Questions for the
healthy realm of human possibility that we have previ- Researcher or Scholar
ously overlooked.
We must also take care, as Sass (2000–2001; Sass & Here I list eight considerations, drawn from our
Schuldberg, 2000–2001) and Becker (2000–2001), in group’s research experience with bipolar disorders, pri-
particular, do, to address the bigger picture of creativ- marily, and framed as questions. These are followed by

R. Richards
eight directed points in the next section, linked to the within a professional field, have won honors or awards,
provocative theoretical articles in this issue. The con- been funded, published, received multiple citations, or
cerns involve: (a) everyday versus eminent creativity; garnered other forms of widespread recognition. Some-
(b) evolutionary versus culture-bound origins of pathol- times the criteria for such widely recognized creativity
ogy; (c) artistic versus nonartistic creativity and voca- are made explicit, but sometimes they are not explicit at
tional versus avocational focus; (d) ability versus all. We may find cultural forces silently yet powerfully
motivation as source of a creative advantage; (e) five- at play.
part typology showing the many roads to creativity, in- Can there can be different relations to pathology
cluding direct and indirect effects of psychopathology for everyday compared to eminent creativity? The an-
on creativity and vice versa; (f) nonspecific pathology- swer seems to be yes (e.g., Richards, 1990, 1997,
linked factors in creativity; (g) specific pathology- 1999a), at least for bipolar-spectrum disorders and
linked factors (including biopsychosocial components) for persons in the arts. (This bipolar spectrum extends
plus evolutionary implications; and (h) the issue of psy- from milder cyclothymic mood swings to severe de-
chological normalcy in persons at risk and subclinical pressions combined with mild “highs” [Bipolar II dis-
effects within families. order] and full-blown, manic–depressive illness
[Bipolar I disorder], each of these alternating with pe-
riods of normalcy. Infrequently hyperthymic highs
1. Do Results or Arguments Pertain to and full mania are also found in isolation. Depres-
Eminent Creativity, Everyday sions too, from mild dysthymias to severe major de-
Creativity, or Both? Are There pressions, are included in the spectrum if there is a
Different Implications, Depending on history of bipolar disorders in the family.) We can
Which It Is? ask if the distinction between everyday and eminent
creativity is as critical for schizophrenia as it is for
First, I discuss some definitions for reference. Ev- affective disorders.
eryday creativity, or the creativity of everyday life, can With creativity and bipolar disorders (Richards et
be defined in terms of its outcome, using two general al., 1992; Richards, Kinney, Lunde, et al., 1988), for
criteria (after Barron, 1969): originality (unusualness instance, the strongest creative advantage in everyday
within a social context) and meaningfulness (require- life has appeared among persons at risk who are rela-
ment that the contribution communicate to others and tively better functioning (e.g., cyclothymes, including
not be random or idiosyncratic). This definition under- Bipolar II persons by today’s criteria, and normal rela-
lies the Lifetime Creativity Scales (Kinney et al., in tives), by contrast with Bipolar I or manic–depressive
press; Richards, Kinney, Benet, et al., 1988; Richards, individuals. For these studies of everyday creativity,
Kinney, Lunde, et al., 1988). It lends itself to people’s the participants were selected using only diagnostic
wide-ranging everyday activities at work and leisure, criteria and, hence, were more reflective of the general
including, to be sure, those activities in the “tradition- population and of the subpopulation with mood disor-
ally creative” fields of the arts and sciences but also a ders than were a handful of eminent people selected for
little of everything else, be this in homemaking, entre- creative distinction. Indeed, their activities also varied
preneurship, teaching, manufacturing, landscaping, across a wide gamut, including not only arts and handi-
mechanical repair work, child rearing, or any other ac- crafts but also homemaking, entrepreneurship, teach-
tivity that allows for original thought and performance. ing, or inventing. One highly creative auto mechanic
Eminent creativity, by contrast, involves creative ac- even designed his own tools. (One must, therefore,
complishments that are recognized by society at large, seek to understand a creative advantage related to risk
or a professional field; the creative person responsible is of bipolar disorders in a general way; it is not confined
often recognized as well. Indeed, eminent creative work only to the arts and humanities, never mind to expres-
is that which many people stand in awe of, and it is fre- sions that fit a romantic literary context.)
quently in the arts or sciences. These are the socially rec- The elite group in the arts has shown particularly se-
ognized contributions that have, for instance, won the vere affective disorders in conjunction with creative
Pulitzer Prize, been produced on Broadway, sold for eminence (Ludwig, 1992, 1995; Runco & Richards,
high price at auction, become a bestseller, or which, 1997). For instance, a full 80% of Andreasen’s (1987)

creative writers had a major mood disorder, and half (only) a brief flourishing of artistic modes in a certain
those with bipolar disorders had Bipolar Type I (manic– Western cultural context but about a phenomenon that
depressive). Other findings are supportive (see Ludwig, can cross and, indeed can shape cultures. Of relevance
1995; Richards, 1997). Keeping in mind that eminent is the wide range of activities of creators carrying the
participants were selected for creative success, they reproductive advantage that may help maintain the
may represent a better functioning subset within their genes in the population (see also Richards, 1997). We
particular categories (Bipolar I or II disorders or unipo- cannot place the evolutionary (i.e., reproductive) bur-
lar depression) and level of severity than the typical clin- den on the shoulders of the eminent person, however
ical client. Yet, they show serious morbidity and remarkable he or she may be. An evolutionary ad-
mortality, with as high as 20% successful suicides for vantage will operate largely, and by definition, at the
untreated bipolar disorders (see Andreasen, 1987; grass-roots level, that is, at the level of everyday
Jamison, 1990, 1993). This is startling. (Happily, a creativity.

treated bipolar disorder can have a dramatically more With schizophrenia, the question of an evolutionary
positive prognosis with the treatments now available.) advantage is once again raised. There are multiple indi-
Turning to schizophrenia, the three empirical articles cators of a genetic component to schizophrenic risk,
in this issue all involve everyday creativity. Included is based on twin and adoption studies. Plus, there is evi-
our own research on creativity in people carrying dence of less severe manifestations of this risk, with
schizophrenic risk (Kinney et al., 2000–2001); this is the milder schizotypal disorder a primary example (see
the only article that deals directly with schizophrenic Kety, 1983; Kety et al., 1994; Kinney et al., 2000–
families and persons at risk. Schuldberg’s (2000–2001) 2001; Richards, 1981). Is there a compensatory advan-
and Russ’s (2000–2001) valuable research on abnormal tage, and how does it manifest both at the eminent and
thinking or primary process was conducted with more everyday levels of creativity?
general populations. Let us not then automatically
generalize results to eminent creators selected for
accomplishment. 3. Do Results and Arguments Apply to
All Areas of Endeavor, or Should
Artistic and Nonartistic Work Be
2. Is There an Evolutionary Distinguished and, Similarly,
Creative Advantage That Can Vocational and Avocational
Cross Cultures and Manifest Creativity?
Differently Across These?
In this issue, we find compelling arguments linking
With bipolar disorders (or schizophrenia), one is schizotypal thought, in particular, to certain forms of
also talking about a heritable spectrum of disorders creativity in the arts and the humanities, including phi-
with widespread prevalence across cultures. Because losophy. If this finding has validity, how does one gen-
of this, an evolutionary and genetic advantage has been eralize this discussion to hard sciences, leadership,
proposed (e.g., Andreasen, 1987; Goodwin & Jamison, politics, business, home hobbies, or any other type of
1990; Richards, 1981, 1990, 1997). Wilson (1992), in endeavor beyond the humanities?
citing twin concordance, adoptee and family risk stud- Psychopathology, including high rates of affective
ies, noted that the strong genetic component in manic– disorders, is frequently reported among artists but is not
depressive illness is not only “highly selected” but also so common among nonartists (Juda, 1949–1950; Lud-
“may prevail at five hundred times the adjusted muta- wig, 1995; Richards, 1981, 1990). Of particular note is
tion equilibrium rate” (p. 88). A high prevalence be- Ludwig’s historiographic study of more than 1,000 cre-
yond the expected mutation rates supports the ators across 18 different occupational areas. Social sci-
preservation of certain characteristics with adaptive entists, physicists, and businesspersons, among other
benefits through the process of natural selection. nonartists, appeared relatively healthy on the average.
One speaks of an adaptive advantage that would op- How may schizophrenic risk manifest differently, one
erate down through the generations and across a vari- may ask, within such artist and nonartist groups? This
ety of people and cultures. One is not talking about could be an interesting question. Again, among Lud-

R. Richards
wig’s eminent creators there was one definitive predic- greater depth and subtlety of feeling, and in the realm
tor of psychopathology: a career in the creative arts. of motivation, greater confidence, conviction, or ener-
One also needs to consider work-related versus lei- gizing potential.
sure-related creativity. There are preliminary data for The general literature on creativity abounds with
understanding how both bipolar-related and schizo- motivational and shaping factors that can affect later
phrenia-related creative advantages may manifest. In creativity (R. B. Albert & Runco, 1986; R. S. Albert, in
studies (Richards et al., 1992; Richards, Kinney, press; Richards, 1981; Runco & Pritzker, 1999).
Lunde, et al., 1988), greater work-related than leisure- Health, illness, early difficulty, early advantages, and
related everyday creativity among persons with bipo- creative role models—what does it take to bump us out
lar-spectrum disorders was found, which is supported of the comfort of the status quo and convince us that a
by the writings of Akiskal and others (Akiskal & better life purpose may be found in thinking anew?
Akiskal, 1992; Akiskal & Mallya, 1987). One motivational factor important to eminent cre-
Just the opposite was found for the schizophrenia- ativity may involve a “standing apart” from the main-
spectrum individuals (Kinney et al., 2000–2001). It stream (Richards, 1990, 1997; Richards & Kinney,
was in the privacy of their spare time that creativity 1989). After all, challenging the status quo may hold
could bloom. There was notably greater leisure-related great social costs. It can be easy to go along, to sit pas-
than work-related creativity (Kinney et al., 2000– sively on the beach, sipping one’s lemonade, or to sit
2001). It is a matter of choice, the venue in which one quietly in a group, giving the response the leader wants
expresses one’s creativity, and this may be related to to hear. It may also be relevant to creative ability. What
motivation for creativity, for instance (see Richards, does it take to grease our neurons a bit so that our new
1990; Richards & Kinney, 1989), or to occupational ideas, once welcomed, may come forth more readily?
drift into work or social environments in which partic- This availability may be spurred by cognitive factors
ular styles of creative talent can bloom (Richards, but could also be fueled by energy, motivation, and
1981). What are the critical factors? Researchers and creative courage, which could help bring one closer to
theorists may want to think about vocational and a creative “edge of chaos” (e.g., Marks-Tarlow, 1999;
avocational contexts for creativity. Among other Richards, 1996a, 1996b, in press-b; Zausner, 1996).
things, leisure activity can be more relaxed, free-form, With schizotypal conditions, we should not assume we
self-scheduled, and less vulnerable to critical judgment are dealing solely with, for example, one exclusive
and real-life public consequences for one’s perfor- mechanism that enhances creative ability (as with an
mance and could attract people with high levels of so- overinclusive cognitive style). However valid any one
cial anxiety or awkwardness, as may be found in the factor may be, we should stay open to other motiva-
schizophrenia spectrum. tional, ability, or situational factors that may also
contribute.
4. Does the Creative Advantage in

Question Involve Ability or 5. Are You Addressing Possible
Motivation? How Do You Know? Indirect as Well as Direct Effects of
Psychopathology on Creativity and of
Just because one is discussing affective disorders Creativity on Pathology? Which of
does not mean all effects are affective, as Russ (2000– Five General Categories of Effect
2001) and Schuldberg (2000–2001) also point out. Might Be Relevant?
Schizophrenia-related factors need not all be cogni-
tive, as is seen in Sass’s (2000–2001) seven post- It is worth repeating: There is no one road to cre-
modernist features and their schizotypal parallels. ativity (e.g., see Richards, 1981, 1990, 1997, 1998).
Indeed, with bipolar disorders, factors that raise the Among other things, one need not be ill (or healthy) to
odds of creativity can be cognitive, affective, or moti- create. Yet, one often hears sweeping generalizations
vational (Goodwin & Jamison, 1990; Jamison et al., of relation, for example, “creativity and madness.” As
1980; Richards, 1981, 1990; Richards & Kinney, a simplification in the complex realm of situations in
1990). These can involve richer associative process, which creativity and psychopathology are inevitably

intertwined, one can talk, in the abstract, about five dif- and these will create their own ricochet of reactions,
ferent types of direct and indirect relation. Again, this which should be viewed as part of a larger systems pic-
is by means of simplification. Included are (a) direct ture. Creativity is our most complex human contribu-
effects of psychopathology on creativity, (b) indirect tion to an evolving cosmos. The evolution of
effects of psychopathology on creativity, (c) direct ef- information, or of culture, may well be part of our task
fects of creativity on psychopathology, (d) indirect ef- (R. S. Albert, in press; Csikszentmihalyi, 1988;
fects of creativity on psychopathology, and (e) the Dawkins, 1976; Richards, 1996b, 1997).
situation of a third factor that affects both areas inde- Indeed, our psychological and creative diversity
pendently. Of course, effects can be (and often are) may be to the evolution of information and culture
multiple and overlapping. Table 1 gives examples of what our biological diversity is to genetic evolution
how such phenomena can play out in the case of bipo- and physical survival (Richards, 1997). In an informa-
lar disorders. Many such explanations could apply to tion age, one may increasingly posit the importance of
people with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders as well. our human creativity to our greater purpose and very
Note how complex the reactions can be to a cre- survival (e.g., Barron, 1969; Richards, 1999c; Wilber,
atively different person who moves about in a reactive 1997). As the contributions in this issue amply illus-
culture. Unicausal events are vanishingly rare. Any trate, the diversity represented by a schizotypal origin
single phenomenon may have biopsychosocial roots, of creativity, taken along with other forms, may further
Table 1. Typology of Creativity and Psychopathology: Application to Mood Disorders
Typology Application
Direct Relation of Pathology to Creativity (P > C) Psychopathology can contribute to content and process of creativity.
Consider John Ruskin’s loosely associated writings about his
manic episodes or William Styron’s moving accounts of his
depressions (see Richards, 1997).
Indirect Relation of Pathology to Creativity (P > T > C) Pathology may lead to creative expression, as in cathartic writing,
which in turn may come to enhance perspective, empowerment,
psychological and physical health, and a greater giving to others.
Early writings of John Cheever once helped this Pulitzer Prize-
winning author deal with a difficult family situation; it later came
to help a great many others. Regarding the environment, pathology
may also drive occupational drift, bringing persons into career
situations (e.g., flexible, unsupervised, nonconformist work) where
their creativity can blossom.
Direct Relation of Creativity to Pathology (C > P) Artistic creativity, in particular, may elicit unsuspected material,
anxiety, and decompensation, one reason that humanistic
psychologist May (1976) wrote The Courage to Create. However,
note, too that under the right conditions, such short-term distress
can ultimately lead to health, as in an indirect relation of pathology
to creativity, shown in row 2.
Indirect Relation of Creativity to Pathology (C > T > P) Consider conflicts that are not worked through, as in row 2, but lead
to internal or external difficulties and to subsequent escape.
Substance abuse is one common attempt to flee inner demons.
Then there is external disapproval of the creative child or adult
who is perhaps ostracized or ridiculed, lacks support,
decompensates, and copes badly or escapes.
Third Factor Affecting Both Creativity and Pathology (C < T > C) One compelling example involves familial liability or risk for bipolar
disorders (or schizophrenia), here listed as a third factor. This could
independently raise the odds of overt pathology, creative
accomplishment, or both, as in the normal first-degree relatives of
bipolar persons who show a creative advantage.
Note: P and C signify pathology or creativity, respectively, or some aspect thereof. T signifies a separate third factor that may mediate between or
separately contribute to pathology and creativity. Effects can also be multiple and overlapping.

R. Richards
open our eyes and our options in a postmodern (and certain diagnostic condition, never mind a particular
post-postmodern) world. mechanism. This should be investigated.
6. To What Extent Do You Posit 7. By Contrast, to What Extent Do

Nonspecific Factors, Linked to You Posit Pathology-Specific
Pathology, in a Relation With Factors in a Relation With
Creativity? Creativity? Might Certain Ones Carry
Evolutionary Significance for Affected
A pathology–creativity link need not be specific, Individuals or Relatives?
applying only to people with schizophrenia-spectrum
or bipolar disorders, for example, or to those who use a When a creativity–pathology mechanism is spe-
particular form of associative process. It may be specific, familial, and even in part genetic with the chance
cific, but it may not. There are multiple reports linking of evolutionary effects, one may be onto something
a range of pathologies or adversities to creativity (e.g., important. This is one great promise of this issue. As
Goertzel & Goertzel, 1962; Heston, 1966; Juda, 1949– noted, we have investigated a possible compensatory
1950; Ludwig, 1992; Richards, 1981). Included are bi- advantage to bipolar-spectrum disorders (Richards,
polar and unipolar mood disorders, to be sure (all of 1997; Richards & Kinney, 1990; Richards, Kinney,
which may relate to a bipolar risk in a family), various Lunde, et al., 1988), and now the schizophrenia spec-
specific and nonspecific psychoses, and a range of anx- trum has been investigated (Kinney et al., 2000–2001),
iety and personality disorders. For persons with cer- and these could involve genetic mediation.
tain advantages and supports, coping with adversity I elaborate a bit on an example touched on earlier. In
can be a spur to creative accomplishment (e.g., sickle cell anemia (note this may be a simpler genetic
Jamison, 1993; Kinney, 1992; Pennebaker, 1995; model), the homozygotes, who inherit from both par-
Richards, 1998; Runco & Richards, 1997; Zausner, ents, typically develop a severe anemia with multiple
1996). This case falls under the question of whether medical complications and early death. The larger
there is an evolutionary creative advantage that can number of heterozygotes, or carriers, may have a mild
cross cultures and manifest differently across them: anemia at worst. In addition, they have a notable com-
Pathology leads indirectly to creativity. Earlier, I pensatory advantage: resistance to malaria. Hence, a
(Richards, 1997, 1999a) applied a model of acquired compensatory advantage may be carried genetically in
immunity to this process. Some who cope with adver- families, despite the fact that some members become
sity may develop yet further creative abilities by virtue severely ill, because of survival value of the condition
of their resilient coping, and at the same time the cre- for a larger number of relatives, who do not carry the
ative motivation to try to transform situations in the fu- full burden of illness.
ture, rather than flee from or blindly react to them It was along these lines that we hypothesized that
(fight and flight reactions; see also Richards, 1994a). persons carrying familial bipolar risk with only inter-
One also finds the possibility of a final common mediate pathology might emerge most creative and
pathway in which diverse disorders lead to similar in- looked for a similar phenomenon for schizophrenia. It
formation processing phenomena. An example may be is a real strength that Kinney et al. (2000–2001) took as
overinclusion, which I discuss further later (see participants the adoptees of schizophrenic parents,
Andreasen & Powers, 1974; Eysenck, 1993; Goodwin people who may well carry the risk for schizophrenia
& Jamison, 1990; Prentky, 2000–2001; Richards, but would not have shared the critical environment.
1993a, 1994a). These examples relate to the direct case Hence, the mild symptom pictures (two or more
of pathology leading to creativity in the typology. Sim- schizotypal signs) investigated may well be linked to a
ilarly, the motivational impetus some may get from be- familial vulnerability and genetic risk. Indeed, within a
ing different, from standing apart from the relatively healthy range, the number of schizotypal
mainstream, may facilitate creativity across diagnostic signs was itself correlated with the creativity criterion.
categories. We should not automatically assume that a This seems very much an effect related to the specific
creativity–psychopathology relation is specific to a disorder.

This study (Kinney et al., 2000–2001) was not de- To summarize, in this section, I have considered
signed to compare genetic and environmental effects. some key perspectives on a creativity–psychopatho-
Notably, key supporting data were also found among logy relation that may help us sharpen our vision. We
control participants, persons drawn from the rest of the may get more out of our analyses if we consider the re-
population, perhaps from our friends and neighbors lation of results to (a) everyday and eminent creativity;
who do not carry this schizophrenic risk. Something (b) the potential for and mechanism of possible evolu-
important seems to be happening here, something dif- tionary effects; (c) an artistic or nonartistic focus and a
ferent from the creativity effects with bipolar disorders work- or leisure-related focus; (d) factors of ability and
and related this time to the presence of schizotypal motivation; (e) direct and indirect effects; (f) nonspe-
signs. The fact that these effects may be relevant to the cific factors related to pathology; (g) specific factors
general population is consistent with the work of Russ related to pathology, including the possibility of ge-
(2000–2001) and Schuldberg (2000–2001). There is netic effects; and at an extreme, (h) the possibility that
very much evidence of an inverted-U effect, again con- pathology may even be an epiphenomenon of different
sistent with Schuldberg’s spectrum of effects. How- type of process. Against this background, one may pro-
ever, let us still not jump too automatically to ceed to issues raised by these articles.
concluding what the critical factors may be.
Eight Specific Questions Related to the

Theoretical Articles
8. Are You Thinking About
Psychological Normalcy and The theoretical articles in this issue are original,
Subclinical Effects on Creativity often ingenious. They push our understanding of cre-
Within Families at Risk for ativity and its conditions in our culture, including
Schizophrenia? those evident reasons one creates in the first place
and the subjective experience that is involved. They
At times, illness may not even be the point. How reframe aspects of schizotypy that may commonly be
important indeed that creativity may not, even in the seen as all negative. These articles represent an im-
context of psychiatric disorder, require pain and suffer- portant contribution. Where they satisfy, they do so
ing for its actualization (Cropley, 1990; Richards, exceptionally well. Where they do not, they appear
1998). One of our more significant findings, looking at not to go far enough, for instance by focusing on a
everyday creativity in individuals at risk for bipolar subpopulation (e.g., eminent persons or artists only)
disorders (Richards, Kinney, Lunde, et al., 1988), was or subphenomenon (creativity in the humanities only,
alluded to earlier: The psychiatrically normal relatives a single hypothesized mechanism, a single level of
seemed also to show an everyday creative advantage, severity of illness, or a cultural phenomenon), with-
along with others who lacked the most severe symp- out necessarily acknowledging where the position fits
tom picture. How interesting, really, that Kinney et al. within a larger societal picture or biopsychosocial
(2000–2001) found a creativity effect linked with range of effects. If we are to uncover possible evolu-
milder symptom pictures but much milder. The pres- tionary effects of schizotypal phenomena over time
ence of two or more schizotypal signs rests on the nor- and culture, this bigger picture seems essential to
malcy side of an inverted-U. We should not jump understand.
immediately to the conclusion that this is pathology or Because I cannot cover all the interesting ques-
that it has to be. We should not assume that any charac- tions that arise, I focus on eight areas related to this
teristics that are abnormal are, therefore, pathological bigger picture and compare the schizophrenia-spec-
(see Richards, 1996a). In the model of compensatory trum and bipolar disorders where useful. The issues
advantage, the passing of the strength or advantage involve (a) limitations of cultural explanations for a
down through the generations may even be the critical creativity–psychopathology relation involving ge-
point. The suffering of certain strongly affected indi- netically mediated illness; (b) taking seriously the
viduals (such as the sickle cell homozygote) or even of severity and pain involved; (c) problems in general-
the so-called carrier is the tragedy. izing from pathology-related phenomena in eminent

R. Richards
artistic creativity to everyday and to nonartistic cre- affective or not, psychotic or not, schizophrenic or not.
ativity; (d) explanatory value of viewing results in Surely, there is something going on here that one may
terms of creative diversity and multiple cultural take seriously. Let us note, secondarily, that there may
roles, with the current schizotypal phenomena serv- be historical alterations or drift in the unusual behav-
ing as part of a larger picture; (e) overinclusion as iors considered to have merit. The stated bias (or ex-
one, but only one, potential explanatory factor of the pectation) in the modern world, according to Becker
link with creativity; (f) postmodernism, schizotypy, (2000–2001), is toward psychosis, carried over from
and creativity as a fertile conjunction, specifically in the romantic era to our own. This is extremely impor-
the arts; (g) further varieties of creative and schizo- tant, particularly if it is taken to support any current
typal relation, with a possible post-postmodernist ef- change or expansion in views of creativity from earlier
fect; and (h) potential for creativity when bipolar- times. Because many of us do not have backgrounds in
spectrum effects are joined with schizophrenia-spec- historical research and methodologies, it would be-
trum effects beyond either–or reasoning to poten- hoove us to become more familiar with the methodolo-
tially fertile conjunctions. gies employed and the sorts of evidence used to
support the validity of such statements, as well as un-
derstand the support for a possible change from, for in-
1. When Culture Is Invoked to stance, a more affectively linked symptom picture to
Address a Link Between Creativity thought disorder or psychosis (if this is, in fact, an im-
and Major Psychopathology, How plication). What are the alternative interpretations, and
Specifically Can This Be Argued, and how are they eliminated? We need to be able to exer-
How Great Are the Factors Left cise critical thinking about such findings, never mind
Unexplained? to have the important opportunity to forecast trends for
the future. Becker could help us in the future by telling
Becker (1978, 2000–2001) showed compellingly us more about the method, as well as the conclusions of
how time and culture may help determine who we see his work.
as talented and how the association of pathology with In fact, is it possible to ask even more detailed ques-
creativity may in part reflect cultural values. These are tions? How would one bring one’s methodology to ad-
key points supported by fascinating historical data. For dress whether prevailing views reflect or amplify and
example, as early as ancient Greece, according to further the progress of a move to postmodernist culture
Becker (2000–2001), Aristotle linked extraordinary (as characterized in this issue)? What more can we
talent with a “melancholic temperament.” In the Re- learn about specific abnormalities that may be more
naissance, artists assumed trappings of moodiness so expected, or tolerable now, and particularly compared
as to bolster the impression of unusual capacity. Subse- to the romantic era? What is their relevance to aspects
quent to an Enlightenment emphasis on rationality, of schizophrenia-related (or other) pathology? Further-
there was, in the romantic era, a linking of madness more, what about heterogeneity or mixed pictures? Is
with poetic and artistic creativity. These few examples there only one answer? As Becker (2000–2001) noted,
do not do justice to the full picture and depth of discus- one can find interest in “madness” (as then defined) in
sion. We are, in any case, asked to consider how pre- Plato’s time. Is there not still interest in depressive
vailing norms and values can influence both society’s moodiness or exultant highs today? I particularly like
expectations of artists’ behavior and artists’ own (con- Becker’s use of “sane melancholic” in reference to the
scious or unconscious) styles and self-expectations. Renaissance. In addressing artistic stereotypes, should
Pathology may, therefore, at times seem more relevant we not also include a mixed cognitive–affective pic-
to creativity than it really is. We may thank Becker for ture (and related clinical syndromes)? Might we also
alerting us to these possibilities. We can then ask: How find the coexistence of more than one so-called patho-
much do they explain, how well, and how much is left logical style (as discussed later) as a fertile societal
over? mixture? (What about normalcy?) How does all of this
First note that over many centuries, eminent artistic relate to creativity and the bipolar, or the schizophre-
creativity has been linked with psychopathology of nia, spectrum of disorders? Becker’s article raises im-
one kind or another, at least in popular thinking, be this portant questions, which we should address with care.

As it occurs, Kinney et al. (2000–2001), in a study Also, one should recall that these are the artists;
in which I was involved, present data from outside the what do these arguments tell us about scientists, teach-
arts and on everyday people, suggesting that schizo- ers, or business executives? How valued is a demeanor
phrenic risk may indeed be relevant to creativity and in of eccentricity or mild abnormality in these cases? For
ways that cultural explanations cannot fully subsume. the everyday (not eminent) creative person, across
The connections between creativity and pathology in fields, the pressures toward nonconformity should be
this issue and elsewhere (e.g., Runco & Richards, even less. One should recall that everyday creators are
1997) tend to involve a much milder and nonpsychotic the typical subjects studied in this journal issue. They
type of pathology, be it schizotypal or affective. In are also the typical clients who come to health profes-
other words, it is not psychosis at all that appears rele- sionals for assistance; we very much need to be con-
vant but some much more subtle phenomena. The cerned with their creativity and its origins if this may
adopted-away offspring of schizophrenics who represent a strength for them and a hope. They are also
showed two or more schizotypal signs were those who the ones who will pass on any genetic advantage, and
tended toward higher everyday creativity, and these this has very likely occurred with some success across
were people who did not even merit a full schizotypal diverse cultural periods.
diagnosis. The fact, too, that these were adoptees Thus, Becker (2000–2001) made some very impor-
raised apart from their schizophrenic parent speaks to tant and original points that should make us think care-
biological, more than cultural, factors. fully about culture, but we should also look beyond
Let me further underline how multidetermined both these (as Becker himself said) to a more complex and
creativity and major psychopathology may be, involv- multicausal field that affects the big picture.
ing biological, psychological, and social factors
(Eysenck, 1993; Runco & Pritzker, 1999; Runco &
Richards, 1997; Simonton, 1984). If some people, ei- 2. Considering the Pain of Affective
ther historically or at present, have flaunted their pa- Disorders, Can the Severe Pathology
thologies, we should not assume that this is all that is Be Explained by Cultural Forces or
happening or that everyone is doing it. If some people Conscious or Unconscious Wishes to
seem to make too much of their moodiness and de- Display Symptomatology?
spair, for instance, when things do not seem that bad to
us, let us not automatically assume we are right. Let us A few more comments on affective pathology and
not further ignore those suffering people who may feel its origins and effects seem in order in view of the high
even worse than we think, have told us nothing, and are prevalence and morbidity and mortality of these disor-
on the brink of suicide. There are numerous such peo- ders. Comments can apply as well to the schizophrenia
ple, very much at risk, as any mental health profes- spectrum. We need to take people’s pain seriously,
sional can attest. whether as healers, scholars, or humane persons. If oc-
One may call on the five-part typology mentioned casional individuals demonstrate their moodiness, id-
previously (and see Richards, 1981, 1990, 1999b) as a iosyncrasy, eccentricity, or tendencies toward thought
further reminder of multicausality as well as heteroge- disorder as a demonstration of artistic potential (for
neity of causation of these associations with creativity. whatever reason), how dreadful if we should romanti-
First, the case of creativity leading indirectly to pathol- cize their condition and suffering. With affective disor-
ogy or to maladaptation is only one of five general ders as examples, consider the intense pain involved
types of patterns. Beyond this, certain artists may as- (e.g., Brent, Kupfer, Bromet, & Dew, 1988; Goodwin
sume a moody demeanor to enhance their sensitive or & Jamison, 1990), the self-loathing, guilt, helpless-
creative image precisely because there really is some- ness, paralysis, or agitation. Clients are not doing this
thing to this association. It need not all be part of a self- for fun. These are lives we are dealing with. Very few
conscious romantic attempt to provide an artistic cul- people are being self-serving or image-conscious
ture with a unique image. The pattern may also be re- when they kill themselves. One out of five untreated
lated to an occupational drift into special vocational people with bipolar disorder actually takes his or her
niches more tolerant of eccentric personal or working own life (Goodwin & Jamison, 1990; Jamison, 1993),
styles (see Richards, 1981). making it all the more tragic that many do not seek

R. Richards
treatment when it is available and quite helpful. of bipolars. When psychopathology is present, let us
Clearly, a great many more people think about suicide take care to see it in its entirety, in its real human mani-
than actually try it, and quite a few do try but do not festations, and to treat it with care.
succeed.
Note an important point, of the offspring of bipolar
parents more will have a “pure” unipolar depression
than a bipolar type of disorder (Akiskal & Akiskal, 3. Has One Factored in the Adaptive
1992; Akiskal & Mallya, 1987). Therefore, it is very Advantages of Having Many Different
important to ask clients if they have bipolar disorder in Roads to Creativity or Advantages in
their family. One should be thinking about depressions the Diversity of Forms this Creativity
as well as bipolar mood swings here. The correspond- May Take? Might There Be Social
ing figure for successful suicide of untreated unipolar Niches Even to Formalize Such Varied
depression is 15%. This must be taken seriously. Routes to Innovation?
Depression against the background of a family his-
tory of bipolar disorders may also show particular rele- Again comparing bipolar- and schizophrenia-spec-
vance to creativity. In a small preliminary study trum disorders, let me reemphasize the large and
(Richards et al., 1992), the everyday creativity of de- healthier subset of people carrying the risk. Consider
pressed people without a bipolar family history (i.e., how prevalent bipolar-spectrum disorders (including
without a relative having a bipolar disorder) was com- depression with a bipolar family history) may be.
pared to the creativity of those with such a family his- Looking beyond the major psychopathologies, Akiskal
tory (Richards et al., 1992). Depressed individuals in and Mallya (1987) estimated that 4% to 5% of the
the first group showed higher everyday creativity than population may be at risk for developing a bipolar-
those in the second. Thus, it was not a depressive pic- spectrum disorder. These disorders include (unipo-
ture per se that predicted higher creativity but having lar) subaffective dysthymias and hyperthymias as
bipolar disorder in the family. To diagnostic assessors, well as (bipolar) cyclothymic presentations. Depres-
the surface presentation was comparable in the two sion, as mentioned, is more common than mood
groups. Now, cultural views of illness, its appearance, swings among the relatives of bipolar individuals,
and relation to creativity seem relatively less impor- and subaffective dysthymias are in turn more com-
tant, both because of a focus on everyday creativity mon than milder bipolar mood swings. To some peo-
(not the arts) and because of evident surface similari- ple, again, such high numbers suggest a phenomenon
ties between groups. What allowed for prediction of of evolutionary importance, one persisting over the
creativity in fact is what ran in the family. There is generations, and not a mere phenomenon of a cultural
something more general going on here with bipolar moment.
disorders and perhaps, as it now appears, within the Consider now that persons in the bipolar spectrum
schizophrenia spectrum. may be filling a general social role or, as Tooby and
Considering the suffering involved, the high preva- DeVore (1987) put it, a “cognitive niche.” Here is the
lence of bipolar-spectrum disorders makes an evolu- role of creative instigator, with different forms of prov-
tionary effect even more likely, perhaps involving a ocation arising, perhaps, in different cultural eras. Like
compensatory advantage. How else does one explain a fire under a kettle, these people may warm things up.
such great human costs, undiminished down through They are among our natural resources, representing
the generations? one or more nonconformist subgroups of the popula-
Note too, with familial and genetic contributions, tion who present a broader, if sometimes bizarre, vi-
one may well expect biologically based factors leading sion, which others may more judiciously modify or
to creativity–psychopathology links beyond cultural select from, toward what we hope is a social good.
factors, with benefits including the potential for origi- Such a process has been termed cultural brainstorming
nality as it might manifest in future times and places, (Richards, 1997). Idea generation is separated from the
including different cultural settings. Furthermore, pa- function of the critic, as in a brainstorming group, and
thology per se may not be necessary to the relation in wild ideas are generated first, followed by critical se-
the first place, as per results with the normal relatives lection. However, in this societal case, there is a strate-

gic division of labor, with these two functions being gests that the abnormal cognitive style in general and
lodged in different groups of people. overinclusion specifically may apply to more than one
Here, too, lies a potential control mechanism for diagnostic group. He suggests this is consistent with
stability and change. If the initiators are getting too his neurocognitive model. How useful is this explana-
wild, they may be called abnormal and their ideas tion, and how complete is it?
pathologized. If a little more change is needed, one Overinclusion has been much studied as a factor link-
may loosen up on standards and perhaps even give a ing psychopathology with creativity, beginning with
deviant person a grant. There are qualitative as well as Andreasen and colleagues (Andreasen & Canter, 1974;
quantitative issues, changes of kind as well as degree. Andreasen & Powers, 1974) and including a diversity of
All contributes to a complex balance. Perhaps the arti- research as well as other views of its genetic and
cles in this issue and the ingenuity they represent are psychopathologic relevance (see Eysenck, 1993; Rich-
reflective of a useful opening up, a healthy broadening ards, 1993b, and multiple other commentaries in the
of possibilities in the new millennium at a time of cre- same issue). Cognitive style may be defined as a mode of
ative need. information processing affected by certain personality
However, remember to keep the full range in mind. trends (Richards, 1994a; Runco & Pritzker, 1999). It can
If Viewpoints A and B are in favor today and View- be viewed in terms of a range of classification rules em-
points C and D are in favor tomorrow, there may well ployed in categorization; rules may also be vague,
remain some intermittent enclaves of Viewpoints A changeable, or primitive (Richards, 1981, 1996a, 1997).
and B. One may shift, for instance, from a romantic to Overinclusion has been associated with originality and
postmodern framework in one’s immediate commu- creative response in normal individuals as well as indi-
nity but find this is still one of several extant cultural viduals within various psychodiagnostic groups, al-
forces in the larger society, never mind down the though the qualitative nature of the response may differ
block. Indeed, not everyone has coffee on university (see Richards, 1981, 1997).
campuses, nor does everyone share the same philo- How well might overinclusion explain creativity
sophical concerns. The overriding evolutionary point in the context of schizotypal risk? Andreasen and as-
is that it is variability that leaves us most able to adapt sociates (e.g., Andreasen & Canter, 1974; Andreasen
to changing circumstances. & Powers, 1974), Goodwin and Jamison (1990), and
The contributors to this special issue deserve our others have reported pathology-specific patterns.
thanks for their insight and highly effective conscious- Findings on creativity were discouraging for schizo-
ness raising about the relevance of schizotypal pathol- phrenia compared to bipolar disorder. Yet, only se-
ogy and its relevant traits to creativity, an awareness vere schizophrenic pathology was considered. Of
that may increase our cultural adaptation, and we need great interest, pathology-specific thought patterns
it. None of them suggest, however, that we take the ro- could be seen in patients’ normal relatives, as per the
mantic poetry off the shelf. This is a mosaic of multiple work of Holzman and associates (e.g., Holzman,
possibilities. Furthermore, those who are lacking diag- Shenton, & Solovay, 1986; Shenton, Solovay,
noses altogether will still have a chance to innovate. As Holzman, Coleman, & Gale, 1989); using their
I have said, there can be many roads to creativity. Thought Disorder Index, they have also done fine
tuning on differential thought characteristics by diag-
nosis, which could be useful in Prentky’s (2000–
4. To What Extent Does Overinclusive 2001) further discussions. Indeed, there is a muted
Thinking Explain the Link Between manic-type thinking, schizophrenic type and
Creativity and the Schizophrenia schizoaffective type, that one sees in the unaffected
Spectrum? family members. Might this help explain elevated ev-
eryday creativity in normal relatives? Comparing
One may now consider overinclusion as a factor in such patterns to the A-type and C-type thinking dis-
creativity, as effectively argued by Prentky (2000– cussed by Prentky would be of interest. Russ (2000–
2001). Here is a factor related in part to biological and 2001), consistent with Schuldberg (2000–2001), also
perhaps genetic factors. Prentky most particularly ad- shows profiles or types of distinct and sometimes ab-
dresses issues of genius (eminent creativity) and sug- errant cognition, now in the population at large. In-

R. Richards
deed, McConaghy and Clancy (1968) found familial Kety et al., 1994; Kinney et al., 2000–2001; Wender et
patterns of allusive thinking, as Prentky notes, consis- al. 1986); their relevance to overinclusion and creativ-
tent with a certain degree of overinclusive (if not ity could be more fully studied.
overly loose, and unfiltered) thinking and in as much
as 10% of the population. Are these persons more at Finally, one should recall that creative advantages
risk for schizophrenia as he suggests? Why not for that influence the evolution of information, or memes
another pathology? (see Dawkins, 1976), can interact with and also help
It would be useful to know even more about how influence biological evolution; consider the people
Prentky’s (2000–2001) characterization of A-type and who discovered fire and the people who did not when
C-type thinking fits with all this literature, with under- the freezing winter came. Whereas the eminent cre-
lying personality types such as he initially addresses, ators addressed by Prentky (2000–2001) may influ-
and with other risk factors for schizophrenic pathol- ence a culture through their memes, one must also
ogy. Presumably, overinclusion is not the full explana- address the everyday person who will ultimately pass
tion. We also need to know what moderating factors on the reproductive advantage through their genes.
may help a person turn such unusual thinking to cre- How does this occur? What is the interaction? We need
ative purposes, as Prentky also points out. To the ex- to understand the whole system. Prentky raises impor-
tent that Prentky’s view is reminiscent of Eysenck tant points about overinclusion and its importance,
(1993), who posited a more general pathological phe- which, above all, direct us to further work that is
nomenon across diagnoses, linked to creativity and to needed.
his proposed psychoticism dimension, we need to
know how these two viewpoints may relate and what
general aspects of overinclusion might support this 5. What Are the Implications for
generality of effect. Eminent Creativity if Postmodernism
Prentky (2000–2001) wisely recommends further and Schizotypy Share Some
research. One would do well to allow for the following: Features? Does This Apply to
Everyday Creativity in the General
1. Heterogeneity of cause: Keep in mind affective and Population as Well?
motivational and direct and indirect causes and the full
range of biopsychosocial variables that may contribute. In the work of Sass (2000–2001) and Ogilvie
2. The issue of distinct types of overinclusion: How (2000–2001), original and provocative thinking was
general are the effects or how specific? found regarding a connection of schizotypal phenom-
3. A mechanism allowing normal relatives to carry ena to creativity, most particularly in relation to the arts
some of the deficits: How exactly does his model of and humanities. The arguments are compelling and be-
dysfunction allow for subclinical and perhaps positive lievable, especially for this subpopulation. Sass pres-
productive effects, and what of persons not at risk for ents features of postmodernism and related views of
schizophrenia who seem to show the creativity effect, creativity that may indeed be relevant to schizotypal
too, related to their abnormal and schizotypal think- experience. One may wonder, in the receptive cultural
ing? (This of course needs replication.) How might the environment described by Sass, whether the preva-
general population fit in this model? Can such a cogni- lence of schizophrenia-spectrum phenomena may ac-
tive style be modeled and environmentally transmit- tually increase (or, perhaps, as a diagnosed entity,
ted; can it be genetically transmitted? actually decrease) by virtue of being less culturally
4. Issues of everyday versus eminent creativity: Is- pathologized.
sues of evolutionary advantage speak at minimum to an Sass (2000–2001) links schizotypal phenomena as
effect at the everyday level needed to allow genetic well to biologic hypotheses about the cognitive func-
transmission. Prentky believes such genetic factors lie tioning of schizophrenics, suggesting that one consider
in “the realm of speculation.” However, twin and adop- their effects as potential advantages instead of deficits.
tion studies have given very strong support to presence This could be consistent with the model of compensa-
of genetic factors, both in affective disorders and tory advantage (Kinney et al., 2000–2001) and yield
schizophrenia (Goodwin & Jamison, 1990; Kety, 1983; some interesting and testable hypotheses.

Ogilvie (2000–2001), drawing on Wittgenstein, Again, the studies by Schuldberg (2000–2001) and
looks from the inside out and notes features including Russ (2000–2001) drew participants from the general
hyperreflexivity and profound schizophrenic conflicts population. These were not schizophrenics, relatives
about agency, self, and the reality of the world within of schizophrenics, or even persons known to have
which one acts. The distance, perspective, and some- psychopathology. When, indeed, does deviant think-
times third-person vantage point of the schizophrenic ing become pathology, when is it useful abnormality,
may allow some analysis (rather than absorption) and and what may certain forms of psychopathology have
the hope of creative agency. However, this process fur- to do with it? How may it increase adaptation in the
ther threatens the self and degrades the reality or consen- originality of everyday life if it plays a broader evolu-
sual reality of what is observed. In exercising this kind of tionary role? When and for whom may schizotypal-
creativity, then, the very presence of the creating self like characteristics be combined with other modes,
and the experience of creation become concerns to ad- say, with a touch of bipolar cognitive style? As I wrote
dress. One may profitably do phenomenological studies these comments, I kept visualizing a patient I once
to address these possibilities. knew, a very gentle and thoughtful, highly articulate
Data (Kinney et al., 2000–2001) have linked sub- man, bright and well educated, who had been diag-
tle schizotypal signs (but not frank schizophrenia) nosed as schizoaffective. He was said to have once
with creativity. Granting provisional prominence to written some penetrating things about Wittgenstein.
Sass’s (2000–2001) and Ogilvie’s (2000–2001) view- My wish is that he will do so once again.
points over other types of creativity–pathology links Let us look further at how schizotypal features may
that may exist (see five-part typology), we may ask contribute to creativity. Sass (2000–2001) reminds us
how and to what extent they manifest explicitly for of our changing worldviews as they intersect our views
the person with mild or subclinical schizotypal phe- of pathology and our normative experience in a culture
nomena and for the normal person with or without a and a world that we are increasingly realizing is made
schizophrenic family history. Furthermore, regarding (constructed), not born. We each have our own per-
Sass’s work, what is the creative advantage for every- sonal slice of infinity, our finite condensation. How
day as well as eminent creativity? Each author could readily we can focus on this, neglect everything else,
bring much to such questions and may, thereby, ex- and not even know that we do it. As whole cultures,
tend the theory. too, we agree on regularities, rules, indeed what will
One does well to think in terms of continuum mod- exist, and what we will not even notice consciously, at
els, as per Schuldberg (1990, 1999, 2000–2001), who least here between us in this consensual life space (e.g.,
noted the existence of a vertical continuum of severity Richards, 1993b, 1999b). In all of this, each of us, or
with psychopathology. Pathology may therefore come our ego, may be taken as a fixed quantity and reference
in different gradations, as may phenomena of thought point at coordinate (0, 0, 0), the central spot from
disorder and with a particular function relating these. which space and time are measured in this
Schuldberg (1999) also looked beyond quantitative consensually validated universe. If in fact each of us, at
presence of a quality (present, absent) to qualitative every moment, cocreates the world, never mind our-
profiles or patterns involving combined pictures of af- selves (see Marks-Tarlow, 1999); well, we are just not
fect and cognition in a complex dynamic systems going to notice. There it is, we may say, and there it is
framework. A rich tapestry of presentations were pro- going to remain.
posed. Russ (2000–2001), too, shows shades of what Does schizotypal thought provide more movement
may in some people be called abnormal but can also and possibility amidst this limited life space? So it may
represent varied and normal operations of our primary seem. Sass’s (2000–2001) seven postmodernist fea-
process, drawing on key affective as well as cognitive tures (and also modernist features, as he uses the term)
phenomena. Primary process is not a single thing like have evident parallels in schizophrenia-spectrum expe-
an apple or orange. It is a construct including a wide rience, an evident resonance, as he puts it. The features
range of possibilities for mental operations of a person involve (a) an adversarial stance, relativism, fragmenta-
within context. Patterns for creativity could certainly tion, and passivization; (b) loss of “worldhood of the
be distinctively different for the schizophrenia versus world” (becoming subjectivized or devoid of value); (c)
bipolar spectrum. loss of temporal flow or narrative unity; (d) intense self-

R. Richards
reference; and (e) detachment and emotional distanc- pool. Creative advantages may play out in very different
ing. Building on this, Ogilvie (2000–2001) character- ways in different cultural contexts (see also Becker,
izes the schizophrenic person as a philosopher of a sort, 2000–2001); not only may they diverge from a
showing hyperreflexivity and autistic alienation, strug- postmodern relativism as they cross cultures, but they
gling to find agency, meaning, and self in his or her life also may even at times carry the potential to approach a
space. more changeless and fundamental core of reality. As
Now assume that the pathology can be down-regu- James (1902/1958) wrote,
lated and utilized adaptively, say, in a postmodern
challenge to the consensual present. One can electively In mystic states, we both become one with the Absolute and
distance, shift, question (self and world), and reframe. we become aware of our oneness. This is the everlasting and
Imagine a pinch of this schizotypal skew in a sensitive triumphant mystical tradition, hardly altered by clime or
creed. … (Across cultures) an eternal unanimity which ought

artist with flexible access to this as one cognitive style
to make a critic stop and think. (p. 321)
(Richards, 1981) among others. This can involve
Kris’s “regression in the service of the ego” (as cited in
Richards, 1981) or, as Sass (2000–2001) pointed out, First, note that shamans are humanity’s most ancient
nonregressive control mechanisms that can exist along spiritual, psychological, and medical practitioners and
with nonregressive forms of original vision. We are exist across diverse cultures (Harner, 1980; Walsh,
seeing, increasingly, many new recipes for and forms 1990). The term shaman comes from saman in Siberia
of creativity (see also Richards, 1996a, 1996b, 1999b, and means “one who is excited, moved, raised” (Walsh,
in press-a; Russ, 1993, 1999, 2000–2001; Sass, 1992; 1990, p. 8). One should note that shamans within and
Schuldberg, 1999, 2000–2001). Sass (2000–2001) and across cultures are not a homogeneous group, nor need
Ogilvie (2000–2001) remind us that schizophrenic ill- their experience be similar (Walsh, 1990). One may
ness is not necessary to manifest these tendencies so consider, however, two types of event: (a) the initiation
that any of us may also display them. Indeed, we are crisis (including painful symptoms and unusual experi-
products of our culture. Here are vivid colors any of us ences) that mark the beginning of a shamanic calling for
may elect for our own artistic creative palettes. some persons (the minority) and (b) the shamanic jour-
ney, in which the shaman alters her or his state of con-
sciousness and journeys to other realms, experiencing
6. Are There Not Other Ways in rich imagery and visions and the presence of spirits, to
Which Schizotypy May Contribute to help an individual or community.
Creativity? Might These Include a According to psychiatrist and anthropologist Walsh
Post-Postmodernist Viewpoint? (1990), the shamanic journey “should in no way be con-
fused with psychosis” (p. 85), although the “initial crisis
It may be useful to broaden the cultural framework of is less clear” (p. 86). Only a small number of shamans do
possibilities. Consider contexts in which what some have an initiatory crisis, however, and only some of
Westerners call seriously abnormal might not only be these may involve psychotic features. Walsh suggested
seen as positive but might also be sought, favored, and the condition would most likely be an atypical or brief
celebrated. Examples include shamanic experience reactive psychosis or schizophreniform psychosis and
across diverse indigenous cultures and certain features not classical schizophrenia. (Note that the first two
of meditative experience in the contemplative disci- terms have also been used in the past for affective disor-
plines. These two examples can highlight (a) the cultural ders; e.g., Goodwin & Jamison, 1990; Richards, 1981.)
relativism of normalcy, (b) possible manifestations of In fact, the “vast majority of shamans cannot be diag-
schizophrenic risk apart from aspects of postmodern nosed as mentally ill” (Walsh, 1990, p. 86).
thought described by Sass (2000–2001), and most par- Yet, we might profitably wonder how many sha-
ticularly, (c) the wide range or variation of possible cre- mans show milder clinical or subclinical characteris-
ative presentations for even one particular risk. Such tics and have a family history of a major psychiatric
adaptive diversity is needed if evolutionary factors are disorder. Perhaps some ongoing schizotypal character-
at play. Despite different times and cultures, the risk istics, as one example, could aid in the elective process
must be kept alive (e.g., for schizophrenia) in the gene of intermittently entering trance or reaching an altered

state and destabilizing and repatterning their con- acterized in this issue? Are there other choices as well?
sciousness. It appears a question worth asking. Most likely, it depends.
It is particularly significant that “shamans often end Following up, let us speculate about certain medita-
up as the most highly functional members of the com- tive experiences within the world’s great wisdom tra-
munity and, according to Eliade, ‘show proof of a more ditions (e.g., Austin, 1998; Goleman, 1977; James,
than normal nervous constitution’ … Shamans … 1902/1958; Smith, 1991) and the possible utility of
function exceptionally well as leaders and healers of schizotypal traits as framed by Sass (2000–2001) or
their people” (Walsh, 1990, p. 90; see also Harner, Ogilvie (2000–2001) to transcend the limitations of
1980). Indeed, the brave facing of unknown factors can dualistic thinking. It is worth noting Heidegger’s inter-
lead to health and resilience; implosive therapy has est in meditation, as well as Wittgenstein’s view of the
been compared to aspects of shamanic journeying self as nonself. Now, imagine the meditator who views
(Walsh, 1990). Shamans show control and great skill personal ego, with its self-serving focus and depend-
in subsequently altering their consciousness. They ence on conceptual thinking, as impeding a deeper and
may regulate attention through breath, imagery, music, nonconceptual knowing (and the emergence of a more
movement, vocalizations, rites, and rituals; this is char- expansive identity that speaks to loving kindness and
acterized by a controlled flow of awareness (Krippner, universal compassion). Might the many perceived
1997). The shaman’s work is highly creative. They un- relativities and their conceptual packaging not then be
dergo initial trials to heal and grow; they dare to depart seen as masking a greater truth? Might aspects of
from the ruts of ordinary reality to bring back broader postmodernist thought—as Sass (2000–2001) helped
perspectives for all of us. address this post-postmodernist dilemma—be it
Instructive as well is Krippner’s (1997) multidi- through self-reflection, relativism, vivid awareness, or
mensional set of criteria for cross-cultural classifica- features including more concrete and immediate expe-
tion of dissociative states. Certain of these can be rience or a temporary detour from the relentless press
positive indeed, including states that facilitate creative of time?
inspiration (see Grosso, 1997). In general, creative dis- Paradoxically, in this contemplation, the act of dis-
sociation can be said to include “the mind’s evolved tancing may be useful but ultimately not to distance. A
ability to escape, transform, and possibly transcend the focus on the limited self may be useful but to transcend
limitations of ordinary reality” (Krippner, 1997, p. this self. Ironically, one’s goal may first be to seize but
195). The outcome here is positive contribution, not then to jettison postmodernism, that is, to embrace
pathology. fully the relativity and limits so as to vaporize them to-
The exact criteria for dissociative states are less im- ward an absolute. Assuming this possibility, one may
portant here than the complexity they represent. How- then wonder if a touch of schizotypal symptomatology
ever, for reference, they combine Heinze’s (1997, could be helpful in getting this particular ball rolling?
2000) cross-classification of levels of volitional con- Could it further the creative possibilities that may
trol by an awareness and dissociation dimension with a arise?
classification of ego-based experience or transcen-
dence and an evaluative dimension based on personal
or cultural norms. What emerges is a rich mosaic of 7. What Might Be Involved in a
presentations and culture-related phenomena. The Creative Advantage Related to the
main point is that it depends. Across cultures, there is Bipolar or the Schizotypal Spectrum?
no absolute normal or abnormal standard for human
behavior or experience, not even for what modern The aforementioned are possible outcomes in the
Westerners think are exceptionally bizarre phenom- best instances. However, as the articles in this issue
ena. Our human possibilities are rich beyond measure. suggest, the pathological process can also remain stuck
Now consider a mild schizotypal profile in a func- in a self that is, in turn, shaky, whereas the fragmented
tional Westerner in a state involving unusual percep- domain it witnesses, shattered in time and space and
tions, magical thinking, odd speech, and fluid limited to certain concrete particulars or to
boundaries. Might this facilitate creative thinking? hyperabstraction, becomes ever so painfully present.
Might it catalyze postmodern types of thought as char- Furthermore, it can be tied in absolute dominion to the

R. Richards
observing self through the logic of solipsism. One may with this momentary awareness. Here is a more naked
emphasize, once again, that creative outcomes are not knowing, as the cultural constructions are shed. Who is
inevitable or the norm in the presence of psycho- this person or is there a person who is creating this
pathology but only one possibility, given a constella- frightening scene? Common language may fail to ex-
tion of facilitating conditions (R. B. Albert & Runco, press the totality of this experience.
1986; R. S. Albert, in press; Runco & Pritzker, 1999; A contrast arises with a recent study on awareness,
Runco & Richards, 1997; Zausner, 1996). What indeed beauty, and survival (Richards, 1999c), an aesthetic
makes the difference? theory in which the proposed advantages of direct
With this caveat, let me return again to the schizo- knowing are adaptive and appealing. They may also be
phreniform and bipolar possibilities for thought and unifying and even universal in significance, following
potential advantages for creativity. Again, this is not streams of signification—including fractal patterns
a zero-sum game, and in the next section, I hypo- based on chaos theory—that may have benefitted
thetically combine schizotypal and bipolar charac- Homo sapiens for thousands of years. With schizo-
teristics in a muted and perhaps accessible form for phrenia-related thought, by contrast, we may find
creativity. awareness with a vengeance in a personal context too
Now, let us consider a hypothetical bipolar indi- undefined to hold it and that is, in itself, threatened.
vidual (or perhaps a normal relative with a touch of Is such a schizotypal experience related to
hyperthymia) in a state of mood elevation. This and Wittgenstein’s “truth of solipsism” and the “disappear-
the subsequent profile represent fanciful abstractions ance of the thinking self” (see Ogilvie, 2000–2001)?
based on the literature (e.g., Goodwin & Jamison, At worst, can a person flounder in idiosyncratic dis-
1990; Jamison, 1993; Laing, 1965; Runco & Rich- tress while producing a signature idiosyncrasy on an
ards, 1997; Sass, 1992, 2000–2001) and clinical and index of thought disorder? Ogilvie (2000–2001) asks
research experience; they provide a basis for discus- how much may such a patient wish for a reality, and a
sion but do not represent realities that will necessarily self, that can be created and shared?
occur. Sharing through creativity is one possibility for
This hypothetical bipolar person’s energized con- connection and grounding. Here is yet another possi-
sciousness during mood elevation casts a broad and bility and one that is a bit more “way out.” Perhaps in
brilliant beam on the outside world. A focus is cho- this world beyond words, this person senses influences
sen for creative processing; this develops and is from others and even from beyond the grave and feels
transformed and elaborated, buzzing with ideas, af- different from other human beings. He or she uses rit-
fects, and associations, and then broadens out even to ual at times to ward off negative influences. To him or
encompass (in a moment of grandiosity) the whole to her, some people and situations seem familiar, as if
world. There is awareness of self but not an overt from prior acquaintance, and some connections seem
questioning of self. There is at first a tiny touch of to occur through thought alone.
overconfidence as the process cascades on and this Before one thinks this is entirely too bizarre (after
builds on itself. The subjective gaze is directed out- all, these do include Schneiderian first-rank symptoms
side and not typically to the inside except at times and a heavy dose of The X-Files), these experiences
when some self-congratulation occurs for the rich were drawn from the top eight magical thinking items
tapestry that is being woven. that emerged when Schuldberg did a correlation at my
Now contrast the hypothetical person with features request of Eckblad and Chapman’s Magical Thinking
of schizotypy; here perhaps is the search of a jumping scale with Schuldberg’s (1990) creativity factor for a
light, a narrow pencil beam, a snapshot here, a snap- sample of normal college students. Creativity was
shot there, not tying it together but turning inward in- operationalized and the factor was defined using mea-
stead to question the self and the consciousness that sures including the Alternate Uses Test, the Barron–
creates this perhaps worrisome apparition. It lacks cul- Welsh Art Scale, and the How Do You Think? Scale.
turally shared meaning and perhaps much meaning at Let me reemphasize that the sample was a group of
all. How concrete and how fearsome things may seem normal college students.
at times—the specks on a doorknob, the stripe on a The eight magical thinking items were significant at
road, the strange face of a coworker—when framed levels (ranging from p < .02 to p < .0005; Ns = 192–

194) and accounted for between 3% and 8% of the colors on their mental palette at will. Add energy and
variance. (There were many significant items for this bipolar confidence to overcome inertia, get things go-
large sample.) From the strongest correlation on down, ing, and open up possibility in the public as well as pri-
these creativity predictors concerned (a) experiences vate spheres (vocational as well as avocational). Now
suggestive of reincarnation (r = .28), (b) use of rituals add in a potential wealth of information, perspectives,
to ward off negative influences (r = .26), (c) wondering and states of consciousness, drawn from each diagnos-
if the dead can influence the living (r = .22), (d) people tic area. On the one hand, there is the energetic ab-
making others aware of them through thinking (r = sorption and enthusiasm of the bipolar person (suit-
.21), (e) the momentary feeling of not being human (r = ably down regulated), looking out on the world with
.19), (f) the passing thought that others are in love with the rich conceptual overlay of combinatory process
him or her (r = .19), (g) sensing one had known strang- (e.g., Holzman et al., 1986; Shenton, et al., 1989). Add
ers before (r = .18), and (h) the ability to learn to read to this the inward looking, immediacy, and awareness
others’ minds (r = .17). These are quite interesting of the deconstructor of conceptual experience, who
leanings for a general sample compared to our more also feels the vulnerability of self in its midst. Yet, now
conventional thoughts. this person has a few extra places to turn. The colors on
Hence, these magical thinking items were not found the palette of mind can be modified, remixed, or
to be bad predictors of creativity at all, especially for painted over. He or she now has the equipment to do
single questionnaire items. Of course, replication of ef- the creative job, to re-create self and world, as Ogilvie
fects would be useful. Do the data speak merely to a (2000–2001) said, and in some cases to do so not only
general openness of mind and an ability to toy with for himself or herself but also as a creator who can give
possibilities? Is there something more specific here, to us all.
seen also in the schizotypal sample, that has particular
importance for creativity (Cardena, Lynn, & Krippner,
2000; Richards, 1994b; Schimmel, 1993)? Let us keep
in mind that there are alternative interpretations of this Conclusion
data and also keep our eyes, and also our minds, open
and remind ourselves once again that normality and Sass (2000–2001), Schuldberg (2000–2001; Sass &
abnormality can be very much contextual (Richards, Shuldberg, 2000–2001), the other contributors, and
1997). this journal do well to present this provocative series of
theoretical and empirical articles on creativity and the
schizophrenia spectrum and such a rich context for dis-
8. Is There Particular Merit to a cussion. Subtle effects related to the schizophrenia
Combined Creative Advantage spectrum appear relevant to creativity, with some simi-
Related to Features From Both the larities in the abstract to effects found within the bipo-
Bipolar and the Schizotypal Spectrum? lar spectrum.
What May Be Involved Here? Further work on the schizophrenia spectrum could
add greatly to our knowledge of creativity, both for
Now let us put schizotypal and bipolar pictures to- clinical populations and for the population at large. Be-
gether, or at least these hypothetical fragments, as a yond this, it can alert us generally, as earlier work on
stimulus to our thinking. One may keep in mind the bipolar disorders has done (e.g., Andreasen 1987;
question of whether all of us, at times, do not show just Jamison, 1990; Richards & Kinney, 1990; Richards,
a little pinch of this characteristic or of that, whether Kinney, Lunde, et al., 1988), to the strengths that may
we are diagnosis-carrying members of a DSM-IV (4th lie in the differences and to ways in which creativity
ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) category and psychological problems can be usefully inter-
or not. We are all much more similar than we are twined (and for all of us). It may also remind us to not
different. immediately pathologize something just because it is
For this creative mix, as a binder, we may start with (or we are) different and depart from a statistical norm,
a little ego strength, so as to help creators modulate pri- while raising the possibility that one may thereby see
mary process (e.g., Russ, 2000–2001) and access the farther than one did before.

R. Richards
Of particular importance, it seems, is specific evi- orders. In A. Tasman & M. B. Riba (Eds.), Review of psychiatry
(Vol. 11, pp. 43–62). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric
dence supporting a connection between creativity and
Press.
schizophrenia-spectrum disorders that operates, per- Akiskal, H., & Mallya, G. (1987). Criteria for the “soft” bipolar
haps, via a mechanism of compensatory advantage spectrum: Treatment implications. Psychopharmacology Bul-
(Kinney & Matthysse, 1978; Richards, Kinney, letin, 23, 67–73.
Lunde, et al., 1988). This possibility offers new hope to Albert, R. B., & Runco, M. A. (1986). The achievement of emi-
nence. In R. J. Sternberg & J. E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions
people who have suffered and young people who are at
of giftedness (pp. 232–257). New York: Cambridge University
risk. One should proceed with an open mind tempered Press.
by critical judgment. On the one hand, we have limited Albert, R. S. (in press). The achievement of eminence as an evolu-
data, and there is need for replication and extension of tionary strategy. In M. A. Runco (Ed.), Creativity research
research findings. On the other, we have already seen handbook: Vol. 2. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton.
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statisti-

examples of illness or familial risk of illness linked
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with creativity in related contexts (Runco & Richards, Author.
1997). We do not want to miss out on such an impor- American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statisti-
tant relation. Plus, it is often from our problems that we cal manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC:
make creative gains and learn to reach from “defi- Author.
Andreasen, N. C. (1978). Creativity and psychiatric illness. Psychi-
ciency creativity” (as per Maslow’s, 1968, hierarchy of
atric Annals, 8, 113–119.
needs) to higher levels of personal growth and mean- Andreasen, N. C. (1987). Creativity and mental illness: Prevalence
ing (Rhodes, 1990; Richards, 1997, 1998). rates in writers and their first-degree relatives. American Jour-
Finally, in surveying creativity in both the schizo- nal of Psychiatry, 144, 1288–1292.
phrenia spectrum and bipolar spectrum and the cogni- Andreasen, N. C., & Canter, A. (1974). The creative writer: Psychi-
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tive–affective–motivational styles they may each
15, 123–131.
represent, we are reminded that certain complementary Andreasen, N. C., & Powers, P. (1974). Overinclusive thinking in
tendencies might perhaps increase dramatically in mania and schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 125,
power when applied in concert with each other (either 452–456.
within the same person or same culture). Each may Austin, J. H. (1998). Zen and the brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Barron, F. (1969). Creative person and creative process. New York:
play a different role in the generation of originality,
Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
separately and together, and they need not be placed in Becker, G. (1978). The mad genius controversy: A study in the soci-
opposition. They may even yield benefits together and ology of deviance. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
for you and me in the general population and not just Becker, G. (2000–2001). The association of creativity and
for those at risk for a major psychiatric disorder. psychopathology: Its cultural–historical origins. Creativity Re-
search Journal, 13, 45–53.
Let us, therefore, actively discourage misunderstand-
Brent, G. H., Kupfer, D. J., Bromet, E. J., & Dew, M. A. (1988). The
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experience: Examining the scientific evidence. Washington,
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diverse urges toward originality, growth, and our Hirschfeld, R. M. A., & Scheftner, W. (1989). Bipolar affective
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Cropley, A. J. (1990). Creativity and mental health in everyday life.
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Jamison, 1990, 1993). This is startling. (Happily, a creativity.

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4. Does the Creative Advantage in

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Table 1. Typology of Creativity and Psychopathology: Application to Mood Disorders

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6. To What Extent Do You Posit 7. By Contrast, to What Extent Do

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Eight Specific Questions Related to the

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creed. … (Across cultures) an eternal unanimity which ought

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American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statisti-

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Francisco/HarperCollins. Ludwig, A. M. (1992). Creative achievement and psychopathology:

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