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функција (математика)
У математици , функција из скупа Кс у скуп И додељује сваком елементу Кс тачно један
елемент од И. [1] Скуп Кс се назива домен функције [2] а скуп И се назива кодомен функције.
[3]

Функције су првобитно биле идеализација како променљива величина зависи од друге

величине. На пример, положај планете је функција времена . Историјски гледано , концепт
је разрађен са инфинитезималним рачуном крајем 17. века, а све до 19. века функције које су
сматране биле су диференцибилне (односно, имале су висок степен правилности). Концепт
функције је формализован крајем 19. века у смислу теорије скупова , што је у великој мери
проширило домене примене концепта.

Функција се најчешће означава словима као што су ф , г и х , а вредност функције ф на

елементу к њеног домена означава се са ф ( к ) ; нумеричка вредност која је
резултатевалуација функције на одређеној улазној вредности означава се заменомковом
вредношћу; на пример, вредностфна к = 4је означена са ф (4). Када функција није
именована и представљена је изразомЕ ,вредност функције на, рецимо, к = 4може бити
означена са Е | к . На пример, вредност на4функције која пресликаваку може
=4
бити означено са (што резултира 25).

Функција је јединствено представљена скупом свих парова ( к , ф ( к )) , који се назива

график функције , популарно средство за илустрацију функције. [напомена 1] [4] Када су домен
и кодомен скупови реалних бројева, сваки такав пар се може сматрати декартовским
координатама тачке у равни.

Функције се широко користе у науци , инжењерству и у већини области математике. Речено

је да су функције „централни објекти истраживања“ у већини области математике. [5]

Дефиниција
Функција ф из скупа Кс скупу И је додељивање елемента од И сваком елементу Кс . Скуп
Кс назива се домен функције, а скуп И се назива кодомен функције.
Ако је елемент и у И додељен функцији ф на к у Кс , каже се да ф пресликава к на и , и то се
обично пише У овој нотацији, к је аргумент или променљива функције. Одређени
елемент к од Кс је вредност променљиве , а одговарајући елемент И је вредност функције
на к , или слика к испод функције.

Функција ф , њен домен Кс и њен кодомен И се често специфицирају нотацијом У

овом случају се може писати уместо Ово омогућава дефинисање функције без
именовања. На пример, квадратна функција је функција

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р р, др фу ц ј ј фу ц ј

Домен и кодомен нису увек експлицитно дати када је функција дефинисана. Конкретно,
уобичајено је да се само може знати, без неког (вероватно
тешког) израчунавања, да је домен одређене функције
садржан у већем скупу. На пример, ако је реална
функција , одређивање домена функције
захтева да зна нуле ф . Ово је један од разлога због којих се,
у математичкој анализи , „функција од Кс до И “ може
односити на функцију која има одговарајући подскуп Кс
као домен. [напомена 2] На пример, „функција од реалних до
реалних“ може се односити на функцију реалне вредности
реалне променљиве чији је домен прави подскуп реалних
бројева , обично подскуп који садржи непразан отворен
интервал . Таква функција се тада назива парцијална
функција . Шематски приказ функције
описане метафорички као
The range or image of a function is the set of the images of all „машина“ или „ црна кутија “ која
elements in the domain.[6][7][8][9] за сваки улаз даје одговарајући
излаз
A function f on a set S means a function from the domain S,
without specifying a codomain. However, some authors use it
as shorthand for saying that the function is f : S → S.

Formal definition

The above definition of a function is essentially that of the

founders of calculus, Leibniz, Newton and Euler. However, it
cannot be formalized, since there is no mathematical definition
of an "assignment". It is only at the end of the 19th century that
the first formal definition of a function could be provided, in Црвена крива је график функције ,
terms of set theory. It is this set-theoretic definition that is јер свака вертикална линија има
presented here. тачно једну тачку укрштања са
кривом.
A binary relation between two sets X and Y is a subset of the set
of all ordered pairs such that and The set
of all these pairs is called the Cartesian product of X and Y and
denoted

A function with domain X and codomain Y is a binary relation

R between X and Y that satisfies the two following conditions:
Total relation:

Univalent relation:

Diagram of a function

These conditions are exactly the formalization of the above

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These conditions are exactly the formalization of the above

definition of a function.

Multivariate functions

A multivariate function, multivariable function, or

function of several variables is a function that depends on
several arguments. Such functions are commonly encountered.
For example, the position of a car on a road is a function of the
time travelled and its average speed.

Formally, a function of n variables is a function whose domain

is a set of n-tuples.[note 3] For example, multiplication of
integers is a function of two variables, or bivariate function,
whose domain is the set of all ordered pairs (2-tuples) of
integers, and whose codomain is the set of integers. The same
is true for every binary operation. Commonly, an n-tuple is
denoted enclosed between parentheses, such as in
When using functional notation, one usually
omits the parentheses surrounding tuples, writing
instead of
Diagram of a relation that is not a
function. One reason is that 2 is the
first element in more than one
ordered pair. Another reason is that
neither 3 nor 4 are the first element
(input) of any ordered pair therein

Given n sets the set of all n-tuples

such that is called the Cartesian
product of and denoted

Therefore, a multivariate function is a function that has a

Cartesian product or a proper subset of a Cartesian product as
a domain.

where the domain U has the form

A binary operation is a typical

If all the are equal to the set of the real numbers or to the example of a bivariate function
set of the complex numbers, one talks respectively of a which assigns to each pair the
function of several real variables or of a function of several result .
complex variables.

Notation
There are various standard ways for denoting functions. The most commonly used notation is
functional notation, which is the first notation described below.

Functional notation

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The functional notation requires that a name is given to the function, which, in the case of a
unspecified function is often the letter f. Then, the application of the function to an argument is
denoted by its name followed by its argument (or, in the case of a multivariate functions, its
arguments) enclosed between parentheses, such as in

The argument between the parentheses may be a variable, often x, that represents an arbitrary
element of the domain of the function, a specific element of the domain (3 in the above example),
or an expression that can be evaluated to an element of the domain ( in the above example).
The use of a unspecified variable between parentheses is useful for defining a function explicitly
such as in "let ".

When the symbol denoting the function consists of several characters and no ambiguity may arise,
the parentheses of functional notation might be omitted. For example, it is common to write sin x
instead of sin(x).

Functional notation was first used by Leonhard Euler in 1734.[10] Some widely used functions are
represented by a symbol consisting of several letters (usually two or three, generally an
abbreviation of their name). In this case, a roman type is customarily used instead, such as "sin"
for the sine function, in contrast to italic font for single-letter symbols.

The functional notation is often used colloqually for referring to a function and simultaneously
naming its argument, such as in "let be a function". This is an abuse of notation that is useful
for a simpler formulation.

Arrow notation

Arrow notation defines the rule of a function inline, without requiring a name to be given to the
function. For example, is the function which takes a real number as input and outputs
that number plus 1. Again, a domain and codomain of is implied.

The domain and codomain can also be explicitly stated, for example:

This defines a function sqr from the integers to the integers that returns the square of its input.

As a common application of the arrow notation, suppose is a

function in two variables, and we want to refer to a partially applied function produced by
fixing the second argument to the value t0 without introducing a new function name. The map in
question could be denoted using the arrow notation. The expression
(read: "the map taking x to f of x comma t nought") represents this new function with just one
argument, whereas the expression f(x0, t0) refers to the value of the function f at the point (x0, t0).

Index notation

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Index notation

Index notation may be used instead of functional notation. That is, instead of writing f (x), one
writes

This is typically the case for functions whose domain is the set of the natural numbers. Such a
function is called a sequence, and, in this case the element is called the nth element of the
sequence.

The index notation can also be used for distinguishing some variables called parameters from the
"true variables". In fact, parameters are specific variables that are considered as being fixed during
the study of a problem. For example, the map (see above) would be denoted using
index notation, if we define the collection of maps by the formula for all
.

Dot notation

In the notation the symbol x does not represent any value; it is simply a placeholder,
meaning that, if x is replaced by any value on the left of the arrow, it should be replaced by the
same value on the right of the arrow. Therefore, x may be replaced by any symbol, often an
interpunct " ⋅ ". This may be useful for distinguishing the function f (⋅) from its value f (x) at x.

For example, may stand for the function , and may stand for a function
defined by an integral with variable upper bound: .

Specialized notations

There are other, specialized notations for functions in sub-disciplines of mathematics. For
example, in linear algebra and functional analysis, linear forms and the vectors they act upon are
denoted using a dual pair to show the underlying duality. This is similar to the use of bra–ket
notation in quantum mechanics. In logic and the theory of computation, the function notation of
lambda calculus is used to explicitly express the basic notions of function abstraction and
application. In category theory and homological algebra, networks of functions are described in
terms of how they and their compositions commute with each other using commutative diagrams
that extend and generalize the arrow notation for functions described above.

Functions of more than one variable

In some cases the argument of a function may be an ordered pair of elements taken from some set
or sets. For example, a function f can be defined as mapping any pair of real numbers to the
sum of their squares, . Such a function is commonly written as and
referred to as "a function of two variables". Likewise one can have a function of three or more
variables, with notations such as , .

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Other terms
A function may also be called a map or a
mapping, but some authors make a distinction
between the term "map" and "function". For
example, the term "map" is often reserved for a
"function" with some sort of special structure
(e.g. maps of manifolds). In particular map may
be used in place of homomorphism for the sake
of succinctness (e.g., linear map or map from G Map/Mapping
Term Distinction from "function"
None; the terms are synonymous.[11]
A map can have any set as its
codomain, while, in some contexts,
typically in older books, the
codomain of a function is specifically
the set of real or complex numbers.
[12]

to H instead of group homomorphism from G

Alternatively, a map is associated
to H). Some authors[13] reserve the word with a special structure (e.g. by
mapping for the case where the structure of the explicitly specifying a structured
codomain belongs explicitly to the definition of codomain in its definition). For
the function. example, a linear map.[13]

A function between two structures of

Some authors, such as Serge Lang,[12] use the same type that preserves the
Homomorphism
"function" only to refer to maps for which the operations of the structure (e.g. a
codomain is a subset of the real or complex group homomorphism).[14]
numbers, and use the term mapping for more A generalisation of homomorphisms
general functions. to any category, even when the
objects of the category are not sets
In the theory of dynamical systems, a map (for example, a group defines a
Morphism category with only one object, which
denotes an evolution function used to create has the elements of the group as
discrete dynamical systems. See also Poincaré morphisms; see Category
map. (mathematics) § Examples for this
example and other similar ones).[15]
Whichever definition of map is used, related
terms like domain, codomain, injective, continuous have the same meaning as for a function.

Specifying a function
Given a function , by definition, to each element of the domain of the function , there is a
unique element associated to it, the value of at . There are several ways to specify or
describe how is related to , both explicitly and implicitly. Sometimes, a theorem or an axiom
asserts the existence of a function having some properties, without describing it more precisely.
Often, the specification or description is referred to as the definition of the function .

By listing function values

On a finite set, a function may be defined by listing the elements of the codomain that are
associated to the elements of the domain. For example, if , then one can define a
function by

By a formula

Functions are often defined by an expression that describes a combination of arithmetic operations
d i l d fi d f ti h f l ll ti th l f th f ti f

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and previously defined functions; such a formula allows computing the value of the function from
the value of any element of the domain. For example, in the above example, can be defined by the

formula , for .

When a function is defined this way, the determination of its domain is sometimes difficult. If the
formula that defines the function contains divisions, the values of the variable for which a
denominator is zero must be excluded from the domain; thus, for a complicated function, the
determination of the domain passes through the computation of the zeros of auxiliary functions.
Similarly, if square roots occur in the definition of a function from to the domain is included
in the set of the values of the variable for which the arguments of the square roots are nonnegative.

For example, defines a function whose domain is because

is always positive if x is a real number. On the other hand, defines a function
from the reals to the reals whose domain is reduced to the interval [−1, 1]. (In old texts, such a
domain was called the domain of definition of the function.)

Functions can be classified by the nature of formulas that define them:

A quadratic function is a function that may be written where a, b, c are

constants.
More generally, a polynomial function is a function that can be defined by a formula involving
only additions, subtractions, multiplications, and exponentiation to nonnegative integer powers.
For example, and are polynomial
functions of .

A rational function is the same, with divisions also allowed, such as and

An algebraic function is the same, with nth roots and roots of polynomials also allowed.
An elementary function[note 4] is the same, with logarithms and exponential functions allowed.

Inverse and implicit functions

A function with domain X and codomain Y, is bijective, if for every y in Y, there is one
and only one element x in X such that y = f(x). In this case, the inverse function of f is the function
that maps to the element such that y = f(x). For example, the natural
logarithm is a bijective function from the positive real numbers to the real numbers. It thus has an
inverse, called the exponential function, that maps the real numbers onto the positive numbers.

If a function is not bijective, it may occur that one can select subsets and
such that the restriction of f to E is a bijection from E to F, and has thus an inverse. The
inverse trigonometric functions are defined this way. For example, the cosine function induces, by
restriction, a bijection from the interval [0, π] onto the interval [−1, 1], and its inverse function,
called arccosine, maps [−1, 1] onto [0, π]. The other inverse trigonometric functions are defined
similarly

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similarly.

More generally, given a binary relation R between two sets X and Y, let E be a subset of X such
that, for every there is some such that x R y. If one has a criterion allowing selecting
such an y for every this defines a function called an implicit function, because
it is implicitly defined by the relation R.

For example, the equation of the unit circle defines a relation on real numbers. If
−1 < x < 1 there are two possible values of y, one positive and one negative. For x = ± 1, these two
values become both equal to 0. Otherwise, there is no possible value of y. This means that the
equation defines two implicit functions with domain [−1, 1] and respective codomains [0, +∞)
and (−∞, 0].

In this example, the equation can be solved in y, giving but, in more complicated
examples, this is impossible. For example, the relation defines y as an implicit
function of x, called the Bring radical, which has as domain and range. The Bring radical cannot
be expressed in terms of the four arithmetic operations and nth roots.

The implicit function theorem provides mild differentiability conditions for existence and
uniqueness of an implicit function in the neighborhood of a point.

Using differential calculus

Many functions can be defined as the antiderivative of another function. This is the case of the
natural logarithm, which is the antiderivative of 1/x that is 0 for x = 1. Another common example
is the error function.

More generally, many functions, including most special functions, can be defined as solutions of
differential equations. The simplest example is probably the exponential function, which can be
defined as the unique function that is equal to its derivative and takes the value 1 for x = 0.

Power series can be used to define functions on the domain in which they converge. For example,
the exponential function is given by . However, as the coefficients of a series are
quite arbitrary, a function that is the sum of a convergent series is generally defined otherwise, and
the sequence of the coefficients is the result of some computation based on another definition.
Then, the power series can be used to enlarge the domain of the function. Typically, if a function
for a real variable is the sum of its Taylor series in some interval, this power series allows
immediately enlarging the domain to a subset of the complex numbers, the disc of convergence of
the series. Then analytic continuation allows enlarging further the domain for including almost the
whole complex plane. This process is the method that is generally used for defining the logarithm,
the exponential and the trigonometric functions of a complex number.

By recurrence

Functions whose domain are the nonnegative integers, known as sequences, are sometimes defined
by recurrence relations.

The factorial function on the nonnegative integers ( ) is a basic example as it can be defined

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The factorial function on the nonnegative integers ( ) is a basic example, as it can be defined
by the recurrence relation

and the initial condition

Representing a function
A graph is commonly used to give an intuitive picture of a function. As an example of how a graph
helps to understand a function, it is easy to see from its graph whether a function is increasing or
decreasing. Some functions may also be represented by bar charts.

Graphs and plots

Given a function its graph is, formally, the set

In the frequent case where X and Y are subsets of the real

numbers (or may be identified with such subsets, e.g.
intervals), an element may be identified with a
point having coordinates x, y in a 2-dimensional coordinate
system, e.g. the Cartesian plane. Parts of this may create a plot The function mapping each year to
its US motor vehicle death count,
that represents (parts of) the function. The use of plots is so
shown as a line chart
ubiquitous that they too are called the graph of the function.
Graphic representations of functions are also possible in other
coordinate systems. For example, the graph of the square
function

consisting of all points with coordinates for

yields, when depicted in Cartesian coordinates, the well known
parabola. If the same quadratic function with the The same function, shown as a bar
same formal graph, consisting of pairs of numbers, is plotted chart
instead in polar coordinates the plot obtained
is Fermat's spiral.

Tables

A function can be represented as a table of values. If the domain of a function is finite, then the
function can be completely specified in this way. For example, the multiplication function
defined as can be represented by the familiar multiplication

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table

y
1 2 3 4 5
x
1 1 2 3 4 5

2 2 4 6 8 10

3 3 6 9 12 15

4 4 8 12 16 20

5 5 10 15 20 25

On the other hand, if a function's domain is continuous, a table can give the values of the function
at specific values of the domain. If an intermediate value is needed, interpolation can be used to
estimate the value of the function. For example, a portion of a table for the sine function might be
given as follows, with values rounded to 6 decimal places:

x sin x
1.289 0.960557

1.290 0.960835

1.291 0.961112

1.292 0.961387

1.293 0.961662

Before the advent of handheld calculators and personal computers, such tables were often
compiled and published for functions such as logarithms and trigonometric functions.

Bar chart

A bar chart can represent a function whose domain is a finite set, the natural numbers, or the
integers. In this case, an element x of the domain is represented by an interval of the x-axis, and
the corresponding value of the function, f(x), is represented by a rectangle whose base is the
interval corresponding to x and whose height is f(x) (possibly negative, in which case the bar
extends below the x-axis).

General properties
This section describes general properties of functions, that are independent of specific properties of
the domain and the codomain.

Standard functions

There are a number of standard functions that occur frequently:

For every set X, there is a unique function, called the empty function, or empty map, from the
t t t X Th h f t f ti i th t t [note 5] Th i t f t

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empty set to X. The graph of an empty function is the empty set.[note 5] The existence of empty
functions is needed both for the coherency of the theory and for avoiding exceptions

concerning the empty set in many statements. Under the usual set-theoretic definition of a
function as an ordered triplet (or equivalent ones), there is exactly one empty function for each
set, thus the empty function is not equal to if and only if , although their
graphs are both the empty set.
For every set X and every singleton set {s}, there is a unique function from X to {s}, which
maps every element of X to s. This is a surjection (see below) unless X is the empty set.
Given a function the canonical surjection of f onto its image
is the function from X to f(X) that maps x to f(x).
For every subset A of a set X, the inclusion map of A into X is the injective (see below) function
that maps every element of A to itself.
The identity function on a set X, often denoted by idX, is the inclusion of X into itself.

Function composition

Given two functions and such that the domain of g is the codomain of f,
their composition is the function defined by

That is, the value of is obtained by first applying f to x to obtain y = f(x) and then applying g
to the result y to obtain g(y) = g(f(x)). In the notation the function that is applied first is always
written on the right.

The composition is an operation on functions that is defined only if the codomain of the first
function is the domain of the second one. Even when both and satisfy these conditions,
the composition is not necessarily commutative, that is, the functions and need not be
equal, but may deliver different values for the same argument. For example, let f(x) = x2 and
g(x) = x + 1, then and agree just for

The function composition is associative in the sense that, if one of and is

defined, then the other is also defined, and they are equal, that is,
Therefore, it is usual to just write

The identity functions and are respectively a right identity and a left identity for functions
from X to Y. That is, if f is a function with domain X, and codomain Y, one has

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A composite function g(f(x)) can be A simple example of a function

visualized as the combination of two composition
"machines".

Another composition. In this example,

(g ∘ f )(c) = #.

Image and preimage

Let The image under f of an element x of the domain X is f(x).[6] If A is any subset of
A f f(A)
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X, then the image of A under f, denoted f(A), is the subset of the codomain Y consisting of all
images of elements of A,[6] that is,

The image of f is the image of the whole domain, that is, f(X).[16] It is also called the range of f,[6][7]
[8][9] although the term range may also refer to the codomain.[9][16][17]

On the other hand, the inverse image or preimage under f of an element y of the codomain Y is the
set of all elements of the domain X whose images under f equal y.[6] In symbols, the preimage of y
is denoted by and is given by the equation

Likewise, the preimage of a subset B of the codomain Y is the set of the preimages of the elements
of B, that is, it is the subset of the domain X consisting of all elements of X whose images belong to
B.[6] It is denoted by and is given by the equation

For example, the preimage of under the square function is the set .

By definition of a function, the image of an element x of the domain is always a single element of
the codomain. However, the preimage of an element y of the codomain may be empty or
contain any number of elements. For example, if f is the function from the integers to themselves
that maps every integer to 0, then .

If is a function, A and B are subsets of X, and C and D are subsets of Y, then one has
the following properties:

The preimage by f of an element y of the codomain is sometimes called, in some contexts, the fiber
of y under f.

If a function f has an inverse (see below), this inverse is denoted In this case may
denote either the image by or the preimage by f of C. This is not a problem, as these sets are
equal. The notation and may be ambiguous in the case of sets that contain some
subsets as elements, such as In this case, some care may be needed, for example, by
using square brackets for images and preimages of subsets and ordinary parentheses

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using square brackets for images and preimages of subsets and ordinary parentheses
for images and preimages of elements.
Injective, surjective and bijective functions

Let be a function.

The function f is injective (or one-to-one, or is an injection) if f(a) ≠ f(b) for any two different
elements a and b of X.[16][18] Equivalently, f is injective if and only if, for any the preimage
contains at most one element. An empty function is always injective. If X is not the empty
set, then f is injective if and only if there exists a function such that that
is, if f has a left inverse. [18] Proof: If f is injective, for defining g, one chooses an element in X
(which exists as X is supposed to be nonempty), [note 6] and one defines g by if
and if Conversely, if and then and thus

The function f is surjective (or onto, or is a surjection) if its range equals its codomain ,
that is, if, for each element of the codomain, there exists some element of the domain such that
(in other words, the preimage of every is nonempty).[16][19] If, as usual in
modern mathematics, the axiom of choice is assumed, then f is surjective if and only if there exists
a function such that that is, if f has a right inverse.[19] The axiom of choice
is needed, because, if f is surjective, one defines g by where is an arbitrarily chosen
element of

The function f is bijective (or is a bijection or a one-to-one correspondence) if it is both injective

and surjective.[16][20] That is, f is bijective if, for any the preimage contains exactly
one element. The function f is bijective if and only if it admits an inverse function, that is, a
function such that and [20] (Contrarily to the case of

surjections, this does not require the axiom of choice; the proof is straightforward).

Every function may be factorized as the composition of a surjection followed by

an injection, where s is the canonical surjection of X onto f(X) and i is the canonical injection of
f(X) into Y. This is the canonical factorization of f.
"One-to-one" and "onto" are terms that were more common in the older English language
literature; "injective", "surjective", and "bijective" were originally coined as French words in the
second quarter of the 20th century by the Bourbaki group and imported into English. As a word of
caution, "a one-to-one function" is one that is injective, while a "one-to-one correspondence" refers
to a bijective function. Also, the statement "f maps X onto Y" differs from "f maps X into B", in that
the former implies that f is surjective, while the latter makes no assertion about the nature of f. In a
complicated reasoning, the one letter difference can easily be missed. Due to the confusing nature
of this older terminology, these terms have declined in popularity relative to the Bourbakian terms,
which have also the advantage of being more symmetrical.

Restriction and extension

If is a function and S is a subset of X, then the restriction of to S, denoted , is the

function from S to Y defined by

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function from S to Y defined by

for all x in S. Restrictions can be used to define partial inverse functions: if there is a subset S of the
domain of a function such that is injective, then the canonical surjection of onto its image
is a bijection, and thus has an inverse function from to S. One application is
the definition of inverse trigonometric functions. For example, the cosine function is injective when
restricted to the interval [0, π]. The image of this restriction is the interval [−1, 1], and thus the
restriction has an inverse function from [−1, 1] to [0, π], which is called arccosine and is denoted
arccos.
Function restriction may also be used for "gluing" functions together. Let be the
decomposition of X as a union of subsets, and suppose that a function is defined on
each such that for each pair of indices, the restrictions of and to are equal.
Then this defines a unique function such that for all i. This is the way that
functions on manifolds are defined.

An extension of a function f is a function g such that f is a restriction of g. A typical use of this

concept is the process of analytic continuation, that allows extending functions whose domain is a
small part of the complex plane to functions whose domain is almost the whole complex plane.

Here is another classical example of a function extension that is encountered when studying
homographies of the real line. A homography is a function such that ad − bc ≠ 0.

Its domain is the set of all real numbers different from and its image is the set of all real
numbers different from If one extends the real line to the projectively extended real line by
including ∞, one may extend h to a bijection from the extended real line to itself by setting
and .

In calculus
The idea of function, starting in the 17th century, was fundamental to the new infinitesimal
calculus. At that time, only real-valued functions of a real variable were considered, and all
functions were assumed to be smooth. But the definition was soon extended to functions of several
variables and to functions of a complex variable. In the second half of the 19th century, the
mathematically rigorous definition of a function was introduced, and functions with arbitrary
domains and codomains were defined.

Functions are now used throughout all areas of mathematics. In introductory calculus, when the
word function is used without qualification, it means a real-valued function of a single real
variable. The more general definition of a function is usually introduced to second or third year
college students with STEM majors, and in their senior year they are introduced to calculus in a
larger, more rigorous setting in courses such as real analysis and complex analysis.

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Real function

A real function is a real-valued function of a real variable, that

is, a function whose codomain is the field of real numbers and
whose domain is a set of real numbers that contains an
interval. In this section, these functions are simply called
functions.

The functions that are most commonly considered in

mathematics and its applications have some regularity, that is
they are continuous, differentiable, and even analytic. This
regularity insures that these functions can be visualized by
their graphs. In this section, all functions are differentiable in
some interval.
Graph of a linear function
Functions enjoy pointwise operations, that is, if f and g are
functions, their sum, difference and product are functions
defined by

The domains of the resulting functions are the intersection of

the domains of f and g. The quotient of two functions is defined
similarly by

Graph of a polynomial function, here

a quadratic function.
but the domain of the resulting function is obtained by
removing the zeros of g from the intersection of the domains of
f and g.
The polynomial functions are defined by polynomials, and their
domain is the whole set of real numbers. They include constant
functions, linear functions and quadratic functions. Rational
functions are quotients of two polynomial functions, and their
Graph of two trigonometric
domain is the real numbers with a finite number of them
functions: sine and cosine.
removed to avoid division by zero. The simplest rational
function is the function whose graph is a hyperbola,
and whose domain is the whole real line except for 0.

The derivative of a real differentiable function is a real function. An antiderivative of a continuous

real function is a real function that has the original function as a derivative. For example, the
function is continuous, and even differentiable, on the positive real numbers. Thus one
antiderivative, which takes the value zero for x = 1, is a differentiable function called the natural
logarithm.

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A real function f is monotonic in an interval if the sign of does not depend of the

choice of x and y in the interval. If the function is differentiable in the interval, it is monotonic if
the sign of the derivative is constant in the interval. If a real function f is monotonic in an interval I,
it has an inverse function, which is a real function with domain f(I) and image I. This is how
inverse trigonometric functions are defined in terms of trigonometric functions, where the
trigonometric functions are monotonic. Another example: the natural logarithm is monotonic on
the positive real numbers, and its image is the whole real line; therefore it has an inverse function
that is a bijection between the real numbers and the positive real numbers. This inverse is the
exponential function.

Many other real functions are defined either by the implicit function theorem (the inverse function
is a particular instance) or as solutions of differential equations. For example, the sine and the
cosine functions are the solutions of the linear differential equation

such that

Vector-valued function

When the elements of the codomain of a function are vectors, the function is said to be a vector-
valued function. These functions are particularly useful in applications, for example modeling
physical properties. For example, the function that associates to each point of a fluid its velocity
vector is a vector-valued function.

Some vector-valued functions are defined on a subset of or other spaces that share geometric or
topological properties of , such as manifolds. These vector-valued functions are given the name
vector fields.

Function space
In mathematical analysis, and more specifically in functional analysis, a function space is a set of
scalar-valued or vector-valued functions, which share a specific property and form a topological
vector space. For example, the real smooth functions with a compact support (that is, they are zero
outside some compact set) form a function space that is at the basis of the theory of distributions.

Function spaces play a fundamental role in advanced mathematical analysis, by allowing the use of
their algebraic and topological properties for studying properties of functions. For example, all
theorems of existence and uniqueness of solutions of ordinary or partial differential equations
result of the study of function spaces.

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Multi-valued functions
Several methods for specifying functions of real or complex
variables start from a local definition of the function at a point
or on a neighbourhood of a point, and then extend by
continuity the function to a much larger domain. Frequently,
for a starting point there are several possible starting values
for the function.

For example, in defining the square root as the inverse function

of the square function, for any positive real number there
Together, the two square roots of all
are two choices for the value of the square root, one of which is
nonnegative real numbers form a
positive and denoted and another which is negative and
single smooth curve.
denoted These choices define two continuous
functions, both having the nonnegative real numbers as a
domain, and having either the nonnegative or the nonpositive
real numbers as images. When looking at the graphs of these
functions, one can see that, together, they form a single smooth
curve. It is therefore often useful to consider these two square
root functions as a single function that has two values for
positive x, one value for 0 and no value for negative x.

In the preceding example, one choice, the positive square root,

is more natural than the other. This is not the case in general.
For example, let consider the implicit function that maps y to a
root x of (see the figure on the right). For
y = 0 one may choose either for x. By the implicit function theorem, each choice
defines a function; for the first one, the (maximal) domain is the interval [−2, 2] and the image is
[−1, 1]; for the second one, the domain is [−2, ∞) and the image is [1, ∞); for the last one, the
domain is (−∞, 2] and the image is (−∞, −1]. As the three graphs together form a smooth curve,
and there is no reason for preferring one choice, these three functions are often considered as a
single multi-valued function of y that has three values for −2 < y < 2, and only one value for
y ≤ −2 and y ≥ −2.
Usefulness of the concept of multi-valued functions is clearer when considering complex functions,
typically analytic functions. The domain to which a complex function may be extended by analytic
continuation generally consists of almost the whole complex plane. However, when extending the
domain through two different paths, one often gets different values. For example, when extending
the domain of the square root function, along a path of complex numbers with positive imaginary
parts, one gets i for the square root of −1; while, when extending through complex numbers with
negative imaginary parts, one gets −i. There are generally two ways of solving the problem. One
may define a function that is not continuous along some curve, called a branch cut. Such a function
is called the principal value of the function. The other way is to consider that one has a multi-
valued function, which is analytic everywhere except for isolated singularities, but whose value
may "jump" if one follows a closed loop around a singularity. This jump is called the monodromy.

I th f d ti f th ti
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In the foundations of mathematics

The definition of a function that is given in this article requires the concept of set, since the domain
and the codomain of a function must be a set. This is not a problem in usual mathematics, as it is
generally not difficult to consider only functions whose domain and codomain are sets, which are
well defined, even if the domain is not explicitly defined. However, it is sometimes useful to
consider more general functions.

For example, the singleton set may be considered as a function Its domain would
include all sets, and therefore would not be a set. In usual mathematics, one avoids this kind of
problem by specifying a domain, which means that one has many singleton functions. However,
when establishing foundations of mathematics, one may have to use functions whose domain,
codomain or both are not specified, and some authors, often logicians, give precise definition for
these weakly specified functions.[21]

These generalized functions may be critical in the development of a formalization of the

foundations of mathematics. For example, Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory, is an
extension of the set theory in which the collection of all sets is a class. This theory includes the
replacement axiom, which may be stated as: If X is a set and F is a function, then F[X] is a set.

In alternative formulations of the foundations of mathematics using type theory rather than set
theory, functions are taken as primitive notions rather than defined from other kinds of object.
They are the inhabitants of function types, and may be constructed using expressions in the
lambda calculus.[22]

In computer science
In computer programming, a function is, in general, a piece of a computer program, which
implements the abstract concept of function. That is, it is a program unit that produces an output
for each input. However, in many programming languages every subroutine is called a function,
even when there is no output, and when the functionality consists simply of modifying some data
in the computer memory.

Functional programming is the programming paradigm consisting of building programs by using

only subroutines that behave like mathematical functions. For example, if_then_else is a
function that takes three functions as arguments, and, depending on the result of the first function
(true or false), returns the result of either the second or the third function. An important advantage
of functional programming is that it makes easier program proofs, as being based on a well
founded theory, the lambda calculus (see below).

Except for computer-language terminology, "function" has the usual mathematical meaning in
computer science. In this area, a property of major interest is the computability of a function. For
giving a precise meaning to this concept, and to the related concept of algorithm, several models of
computation have been introduced, the old ones being general recursive functions, lambda calculus
and Turing machine. The fundamental theorem of computability theory is that these three models
of computation define the same set of computable functions, and that all the other models of
computation that have ever been proposed define the same set of computable functions or a
smaller one. The Church–Turing thesis is the claim that every philosophically acceptable definition

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smaller one. The Church Turing thesis is the claim that every philosophically acceptable definition
of a computable function defines also the same functions.

General recursive functions are partial functions from integers to integers that can be defined from

constant functions,
successor, and
projection functions

via the operators

composition,
primitive recursion, and
minimization.

Although defined only for functions from integers to integers, they can model any computable
function as a consequence of the following properties:

a computation is the manipulation of finite sequences of symbols (digits of numbers, formulas,

...),
every sequence of symbols may be coded as a sequence of bits,
a bit sequence can be interpreted as the binary representation of an integer.

Lambda calculus is a theory that defines computable functions without using set theory, and is the
theoretical background of functional programming. It consists of terms that are either variables,
function definitions (𝜆-terms), or applications of functions to terms. Terms are manipulated
through some rules, (the α-equivalence, the β-reduction, and the η-conversion), which are the
axioms of the theory and may be interpreted as rules of computation.

In its original form, lambda calculus does not include the concepts of domain and codomain of a
function. Roughly speaking, they have been introduced in the theory under the name of type in
typed lambda calculus. Most kinds of typed lambda calculi can define fewer functions than untyped
lambda calculus.

See also

Subpages
List of types of functions
List of functions
Function fitting
Implicit function

Generalizations
Higher-order function
Homomorphism
Morphism

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Morphism
Microfunction

Distribution
Functor

Related topics
Associative array
Closed-form expression
Elementary function
Functional
Functional decomposition
Functional predicate
Functional programming
Parametric equation
Set function
Simple function

Notes
1. This definition of "graph" refers to a set of pairs of objects. Graphs, in the sense of diagrams,
are most applicable to functions from the real numbers to themselves. All functions can be
described by sets of pairs but it may not be practical to construct a diagram for functions
between other sets (such as sets of matrices).
2. The true domain of such a function is often called the domain of definition of the function.
3. n may also be 1, thus subsuming functions as defined above. For n = 0, each constant is a
special case of a multivariate function, too.
4. Here "elementary" has not exactly its common sense: although most functions that are
encountered in elementary courses of mathematics are elementary in this sense, some
elementary functions are not elementary for the common sense, for example, those that involve
roots of polynomials of high degree.
5. By definition, the graph of the empty function to X is a subset of the Cartesian product ∅ × X,
and this product is empty.
6. The axiom of choice is not needed here, as the choice is done in a single set.

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&pg=PA43). Linear Algebra (3rd ed.). Springer. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-387-96412-6. "A function is
a special type of mapping, namely it is a mapping from a set into the set of numbers, i.e. into,
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ISBN 978-0-691-07927-1.
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(4th ed.). Publish or Perish. ISBN 978-0-914098-91-1.

Further reading
Anton, Howard (1980). Calculus with Analytical Geometry (https://archive.org/details/studentss
olution00anto). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-03248-9.
Bartle, Robert G. (1976). The Elements of Real Analysis (2nd ed.). Wiley.
ISBN 978-0-471-05464-1.
Dubinsky, Ed; Harel, Guershon (1992). The Concept of Function: Aspects of Epistemology and
Pedagogy. Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 978-0-88385-081-7.
Hammack, Richard (2009). "12. Functions" (https://www.people.vcu.edu/~rhammack/BookOfPr
oof/Main.pdf#page=235) (PDF). Book of Proof (https://www.people.vcu.edu/~rhammack/BookO
fProof/). Virginia Commonwealth University. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
Husch, Lawrence S. (2001). Visual Calculus (http://archives.math.utk.edu/visual.calculus/).
University of Tennessee. Retrieved 2007-09-27.
Katz, Robert (1964). Axiomatic Analysis. D. C. Heath and Company.
Kleiner, Israel (1989). "Evolution of the Function Concept: A Brief Survey". The College
Mathematics Journal. 20 (4): 282–300. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.113.6352 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.ed
u/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.113.6352). doi:10.2307/2686848 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2
686848). JSTOR 2686848 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2686848).
Lützen Jesper (2003) "Between rigor and applications: Developments in the concept of

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Function (mathematics) - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)

Lützen, Jesper (2003). Between rigor and applications: Developments in the concept of
function in mathematical analysis" (https://books.google.com/books?id=B3WvWhJTTX8C&pg=
PA468). In Porter, Roy (ed.). The Cambridge History of Science: The modern physical and
mathematical sciences. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57199-9. An
approachable and diverting historical presentation.
Malik, M. A. (1980). "Historical and pedagogical aspects of the definition of function".
International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology. 11 (4): 489–492.
doi:10.1080/0020739800110404 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0020739800110404).
Reichenbach, Hans (1947). Elements of Symbolic Logic. Dover. ISBN 0-486-24004-5.
Рутхинг, Д. (1984). „Олд Интеллигенцер: Неке дефиниције концепта функције од
Берноуллија, Јох. до Боурбаки, Н.“. Матхематицал Интеллигенцер . 6 (4): 71–78. дои :
10.1007/БФ03026743 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF03026743) . С2ЦИД 189883712 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:189883712) .
Томас, Џорџ Б.; Финнеи, Росс Л. (1995). Рачун и аналитичка геометрија (https://archive.or
g/details/calculusanalytic00geor_0) (9. изд.). Аддисон-Веслеи . ИСБН 978-0-201-53174-9.

Спољашње везе
Тхе Волфрам Фунцтионс (http://functions.wolfram.com/) – веб страница која даје формуле
и визуализације многих математичких функција
НИСТ дигитална библиотека математичких функција (https://dlmf.nist.gov/)

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