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Earth Science / Lesson 4: Dynamic Earth
Lesson 4: Dynamic Earth
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Overview
For the majority of human history, scientists thought the surface of the earth never changed.
They now know that change across the earth's surface is driven by complex geological
processes. In this lesson, you'll be introduced to plate tectonics, one of the fundamental
phenomena that drive global change.
These processes are responsible for forming nearly all aspects of the earth's landscape,
including mountains, volcanoes, the oceans, and the continents. The places where hot
magma is pushed near to the surface creates volcanoes where it erupts to the surface. The
release of built-up strain on at plate boundaries sends waves of energy through the ground as
earthquakes. You'll learn about earthquake waves and how they are studied. You'll study the
relationships between plate tectonics the formation of mountain ranges, including the
incredible Himalayas. The changes that happen as earth rearranges may be slow but they are
dramatic and unstoppable!

Objectives
Explain how scientists use data to develop the theory of plate tectonics
Describe how volcanoes form and erupt
Identify the causes of earthquakes and ways scientists predict them
Describe the creation of mountains and how mountains impact Earth's crust

Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the theory that the surface of the earth is divided into many large land
masses, called tectonic plates, and they travel over the mantle. It can explain seismic activity
as well as why different landmasses have their particular shapes and positions.
Key Takeaways
Alfred Wegener developed the theory of continental drift based on geological and paleontological data. Mountain
ranges, volcanoes, and valleys can form due to the convergence and divergence of tectonic plates.
Two converging plates form a subduction zone when one plate drops beneath another plate.
The forces that move tectonic plates are slab pull, ridge push, and drag from mantle convection. They are driven by
gravity, friction, and Earth's internal heat.
Rocks in the ocean are eventually subducted back into Earth's mantle due to gravity, with the denser plate sliding
beneath the less dense plate.

Plate tectonics is a theory that explains why the surface of the earth has its current structure.
The central idea in this theory is that the surface of the earth is divided into many large land
masses that are called tectonic plates or plates and they travel over the mantle. The mantle is
the solid layer of the earth that lies between the crust and the core. The mantle itself is
divided into different layers, and the upper part of the mantle, combined with the earth's crust
on the surface, is called the lithosphere. Significant seismic activity, including earthquakes
and volcanoes, occurs at the boundaries between these plates. Plate tectonics can explain
seismic activity that you experience on land, as well as why different landmasses have their
particular shapes and positions. However, it also can be used to explain processes that occur
underwater, such as oceanic volcanic activity and how the seafloor spreads.
During the early twentieth century, German meteorologist Alfred Wegener developed the
theory of continental drift that would later become known as plate tectonics. Over human
timescales, landmasses don't appear to move at all, and this led to skepticism about
Wegener's theory, which wasn't widely accepted until the 1960s. However, scientists now
recognize that over tens of millions of years, the positions of the continents changed
dramatically. Plate tectonics postulates that 200 million years ago, all of the land on Earth was
confined to a single continent, which Wegener called Pangaea, a term meaning "all the earth."
This single continent began to separate around 175 million years ago, eventually creating the
current arrangement of the continents as large landmasses moved away from each other.
Some ideas that led to the development of plate tectonics were guesses. For example, the
continents appear to fit together like a puzzle, especially eastern South America and western
Africa. Several sedimentary deposits also can be found on multiple continents, as if they had
been one contiguous piece and then split apart. Wegener formulated his theory based on
paleontological and geological data. Wegener also speculated that tidal forces, the centrifugal
force from the rotation of the earth, and natural drift along a heavy crust were responsible for
the motion of tectonic plates. It wasn't until after his death that significant evidence supporting
the idea of plate tectonics was found.
External Reference(https://www.youtube.com/embed/kwfNGatxUJI)

Watch this video to learn about how the tectonic plates are able to move.
Major Tectonic Plates

This figure shows the major plates covering Earth's lithosphere. As you look over this map,
you'll notice that many of the plates are named after their corresponding continents. Plates
also form the boundaries between many of the continents and their neighboring oceans.
Later, you'll learn how the formation of subduction zones form the boundaries between the
continents and oceans. Subduction refers to how one plate may slip beneath another.
Plates of the lithosphere slide over a layer of partially molten rock, known as the
asthenosphere. Tectonic plates aren't rigidly attached to the molten rock beneath the earth's
surface. Because the plates on the crust are less dense than the mantle, tectonic plates
"float" on the crust and can collide with each other at their boundaries. It may be hard to
imagine that the earth's surface could float, but remember, the lithosphere sits on top of highly
compressed, dense rock, lubricated with liquid magma.
Plate movement is driven by both gravity and intense heat inside the earth. Hot material in the
mantle rises, and relatively cool material sinks. The rising of hot materials and sinking of cool
materials occurs in a circular motion called convection. Neighboring plates can collide or slide
along their boundaries, causing earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain formations.


There are three types of plate boundaries: convergent, divergent, and transform. A
convergent plate boundary forms when two plates move toward each other and collide.
Conversely, a divergent plate boundary refers to two plates that are moving away from each
other. Finally, a transform plate boundary refers to two plates that slide alongside each other.
The major tectonic plates consist of smaller tectonic plates, and the boundaries between them
may lie in the middle of a continent. One example is the East African Rift, where it's predicted
that millions of years from now, the continent will split apart. The boundary between two
tectonic plates also can lie underwater, and the motion of these plates is responsible for
underwater earthquakes and volcanic activity. Oceans can grow wider as volcanoes along a
centerline push the seafloor in opposing directions.

Quick Check
The rising of hot materials in the mantle and sinking of cool materials occurs in a circular
motion which is called
plate tectonics. subduction.
seafloor spreading. convection.

Mantle Convection in Plate Tectonics

Although some of the causes of plate motion are still debated, geologists accept that mantle
convection plays an important role. The earth's mantle expands as the core heats it. When
matter expands, it becomes less dense, like a hot-air balloon. The hotter, less dense portion
of the mantle near the core expands and rises. Even though the mantle is solid, over millions
of years, its contents can rotate, like hot plastic. Eventually, as the material in the mantle
cools near the surface, it becomes denser and starts sinking back toward the core, and this
process repeats. This circular flow of fluid is called a convection cell, and the flow of rock is
called mantle convection. You can see the process of convection in a boiling pot of water as
noodles flow in a circular motion. The process is the same in the earth's mantle. However,
since the mantle is made of rock that can move, it occurs at a much slower rate.
In these convection cells, the flowing movement of the mantle creates a drag force on the
plates that points along the direction of flow. As rock flows up through the asthenosphere (the
layer of the mantle that's just beneath the lithosphere), it pushes against the lithosphere.
Magma then can flow through cracks in the lithosphere and erupt through volcanoes. The
friction between the asthenosphere and the lithosphere can't move plates on its own. There
are two other important forces that are involved in the motion of tectonic plates: subduction at
the edges of plates and expansion at mid-ocean ridges, which are underwater mountain
ranges. Mid-ocean ridges may have volcanic activity and also are formed at the edges where
seafloor spreading occurs.

Quick Check
_______ provides heat to flowing magma that forms convection cells.
Subduction Earth's core
Seafloor spreading The lithosphere

Forces Involved in Plate Motion

As tectonic plates move, they can crash into each other (converge) or drift away from each
other (diverge). If the continents were originally clustered together into the supercontinent
Pangaea, something must have forced them to break into the individual continents.
Fragmentation of Pangaea can be explained by divergence over geologic timescales. If the
major plates containing the continents were diverging or moving apart over millions of years,
they could eventually separate into the arrangement you see today. However, on a sphere,
plates cannot continue to move away from each other forever. Eventually, they'll run back into
each other.
When plates converge and collide into each other, there are a number of possible outcomes.
If they hit directly, then the denser plate will subduct, meaning it will slide under the less
dense plate. This will form mountain ranges as one layer pushes the other upward. If they
collide at an angle, then they'll scrape alongside each other, causing earthquakes.
Subduction Zones
External Reference(https://www.youtube.com/embed/kl-XuekJxR4)
Continental plates need to be less dense than oceanic plates to stay above sea level. This
short video explains how continents came to be made mostly of low-density granite bedrock.
Subduction zones are boundaries where one tectonic plate slips beneath another. As the
plates can continue to converge, the top plate deforms, forming coastal mountain ranges or
valleys. Since one of the plates in the subduction zones is forced downward, the edge of the
top plate forms a continental shelf. A continental shelf is the part of the continent submerged
under the shallow part of the ocean. The lower, denser plate in a subduction zone can be
covered in water; this is why many subduction zones form the boundaries between the
continents and oceans. For example, the eastern edge of the Pacific Plate forms a subduction
zone with the boundary of the western edge of North America. There are so many volcanoes
around the eastern and western edges of the Pacific Plate that the combined boundaries are
known as the Ring of Fire.
The movement of plates at plate boundaries may create what are known as faults or fault
lines, which are cracks in the earth's lithosphere. At fault lines, plates may press hard against
each other and catch, which causes stress. When this stress is suddenly released,
earthquakes occur. The largest earthquakes on Earth also occur at the edges of the Pacific
Plate. Some recent high-magnitude earthquakes included the magnitude 9.0 earthquake in
Tōhoku, Japan in 2011, the magnitude 8.8 earthquake in Chile in February 2010 and the
magnitude 9.1 earthquake near Sumatra in December 2004.
Slab Pull and Ridge Push

Slab pull is a force that arises at the boundary of a subduction zone. Of the two plates that
form the boundary, the denser plate begins to sink beneath the less dense plate. The sinking
edge of the lower plate continues to be pulled downward by gravity. Mantle convection also
can drag the edge of the plate downward. As the edge of the plate drops, it pulls the rest of
the plate along with it, and this force is called slab pull. As the lower plate descends, it pushes
up against the upper plate at the subduction zone boundary.
Divergent plates in the oceans lead to seafloor spreading. The expansion of a tectonic plate
as it heats causes the crust to crack, which can allow magma to leak through the lithosphere
and even reach the surface of the ocean floor through volcanoes. As two plates diverge from

each other in the middle of the ocean, magma slowly flows into this gap and continues to
push against the plates. This magma eventually cools and solidifies, creating new seafloor.
This causes long ridges to form in the ocean.
The ridges that form during seafloor spreading are responsible for ridge push, which works
with gravity to cause oceans to widen, as plates move in opposite directions. As ridge
volcanoes on the ocean floor push upward, gravity pulls the expanding plates down the slope
and away from the center. Ridge push behaves like a massive landslide that pushes on the
back edge of a plate, while slab pull at the subduction zone—at the other end of the plate
thousands of miles away—pulls the whole plate along with it as it sinks.

Quick Check
Which process is related to ridge push?
Seafloor spreading Earthquakes
Subduction Mantle convection

Developing a Model of Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is based on evidence and observations.
Key Takeaways
The movements of tectonic plates can be mapped out by measuring the orientation of the magnetic fields in the
volcanic rocks emanating away from mid-ocean ridges. Friction is created when moving plates scrape against one
another at a subduction zone.
Mid-ocean ridges are underwater mountain ranges—formed from volcanoes—that push tectonic plates away from
their centers.
Oceanic trenches underwater and mountain ranges on land form subduction zones at the boundaries of tectonic
plates.

Like any theory, plate tectonics is an explanation of observations and based on evidence.
Remember, a theory is a full explanation of observations, never a wild guess. Many natural
phenomena couldn't be explained if the surface of the earth were a single, rigid land mass
that covers the mantle. Once the evidence for plate tectonics is examined, it becomes
possible to form a theory describing plate motion. There's a wealth of evidence supporting the
theory of plate tectonics.
Seafloor Spreading
If Earth's surface were truly composed of moving plates, then one would expect to find areas
where plates are diverging or converging. If so, then certain areas of Earth should exhibit
significant spreading as two plates diverge. You can see evidence of this spreading on the
seafloor. In the early twentieth century, geologists were trying to explain Wegener's original
idea of continental drift. It was understood that the shape of Eastern South America fit into the
shape of Western Africa. The rocks found on these borders were the same, just as the fossils
at these meeting points were similar on both continents. However, these observations didn't
explain the forces required to move the continents apart or explain how the South Atlantic
Ocean came to divide South America and Africa. Convection currents wouldn't have provided
enough force to push a continent around Earth because the force required is simply too large.
Shortly after World War II, submarines equipped with sonar started mapping the ocean floor. It
was quickly discovered that ridges and trenches could be found at the bottoms of the oceans,
often in the middle, between continents. Geologists realized that the old ocean floor was
being subducted back into the mantle in oceanic trenches or at the edges of continents, while
new seafloor was being created in the middle, at oceanic ridges. This helped inspire the idea
that slab pull and ridge push forces are responsible for the movement of plates. Combined
with mantle convection, these three forces together would provide enough force to move
tectonic plates. Oceanic ridges and trenches are two critical pieces of evidence that support
the theory of plate tectonics.

Magma flows to the surface of the lithosphere because of friction from mantle convection and eventually forms new seafloor as it cools. Gravity
pushes plates on the ridge downhill, and at the opposite end of the plate, gravity pulls the plate under an adjacent plate at a subduction zone.
If you want to learn more about evidence for seafloor spreading and see animations of the
process, you can watch this video on Seafloor Spreading(https://youtu.be/G4nDcczMoBw).

Quick Check
As per Wegener's theory of continental drift, the shape of Eastern South America fits into the
shape of _______
Northern Antarctica. Eastern Australia.
Western Africa. Peninsular India.

The mid-Atlantic ridge is the location at which the Eurasian Plate and the African Plate are
being pushed away from the North and South American Plates as a result of ridge push; this
widens the Atlantic Ocean. The continents that border the mid-Atlantic ridge are moving away
from each other at approximately 1 to 2 cm per year. In the Pacific Ocean, seafloor spreading
is occurring at the East Pacific Rise. The Pacific Plate forms a subduction zone with the
Philippine Plate in the East and with the North American Plate in the West. The Philippine
islands, for which the Philippine Plate is named, are located in the West Pacific. As the Pacific
Plate subducts beneath the Philippine Plate, one would expect a trench to form at this
location. The Mariana Trench, the world's largest and deepest oceanic trench, is located
northeast of the Philippines and southeast of Japan.
Plate motion can be determined using GPS measurements. To learn more about the use of
GPS to measure the motion of tectonic plates, read the article, Measuring Plate Motion with
Geodesy(https://www.e-education.psu.edu/earth520/content/l7_p7.html), from Penn State
University's Department of Geosciences.
As the oceanic plates move from ridges to trenches, they carry rocks of various ages back
into the mantle through the subduction zone. Meanwhile, rocks landlocked on the continents
never enter back into the mantle. This helps explain why rocks older than 200 million years
have never been found in the oceans. Meanwhile, rocks reaching four billion years in age can
be found on the continents. Additional evidence of seafloor spreading is the formation of
magnetic anomalies, or inconsistencies, along mid-ocean ridges. Magma contains molten iron
and other metals called ferromagnetic metals that can be easily magnetized. If you've ever
played with a magnet and iron nails, you know that iron becomes magnetic when placed near
a magnet. Essentially, the iron becomes another magnet, with north and south poles aligned
along the same direction as the magnet.
Iron is a ferromagnetic element. Ferromagnetic elements are magnetic and present in magma. (Image by W. Oelen [CC BY-SA
3.0(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons)

Earth's magnetic field isn't strong enough to magnetize solid iron, but it can magnetize molten
iron. As magma rises and enters the crust during seafloor spreading, it becomes magnetized.
Therefore, the ocean floor near mid-ocean ridges is weakly magnetized, and this
magnetization can be measured. The earth's natural magnetic field has reversed direction in
the past, at approximately two-million-year intervals. Each time the magnetic field reverses
direction, new magma that rises during seafloor spreading also reverses its magnetic
orientation. This orientation can be measured, and the volcanic rocks on the ocean floor differ
in their magnetic fields according to their distances from the mid-ocean ridge and the timing of
magnetic field reversals.
To learn more, read Evidence of Plate Tectonics(https://www.calacademy.org/explore-

science/evidence-of-plate-tectonics) from the California Academy of Sciences.
Many familiar geological phenomena can be explained by the movement of tectonic plates.
Examples include earthquakes, mountain ranges and valleys, and volcanism. So far, you've
looked at the forces involved in plate motion—these forces help give Earth its interesting
geological features. The next section will explore in more detail how these forces are involved
in volcanism.

Quick Check
Where are the Eurasian Plate and the African Plate being pushed away from the North and
South American Plates?
East Pacific Rise Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Mariana Trench Philippine Plate
Unit 4 Lesson 4 Practice

Question 1
What causes alternating layers of magnetization that run along mid-ocean ridges?
a. Continental rifting
b. Mantle convection
c. Reversal of Earth's magnetic field
d. Subduction
Question 2
_______ push and slab pull drive subduction at a convergent plate boundary.
This is an open ended question. Check your answer below.
Question 3
_______ developed the theory of continental drift based on geological and paleontological data.
Question 4
The _______ is the world's largest and deepest oceanic trench, located northeast of the Philippines and
southeast of Japan.
Question 5
The earth's crust and upper layer of the mantle are collectively called _______.
a. Pangea
b. the athenosphere
c. subduction zones
d. the lithosphere

Answers
Question 1: As Earth's magnetic field reverses, the magnetic direction of the seafloor created along mid-ocean
ridges also reverses.
Question 2: Ridge push moves a plate toward a subdiction zone, and slab pull moves a plate downward in the
subduction zone.
Question 3: Alfred Wegener developed the theory of continental drift based on geological and paleontological
data.
Question 4: The Mariana Trench is the world's largest and deepest oceanic trench, located northeast of the
Philippines and southeast of Japan.
Question 5: The earth's crust and upper layer of the mantle are collectively called the lithosphere; the
lithosphere is made of tectonic plates.

5. Practice: Theory of Plate Tectonics
Open Link

6. Practice: Model of Plate Tectonics
Open Link

Volcanism
Volcanic activity is related to the cycling of energy and matter within Earth.
Key Takeaways
Different types of lava produce different types of volcanic eruptions. Some volcanoes produce pyroclastic flows,
which are a mixture of gases, ash, lava, and pumice rocks that move at very high speed down volcanic slopes
Most volcanic activity arises at convergent or divergent boundaries between tectonic plates. Some volcanic activity
occurs within a tectonic plate at hot spots.
Hotspot volcanism does not happen at plate boundaries, and is responsible for the formation of many island chains.

Magma is liquid (melted) rock beneath the earth's surface, and when it reaches the earth's
surface, it's called lava. A volcano can be loosely defined as any location where magma has
erupted. Volcanoes can erupt underwater or on land. Oceanic volcanic activity is responsible
for ridge push and seafloor spreading. When two plates diverge, the boundary between them
fills with magma from the asthenosphere. This leads to the formation of new layers of ocean
floor and mid-ocean ridges as lava cools and solidifies underwater. Magma also can leak
through cracks in the lithosphere farther away from mid-ocean ridges or farther inland on the
continents.
Magma also can reach the surface in other ways, flowing through cracks and conduits
beneath the surface, eventually erupting and spilling out as lava. In addition to moving
through the boundary between diverging plates, magma can reach the surface through
subduction zones under certain conditions. Magma also reaches the surface through hot
spots below the lithosphere. Lava and magma also can solidify above or below ground,
forming a number of interesting features, such as cinder cones, stratovolcanoes, lava tubes,
and lava domes.
All volcanic activity can be linked back to the heat generated in Earth's core. This creates the
driving force that pushes magma up to the surface, eventually resulting in volcanic eruptions.
Subduction then returns the crust back into Earth's interior. As long as Earth's core remains
hot, this process will repeat itself.
Structure of a Volcano

Each active volcano (a volcano that has erupted and will again) is situated above a magma
chamber, where magma accumulates and may build up pressure. However, magma can't
reach the surface unless there's a conduit to take it there. This conduit may be in the form of
long fissures, or cracks, or as a single tube to the surface. At the top of the conduit is a vent,
where lava and gases leak from the volcano. Explosions from a volcano can form a crater at
the top, around the vent. As lava from repeated eruptions solidifies around the edge of the
vent, a cone may form that rises high above the surrounding landscape.

Crater Lake is a lake filling a 5 mile wide caldera in Oregon, with a cone from the volcano protruding from the water. (Image by Dagmara Mach
[CC BY-SA 4.0(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)], via Wikimedia Commons)
Volcanoes sometimes can erupt with enormous explosions that expel so much material that
they form a caldera: a volcanic depression that's much larger than the volcanic vents within it.
The vents fill up with leftover remnants from the original volcano, forming a massive crater.
This usually occurs if the magma chamber beneath the volcano empties during an explosive
eruption, and the interior of the volcano can no longer support the weight of the mountain
above it. What's left of the mountain then collapses in on itself, but the remaining fractured
rock can still act as a vent for lava or gases. This collapse doesn't always happen all at once;
it may occur over time and after several eruptions. The world's largest caldera can be found in
Crater Lake, Oregon.

Quick Check
Where is an active volcano situated?
Over a layer of magma Below a bedrock
On layers of lava Above a magma chamber

Types of Volcanoes
There are three main types of volcanoes: shield volcanoes, composite volcanoes, and
fissures.


Shield volcanoes spread out over a broad area and have a gentle slope. They're relatively
short, flat volcanoes that form from repeated lava flows at hot spots, which will be discussed
later in this section. These volcanoes erupt frequently, with lava repeatedly exiting through the
vent and solidifying as it runs down a slope. The lava released from shield volcanoes has low
viscosity; this means its consistency is like that of honey as opposed to, say, peanut butter. It
flows quickly down the slope, eventually solidifying far from the vent. As a result, the cone
shape that people commonly associate with volcanoes doesn't form. Eruptions from a shield
volcano aren't violent or explosive. However, if water accumulates in the vent, it can quickly
turn to steam when mixed with lava. This steam quickly shoots out of the vent, causing a
mildly explosive eruption. A prime example of this type of volcano is Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
Lava flowing from Mauna Loa during its 1984 eruption.
Composite volcanoes are very steep and made up of alternating layers of solidified lava and
ash. The cones of these volcanoes are larger than the mounds on shield volcanoes.
Composite volcanoes form at convergent plate boundaries. Magma, mixed with large
amounts of water, rises up from the underlying magma chamber. This magma also contains a
large amount of gas that builds up pressure and can release slowly or explosively. The water
and gas content in this magma results in explosive eruptions that put off large amounts of ash
and rock as well as lava. Composite volcanoes can produce pyroclastic debris. This includes
volcanic material ejected during an explosive eruption and can range from ash and pebbles to
rocks and boulders made of lava. The lava produced from these volcanoes tends to be highly
viscous and doesn't easily flow down a slope. This causes these volcanoes to grow upward
rather than expanding outward like shield volcanoes. Composite volcanoes also can have
side channels called branch pipes that produce lava during an eruption.
There are different kinds of composite volcanoes. One particular type is the ash-cinder
volcano. This type rises quite high above the landscape and produces very viscous lava. Ash-
cinder volcanoes form from alternating layers of very fine ash and lava. The ash in these
volcanoes accumulates and becomes compacted over time. An example of the ash-cinder
volcano is Mount Rainier in Washington.

Mount Ranier in Washington(Image by Stan Shebs [CC BY-SA 3.0(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons)
Fissures aren't what you would typically envision when you think of volcanoes. Fissures are
cracks on the surface that may be only a few meters wide while sometimes running for
kilometers. Magma from the underlying magma chamber flows upward through cracks in the
crust, eventually reaching the surface. Lava that spills from these cracks has low viscosity
and quickly flows out over a broad area, similar to lava from a shield volcano. Eruptions from
fissures aren't explosive, and lava flows from fissures without a large buildup of gases. The
Deccan Traps in central India and the Icelandic Shield are two examples of fissure volcanoes.
The Deccan Traps in India (Image by Planet Labs, Inc [CC BY-SA 4.0(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)], via Wikimedia
Commons)

Cycling of Energy and Matter

By now, it should be clear to you that hot magma from the earth's interior is the source of
volcanism. But what makes magma hot in the first place? There are three sources of heat that
give the core its high temperature:
Residual heat remaining from when the earth formed. The earth was formed by the smashing together of rocks, and
all of these collisions produced heat. This heat from over 4.5 billion years ago has remained within the core, though
it's very slowly being lost.
Frictional heating due to denser mantle material sinking back toward the core.
The decay of radioactive elements in the earth's core generating heat.
Of these three mechanisms, radioactive decay, which is the process used in nuclear power
plants to generate heat (then turned into electricity), accounts for about half of the heat
produced from the earth's core. The friction caused by layers scraping against one another is
another source of heat. This movement is the result of mantle material near the core being
heated to high temperature, which decreases its density and causes it to rise up toward the
surface. Once this flowing material nears the surface, it cools and becomes denser. This
dense material moves back down toward the core and becomes heated, starting the process
over again. The repeated heating and cooling of material creates convection currents that
contribute to plate tectonics, as you learned earlier, and also volcanism.
As volcanoes erupt, some of the material from Earth's interior is deposited on the surface.
One might expect, then, that the mass inside Earth would gradually reduce over time.
However, one of the plates in a subduction zone is constantly sliding back into Earth's interior.
This plate eventually melts back into molten material and becomes part of the asthenosphere,
the layer of mantle immediately below the lithosphere. Volcanism and subduction form a
cyclical process that's driven by the heat retained and regenerated in Earth's core.

Quick Check
Which of the following contributes to explosive volcanic eruptions from a composite volcano?
Caldera formation Gas buildup in a volcano
Magma release Dike formation in a cone

Types of Lava
If you examine the chemical composition of lava, you'll find many important characteristic
differences that determine how lava flows and how volcanoes erupt.
You can see images and detailed descriptions of different types of lava flows at Sand Atlas.
(http://www.sandatlas.org/types-lava-flows/)
The important components of lava include

ferromagnetic metals
silica (SiO2)
volatile gases.
Ferromagnetic metals affect the magnetic anomalies that form around mid-ocean ridges.
Silica and volatile gases tend to accumulate in lava together; lava with a higher silica content
tends to have higher volatile gas content. Other metals such as magnesium, calcium,
aluminum, and titanium are present in smaller quantities.
Silica is primarily responsible for determining the viscosity of lava, and viscosity determines
how fast lava flows. Lava with low viscosity flows quickly, while lava with high viscosity flows
slowly. Lava with greater silica content has higher viscosity. Since viscosity and gas content
determine so much of how volcanoes behave, it's useful to measure silica content to classify
lava.
Mafic lava has low silica content (less than approximately 55 percent)
Felsic magma has higher silica content (more than approximately 65 percent).
In intermediate magma, the silica content lies between these two values. This type of lava displays the behavior of
both types of lava.
To learn more about magma and magma formation, read Section

3.2(https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/3-2-magma-and-magma-formation/) in Physical
Geology.
Causes of Explosive Eruptions

Explosive eruptions can occur at openings in the surface of the earth's crust above magma
chambers. As pressurized magma rises, it can leak through cracks at the surface as long as
its viscosity is low enough. This type of eruption doesn't produce the massive explosions that
create pyroclastic flows; lava can easily exit the volcano and begin flowing, and the outflow of
lava releases pressure on the system. However, when the gas content in the lava is high,
which usually is true of viscous, silica-rich lava, the eruption can become somewhat explosive
as these gases escape. This also can occur if water accumulates in the vent before the
eruption.
When magma builds up inside a volcano, gases can escape from the magma but remain
trapped, accumulating inside the volcano. This slow buildup of gases inside the volcano
creates a high amount of pressure, similar to the pressure that builds within a can of soda
when it's shaken. Over time, if the pressure isn't released, it can become too great for
containment, and the volcano explodes. In addition to expelling lava, the volcano can expel
large amounts of rock and ash. The large buildup of gases can cause earthquakes, which can
then cause an eruption. These earthquakes are measured by seismologists to help predict
dangerous eruptions and explosions.
Pyroclastic Flows

The eruption of Mount St. Helens
Pyroclastic flows refer to a mixture of gases, ash, lava, and pumice rocks that move at very
high speed down volcanic slopes. Large, violent pyroclastic flows are extremely dangerous
and typically flow into valleys at the bases of volcanoes, where people often live. A pyroclastic
flow consists of two portions. First, there's a cloud of ash and gases that flows through the air.
The second, lower portion of the flow consists of rocks, lava, and heavier ash that runs along
the ground. This flow of debris can be very hot (up to 1,300°F), possibly destroying buildings

and uprooting vegetation before it settles. Ash falling from the cloud layer and groupings of
loose rock can accumulate over a broad area. A recent example of a volcanic eruption that
produced a large pyroclastic flow was the Mount St. Helens eruption in 1980.
There must be some force that pushes all this matter out of the interior of a volcano and down
its slope. Violent pyroclastic flows are driven by the buildup of gases within a volcano. Once
the pressure inside the volcano reaches a breaking point, the resulting explosive eruption
releases large amounts of gas and ash in addition to boulders and smaller amounts of lava.
The material that's ejected during the eruption is typically already dense. As this material
moves upward, it starts to cool, and the density increases further. This reduces the buoyancy
of the material. It falls back toward the slope and starts flowing down the edge of the volcano.
Watch footage of the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption to learn more about pyroclastic flows.
External Reference(https://www.youtube.com/embed/AYla6q3is6w)

Intrusive and Extrusive Rocks and Landforms
Intrusive features are formed when magma cools and solidifies below Earth's surface, and
extrusive features form when lava cools on the surface of Earth.
Key Takeaways
The slower a material cools, the larger the mineral crystals that form in the igneous rock.
Intrusive rock is much slower to cool and generally contain large crystals. Extrusive rocks are formed from lava at
Earth's surface or underwater. This rock cools very quickly, resulting in generally small crystals.
An intrusive feature can become visible at the surface if it is exposed by prolonged erosion.
Many extrusive landforms result from solidified lava from eruptions or lava flows.

Depending on where melted rock cools, certain features can form in the landscape near the
site of volcanic activity. Two terms are used to describe igneous rock that forms as liquid rock
cools and eventually solidifies. When magma cools and solidifies below the earth's surface, it
forms intrusive features. Extrusive features form when lava cools on the surface.
Intrusive rock is much slower to cool: Thermal energy leaves the hot magma very slowly
because it's insulated underground. As a result, igneous rocks generally contain larger
mineral crystals. Crystals are produced when solid materials come out as solution in a liquid,
with their atoms lining up in a highly regular structure. The slower a material cools, the larger
the crystals. In contrast, extrusive rocks are formed from lava at the earth's surface or
underwater. This rock cools very quickly, resulting in generally smaller mineral crystals. In
some cases, extrusive rocks don't crystallize at all and instead form obsidian, or natural,
glass. Intrusive and extrusive rocks may have identical chemical compositions and differ only
on the sizes of their mineral crystals. Magma may contain a large amount of volatile gases as
it rises to the surface and cools, and this affects the consistency of extrusive rocks that form
as the magma cools. Bubbles can form in these rocks as they cool; some examples of these
rocks include scoria, rhyolite, andesite, pumice, and vesicular basalt.
Intrusive Landforms
Magma can cool into different landforms as it moves upward through the crust and might
solidify before it reaches the earth's surface. An intrusive feature can become visible at the
surface if it's exposed by prolonged erosion.
Deep beneath the surface, batholiths are large bodies of intrusive, igneous rock that form
near large magma pools. These granitic deposits of rock appear on the surface only after
erosion removes the overlying materials. Batholiths also can form the cores of huge
mountains, and prolonged surface erosion may expose these batholiths to the surface.
Devil's Tower in Black Hills, Wyoming, is one example of a laccolith that's visible at the earth's surface.

As magma is forced upward, it can travel through vertical cracks in the crust, spreading out
and pushing up an overlying layer and creating a dome. As the magma cools and solidifies, it
creates a rock formation called a laccolith. Just like batholiths, laccoliths can be seen only
after significant erosion exposes them at the surface. The Karnataka plateau in India is
spotted with dome hills of granite; these are examples of laccoliths and batholiths. Magma
can travel horizontally through cracks in the crust and solidify. These rock deposits, when they
form in long, horizontal shafts, are called sills. When horizontally flowing magma solidifies into
a saucer shape, it's called a lapolith.
Another prominent intrusive landform is called a dike. Dikes are like the blood vessels of a
volcano and are pathways of rising magma. A dike is usually a wall-like structure that moves
between older rocks or sediments. Most dikes can be described as fractures into which
magma intrudes or from which magma might erupt. Dikes can remain underground or become
exposed at the surface as a result of erosion, as is the case with other intrusive landforms.

Quick Check
What are large bodies of intrusive, igneous rock that form near large magma pools present
deep beneath the surface called?
Laccolith Lapolith
Batholith Monolith

Extrusive Landforms
Volcanoes themselves can be thought of as extrusive landforms. Two examples of extrusive
landforms are shield volcanoes that form out of repeated lava flows and composite volcanoes
that are made up of layers of ash and rock. Geysers and hot springs are other extrusive
landforms that result from volcanism.
Many other extrusive landforms result from solidified lava. In addition to extrusive rocks that
form from eruptions, extrusive landforms can form from lava flows. An excellent example of a
large-scale extrusive landform is a volcanic plateau, such as the one formed in Laki, Iceland,
by fissure eruptions. When highly fluid lava erupts from an active volcano, it can run along the
surface and slowly solidify. Low-viscosity lava is able to flow over long distances, creating flat
landscapes. The eruptions that cause these features are rather calm and don't produce
violent explosions because the lava is low in both gas and silica. This lava flows evenly out of
open vents. There are two types of volcanic plateaus: lava plateaus and pyroclastic plateaus.
Lava plateaus form over time from consecutive eruptions of lava with high basalt content.
When people refer to volcanic plateaus, they're generally referring to lava plateaus. The lack
of any ash, gases, or other rock fragments allows lava plateaus a relative smoothness once
they solidify. Similarly, pyroclastic plateaus form from huge pyroclastic flows. As a pyroclastic
flow passes over a flat surface, some of the pyroclastic material remains deposited in a flat
area, where it eventually settles. The pyroclastic flow contains a large amount of ash, rock
fragments, and lava all mixed together. As lava flows over the surface of this debris, the ash
and rock fragments that had been deposited on the surface earlier become trapped as the
lava solidifies over it.
Basalt columns can form from very thick lava flows. These basalt columns are near Vik, Iceland.
Lava plateaus that form from flowing lava can be very thick. A particular feature known as
basalt columns may form from very thick lava flows. As these thick flows pass over a flat
surface, they tend to form jagged, hexagonal columns as they cool. The exact mechanism
that causes these columns to have hexagonal or polygonal shapes is still debated by

geologists and geophysicists. What's known is that these columns form when the lava cools
down very quickly. Once the temperature of the lava drops and the lava starts to solidify, it
contracts, as solids generally do. This contraction tends to occur quickly near the top of
basaltic lava flows that are exposed to air. The rapid cooling and contraction cause the lava
flow to crack. These cracks spread downward to the base of the solidified basalt, forming
basalt columns.
This is a block of tephra at Brown Bluff, Tabarin Peninsula and Antarctic Peninsula. (Image by Andrew Shiva [CC BY-SA
Another type of extrusive landform is called a tephra deposit. Some volcanic eruptions
produce significant amounts of ash and fine rocks that remain airborne for a significant period
of time, traveling far from the volcano. This ash and rocky material eventually falls to the
ground and can accumulate in some areas. If left undisturbed, these deposits can become
very large. For example, the United States Geological Survey reports tephra deposits
reaching up to 36 feet in depth at the summit of Kilauea in Hawaii. Over time, tephra becomes
compacted and tough, though its exact color and composition are unique to the volcano from
which it erupts.
To learn more about intrusive, igneous bodies, read Section

3.5(https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/3-5-intrusive-igneous-bodies/) in Physical Geology.

Quick Check
Which of the following is an example of an extrusive landform?
Dike Tephra deposit
Batholith Sills

Major Zones of Volcanism
The movement of tectonic plates, particularly during plate divergence and convergence, is the
primary cause of volcanic activity.
Key Takeaways
Volcanism at the boundaries of tectonic plates accounts for most of the volcanic activity on Earth.
Volcanism at hotspots is unique because it does not occur at the boundaries of tectonic plates. Instead, it occurs
because of abnormally hot areas known as mantle plumes.
Earthquakes often occur in the same regions where volcanoes form. When a volcano erupts, rising magma creates
pressure against Earth's crust as it forces its way upward, which often triggers earthquakes.

The motion of tectonic plates, particularly during plate divergence and convergence, is the
primary cause of volcanic activity. Volcanoes mostly form in three major locations on the
earth's surface:
1. Convergent plate boundaries (subduction zones)
2. Divergent plate boundaries
3. Hot spots below tectonic plates
Volcanism at Plate Boundaries

Volcanism at the boundaries of tectonic plates accounts for most of the volcanic activity on
Earth. Volcanic activity can also occur farther inland from the edges of tectonic plates, but this
isn't common. Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming and Montana is an example of inland
volcanic activity.
Volcanism between Converging Oceanic and Continental Plates

Earlier, you learned that two plates that converge are capable of producing volcanic activity,
especially when a subduction zone forms. Chains of active volcanoes tend to be found near
oceanic trenches and along the edges of the continents. The Ring of Fire along the edge of
the Pacific Ocean is a perfect example of this type of volcanism. If the densities of two plates
vary widely from each other, the two mechanisms causing volcanism will depend on whether
the plates are converging or diverging.
When two oceanic plates converge, or when continental and oceanic plates converge, the
denser plate will sink and form a subduction zone. When an underwater plate converges with
a continental plate, the underwater plate will subduct because it tends to be cooler and
denser than the continental plate. A subducting oceanic plate carries water with it as it sinks.
Once this plate sinks deep enough, usually about 100 km, the high temperature and pressure
in the asthenosphere cause the trapped water to heat up and expand. Then, the subducting
plate starts to release trapped water and other gases. These gases move upward, resulting in
many chemical reactions that cause the mantle above the subducting plate to melt. The
mantle melts into magma, and this fresh magma makes its way toward the surface. Most of
the magma solidifies in huge magma chambers far below the earth's surface. Large, intrusive
rock bodies form into the backbones of mountain ranges via this process. Some of this molten
rock can break through cracks below the surface. This releases pressure built up in the gas-
rich magma chambers below, and gases, lava, and ash can explode from the breached
surface if the pressure is high enough. Over time, multiple layers of erupting lava and ash
accumulate and form volcanic mountains on the surface.
Subduction is responsible for the landscape seen on the West Coast of the United States. Off
the coast of California and Oregon, the Juan de Fuca Plate is subducting below the North
American Plate. Along the boundary of this subduction zone, intrusive rocks below the
surface are partially responsible for forming the Sierra Nevada Mountains in northern
California.

Shown here are the outlines of the Juan de Fuca Plate and the San Andreas Fault on the West Coast of the United States. The orange line
extending southward from the plate forms the San Andreas Fault.
Along the southern border of the Juan de Fuca Plate lies the San Andreas Fault. The San
Andreas Fault is a transform plate boundary. As the Juan de Fuca Plate continues
subducting, stress builds up along the southern boundary and along the San Andreas Fault.
Eventually, this stress builds up until it's suddenly released, resulting in very energetic
earthquakes. Historic earthquakes have occurred at this fault, including, in 1992, one of the
strongest earthquakes in California.
Diverging Plate Volcanism

Remember that the movement of an oceanic plate from a mid-ocean ridge is caused by ridge
push. Ridge push is generated from volcanic activity, and ridge push and slab pull are
interrelated and assist each other. As molten rock rises from the mantle and slowly solidifies,
the release of thermal energy into the ocean causes the temperature of magma forming the
new seafloor to drop. As a result, the density of the seafloor increases, and the edge of the
plate farthest from the mid-ocean ridge has higher density. In other words, the plate is colder
and denser farther from the ridge that created it. If the far end of the plate forms a subduction
zone, the high density of the plate causes it to sink into the subduction zone. In essence, the
reduced buoyancy of the denser plate causes it to sink into the subduction zone as it collides
with another, less dense plate.
When two tectonic plates are diverging, magma can flow through the upper mantle and fill in
the space between the two plates. Mid-ocean ridges are the most typical example of this type
of volcanism, but this process also can occur at continental rifts. It's still unclear whether the
magma itself forces the plates to move apart or whether the magma naturally flows into this
empty space. Most likely, the two processes operate simultaneously.

With the exception of those beneath Iceland, most divergent plate boundaries are underwater.
Divergent plate boundaries on land can form a rift valley, and volcanism can occur in these
areas as magma rises to fill in the gaps between the diverging plates. Some examples are the
Rio Grande rift in New Mexico and the East Africa rift in Kenya and Ethiopia. Volcanism in
these areas follows a similar process to that which occurs underwater. Magma in the
asthenosphere is under very high pressure, and as a pressurized liquid, it naturally flows into
the gaps between divergent plates.
Magma in convection cells pushes against a plate, creating pressure against the bottom of the crust. Here, a rift valley forms in the crust, and
volcanoes are active in the rift valley.
Learn more about divergent boundaries around the

world(https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/rift-valley ) from National Geographic
Education.

Quick Check
Which of the following is not a correct location for volcanism?
Subduction zone Tectonic hotspot
Divergent plate boundary Continental shoreline

Hot-Spot Volcanism
One interesting geographic feature that can form as a result of mantle convection is a hot
spot. Volcanism at hot spots is unique because it doesn't occur at the boundaries of tectonic
plates, which is where all other volcanism occurs. Instead, it occurs because of abnormally
hot areas known as mantle plumes. Mantle plumes form near the boundary of adjacent
convection cells. Magma at the top of the plume collides with the edge of the lithosphere,
where the magma flows very slowly along the bottom of the lithosphere. This flowing manga
heats up the plate from below, causing partial melting and causing the plate to expand.
Magma in a mantle plume also applies significant pressure against the plate. This expansion
and pressure can cause new cracks to form, and magma can flow upward through these
cracks. Magma also can flow through existing cracks in the plate due to the pressure
difference between the hot magma beneath the plate and the pressure at the surface.
Hot spot volcanism can occur underwater and is responsible for the formation of many island chains, such as the islands of Hawaii.
These hot spots can arise away from the plate boundary and cause inland volcanoes to form.
Hot-spot volcanism may also occur underwater and is responsible for the formation of many
island chains. As a plate continues to move due to slab pull and ridge push, magma
periodically erupts from the hot spot. When these eruptions occur underwater, magma
solidifies after the eruption and slowly builds up into an island. A chain of islands can form
after repeated eruptions as the plate continues to move. The initial hot spot continues moving
along with the plate, and later eruptions cause new islands to form. The Hawaiian Islands,
Galapagos Islands, and the Aleutian Islands are all examples of volcanic islands that formed
from erupting hot spots.
External Reference(https://www.youtube.com/embed/LdlEufZop-Y)
Hawaii is a great example of islands formed by Hot-Spot volcanism. Watch this video to learn
how the Hawaiian islands formed.

Quick Check
What causes hot spot volcanism?
Subduction Mantle convection
Mantle plumes Pyroclastic flows

Earthquakes and Volcanoes

Earthquakes often occur in the same regions where volcanoes form, and the two phenomena
are sometimes linked. When a volcano erupts, rising magma creates pressure against the
earth's crust as it forces its way upward. This often triggers earthquakes near volcanoes.
Similarly, earthquakes can trigger volcanic activity by releasing pressure that accumulates
inside a volcano.
The cycle of energy and matter in the earth's interior and on the surface is the cause of
volcanic activity. Volcanism is intimately related to the motion of tectonic plates and the flow of
magma within the earth. As you'll learn in the next section, this activity under and at the
earth's surface is responsible for earthquakes.
See where volcanoes are around the world and locations that are currently erupting, as well
as photo and video galleries of eruptions at the Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism
Program(https://volcano.si.edu/ ).

Question 1
_______ accumulating inside the vent can cause an explosive eruption from a shield volcano.
Question 2
Many island chains were formed as a result of _______ volcanism.
Question 3
What's formed if the magma chamber beneath a volcano empties during an explosive eruption, and the interior of
the volcano can no longer support the weight of the mountain above it?
a. Conduit
b. Crater
c. Caldera
d. Cinder cones
Question 4
In the event of two oceanic plates converging, the denser plate will sink and form a _______.
Question 5
The Karnataka _______ in India is spotted with domed, granite hills; these are examples of laccoliths and batholiths.
Answers
Question 1: If water accumulates inside the vent, it quickly turns into steam when mixed with magma. The steam
shoots out from the vent, causing magma to fly into the air.
Question 2: Many island chains were formed as a result of hotspot volcanism.

Question 3: A caldera is a large depression formed when a volcano erupts and collapses. This usually occurs if the
interior of the volcano can no longer support the weight of the mountain above it.
Question 4: In the event of two oceanic plates converging, the denser plate will sink and form a subduction zone.
Question 5: The Karnataka _______ in India is spotted with domed, granite hills; these are examples of laccoliths
and batholiths.

10. Practice: Understanding Volcanoes
Open Link

11. Practice: Volcanism and the Major Zones
Open Link

Earthquakes
Earthquakes arise due to the movement of tectonic plates and can co-occur with volcanism.
The precise time of an earthquake is impossible to predict. However, a rough time frame for
the earthquake's probability can be forecasted based on seismic data from the past.
Key Takeaways
Earthquakes occur most often at the boundaries between tectonic plates. Specific areas known as seismic belts are
centers of high seismic activity at plate boundaries.
Faults are breaks in the earth's crust caused by stress. The three types of faults are normal, strike-slip, and thrust
faults.
The motion of tectonic plates creates stress at a fault. An earthquake occurs when strain at the fault is released.

In addition to volcanism, plate tectonics plays an important role in earthquakes as well. These
catastrophic events arise directly from the motion of tectonic plates and can co-occur with
volcanism. The precise time an earthquake will hit is impossible to predict, but a rough
timeframe for the earthquake's probability can be forecasted based on seismic data from the
past. In other words, scientists can know when an earthquake is likely to occur but not exactly
when it will occur. Learning more about the causes of earthquakes helps scientists better
forecast their occurrence and protects earthquake-prone areas from damage through building
standards.
Causes of Earthquakes
Earthquakes occur along specific geological features called fault lines or faults. Faults form in
the earth's crust as a result of stress. They're typically found at the boundaries of converging
or diverging tectonic plates, although these aren't their only points of origin. The term fault is a
general term that refers to a break in the earth's crust. A fault can arise from two tectonic
plates converging or sliding against each other, while large sections of rock break near the
surface in response. Some faults at the boundaries of tectonic plates can be hundreds of
miles long.
Your study of plate motion in the previous sections focused on converging and diverging
plates, but plates also can slide against each other laterally. You may remember that these
boundaries were called transform plate boundaries. Plates that form a transform boundary
can move along each other in opposite directions along the surface. They also can move
against each other vertically. Faults move against each other in similar ways, but they aren't
confined to transform boundaries. The three principal types of faults are thrust, strike-slip, and
normal faults.
External Reference(https://www.youtube.com/embed/r5fS__4MA44)
See how all of the pieces move in normal faults, reverse faults, and strike-slip faults in this
short video.
Stress and Strain in a Fault

As tectonic plates move, their positions and direction of motion result in the three types of
faults listed above. When pieces of crust in a fault are forced to slide against one another, the
contact is anything but smooth. Each side of the fault is rough, rocky, and irregular—so,
jagged pieces from the opposing plates catch against each other and stick. While the plates
as a whole are moving at a steady speed, the areas at the fault that are stuck together build
up an accumulation of stress and energy. The longer they remain stuck, the greater the
energy of a future earthquake when the stress is finally released.
Stress and strain are directly related. The earth's crust constantly experiences forces that pull,
push, or twist it. These forces are called stress. Strain is a reaction to stress; it refers to the
deformation that arises in the crust due to an applied stress. So, a plate under stress is
strained. Think of stress as pressure, and strain as the possible reactions to that pressure.
Rock can either bend; break; or slip upward, downward, or sideways. The rock on each side
of a fault experiences strain due to stress. Here is another way to think about this: The
movement of plates sliding against each other at fault lines is the stress, and this stress
creates strain.
In general, there are four types of stress. One of them is uniform. All parts of the crust
experience some uniform stress, called lithostatic pressure. This stress comes from the
weight of rock, air, and water that lie above the crust. The deeper the rock, the greater the
lithostatic pressure. Yet this pressure is applied equally on all sides of a body of rock, which is

why it's called uniform pressure. If a rock is being pressed equally on all sides, it may
compress, but there's no place for the rock to go. The other type of stress is nonuniform, or
directed stress, called thus because the level of force is different at different points along the
rock. There are three types of nonuniform stress—tension, compression, and shear stress.
Each of these types arises at different types of faults.
Tension stress occurs when slabs of rock are pulled apart. As happens when you pull a rope from opposite ends
simultaneously, this stress creates strain. Normal faults occur when plates are pulling away from each another, and
the stress created by this motion is called tension stress.
Compression stress occurs when slabs of rock are pushing into one another. They crumple together and deform,
like cars in a head-on collision. Compression stress leads to thrust faults. Think of mountains thrusting upward as
plates collide.
Shear stress occurs when slabs of rock slide past each other in opposing directions. Press your hands together, and
push hard while moving one hand slightly upward and the other slightly downward. The strain you feel is due to
shear stress. Shear stress occurs at strike-slip faults.
A combination of these different stresses causes strain to accumulate throughout a mass of

rock. Because lithostatic pressure is uniform throughout a body of rock, it can't cause the rock
to fracture, and it can't cause a fault to slip along its boundary. However, once one of the
directed stresses becomes strong enough, this pressure can cause significant strain to build
up in one area of the fault.

Quick Check
In _______ stress of a fault, all parts of the crust receive lithostatic pressure.
shear tension
compression uniform

Specific areas known as seismic belts are centers of high seismic activity. These areas, which
lie along plate boundaries and contain many long faults, can be traced out on a map. There
are three major seismic belts. The longest and most active is the Circum-Pacific Belt, which is
the formal name for the Ring of Fire. The high amount of tectonic and seismic activity in this
area is intimately related to volcanism, earthquakes, and tsunamis in this region.
Approximately 80 percent of the world's most destructive earthquakes have occurred

somewhere along the Circum-Pacific Belt. The next largest seismic belt is the Alpide Belt.
This region includes the Himalayan Mountains as well as other major mountain ranges. It
extends along the southern edge of Europe and Asia and is the second most seismically
active region of the world. A number of plates are involved in causing the seismic activity that
occurs in this region, including the Indian, Eurasian, African, and Arabian Plates. The third
major seismic belt lies along the mid-Atlantic Ridge. Plate tectonic activity in this region
produces seafloor spreading as well as frequent earthquakes in this region.
A location of concentrated stress in a fault is called a seismogenic zone. Stress doesn't build
up outside this area, as material distant from the fault is moving uniformly with the plate.
However, at seismogenic zones, the stress that builds up becomes so large that the fault
ruptures, releasing the accumulated strain.
The strain that accumulates during deformation can force a rock to shift quickly. Strain that
accumulates in a material increases the material's potential energy, or the energy that the
material is storing due to its relative position to another object. A boulder at the top of a hill
has more potential energy than it would have at the bottom. Once the strain is released,
potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy, or the energy of motion. The rock that
makes up a fault moves violently when strain is released, causing the area where strain was
concentrated to rupture. The ground around the rupture shifts rapidly, causing seismic waves
to travel through the crust.
To visualize what happens during a rupture, think about what happens when you use your
hands to stretch a spring or rubber band. Before you pull the spring, it's in its original state,
which is low potential energy. As you pull on the spring, it stretches, or deforms, due to the
stress you apply with your hands (kinetic energy). When you let go of the ends, the spring
quickly contracts back to its original shape, which is back toward its original potential energy.
This is similar to what happens when strain is released at a fault.
Seismic waves are responsible for transferring energy from a fault up to the surface, where
you would feel the ground shaking. The amount of time required for stress to release from a
fault determines how long seismic waves are generated in the fault. As these waves travel to
the surface and vibrate the ground, they require some time to decay. The ground will continue
shaking until the strength of these waves is reduced to a low level.

Quick Check
_______ generates seismic waves in a fault, resulting in an earthquake.
Triangulation Rupture in a fault
Buildup of lithostatic pressure Subduction zone

Seismic Waves
Earthquakes originate in the hypocenter when concentrated strain is released and seismic
waves begin traveling through the crust.
Key Takeaways
There are two types of seismic waves that travel from the hypocenter during an earthquake: S and P waves. These
waves interact with each other and with Earth's surface to generate Love and Rayleigh waves.
Waves create a disturbance that can be measured. They can be classified as longitudinal and transverse waves. In
a longitudinal wave, the disturbance runs along the same direction that the wave travels (P). In contrast, the
disturbance in a transverse wave acts perpendicular to the direction in which the wave travels (S).
The interaction between S waves and Earth's surface creates Love waves. Rayleigh waves are a second type of
surface wave that result from interaction between S and P waves.

When the rock mass in a fault ruptures, the stored potential energy transforms into kinetic
energy. This transformation causes the rock mass around the fault to vibrate. The point at
which an earthquake originates is called the hypocenter. Concentrated strain is released at
the hypocenter, and seismic waves begin traveling through the crust. The hypocenter
shouldn't be confused with the epicenter, which is the point on the surface that lies directly
above the hypocenter. Vibration isn't restricted to the hypocenter, and it travels away from the
fault in waves. These waves are called P (primary) waves and S (secondary) waves. Each
type of wave causes the ground to vibrate in different ways.

Quick Check
At which point does an earthquake originate?
Hypocenter Epicenter
Pericenter Spreading center

S and P Waves
As a wave moves through space, it creates a disturbance that can be measured. Waves also
can be classified as longitudinal and transverse waves. In a longitudinal wave, the
disturbance runs along the same direction that the wave travels. P waves are longitudinal
waves. In contrast, the disturbance in a transverse wave acts perpendicular to the direction in
which the wave travels. S waves are transverse waves.
All seismic waves transmit a pressure disturbance, which deforms the surrounding rock.
Since P waves cause a mechanical disturbance, they compress and stretch the rock along
the direction they travel. In contrast, S waves create shear stress in the surrounding rock and
don't cause the rock to deform. Instead, as an S wave travels toward the surface, it forces the
rock to vibrate back and forth. As waves leave the hypocenter, they cause the ground around
the hypocenter to start vibrating as the waves travel. Note that S waves can only travel
through solids, not liquids or the gaseous atmosphere. P waves can travel through both solids
and fluids. P waves travel between 1 and 14 km/s, depending on the composition of rock in
the environment. S waves are slower and travel between 1 and 8 km/s. This means that P
waves are felt first during an earthquake, and S waves arrive slightly later.
In addition to speed, all waves have two important properties that determine their behavior.
The first is frequency—this defines how many vibrations per second as measured in Hertz
(Hz). The second is amplitude, which describes the strength of the wave. Units of amplitude
depend on the type of disturbance. In a seismic wave, the amplitude quantifies the pressure
that the wave exerts on surrounding rock. The frequencies of seismic waves range from 1 to
100 waves per second (1–100 Hz). The amplitude of a seismic wave depends on the level of
strain built up at the fault before it ruptures.

Quick Check
_______ reach the surface first during an earthquake.
Love waves S waves
P waves Rayleigh waves

Love and Rayleigh Waves

The combination of S and P waves at the earth's surface causes the violent shaking that
occurs during an earthquake. These waves trigger two other wave-like phenomena. First, the
interaction between S waves and the earth's surface creates Love waves. When an S wave
reaches the surface, the ground vibrates, and the wave attempts to transmit its energy into
the air. However, because S waves can't travel through liquids or gases, the wave remains
confined along the surface. This type of wave causes the surface to vibrate horizontally. Love
waves also are known as surface waves because their intensity falls off very quickly below
the surface. These waves are further classified as dispersive waves. This means that their
speed and amplitude depends on the frequency at which they vibrate. The speed of
dispersive waves ranges from approximately 2 to 6 km/s.
Rayleigh waves are a second type of surface wave that results from interaction between S
and P waves. If an S wave reaches the surface and interferes with an incoming P wave, this
creates a circular pressure front that moves along the surface. Rayleigh waves travel in the
same way as water waves, and the two phenomena have the same mathematical description.
Rayleigh waves shake the ground up and down, and they're responsible for the majority of the
shaking felt during an earthquake. As is true of Love waves, the intensity of Rayleigh waves
lessens as you move deeper into the crust.
See animations of each of these type of waves on the Pacific Northwest Seismic
Network(https://pnsn.org/outreach/about-earthquakes/eq-waves ) page.

Measuring Earthquakes
Earthquakes can be measured using an instrument called a seismometer. This instrument

examines the seismic activity.
Key Takeaways
Seismic activity is measured with a seismometer, a small pendulum that responds to vibrations. A seismograph
graphs vibrations while they're happening using a small needle to create a seismogram.
All seismographs record some background vibrations that occur throughout Earth, called seismic noise.
The Richter scale calculates the magnitude of an earthquake based on the amplitude of waves recorded in a
seismogram. The Moment Magnitude is used to calculate the magnitude of an earthquake based on the movement
of the fault. These are both on a log scale, so an increase of 1 indicates a tenfold increase in strength.
Artificially generated seismic waves can be used to probe Earth's interior. In the simplest sense, scientists are able
to send seismic waves through Earth's surface and examine the waves that reflect and transmit through its various
layers.

The principal piece of equipment used to examine seismic activity is the seismometer. This
device is like a small pendulum that responds to vibrations. Most seismic stations use
seismometers that measure vibrations along north-south and east-west directions as well as
along a vertical direction. This allows station personnel to measure vibrations from Love and
Rayleigh waves simultaneously. If vibrations are only measured along one direction, it's
usually the vertical direction because this allows for recording Rayleigh wave vibrations.
Measuring the Rayleigh waves will allow most of the seismic activity to be gauged.
A seismograph records seismic waves.
A related instrument for recording the vibrations measured by a seismometer is called a

seismograph. This instrument graphs vibrations while they're happening using a small needle.
The graph itself, is called a seismogram. It shows the intensity, known as the amplitude, and
frequency of the seismic waves over time. Seismographs are equipped with electronic
sensors that translate ground motion into an electrical signal. In a mechanical seismograph,
this electrical signal is then used to drive a needle, which then records a seismogram on
paper. The electrical signal also can be displayed on an electronic screen or on a computer.
Some people have a habit of confusing seismographs and seismometers; the two names
often are used interchangeably.
All seismographs record some background vibrations that occur throughout the earth. These
background vibrations are called seismic noise. Seismic noise consists mostly of low-
frequency surface waves. Lower-frequency seismic vibrations (less than 1 Hz) are caused
primarily by ocean waves. Higher-frequency seismic noise is primarily caused by human
activities.
When the data on a seismogram changes from the background seismic noise, this indicates
that the seismograph has detected P and S waves. Since Rayleigh and Love waves are
confined at the surface, they produce very large traces on a seismogram. The peak amplitude
of these waves is normally used to determine the magnitude of an earthquake.

A Seismogram Showing the Onset of an Earthquake.

Quick Check
What is the primary cause of the lower-frequency seismic vibrations that are less than 1 Hz?
Human activities Ocean waves
Rayleigh waves P waves

Scales for Measuring Earthquakes

In 1934 Charles F. Richter developed equations and a scale for quantifying the intensity of
earthquakes. The Richter scale was used for quantifying the magnitudes of earthquakes in
California. Other scales were originally developed to be consistent with the widely-used
Richter scale. The Richter magnitude of an earthquake can be calculated from the amplitude
of waves recorded in a seismogram. Adjustments are included to compensate for the distance
between various seismographs and the epicenter of the earthquake. The original formula for
the Richter magnitude is:
A
Richter magnitude = log (
A0
)
In this formula, A is the amplitude of the seismic waves measured from seismographs during
an earthquake, and A0 is the amplitude of background seismic waves before the earthquake.
So, a Richter magnitude is based on the strength of the strongest wave divided by the
strength of the background seismic waves. Since this ratio is converted to a log scale, an
increase of 1 indicates a tenfold increase in strength. A Richter magnitude of 1.0 to 1.9 is an
extremely small earthquake that you're unlikely to feel on the surface. Millions of these tiny
earthquakes happen every year. In contrast, an earthquake with a Richter magnitude of 8 or
more causes serious damage to buildings near the epicenter. These earthquakes can also
produce landslides or tsunamis.
The Richter scale is only accurate to measure earthquakes that are local and below a certain
magnitude. So, the moment magnitude scale is now more frequently used. It is based on the
area of the fault that slipped and the average distance that the fault was displaced. The
moment magnitude is also based on a log scale, meaning that increasing by one whole
number on the scale represents an increase of ten times the amplitude of the ground motion.
Compared to a level 1 earthquake, a magnitude 2 earthquake has ten times the level of
ground shaking, a magnitude 3 earthquake has 100 times the level of ground shaking, and so
on. It has no upper limit. for very large earthquakes, moment magnitude gives the most
reliable estimate of earthquake size.
An alternative descriptive method for measuring the intensity of an earthquake is the Mercalli
intensity. This method measures the shaking at each location, to quantify the effects of an
earthquake and how it is felt. Mercalli intensities range from the Roman numerals I to X, with I
being "felt by very few people" and X being "extreme damage with strong buildings
destroyed."
Using S and P Waves to Locate Earthquakes

Since S and P waves travel at different speeds, the difference in travel times and the location
at which waves arrive can be used to trace the location of an earthquake's epicenter. Once an
earthquake occurs, the P wave will arrive at a seismic station first, followed by the S wave.
After the S wave arrives, the time interval between the arrival of the P wave and the S wave
can be used to determine the distance to the epicenter. In this calculation, it's assumed that
the seismic station measuring these waves is far enough away for the waves to travel roughly
horizontally. This requires the speeds of the S and P waves to be known in advance. Note
that if only a single seismometer is used to measure the arrival time between S and P waves,
this only tells you the distance to the epicenter, not the direction. However, if at least two other
seismometers are used to determine the distance to the epicenter, a technique called
triangulation can be used to pinpoint the exact location of the epicenter.
External Reference(https://www.youtube.com/embed/oBS7BKqHRhs)

See the triangulation process for finding the epicenter of an earthquake in action, in this
video.

Quick Check
How many seismic measurements are required to locate the epicenter of an earthquake?
At least 3 2
At least 4 1

Scientific Uses of Seismic Waves

Scientists have found a number of ways to use seismic waves to understand more about the
earth. Artificially generated seismic waves can be used to probe the earth's interior. In the
simplest sense, scientists are able to send seismic waves through the earth's surface and
examine the waves that reflect and transmit through its various layers. For example, artificially
generated seismic waves are used to search for oil and natural gas buried deep below the
earth's surface. Seismic waves are also used to understand the structure of the earth's
interior.
The behaviors of seismic waves change when they encounter different materials below the
surface. For one thing, the speed of a seismic wave changes depending on the phase of the
material (solid or liquid) through which it travels. When a wave travels through the interface
between two materials with different wave speeds, the wave reflects off of the interface.
Waves will also bend along a new direction when they pass through the interface between
two materials in a process known as refraction. As a seismic wave passes deeper into the
mantle, the density of molten material in the mantle increases, causing the seismic wave to
travel along a curved path.
Because of refraction and the fact that S waves can't travel through liquids or gases, waves
arrive at different locations on the earth's surface. There's a particular region of the surface in
which waves don't arrive, creating a seismic shadow zone. The geometric distribution and
size of a seismic shadow zone allow scientists to calculate the positions of major boundaries
between various layers in the earth's interior. Seismic shadow zones also can be used to
determine whether various layers are solid or liquid, as well as the layers' physical properties.
Seismometers and seismographs placed at different locations around the earth detect and
record the strength of seismic waves and the directions from which they travel.
To learn more about determining the earth's structure through seismology, read Section
9.1(https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/9-1-understanding-earth-through-seismology/) in
Physical Geology.

Forecasting Earthquakes
One area of geological research focuses on the factors that can be used to predict
earthquakes. Unfortunately, predicting the exact time and location of a future earthquake is
not possible.
Key Takeaways
A forecast is used to communicate the probability that an earthquake will occur in a certain area during a certain
period. Forecasts use data gathered from global seismic monitoring networks, as well as networks in smaller, high-
risk areas.
The direction and intensity of detected seismic waves can be used to determine the location of an earthquake's
epicenter.
Seismic risk refers to the death and destruction that an earthquake might cause, reflecting the interactions among
population densities, building codes, and earthquake intensities.

One area of geological research focuses on the factors that can be used to predict
earthquakes. Unfortunately, predicting the exact time and location of a future earthquake isn't
possible. The United States Geological Survey maintains its position that no earthquake can
be predicted with absolute certainty.
The challenge in predicting earthquakes comes down to measurement. Earthquakes originate

many miles beneath the ground; directly measuring the strain that accumulates in a fault
depends on remote monitoring techniques. It also requires measuring effects at the surface,
and these measurements may not accurately reflect the situation underground.
Despite the fact the exact time and location of an earthquake can't be known precisely,
earthquakes in a particular area can be forecasted. A forecast is used to communicate the
probability that an earthquake will occur in a certain area during a certain period. Forecasts
use data gathered from global seismic monitoring networks, as well as networks in smaller,
high-risk areas. Data from historical records also have been used to help forecast
earthquakes. Currently, long-term forecasts tend to be more reliable than shorter-term
forecasts.
See where Earthquakes have happened in the last 48 hours on the Seismic Monitor world
map(http://ds.iris.edu/seismon/index.phtml ) from the Incorporated Research Institutions for
Seismology
The latest methods for forecasting earthquakes use past seismic data for possible indicators
in a particular area, and scientists examine which features tend to be observed before an
earthquake. These models try to determine automatically which of these indicators are most
useful for predicting an earthquake. It has been suggested that increased radon levels,
changes in the water table, changes in the electrical properties of rocks, and the behavior of
animals can be used to forecast earthquakes. Sometimes, a series of small earthquakes will
occur before a single large earthquake. However, this doesn't always happen, and a large
earthquake can strike without any warning. A series of smaller quakes doesn't guarantee that
a larger quake will occur soon. Sometimes, smaller earthquakes are simply relieving
accumulated stress. Unfortunately, none of the factors just listed have been found to be
reliable indicators of future earthquakes. Yet progress continues. As more seismic data are
gathered and tested against observations, the models for forecasting earthquakes are
revised.
Other methods for forecasting earthquakes use data on plate and fault motion gathered from
GPS measurements. These measurements can be used to calculate the potential energy that
accumulates in a fault as a result of strain. Then, this can be used to calculate the maximum
amount of energy contained in the seismic waves that would result from an earthquake. That
allows scientists to calculate the potential magnitude of an earthquake at a particular location.
In engineering, it's possible to stress-test various materials, such as steel or concrete, with a
hydraulic press and predict precisely when they'll break. But this is only possible because the
material being tested is uniform, which is called homogeneous. Plates rubbing against one
another aren't homogeneous, and while stress can be calculated from the movements of the
plates, the strength of each plate and precisely where it's stuck can't be calculated.
If you read an official earthquake forecast, you'll find that the timeframe spans many decades.
For example, strong earthquakes along the Hayward Fault near San Francisco are forecasted
to occur approximately every 150 years, with an 80-year margin of error. The last major
earthquake in San Francisco occurred in 1868. Therefore, San Francisco is overdue for
another major earthquake. Similar forecasts apply throughout the rest of California.

To learn more about earthquakes in California, read the US Geological Survey's

forecast(https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2015/3009/pdf/fs2015-3009.pdf).

Quick Check
Which of the following is not used to forecast earthquakes?
Radon levels Weather reports
Water table Behavior of animals

Safety in Earthquake Zones

Falling or collapsing buildings are the greatest cause of injuries and death during
earthquakes. Many older buildings were constructed at a time when building codes didn't
require that structures withstand earthquakes. According to the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA), such buildings are currently the largest contributor to seismic
risk. Seismic risk refers to the death and destruction that an earthquake might cause,
reflecting the interactions among population densities, building codes, and earthquake
intensities. If buildings are sturdy, then the risk could be low, even with a strong earthquake. If
buildings are weak, the risk could be high, even for a relatively weak earthquake. The 6.3
magnitude earthquake in Christchurch, New Zealand, in 2011 destroyed 97 percent of non-
retrofitted stone and brick buildings. As a result, New Zealand enacted a national law
requiring that unreinforced buildings be retrofitted to withstand earthquakes.
In anticipation of these kinds of events, new building codes are being devised in high-risk
areas so that new buildings can be constructed to withstand large earthquakes. Just as
happened in New Zealand, other countries are passing laws that require new structures to be
built to withstand earthquakes and existing structures to be strengthened through retrofitting.
Seismic retrofitting involves reinforcing existing structures so that they can withstand severe
earthquakes. This process is designed to protect a structure from collapsing as the ground
shakes and to protect the building's foundation from collapsing as a result of soil failure.
Landslides also can completely destroy a building, so hills that are prone to landslides also
can be reinforced using retaining walls.
External Reference(https://www.youtube.com/embed/yJXjcCUpzeY?start=6)
You can learn about some potential new earthquake-proofing technologies that aren’t in use
yet, in this video.
A large earthquake that occurs beneath the seafloor can cause a tsunami. This is a large and
destructive wave of ocean water that's caused by underwater earthquakes or underwater
landslides. Tsunamis were once called "tidal waves," but this is an incorrect term. Tides are
caused by the gravitational pull of the moon, not earthquakes. In 2011, a 9.1 magnitude
earthquake caused the massive Tōhoku tsunami that struck the East Coast of Japan. This
tsunami damaged pumps and other equipment that cooled nuclear reactors at the Fukushima
Daiichi nuclear power plant. Three reactor meltdowns occurred as a result, leaking radioactive
material into the local environment. This disaster caused many countries to create and
implement tsunami warning systems on their coasts.

This memorial was placed on top of Mt. Hiyoriyama, Japan, after a deadly tsunami.(Image by ChiefHira [CC BY-SA
Perhaps the most important aspect of earthquake safety is the local population's response.
Although collapsing buildings are the greatest risk of injuries and casualties during an
earthquake, the safest place to hide in a city during an earthquake is inside a structure. As
the ground shakes, you could injure yourself from a fall while running outside. If you're outside
in an urban area during an earthquake, falling glass or other heavy debris could injure you.
If you're inside a structure during an earthquake, the safest place to hide depends on the age
of the structure. In older buildings and houses that weren't built to withstand earthquakes, the
safest place to brace yourself is within a doorway. The overhead beam in a doorway protects
you from falling debris, and the frame of the doorway is less likely to collapse than
unreinforced walls or the roof. In a newer structure that was built to comply with modern
building codes, the safest place to hide during an earthquake is under a table. An intense
earthquake can cause unseen damage to a building, causing it to eventually collapse even
after the earthquake has passed. Thus, people shouldn't re-enter high-risk buildings after an
earthquake until the buildings have been thoroughly inspected.
Earthquakes originate from the motion of tectonic plates, which in turn causes vibrations at
faults. The stress imposed by the moving plates causes strain to accumulate at certain points
within a fault. Eventually, this strain is released when the fault ruptures, generating seismic
waves. These seismic waves travel toward the earth's surface, causing the ground to shake in
different ways. These waves can be measured using seismometers and seismographs, and
seismic measurements from multiple locations can be used to pinpoint the epicenter of an
earthquake. Forecasting earthquakes is still very challenging and remains an active area of
geological research.

Quick Check
Which term refers to the death and destruction that an earthquake might cause?
Seismic retrofitting Richter magnitude
Seismic risk Building codes

Question 1
Normal, strike-slip, and thrust are different types of _______.

a. tectonic plates
b. plate boundaries
c. faults
d. batholiths
Question 2
The interaction between S waves and Earth's surface creates _______ waves.
Question 3
Strong earthquakes along the Hayward Fault near San Francisco are forecasted to occur approximately every
_______ years, with an 80-year margin of error.
Question 4
Which of the following has uniform stress?

a. Tension
b. Compression
c. Shear stress
d. Lithostatic pressure
Question 5
What can be caused by large earthquakes that occur beneath the seafloor?
a. Tsunami
b. Plate convergence

c. Plate divergence
d. Fault
Answers
Question 1: Faults can be normal, strike-slip, and thrust faults. Faults form in Earth's crust as a result of stress,
typically found at the boundaries of converging or diverging tectonic plates.
Question 2: The interaction between S waves and Earth's surface creates love waves.
Question 3: Strong earthquakes along the Hayward Fault near San Francisco are forecasted to occur
approximately every 150 years, with an 80-year margin of error.
Question 4: All parts of the crust experience some uniform stress, called lithostatic pressure. Three types of
nonuniform stress are tension, compression, and shear stress.
Question 5: Tsunamis are large and destructive waves of ocean water that are caused by underwater earthquakes
or underwater landslides.

16. Practice: Causes of Earthquakes
Open Link

17. Practice: Prediction of Earthquakes
Open Link

Plate Tectonics and Mountain Ranges
Plate tectonics is a theory that explains why the surface of Earth has its current structure.
Key Takeaways
The relationship between the crust and the mantle helps explain how and why tectonic plates move. The outermost
layer—the crust—encloses a solid inner layer of material beneath it called the mantle. Tectonic plates consist of
both crust and lithosphere.
The theory of isostasy is that the asthenosphere exerts a buoyant force that pushes up against the lithosphere. This
force resists gravity, and an equilibrium is reached.
The less dense continental plates float on the asthenosphere at a higher elevation than the denser oceanic plates.
When mass is removed from a plate, such as when glaciers melt into the ocean, removing the enormous weight of
the ice sheet from the continent, buoyancy from the asthenosphere lifts the continental lithosphere higher.

So far, you've seen how tectonic plates and their motion result in the formation of
earthquakes, volcanoes, and tsunamis. The formation of mountain ranges was mentioned
earlier, and mountain ranges will be discussed in greater detail here. As background, you'll
learn about the relationship between the mantle and the crust.
Theory of Isostasy
To understand how mountains form and rise to great heights, you'll need a deeper
understanding of the relationship between the crust and the mantle. This relationship helps
explain how and why tectonic plates move but also helps you understand the earth's
topography. As you may recall, the earth's interior consists of several layers. The outermost
layer—the crust—encloses a solid inner layer of material beneath it called the mantle. The
mantle can be divided into two sections: the upper mantle and the lower mantle. The upper
mantle contains the asthenosphere and the lithosphere. Tectonic plates consist of both crust
and lithosphere.
Cross Section of Earth's Layered Structure
Remember that the lithosphere is solid, while the asthenosphere is a layer that contains
highly viscous, molten material. The asthenosphere is viscoelastic, meaning it has the
properties of both viscous and elastic materials, much like Silly Putty. The material in the
asthenosphere is viscous and flows like water, but very slowly—in the range of centimeters
per year. However, in contrast to water, it's a solid, elastic material. This means that it can be
stretched or compressed. The fluids you're most familiar with, such as water, can't be

deformed or compressed by stress. Once the material in the asthenosphere is compressed,

either because of the weight of the lithosphere or as its temperature changes, its density
changes.
Because the solid material in the asthenosphere can flow like a liquid, it also provides a
buoyant force on the lithosphere. As gravity subducts plates in the lithosphere into the
asthenosphere, the lithosphere compresses the uppermost layers of fluid-like rock in the
asthenosphere. The asthenosphere exerts a buoyant force that pushes up against the
lithosphere, and this force resists gravity. At some point, the putty-like rock near the top of the
asthenosphere is dense enough for the buoyant force against the lithosphere to counteract
the force of gravity. This balance between buoyancy and gravity means that the lithosphere
floats on top of the asthenosphere. That's what gives tectonic plates the freedom to move
atop the asthenosphere. This idea, where a less dense lithosphere floats on a denser
asthenosphere, is called the theory of isostasy.
Isostasy describes the topography of the lithosphere. The theory of isostasy refers to an
equilibrium in buoyancy between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere. As you may recall
from the discussion of tectonic plates, the density of the lithosphere isn't the same
everywhere. Different plates have different densities, depending on the rocks contained within
each plate. Continental plates are mostly composed of granitic rock, while oceanic plates are
composed primarily of basaltic rock. Basaltic rock is denser than granitic rock, which explains
why oceanic plates are more likely to subduct under continental plates when these plates
collide.
The theory of isostasy also explains why the elevation of certain regions of the lithosphere
changes. When mass is removed from a plate, such as when glaciers melt into the ocean,
removing the enormous weight of the ice sheet from the continent, buoyancy from the
asthenosphere lifts the continental lithosphere higher. This process is called isostatic uplift.
The uplift stops and the region of the lithosphere stops rising when the region is in isostatic
equilibrium. This condition is reached when the buoyant force from the asthenosphere is
balanced by gravity. The Basin and Range Province in the western United States and the
Himalayas in Asia are two areas with changing elevation.
Watch Isostasy Video to better understand how isostasy affects the lithosphere and
asthenosphere.
External Reference(https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZXSuLCz_Ick)

Quick Check
Which theory refers to an equilibrium in buoyancy between the lithosphere and the
asthenosphere?
The theory of isostasy Plate tectonics
Wegener's theory Uniformitarianism

The difference in density also explains why continental plates have a higher elevation than
oceanic plates, meaning that they sit higher above the asthenosphere. However, if you look
within a tectonic plate, you'll find that the density isn't uniform everywhere; some areas of a
tectonic plate are less dense than other areas. This variation in density throughout a plate
means that the elevation is different in regions with different densities. This figure illustrates
the densities of tectonic plates.
This diagram shows that, depending on their mass and density, different portions of the lithosphere remain buoyant on top of the asthenosphere.
If you look at the left half of the figure, you'll see that different portions of the lithosphere with
the same mass will float at different elevations, depending on their density. Since these blocks
have the same mass, they experience the same gravitational force and will sink to the same
depth. However, these blocks have different densities. Therefore, they must have different
volumes for their masses to be equal. The less dense material will rise to a higher elevation.
Now take a look at the right half of the figure. Each of these blocks has a different mass;
therefore, the force of gravity on each block is different. The larger blocks have larger mass,
and they'll experience a larger gravitational force. As a result, they'll sink to a lower depth in
the asthenosphere before the buoyant force counteracts gravity. Different blocks will rise up to
different elevations, just as in the case with blocks of the same mass.
Two ideas from nineteenth-century scientists describe how isostasy plays a role in forming
mountain ranges. The Pratt hypothesis, named after English mathematician John Pratt,
supposes that the density of the lithosphere varies across the earth's surface, while the
thickness of the lithosphere is relatively constant. If the thickness of the lithosphere is the
same everywhere, but its density varies, then the denser areas will be heavier and sink lower
into the asthenosphere. The less dense areas will float higher. An alternative explanation was
proposed by the English mathematician George Airy. Airy's hypothesis assumes that the
density of the lithosphere is approximately the same everywhere, but different regions of the
lithosphere have different thicknesses. Later measurements of regional gravitational fields
confirmed that Airy's hypothesis is a better explanation of mountain formation on continental
plates. Pratt's hypothesis explains why continental plates must be elevated higher than
oceanic plates.
Read Section 9.4(https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/9-4-isostasy/) in Physical Geology to

learn more about isostasy.

Quick Check
_______ refers to the idea that solid portions of Earth's crust float on a fluid layer.
Orogenic processes Fault block formation
Theory of isostasy Subduction

Deformation of the Crust
Mountain ranges form via orogenic, taphrogenic, and epeirogenic processes.
Key Takeaways
An orogenic process occurs at a convergent plate boundary, while an epeirogenic process occurs throughout large
landmasses.
A taphrogenic process is the reverse of an orogenic process and results in stretching the area between diverging
plates.
An epeirogenic process involves the vertical motion of a plate which spreads deformation over a broad area. This
can cause the broad, inner portions of continents to have bulges and basins that stretch over a broad area.
When an orogenic belt forms along a continental plate, the bottom portion of the deformed region can sink down into
the asthenosphere, pulled by gravity. This increases the buoyant force on the bottom of the plate, pushing it upward
against the plate that lies on top.

Earth's crust can deform through three different processes. The first is called an orogenic
process, and it refers to the formation of mountain ranges at a convergent plate boundary.
The second is a taphrogenic process, which involves the stretching of divergent plates to form
rift valleys. Both of these processes involve deformation as a plate moves horizontally. The
third process is called an epeirogenic process and doesn't occur at a convergent plate
boundary. Instead, an epeirogenic process involves the vertical motion of a plate due to
variations occurring in the mantle below.
Orogenic processes at convergent plate boundaries result in severe deformation of rock,

causing it to bunch and buckle upward. In contrast, the vertical motion of rock during an
epeirogenic process isn't confined to the region near a convergent plate boundary. A possible
cause of this deformation is heating from mantle plumes, similar to what happens in hot-spot
volcanism.
Orogeny and Orogenic Processes

Orogeny results in the deformation of the earth's crust through lateral compression and uplift,
which results in mountain ranges. Mountain ranges form when two portions of the crust collide
head-on. This collision causes the weaker portion of the crust to deform, resulting in the
formation of a mountain range along the collision zone. Orogeny is responsible for forming
mountain ranges at or near plate boundaries. These processes can occur between two
oceanic plates, two continental plates, or an oceanic plate and a continental plate. Each of the
world's largest mountain ranges formed via orogenic processes at the boundary between two
converging plates.
Processes Involving a Continental Plate

An orogenic process can cause mountains to form at the boundary between two converging
plates, in which one of the plates is a continental plate. The collision between two plates puts
significant stress on the rock that makes up the plate, causing each plate to slowly deform as
they're pressed against each other. The stress on each plate is compressive, meaning that
the plates push against each other until one of the plates deforms.
This diagram shows how a mountain range can form as a result of convergence between two continental plates.
During this collision, a subduction zone can form if one of the plates is denser than the other.
The denser plate sinks below the lighter, less dense plate and starts moving into the mantle.
As the denser plate sinks and moves beneath the lighter plate, there's still a buoyant force
pushing up on the lower plate. This force pushes the sinking plate up against the upper

continental plate. Since the continental plate is less dense, it isn't as strong as the subducting
plate, and part of the continental plate near the boundary begins to deform. This deformation
accumulates over millions of years, causing mountains to rise on the upper plate.
During an orogenic process, very long areas of deformation form in a continental plate. These
areas, called orogenic belts, span the length of the plate boundary. They're the most obvious
evidence of crust deformation resulting from tectonic activity. Faults can form in these regions
as a result of the intense stress that accumulates over time. Not surprisingly, many significant
mountain ranges lie along orogenic belts because of the large amount of deformation in these
areas. Note that orogenic belts don't always form directly next to the boundary of a tectonic
plate. Rather, they can form far inland from the boundary. One example is the Rocky
Mountains, which formed as a result of the subduction of a number of oceanic plates beneath
the North American Plate. The boundary between the Nazca Plate, an oceanic plate, and the
South American Plate forms a subduction zone and an orogenic belt, resulting in the Andes
Mountains along the West Coast of South America.
Mountain ranges that form very close to a subduction zone are prime spots for volcanic
activity. Volcanoes are present from Alaska all the way south to Chile, dotting the entire West
Coast of North and South America. Some volcanoes along the Ring of Fire are currently
dormant, though volcanism there is still forecasted. As an example, earthquakes have struck
in the Cascadia subduction zone in the Pacific Northwest. A small orogenic belt runs along
this subduction zone, which formed the Cascade Mountain Range. Geologists have warned
that Mount Hood, one of the largest mountains in the region, is long overdue for a volcanic
eruption.
Orogenic belts also can form at the boundary of two converging continental plates. As
continental plates tend to have similar densities, subduction zones are less likely to form
when two continental plates converge. However, an orogenic belt still can form in a
continental plate regardless of whether a subduction zone forms. Mountain ranges still form
along these orogenic belts, as is the case with orogenic belts in subduction zones. A major
orogenic belt runs along the border of the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate and is
responsible for forming the Himalayas.
External Reference(https://www.youtube.com/embed/jzqnUvE66HA)
North America has been built by millions of years worth of tectonic collisions. Watch this video
to see how tectonic activity has shaped it and given it the features seen today.

Quick Check
_______ processes can form mountain ranges through deformation at a convergent plate
boundary.
Epeirogenic Isostatic
Trophogenic Orogenic

Epeirogenic Processes
The deformation produced in a plate via an orogenic process results from the horizontal
motion of tectonic plates. In contrast, an epeirogenic process involves the vertical motion of a
plate. You learned earlier that in an epeirogenic process, the deformation and vertical lifting of
rock aren't confined to the region near a convergent plate boundary. This is in contrast to an
orogenic process, which involves the severe deformation of a plate in a narrow belt due to
collisions between plates. During an epeirogenic process, the vertical movement of a plate
spreads deformation over a broad area. The broad, inner portions of continents are the
primary areas that experience epeirogenic processes. Rather than forming large mountain
ranges, this process results in bulges and basins that stretch over a broad area. Epeirogenic
processes are also related to isostasy and can cause mountains to rise or fall, depending on
the conditions occurring on the surface and beneath the crust.
As an example, a large plateau can form in the interior of a continental plate if a large section
of the plate rises evenly due to an even expansion of the underlying mantle. A mantle plume
also can cause certain areas of a plate to lift vertically as a result of localized heating. The
material in the mantle may heat and expand the lithosphere from below. Bending stress inland
from the boundary of a plate can cause the plate to deform vertically. This forms a depression
if the plate sinks, or it can form hills and terraces if the plate raises. Severe deformation from
heating also can form mountains in some areas.
The Role of Isostasy

When an orogenic belt forms along a continental plate, the bottom portion of the deformed
region can sink down into the asthenosphere, pulled by gravity. This increases the buoyant
force on the bottom of the plate, pushing it upward against the plate that lies on top. This
combination of deformation at the surface and buoyancy from the asthenosphere pushes
mountains high above the earth's surface.

Bathurst Inlet, Nunavut is an example of crustal rebound after the last Ice Age. (Image by Mike Beauregard from Nunavut, Canada [CC BY
2.0(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons)
One interesting epeirogenic process is isostatic uplift, also called crustal rebound. Mountain
faces that are exposed to wind and water can erode over time. This reduces the weight of the
mountains pushing down on the asthenosphere. As the mountains slowly erode, the bulge at
the bottom portion of the crust begins to flatten out due to upward buoyant force from the
asthenosphere. This effect also occurs in the crust from the formation and melting of glaciers.

Quick Check
_______ processes involve vertical motion of tectonic plates.
Orogenic Trophogenic
Epeirogenic Isostatic

Formation of the Himalayas
One hundred million years ago, India was an island that slowly moved north over the Indian
Ocean. Over time, the Indian Plate pushed against the Eurasian Plate and caused the latter
to deform.
Key Takeaways
The orogenic belt containing the Himalayas consists of different tectonic zones, formed as the Eurasian Plate
buckled from its collision with the Indian Plate.
Once the tension force is strong enough to cause a plate to split apart, the area at the center drops down. This
causes the formation of a continental rift.
Mountains can form on continents as a result of the same tension force that causes rifts in a continental plate. The
forces that form rifts can also form a series of normal faults, and this structure of alternating faults is called a fault
block.

One hundred million years ago, India was an island, slowly moving north in the Indian Ocean.
Eventually, the Indian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate (approximately 10 million years
ago), resulting in the formation of an orogenic belt in the Eurasian Plate. The Eurasian Plate
became deformed and eventually buckled above the Indian Plate. However, a subduction
zone didn't form at the boundary between the Indian and Eurasian Plates because their
densities were similar. Over time, the Indian Plate continued pushing against the Eurasian
Plate, causing the latter to continue deforming. This deformation along the boundary is an
orogenic belt, and this deformation can be seen from the surface as the Himalayas.
The orogenic belt containing the Himalayas consists of different tectonic zones, formed as the
Eurasian Plate buckled from its collision with the Indian Plate. The Lesser Himalayas in the
western region of that mountain range lie in one of these tectonic sections. The mountains are
covered in vegetation and don't rise as high as the major mountains in the Himalayan range.
As you move east through the mountains, there's a very abrupt transition to the Higher
Himalayan Crystalline, which is the tectonic zone that contains K2 and Mount Everest, the
highest mountains on Earth.
This map shows the tectonic regions that make up the orogenic belt along the Himalayan range. (Image from PhD thesis of Pierre Dèzes 1999,
“Tectonic and metamorphic Evolution of the Central Himalayan Domain in Southeast Zanskar (Kashmir, India)”. Mémoires de Géologie
(Lausanne) No. 32, ISSN 1015-3578 or the website(https://zanskar.geoheritage.ch/))
Given that the highest point of the Himalayas is approximately 10 km above sea level, and the
Himalayas have been growing for 10 million years, the Himalayas have been rising by about 1
cm per year. They aren't currently in isostatic equilibrium, and they're still rising. Scientists
believe that the Himalayan plateau is pushed to such high elevations as a result of erosion
and subsequent isostatic uplift. As the peaks of the Himalayas slowly erode, the collective
weight of the mountains decreases. As a result, the buoyant force from the asthenosphere
pushes the plateau to a higher elevation to balance for the loss of weight at the top. This
compensation for reduced weight, as well as the continued deformation from the Indian Plate
pushing into the Eurasian Plate, may be responsible for the continued growth of the
Himalayas.
External Reference(https://www.youtube.com/embed/uy9GFAOGGXU)
Convergent boundaries, weathering, and uplift work together to make Mount Everest and the
rest of the Himalayas so tall, and you can learn more about that in this video.

Quick Check
A subduction zone was not formed at the boundary between the Indian and Eurasian Plates
because both of the plates had similar _______
densities. speed.
composition. age.

Fault Blocks
In some cases, the forces on a continental plate cause tension to accumulate across its face
as they diverge. Once the tension force is strong enough to cause a plate to split apart, the
area at the center drops down. This causes the formation of a continental rift. An example of
this geological feature is the Great Rift Valley in eastern Africa.
Mountains can form on continents as a result of the same tension force that causes rifts in a
continental plate. These mountains don't always form near the edges of plate boundaries. The
forces that form rifts in a continental plate also can form a series of normal faults. This
structure of alternating faults is called a fault block. As tension increases at each end of the
fault block, one portion of the block moves upward while the adjacent portion moves
downward. The upper portion is called the horst, and the lower portion is called the graben.
A schematic diagram showing the structure of a fault block. The red arrows show how each section in a fault block can move and form block
mountains.
Sudden variation in the elevation of two portions of a fault block is evident in several
landforms. The large uplifting of a block may form block mountains; one example is the
Wasatch Range in Utah. The vertical motion of these fault blocks can cause the horst to tilt
slightly if tension along the crust is severe. This is evident in another example of a fault block
mountain range, the Sierra Nevada. This range has very steep slopes along one side and
gentler slopes on the opposite edge. The edge of the horst in the fault block that formed the
Sierra Nevadas can be seen in photographs taken from the International Space Station.
In contrast to the Sierra Nevada, the Wasatch Range is an example of a fault block mountain
range that did not form adjacent to the boundary of a continental plate. The Sierra Nevada
range lies along the Sierra Nevada fault system, which lies along the boundary between the
Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. However, the Wasatch Range in Utah is located
further inland and doesn't lie along a plate boundary.

You've learned about the primary mechanism responsible for a large number of geological
phenomena: plate tectonics. The forces involved in plate motion are responsible for
volcanism, mountains, and earthquakes; these phenomena are all interrelated. All of these
processes occur over geological periods. While plate motion might occur so slowly that it's
invisible during a human's lifespan, the effects of plate motion accumulate over long periods
of time and produce Earth's geological structure. Later, you'll study more processes that occur
over geological timescales and the evidence for geological time.

Quick Check
Wasatch Range in Utah is an ideal example of
Continental rift. Block mountains.
Horst. Orogenic belt.

Question 1
The continued rise of the Himalayan mountain range is due to

a. isostatic uplift and fault-block formation.
b. isostatic uplift only.
c. plate convergence.
d. isostatic uplift and plate convergence.
Question 2
Which of the following is viscoelastic in nature?

a. Asthenosphere
b. Mesosphere
c. Lithosphere
d. Stratosphere
Question 3
Which process is the reverse of an orogenic process?

a. Epeirogenic
b. Taphrogenic
c. Convergenic
d. Anthropogenic
Question 4
The theory of _______ refers to an equilibrium in buoyancy between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.
Question 5

The _______ Range is an example of a fault-block mountain range that did not form adjacent to the boundary of a
continental plate.
Answers
Question 1: Isostatic uplift and plate convergence work together to continuously make the Himalayas rise.
Question 2: The asthenosphere is viscoelastic, which means it has the properties of both viscous and elastic
materials.
Question 3: The taphrogenic process involves the stretching of divergent plates to form rift valleys. This process is
the reverse of an orogenic process.
Question 4: The theory of isostasy refers to an equilibrium in buoyancy between the lithosphere and the
asthenosphere.
Question 5: The Wasatch Range is an example of a fault-block mountain range that didn't form adjacent to the
boundary of a continental plate.

Review
Tectonic Plates
Large land masses that make up the surface of the Earth. These land masses float over the aesthenosphere.
Sea-Floor Spreading
Process that occurs in the ocean, resulting in the formation of mid-ocean ridges.
Mantle Convection
Magma in the mantle flows in circular cells due to temperature differences near the Earth's surface and near the core.
Subduction Zone
Forms when two tectonic plates converge.The denser plate sinks beneath the lighter plate and moves into the aesthenosphere.
Mid Ocean Ridges
Long mountain ridges that form along the boundary between diverging tectonic plates.
Types of Volcanoes
The three primary types of volcanoes are sheild, composite and fissure volcanoes.
Intrusive and Extrusive Features
Two types of features that can form as magma cools and solidifies.
Mantle Plumes
A stream of hot magma that flows along the boundary between two convection cells; it stagnates at the lithosphere and results in hot
spot volcanism.
Hot Spot Volcanism
Results from hot magma melting it's way through the lithosphere, eventually erupting at the surface.
Viscosity
A measure of how easily a fluid flows. Low viscosity fluids flow very easily, and vice versa.
S and P Waves
Two types of waves that cause earthquakes to spread from a fault.
Love and Rayleigh Waves
Two types of seismic waves that are confined to Earth's surface during an earthquake.
Hypocenter
The location below Earth's surface where strain is released, resulting in an earthquake.
Strain
Deformation experienced by a material under an applied stress.
Stress
Forces that are applied over a body of rock.
Lithostatic Pressure
Uniform pressure on a portion of the crust due to the weight of any rock, water or air above it.
Theory of Isostasy
States that the differences in densities throughout the lithosphere are responsible for Earth's topography.
Isostatic Equilibrium
Occurs when the gravity on the lithosphere and the buoyant force from the aesthenosphere balance each other.
Fault Block
A series of faults that raise and lower as the faults slide against each other.
Orogenic Process
A mountain building process that results from collisions between plates.

21. Practice: Formation of Mountains
Open Link

22. Practice: Mountain-forming Processes
Open Link

23. Review
Open Link

Exam: Dynamic Earth
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Earth Science / Lesson 4: Dynamic Earth

Lesson 4: Dynamic Earth

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Describe how volcanoes form and erupt

Identify the causes of earthquakes and ways scientists predict them

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Major Tectonic Plates

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plate tectonics. subduction.

seafloor spreading. convection.

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Mantle Convection in Plate Tectonics

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Subduction Earth's core

Seafloor spreading The lithosphere

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Forces Involved in Plate Motion

Slab Pull and Ridge Push

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Seafloor spreading Earthquakes

Subduction Mantle convection

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Developing a Model of Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonics is based on evidence and observations.

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Northern Antarctica. Eastern Australia.

Western Africa. Peninsular India.

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To learn more, read Evidence of Plate Tectonics(https://www.calacademy.org/explore-

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East Pacific Rise Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Mariana Trench Philippine Plate

Unit 4 Lesson 4 Practice

c. Reversal of Earth's magnetic field

This is an open ended question. Check your answer below.

This is an open ended question. Check your answer below.

This is an open ended question. Check your answer below.

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5. Practice: Theory of Plate Tectonics

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6. Practice: Model of Plate Tectonics

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Over a layer of magma Below a bedrock

On layers of lava Above a magma chamber

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Lava flowing from Mauna Loa during its 1984 eruption.