Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

Effective utilization of natural fibres (coir and jute) for sustainable

low-volume rural road construction – A critical review
Nitish Kumar a, Ramesh Kannan Kandasami a, *, Surender Singh b
a
Geotechnical Engineering Group, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
b
Transportation Engineering Group, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Geo-reinforcement is one of the most important utilities whose primary function is to mechanically enhance the
Lignocellulosic fibres strength of soil specifically engineered for the construction of geo-structures. Utilizing polymer-based geo­
Geotextiles synthetic reinforcement for various applications in pavements has been successfully used for the past few de­
Treatment
cades. However, with the growing awareness towards the environment and climate change, there is a constant
Pavements
lookout for energy-efficient and sustainable reinforcing materials for road construction. Lignocellulosic fibres are
Subgrade
sustainable and have the potential to replace synthetic reinforcing materials, especially for low-volume rural
road construction (expected commercial vehicles less than 450 per day) wherein traditional ground improvement
techniques are considered to be expensive. Extensive studies have focused on the enhancement of mechanical
properties of subgrade by the inclusion of natural reinforcing materials based on laboratory and field studies
without comprehensively understanding the problems associated with the durability and field compatibility in
low-volume roads. Lack of clear understanding of these lignocellulosic fibres and the fibre-based geotextiles
resulted in the reluctance in the material usage in most applications. An extensive review of the existing studies
from the last 30 years was used to obtain a relationship between the physical, biochemical and mechanical
characteristics of the lignocellulosic fibres to efficiently utilize them as reinforcing materials. Further, the various
treatment techniques required to enhance the strength, stiffness, and durability of these fibres are critically
examined. In addition to a complete understanding of the properties and treatment techniques for lignocellulosic
fibres, the factors affecting the mechanical performance of coir (CGT) and jute (JGT) fibres-based geotextiles
have been analyzed using regression techniques to efficiently utilize them as a reinforcing material in low-
volume rural road construction. Finally, the increase in soil properties due to the presence of CGT and JGT is
examined using extensive laboratory and field investigations/ case studies, thereby mitigating rutting, cracking,
differential settlement, and other major failures in the flexible pavement. Based on this study, the scope for future
research is also outlined.

1. Introduction replacement or chemical treatment of weak local soil for subgrade

Transportation infrastructure plays a vital role in affecting a coun­
try’s economy, and thus efforts are constantly being made to maintain
the quality of roads with the least possible recurring cost by adopting
sustainable ways of construction. However, low-volume rural roads that
could share more than half of the total road network are often not given
much attention as highways. Countries like India, which has the second-
largest road network globally, more than 70 % of roads are low-volume
rural roads [1]. The allocated budgets for constructing these roads often
cannot afford the adoption of expensive techniques such as granular soil
preparation, and therefore it becomes vital to keep the level of service to
acceptable limits for the design life. Also, most of these rural roads de­
mand immediate attention after the first monsoon. Rutting and subse­
quent potholes are the primary distress observed on the low-volume
roads and these distresses are due to the underlying layers’ (especially
subgrade layer) abnormalities [2]. The use of synthetic geotextiles has
been seen to address the above-mentioned issues to a great extent [3–8].
These polymeric geosynthetic reinforcements are readily available in
the market, but the associated carbon footprint is enormous which leads
to unsustainable utilization of geo-reinforcement for rural road

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ce20s009@smail.iitm.ac.in (N. Kumar), rameshkk@iitm.ac.in (R.K. Kandasami), surender@iitm.ac.in (S. Singh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128606
Received 10 May 2022; Received in revised form 28 June 2022; Accepted 26 July 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Kumar et al.
construction. In order to make the construction cost-effective and eco-
friendly, it is important to explore economical and sustainable solu­
tions. A typical cross-section of the geotextile reinforced subgrade is
shown in Fig. 1.
With the growing awareness towards utilization of sustainable ma­
terials, researchers have started using natural or green materials for
various applications [9–16]. Materials that are derived from natural
resources such as lignocellulosic fibres have a great potential to replace
fabricated fibres such as glass, steel, synthetic polymers and other
composite fibres [17–20]. They are locally available in large quantities,
completely biodegradable, non-hazardous, renewable, and could reduce
the carbon footprint to a great extent [21–24]. Lignocellulosic fibres
based on plants, fruits and trees such as coir, jute, flax, hemp, sisal,
bagasse, bamboo, abaca, ramie, pine, cotton are commonly available in
many countries and could be used for reinforcing applications in low-
cost road construction [2,25–30]. In addition, the lignocellulosic fibres
are also used in reinforced concrete, drainage system, stabilizing slopes/
embankments using geotextiles [31], and river bank erosion control
using coco logs [32–36]. Apart from strength and stabilization appli­
cations, studies are also carried out on using these fibres in other fields of
engineering such as 3D printing tools, soundproofing, air craft interior,
sports, electrical and electronics, medical, acoustic, naval, automotive
applications and many other unique products [37–46].
Even though the physical and mechanical properties of lignocellu­
lose fibres are comparable to synthetic fibres, there are quite a few
drawbacks associated with them mainly due to their porous and hy­
drophilic nature [47–50]. Generally, lignocellulose fibres absorb a
substantial quantity of moisture due to which their durability and hence
its utility as a composite material gets reduced dramatically [51–53].
This hydrophilic nature could be addressed by treating the fibres using
several cost-effective methods. In this review article, all the important
treatment techniques and their effect on the fibres’ physical, chemical,
and mechanical properties are discussed in detail.
2. Research significance & its methodology
2.1. Research significance
Sufficient literature is available exploring the potential of
Fig. 1. A three-dimensional schematic of the geotextile reinforced paved road.
2
Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606
lignocellulosic-based fibres as geotextiles for various engineering ap­
plications. However, the effectiveness of the same through field vali­
dation especially for pavement application is rare. Also, there are a lot of
variabilities that could be seen in the physical, chemical and durability
properties of lignocellulosic fibres affecting the quality of geotextiles
which in turn significantly affects the functional and structural perfor­
mance of pavements. In addition, there are numerous other practical
concerns that are affecting the choice of these lignocellulosic fibres as
geotextile for rural road applications and thus warrant a comprehensive
review. The present study is an attempt to compare and quantify the
efficacy of the two abundantly available lignocellulosic fibres i.e., coir
and jute fibres as geotextiles for low-volume rural road applications. It is
particularly intriguing to note that, using coir and jute fibre-based
geotextiles as reinforcement in low-volume rural road construction
could be equally effective for the construction of highways and ex­
pressways. However, due to the lack of substantiation through rigorous
field trials on high-volume roads and the variabilities in the engineering
properties of lignocellulosic fibres, the usage of lignocellulosic fibre-
based geotextile for highways cannot be explicitly concluded.
Although this review article discusses and summarizes all the engi­
neering aspects of CGT and JGT for reinforcing application in low-
volume rural roads, the study will give the much needed confidence to
the engineers and field practitioners to enforce the same technique and
methodology even while constructing highways and expressways/
freeways. Some of the questions on the usage of lignocellulosic fibres
that would be addressed through this study are as follows:
1. What are the dominant parameters affecting and relating the phys­
ical and mechanical properties of lignocellulosic fibres?
2. Which types of lignocellulosic fibres are best suited for making
geotextiles for subgrade applications?
3. What are the different treatment techniques available to increase the
strength, durability, and bonding between the geotextiles and the
surrounding matrix?
4. What are the important parameters that affect the strength of coir
and jute geotextiles?
5. What are the primary functions of lignocellulosic fibres based geo­
textiles and the associated mechanisms behind resisting distresses in
roads?
N. Kumar et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606

6. What are the factors affecting the strength and deformation of sub­
grade in rural road construction and how inclusion of lignocellulosic
fibre based geotextiles alters the material constitutivity?
3. Research methodology
This article is framed comprehensively by reviewing about 200
articles (original research/conference/review articles as well as pub­
lished design codes) that are well-cited and published in SCI/ Scopus
indexed journals. During the preliminary stage, literature published in
this subject area between 1990 and 2022 was selected and further
scrutinized considering the scope of this review process. The entire re­
view article is organized into four parts - firstly, the specifics of
commonly used lignocellulosic fibres are discussed in detail by

Focus of present study Benefits of the presents study

Low-volume rural roads

Synthetic geo-reinforcement Green environment

Problems associated with synthetic geo-reinforcements

Lignocellulosic fibres

Sustainable construction
Classifications

Characterizations

Properties governing the strength

Biochemicals in lignocellulosic fibres Cost effective

Molecular structure of lignocellulosic fibre

Effect of biochemicals on strength properties

Boost rural economy

Effect of treatment on lignocellulosic fibres

Moisture absorptions

Surface roughness characteristics

Strength & Durability Reduce industrial waste

disposal
Elastic modulus & Failure strain

Coir & Jute geotextile

Physical & mechanical characterization Green pavement

construction practice
Factors affecting the strength properties

Design of pavement using CGT & JGT

Major distresses in pavement Enhances the strength,

durability & riding quality
of pavement
Lab tests for design of pavement

Field tests for design of pavement

Fig. 2. Complete outline and the major advantages of this review article.

3
N. Kumar et al.
comparing their important physical, biochemical, and mechanical
properties. This analysis is essential because of their extensive utiliza­
tion as geotextiles for various field applications. In the second part, the
physical and chemical treatment techniques that are commonly used to
increase the strength, durability and surface roughness of the lignocel­
lulosic fibres have been discussed. The third part of this review article
deals with important aspects specific to coir and jute geotextiles (CGT
and JGT) and obtaining correlations between various engineering
(physical and mechanical) properties. Finally, a comprehensive analysis
is carried out focusing on the influence of these geotextiles on the
bearing capacity of the subgrade and base course in pavement con­
struction and other important applications. In the end, the deficiency in
the current understanding of the material properties and the future
scope of research is discussed. The outline of the review paper is shown
in Fig. 2.
4. Biochemical properties of lignocellulosic fibres
4.1. Structure of lignocellulosic fibres
Natural fibres obtained from plants constitute cellulose, hemicellu­
lose, lignin, pectin, and other impurities (sugar, starch, proteins, oil and
wax) [19,54] (Fig. 3a). These chemical compositions form a typical
microstructure of the lignocellulosic fibres [54,55], as shown in Fig. 3b.
The skeleton of lignocellulosic fibres consists of three different layers;
the outer layer are the primary wall (P) which got deposited during cell
growth, and a thin middle lamella (ML). The inner layer is called the
secondary wall (S) and this comprises of three sublayers viz. S1, S2, and
S3 [56–58]. The thick middle sublayer of the secondary wall (S2) consists
of a sequences of helically wound cellular microfibrils formed from long-
chain cellulose molecules that could determine the mechanical proper­
ties of each strand of fibres [59,60]. The angle between the fibre axis and
the microfibrils is called the microfibrillar angle. The specific value of
microfibrillar angle for a particular fibre is not constant, and it could
vary from one fibre to another [58]. The diameter of microfibrils varies
between 10 − 30nm and comprises 30 − 100 cellulose molecules in
extended chain configuration that delivers mechanical strength to the
fibres [54,58]. The entire cell wall of lignocellulosic fibres is very
complex and mainly consists of lignin, hemicellulose, cellulose, and
pectin which determines the overall physical and mechanical properties
of lignocellulosic fibres [45,46,57,61,62]. The molecules of hemicellu­
lose are hydrogen-bonded to cellulose and behave as a bonding matrix
among the cellulose microfibrils, forming the cellulose–hemicellulose
network [19,57]. The lignin reacts as a coupling negotiator and im­
proves the stiffness of the cellulose/hemicellulose composite [12]. The
different biochemical compositions, microstructure and structural or­
ganization of lignocellulosic fibres are shown in Figs. 3a, 3b & 3c
Fig. 3a. Classification of biochemical compositions of lignocellulosic fibres.
4
Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606
respectively, and the different chemical compositions of lignocellulosic
fibres are summarized in Table 1. The individual contribution of cellu­
lose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, and other impurities is discussed in
sections 4.1.1 to 4.1.4.
4.1.1. Cellulose
The strength of lignocellulosic fibres and their effectiveness as a
reinforcement material is predominantly governed by the nature of
cellulose and its degree of crystallinity [55]. Cellulose is a long linear
natural polymer comprising of D-anhydrous-glucose (C6 H11 O5 )
repeating units joined by β − 1, 4-glycosidic linkages [58]. Each of these
repeating units contains at least three hydroxyl (OH) groups; these hy­
droxyl groups and their hydrogen bond play a significant role in gov­
erning the crystalline packing and controlling the physical and
mechanical properties of lignocellulosic fibres [58]. The hydrophilic
nature of these fibres is due to the presence of a large hydroxyl group in
cellulose [64–66]. In its microstructure, the higher-order region is called
the crystalline region (cellulose I) which generally governs the me­
chanical strength of the fibres [55]. The chemical compositions,
microfibrillar angle (MFA), dimensions of the cells, their structure, and
various defects on the surface are the most essential variables that
determine the fibre properties. Generally, the tensile strength of fibres
improves with increasing cellulose and decreasing MFA [54,57,59] as
shown in Fig. 4 with a 75 % confidence band. If the microfibrils of
lignocellulosic fibres are aligning parallel to the fibre axis, the fibres will
exhibit a higher stiffness and tensile strength [54].
4.1.2. Lignin
Lignin is a three-dimensional hydrocarbon polymer or a thermo­
plastic polymer having a very high molecular weight and its presence is
required for water transport, mechanical support, and resistance to
biodegradation [55,58]. Lignin is completely amorphous, hydrophobic
and insoluble in most solvents thereby providing rigidity to the plants
[64,67]. Methoxyl, carbonyl, and hydroxyl groups have been identified
to be present in each building unit of lignin [58]. Lignin is soluble in hot
alkali but not hydrolyzed by acids [58]. It has been observed that the
tensile strength, specific strength, specific Young’s modulus, and density
of fibres could decrease with the increase in lignin, and it has a positive
interrelationship with the MFA and failure strain [68].
4.1.3. Hemicellulose
Hemicellulose is not a form of cellulose, and it varies from cellulose
in several features. The degree of polymerization (DP) (i.e total number
of monomers in a polymer) of hemicellulose is about 50–300, whereas in
inherent cellulose, it is 10–100 times more than hemicellulose [58].
Further, they show a substantial degree of chain branching polymer,
which is fully amorphous [58], whereas cellulose is a linear natural
N. Kumar et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606

Fig. 3b. Microstructure of lignocellulosic fibres and the structural properties of different layers [57].

Fig. 3c. Structural organization of chemical composition in the cell wall of lignocellulosic fibres [63].

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N. Kumar et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606

Table 1
Optimum range of different biochemical compositions of lignocellulosic fibres.
Fibre Cellulose Hemicellulose Pectin Lignin Waxes Others References
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Coir 32.0–43.0 0.15–0.25 3.0–6.0 40.0–45.0 – 1.0–2.0 [41,45,46,50,58,63,68,70–75]

Jute 59.0–72.0 12.0–21.0 0.20–0.50 11.8–13.0 0.40–0.50 0.5–1.0 [41,45,46,50,58,63,71,72,74,76]
Sisal 62.0–78.0 10.0–14.2 0.5–10.0 7.6–12.0 0.3–2.0 [41,45,46,58,63,68,70–74,77]
Flax 61.0–80.0 16.0–21.0 1.8–2.3 2.0–2.5 0.50–1.70 – [41,45,46,58,63,68,70–74,78]
Hemp 64.0–75.0 16.0–23.0 0.50–0.90 2.5–6.0 0.60–0.80 0.7–0.9 [18,41,58,63,68,70–74,76]
Bamboo 26.0–47.0 20.5–30.0 1.0–5.0 16.0–31.0 – – [41,45,58,68,70,71,79]
Abaca 56.0–63.0 15.0–25.0 0.50–0.90 7.0–12.0 2.0–3.0 – [41,45,58,68,70,71]
Ramie 68.0–76.2 13.1–16.7 1.70–2.10 0.6–0.7 0.20–0.30 – [41,45,46,58,63,68,70–73]
Cotton 82.7–90.0 5.0–7.0 1.0–4.0 0.70–1.60 0.60–5.0 – [41,45,46,58,63,68,70,72,73]
Bagasse 55.2 18.8 – 25.0–3.0 – – [41,45,58,68,70,71,74,80]

Fig. 4. A relationship between fibres’ tensile strength and their biochemical
compositions.
polymer that is mainly crystalline in nature. Due to the existence of
many acetyl and hydroxyl groups in their open structure, hemicellulose
is a highly hydrophilic compound and partly soluble in water [58]. The
effect of hemicellulose on the strength of the lignocellulosic fibre is not
thoroughly studied. However, few studies reported that hemicellulose is
very firmly bound to cellulose fibrils by a hydrogen bond [55], which
could create the supportive matrix for cellulose microfibrils and indi­
rectly affects the fibres’ strength [54,57].
4.1.4. Pectin and waxes
Pectins are found in the primary cell wall, and the presence of pectin
in lignocellulosic fibres could provide flexibility to plant fibres [58,69].
MFA, failure strain, and the density increases while the tensile strength
decreases with the rise of pectin content in lignocellulosic fibres [68].
Waxes are a mixture of substituted long-chain hydrocarbons, which
consist of different types of aldehydes, ketones and alcohols [54,58]. It
could provide wettability and adhesion to the lignocellulosic fibres [67].
The prevailing content of wax in lignocellulosic fibres is significantly
less; hence, its influence on the fibres’ mechanical properties is negli­
gible. They are generally present in the outermost layer of the fibres and
could be easily removed through various treatment techniques as dis­
cussed in section 6.
5. Characteristics of lignocellulosic fibres
Among various lignocellulosic fibres, the commonly used fibres
(coir, jute, flax, hemp, sisal, cotton, ramie, abaca, bagasse and bamboo)
for reinforcing applications are compared for their physical and me­
chanical properties and the results are summarized in Table 2 and
Table 3, respectively. In addition to the extremely low carbon footprint
and their availability, these lignocellulosic fibres provide sufficient
strength and stiffness to use as a reinforcing material for various appli­
cations [57,72,81]. One of the major limitations of lignocellulosic fibres
that prevent their usage in certain applications is their high-water ab­
sorption capacity due to the presence of hydroxyl groups which could
lead to swelling/shrinkage of fibres [57]. The general characteristics of
these fibres and a comparison between different fibres, based on their
properties are critically reviewed and discussed below.
Coir is recovered from the husk of the coconut fruit and it is one of
the most resilient lignocellulosic fibres commonly found in tropical and
sub-tropical countries [160]. Based on the age and extraction procedure
of the coconut, coir is classified into ’white coir’ and ’brown coir’. While
white coir is produced from husks of ripe green coconuts by exposing the
husk to a retting process for 1 to 3 months, brown coir is produced from
dry/ semi-dry coconut husks by mechanical processes [136]. Coir fibres
are highly ductile, provide greater resistance to abrasion, and are du­
rable due to their high lignin content [12,82–84]. The durability of coir
fibres is approximately 1–3 years [85], which is the highest among all
the natural fibres discussed in this section [12]. It has lesser cellulose
content and a higher MFA than other fibres making it weak in tension
and less flexible [57,84]. Jute is another lignocellulosic fibre commonly
used as a raw material to manufacture geotextiles owing to its appro­
priate mechanical and hydraulic properties. Jute has higher strength in
dry conditions compared to other fibres such as coir, bamboo, bagasse
because of its relatively high cellulose content and low MFA. Due to the
presence of lignin (12–13 %) in jute, the fibre is reasonably resistant to
biodegradation. Jute fibres are enriched with cellulose and hemicellu­
lose that facilitates absorption and retention of water resulting in losing
their strength, especially under wet conditions [86]. Further, it has high
tenacity, thermal stability, and initial modulus as compared to other
commonly used lignocellulosic fibres, while the elongation at breakage
is lower which is around 1–3 % [67]. Both sisal and flax, due to their
increased crystalline structure of cellulose, are stronger and stiffer than
most lignocellulosic fibres [87,88]. It was also observed that sisal fibres
could retain up to 35 % of their initial tensile strength even after one
year when subjected to alternate drying and wetting in the marine
environment [89,90]. Hemp fibres have high tenacity and low homo­
geneity while cotton has the highest cellulose content among most of the
lignocellulosic fibres, offering good hydrophilic properties [91,92],
along with this, cotton fibres are coated with a thin layer of wax which
partially provide resistance against biodegradation [92]. However, due
to high MFA, its tensile strength is lower than many commonly used
lignocellulosic fibres such as sisal, hemp, and flax [46,92,93]. Ramie,
bamboo, and abaca fibres are enriched with cellulose and have high
tensile strength, but the only disadvantage is their durability which is
significantly less in these three fibres [92].

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N. Kumar et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606

Table 2
Important physical properties of lignocellulosic fibres and their leading producers in the world.
Fibre Density (g/cm3) Diameter Service life (yrs.) Moisture gain (%) Main producers References
(cm)

Coir 1.15–1.46 0.1–0.4 1.0–3.0 8.0–13.0 India, Sri Lanka, Brazil [56,68,71–73,81,95,96]
Jute 1.30–1.49 0.02–0.25 0.5–1.0 12.5–13.7 India, Bangladesh, Brazil [61,68,71–73,81]
Sisal 1.3–1.5 0.05–0.30 0.5–1.5 10.0–14.0 Brazil, China, Tanzania, Kenya [68,71–73,81,95]
Flax 1.40–1.50 0.02–0.60 0.25–1.50 8.0–12.0 China, France, Belgium, Ukraine [56,68,70,71,73,81,94,97–99]
Hemp 1.47–1.48 0.025–0.60 0.25–0.67 6.0–12.0 China [12,56,63,68,71,73,99–101]
Bamboo 0.60–1.10 0.24–0.33 1.0–2.0 – India, China [40,68,71,94,102]
Abaca 1.50 0.01–0.03 1.0–2.5 14.0 Philippines [37,68,71,72,81]
Ramie 1.50–1.55 0.02–0.08 7.5–17.0 China [37,67,68,71,103]
Cotton 1.5–1.6 0.010–0.045 0.10–0.50 33–34 China, USA, India, Brazil [61,68,73,81,99,104]
Bagasse 0.90–1.25 0.20–0.40 – – India, Brazil, China, Thailand [61,68,70,71,96,105]

Table 3
Optimum range of mechanical properties of lignocellulosic fibres.
Fibre Microfibrillarangles Tensile strength (MPa) Elastic modulus (GPa) Failure strain (%) References
(degrees)

Coir 30.0–49.0 130.0–220.0 4.0–6.0 29.4–51.0 [41,56,67,68,71–73,96,99,101,103]

Jute 7.0–9.0 320.0–800.0 13.0–30.0 1.00–1.80 [41,56,63,67,68,71–73,98,99,101]
Sisal 10.0–22.0 507.0–955.0 9.0–38.0 2.0–7.0 [56,63,68,71–73,98,99,101,106]
Flax 5.0–10.0 343.0–1500.0 27.6 1.2–3.3 [40,41,56,63,68,71–73,81,98,107,108]
Hemp 2.0–6.2 550.0–900.0 30.0–70.0 1.0–4.0 [40,41,56,63,68,71–73,98,99,109]
Bamboo 10.0–12.0 96.0–230.0 11.0–35.9 1.30–3.70 [37,58,68,71,106,110]
Abaca 22.5 430.0–813.0 12.0 1.0–10.0 [37,58,68,71,110,111]
Ramie 7.5–8.0 400.0–938.0 61.4–128.0 1.2–4.0 [37,41,58,63,68,71–73,81]
Cotton 25.0–30.0 287.0–800.0 5.5–12.6 3.0–10.0 [37,63,68,72,73,81,100,106,109,111]
Bagasse 14–15 96.0–290.0 6.42–17.00 1.10–4.03 [58,68,71,96,110]

5.1. Comparison between coir and jute fibres
Among the various lignocellulosic fibres discussed above, the selec­
tion of raw fibres for making geotextiles is based on high tensile strength
and stiffness, sufficient durability, widespread availability and most
importantly cost-effectiveness. Coir and jute fibre-based geotextiles
could fulfil many of these requirements to a great extent when used for
pavement applications. Therefore, it is essential to compare these two
fibres’ physical, chemical, and mechanical properties in great detail
which will help the engineers and field practitioners to adopt these
geotextiles for improving the subgrade strength and for other field
applications.
The cellulose content of coir fibres is about 70–75 % lesser than jute
thereby reducing its tensile strength by approximately 50 % [68,72].
However, coir has about 200–300 % higher lignin content than jute,
making it more durable and resistant to microbial decomposition
[57,68,73]. The higher lignin content present in coir makes the fibre
more ductile leading to increased failure strain i.e., 10–20 times more
than jute fibres which indirectly affects the stiffness of fibre [40,73,94].
Jute is comparatively more hydrophilic than coir fibres due to the
presence of high cellulose (59–72 %) and hemicellulose (12–21 %)
content [68,71]. Thus, the coir fibres’ strength retention and mechanical
performance in wet conditions are much better than jute. The inherent
moisture content of raw jute fibre is generally higher (20–30 %) than in
coir while the fibre thickness is lower in the case of jute fibre [68].
However, the density/ specific gravity of jute fibres is slightly more than
coir [56], making them more suitable fibre in terms of strength than coir
fibres under dry conditions. Durability is always a prime concern for
adopting its usage in road construction. It is found that the durability of
coir is up to 3 years in moist soil which is significantly higher than jute
fibres (usually less than a year) [31,92]. For certain pavement condi­
tions, this duration could be sufficient for stabilizing the subgrade under
traffic loading.
5.1.1. Advantages and disadvantages of coir and jute fibres with other types
of fibres
Coir fibres’ internal structure and properties mainly depend on their
origin, species, climatic condition, maturity, and extraction procedure
[161]. Compared to other lignocellulosic fibres, the major advantage of
using coir fibre-based geotextile as a reinforcement for road construc­
tions are their high durability, better hydraulic properties, economic
viability and availability [12]. However, the tensile strength of coir fibre
is less than many commonly used lignocellulosic fibres such as jute, flax,
sisal, hemp, and ramie [56,68,71]. This is the major drawback of using
coir fibres as a reinforcement in soil. Although the tensile strength of jute
fibre is relatively more satisfactory than many other lignocellulosic fi­
bres, the disadvantage of using jute fibres compared to other lignocel­
lulosic fibres is that they can absorb moisture up to about five times its
dry weight [28]. The high moisture absorption capacity significantly
reduces the durability and strength of jute fibres under wet conditions.
Jute-based geotextiles may not survive long enough when subjected to
the adverse environmental conditions. However, these limitations can
be avoided by treating coir and jute fibres with various chemical treat­
ments, which are comprehensively discussed in the ensuing section.
6. Various treatment techniques and their consequence on
lignocellulosic fibres
Lignocellulosic fibres are hydrophilic, biodegradable and have many
surface impurities, marring its applications in many engineering fields
[53,63,112,113]. The molecular structure of lignocellulosic fibres
comprises hydroxyl groups (OH), which permit moisture absorption
from the surrounding medium [41,56,74]. This moisture absorption
could increase the biodegradability of fibres and reduce the strength due
to swelling and shrinkage, ultimately decreasing the efficiency of
lignocellulosic fibres and fibre-based products [114]. Therefore, it is
necessary to disrupt these hydroxyl groups and remove other contami­
nants/ impurities from the fibre surface through different treatment
techniques. Treatment techniques include physical, chemical and com­
bined physical–chemical methods. Chemical treatments are economical,

7
N. Kumar et al.
efficient, and ideal to increase fibres’ surface roughness, durability, and
mechanical properties compared to other treatment techniques. This
section will focus on some important physical and chemical treatments
adopted for improving the properties of lignocellulosic fibres.
6.1. Physical and chemical treatments
6.1.1. Boiling treatment
Boiling lignocellulosic fibres does not require any skilled labour. It is
one of the simplest methods to remove the hydroxyl group present on
the cell wall of the fibres. Boiling cellulosic fibres at 75–100 ◦ C for 0.5–2
h in standard atmospheric pressure [115,116] could reduce the water
absorption capacity by more than 50 % as compared to raw fibres and
alkali-treated fibres [20]. This reduction can be correlated with the
slight loss of hemicellulose and cellulose from the surface of raw fibres.
However, because of the high boiling temperature, there could be some
structural change in the lignocellulosic fibre which is not clearly
explained in the available literature. An associated mass loss, a slight
decrease in tensile strength (approximately 15 to 20 %), and a reduction
in the diameter (by 10 – 30 % of the initial diameter) of lignocellulosic
fibres were also observed due to the removal of cellulose, hemicellulose,
lignin, pectin and other surface impurities [20]. Other studies also show
an increase in the failure strain, ductility and elastic modulus of boiled
fibres compared to raw fibres [117]. Due to the rise in ductility/ failure
strain, the toughness of boiled fibres is comparatively higher than un­
treated fibres, making it an ideal treatment technique for lignocellulosic
fibres when it is subjected to impact load or dynamic load. However, this
technique is not commonly adopted due to environmental concerns
(energy consumption and pollution) despite making the fibres
hydrophobic.
6.1.2. Alkali treatment
Alkali treatment is the most commonly used technique for modifying
lignocellulosic fibres. Several research articles [47,53,112,118–121]
have focused on quantifying the effect of alkali treatment on the
improvement of fibre properties. The treatment method usually involves
the immersion of fibres in alkali solutions of various concentrations at
different temperatures and time periods [56,57]. This leads to the
disruption of hydrogen bonding in the fibre network structure [118] as
given below (Equation 1). Also, it removes a certain percentage of lignin,
pectin, wax and additional impurities covering the peripheral surface of
the fibre cell wall, as shown in Fig. 5a resulting in increased surface
roughness and better mechanical interlocking between fibres and the
surrounding matrix [56,74]. Further, various treatment parameters such
as the type and concentration of alkali solution, treatment period,
Fig. 5a. Typical surface of coir fibre before and after treatment with NaOH (Adapted with permission from ref. [112] Copyrights, Elsevier).
8
Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606
operative temperature, and the applied additives could affect the
properties of lignocellulose fibres. Existing studies suggest that the
optimal alkali concentration of 0.5 to 10 % is used for the treatment of
fibres for 2 to 48 hrs at room temperature (25 to 28 ◦ C) to obtain the
improved properties [74,112]. At higher alkali concentrations, excessive
delignification occurs, which damage the fibres and could lead to a
significant decrease in the strength of treated fibres [112].
Fiber − OH + NaOH → Fiber − O − Na + H2 O
In addition, studies [63,74,112,122,123] revealed that the alkali
treatment increases the expanse of amorphous cellulose (Cellulose II) at
the expense of crystalline cellulose (Cellulose I). This treatment changes
the physical orientation of crystalline cellulose leading to the formation
of a highly unordered amorphous cellulose region, as shown in Fig. 5b,
and this may reduce the fibre’s tensile strength by up to 26 % [112],
especially with higher alkali concentrations (greater than 10 %)
[63,124]. Similarly, few studies [20,112] reported a decrease in the
diameter of lignocellulosic fibres after alkali treatment, thereby
increasing the effective length as well as the surface area due to the
presence of undulation/ roughness over the treated surface (Fig. 5a).
This could also be one of the reasons for improving the adhesion among
the fibre and the surrounding matrix.
6.1.3. Graft co-polymerization treatment technique
Studies revealed that the chemical modification of lignocellulosic
fibres through the grafting technique could produce considerably good
results in tensile strength, modulus, elongation at break, reduction in
water absorption and thermal stability [83,125]. Mishra et al. [123]
observed that, the tensile strength and elastic modulus of treated fibres
are 5 % and 42 % higher than untreated ones. The effectiveness of this
treatment depends on the concentration of the polymer used (polymer
loading on the fibre is a function of the monomer concentration) along
with the temperature of exposure, and the period of treatment
[53,125,126]. It has been observed that the grafting percentage
increased by 40 % with 0.9 mol-L-1 of monomers concentration at spe­
cific temperature and time period [123]. For optimum results, many
researchers maintained a temperature range between 50 ◦ C and 70 ◦ C
for a time period of 1 to 3 hrs [53,83,123,127]. In this treatment
method, modification of fibres starts with pre-treatment with NaOH at
different concentrations or other chemicals to remove impurities from
fibres surface and to further enhance the properties. Subsequently, these
fibres are treated with monomers such as acrylonitrile (AN) to improve
the mechanical properties/ overall performance of fibres [63,123,128].
However, the economic viability towards mass adoption of this tech­
nique is a major challenge in many developing nations.
N. Kumar et al.
Fig. 5b. Effect of alkali treatment on the structure of lignocellulosic fibres (a typical representation) [41].
6.1.4. Acid treatment
Various acid treatments (acetic acid, hydrochloric acid, stearic acid)
are typically used to treat lignocellulosic fibres specifically to enhance
their strength characteristics [63,129–132]. The treatment of fibres with
stearic acid in ethyl alcohol solution was found to be more effective in
terms of strength enhancement [129]. Stearic acid mixed in ethyl
alcohol solution discharged non-crystalline constituents of the cellulosic
fibres leading to a decrease in amorphous cellulose and other impurities
from the fibre [63]. After acid treatment, due to a reduction in the
percentage of amorphous cellulose, there is an increase in the tensile
strength and elastic modulus approximately by 13 % and 6 % compared
to untreated fibres [130]. For the optimum results, the concentration of
stearic acid should be between 2 % and 8 % [129]. The effect of acid
treatment on the durability properties of lignocellulosic fibres is still not
clearly discussed in the available literature and further investigation is
Fig. 6. Improvement in the tensile strength of coir fibre after treating it with FeCl3 due to nanoparticles coating over the fibre surface [133].
9
Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606
required to understand its behaviour.
6.1.5. Ferric hydroxide treatment (Fe(OH)3 )
Anggraini et al. [133] was the first to use this technique on raw coir
fibres by soaking the coir fibres in a FeCl3 solution followed by a NaOH
solution. Fe(OH)3 nanoparticles thus formed blocks the surface pores of
fibres at ambient temperature and pressure. The chemical reaction
taking place during this process is given below (Equation (2)).
Fibre − FeCl3 + 3NaOH→Fibre − Fe(OH)3 + 3NaCl (2)
After the treatment, it was observed that the tensile strength of coir
fibre increased up to 43 %. The enhancement in the tensile strength of
coir fibres is due to the crystallization of Fe(OH)3 nanoparticles into the
capillary pores available on the fibre’s surface. The tensile strength of
untreated and treated coir fibres of different diameters is shown in
N. Kumar et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606

Fig. 6. These nanoparticles also make the surface of the fibre relatively
rough, which could lead to an increase in the strength of the fibre
reinforced composite materials.
6.1.6. Other chemical treatments techniques
Silane (SiH4 ) acts as a coupling agent in fibres reinforced composites.
Treatment of lignocellulosic fibres with silane forms a stable covalent
bond to the cell wall by decreasing the number of cellulose hydroxyl
groups, which restrains the swelling and shrinkage of fibres
[50,71,74,130]. Chemical modification with acetic anhydride (C6 H6 O3 )
substitutes the hydroxyl groups present in the cell wall of lignocellulosic
fibres with acetyl groups (CH3 COO− ). Acetylation reduces the hydro­
philic tendency and improves the dimensional stability of the fibre’s
matrix composites [56,64,74,131]. Benzoylation results in decreasing
the hydrophilic nature of the fibres as well as enhancing the thermal
stability due to the presence of benzoyl (C6 H5 C = O) group [57,63,74].
Permanganate treatment is typically performed using the solution of
potassium permanganate (KMnO4 ). The highly reactive cellulose radi­
cals formed due to permanganate treatment are responsible for
improving the physicochemical properties of lignocellulosic fibres. The
effectiveness of this treatment method depends on the concentration and
its soaking duration. For better results, the concentration should be less
than 1 % and the soaking duration should be within 1 to 3 min
[27,74,129].
6.2. Comparison and recommendation of suitable treatment method
The different treatment techniques discussed in the previous section
is compared and the impact of treatment on the physical and mechanical
behaviour of lignocellulosic fibres is summarized in Table 4. It is
observed that, treatment with ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3 ) (nano-particle
coating) could be an ideal treatment method which improves the tensile
strength of fibres. The strength enhancement is up to 43 % which is more
than any other chemical treatment method. Among other treatment
methods, alkali treatment is good in removing the surface impurities of
fibres and is commonly used as a precursor to other treatment tech­
niques. Silane, permanganate, and benzoylation treatments are best
suited for fibres used in composites. These treatments could make the
fibre hydrophobic, improve the surface roughness, and the adhesion
between the fibres and the corresponding matrix which ultimately leads
to improvement in the strength and dimensional stability of the com­
posites. A particular treatment for any lignocellulosic fibres is selected
based on the application, economic viability and also considering
environmental impacts.

Table 4
Comparison of different chemical treatment techniques and brief discussion.
Treatment Primary effect of treatment on lignocellulosic fibres
techniques
Water absorption Surface Tensile strength Failure Ductility Thickness of Durability Remarks
roughness strain fibres

Boiling Decreases Up Increases Increases Up Increases Increases Decreases Up Increases Toughness Boiling
to to to increases the temperature
50 20 30 resistance against should not be
% % % impact loading more than 100 ◦ C
Alkali Decreases Increases Decreases Up – Increases Decreases – Very economical Alkali
treatment to & suitable for concentration
26 preliminary should be less
% treatment of than 10 %
fibres
Grafting Decreases – Increases Up Decreases – – Increases Not economical & Optimum
to requires pre- treatment
5% treatments temperature
50–70 ◦ C
Acid – – Increases Up Decreases – Decreases – Increases the Concentration of
treatment to crystalline acid should be
13 cellulose between 2 and 8
% %
Ferric Decreases Increases Increases Up – – – Increases Improved Requires pre-
hydroxide to strength due to treatment to
43 nano-particle remove surface
% coating impurities
Silane Decreases Increases – – – – Increases Provides better Reduces the
strength than swelling and
alkali treated shrinkage
composites tendency of
fibres
Acetic Decreases Increases – – Increases Decreases Increases Improves the Economical way
anhydride dimensional to make the
stability of fibres fibres
reinforced hydrophobic
composites
Benzoylation Decreases Increases – – – – Increases Increasing the Improving the
strength of fibres thermal stability
reinforced of fibres
composite
Permanganate Decreases Increases Decreases Increases – – Increases At higher Requires pre-
concentration, treatment to
strength of fibres improve the
reduces strength of
composites

10
N. Kumar et al.
7. Utilization of coir and jute geotextiles for pavement
construction
7.1. Characterizations of geotextiles
The effectiveness of lignocellulosic fibres-based geotextiles in rural
road construction is primarily governed by the strength (tensile
strength) and deformation (strain at the failure) characteristics of the
geotextiles. Also, these characteristics, in turn, depend upon numerous
other factors such as the thickness of geotextile, number of yarns, mass
per unit area, aperture size, weaving patterns, gauge length, and strain
rate/ loading rate. The mechanical behavior of two commonly used
geotextiles CGT (Coir Geotextile) and JGT (Jute Geotextile) are dis­
cussed and compared below. The typical diagrams and geometrical pa­
rameters for different geotextiles are shown in Fig. 7.
7.1.1. Tensile behavior of CGT and JGT
Numerous literature are available relating the tensile strength of
both CGT and JGT to their mass per-unit area, numbers of yarns,
placement direction (warp and weft direction), gauge length, width of
specimen and strain rate [31,48,82,134–142]. Analysis of the existing
database (confidence level of 80 %) depicts that the tensile strength has
a strong relationship with the mass per unit area of geotextiles, (Figs. 8a
& 8b) weaving pattern, as well as with the placement direction of geo­
textile yarns [27,138,139,143]. The tensile strength of both CGT and
JGT was found to be higher in warp/ longitudinal direction than weft/
transverse direction. This could be due to the thickness and the number
of yarns in each direction [26,139,141,144]. In the longitudinal direc­
tion (along the roadway), the number of yarns is usually higher than in
the transverse direction; also, thicker yarns are used in the longitudinal
direction and are tied laterally with thinner yarns. As far as the com­
parison between the fibre type is concerned, at the same mass per unit
area, JGT demonstrates a higher tensile strength in each direction than
CGT and the difference is much higher in the weft direction. This in­
dicates that under the strength purview, jute geotextiles has a greater
potential to be used in roadways than coir geotextiles. Since the tensile
strength of coir geotextiles in the weft direction is lower, it would be
interesting to tie the coir yarns with jute yarns in the lateral direction to
enhance the strength characteristics. However, this needs to be vali­
dated with extensive laboratory studies followed by field validation.
7.1.2. Failure strain of CGT and JGT
Like tensile strength, the failure strain of CGT and JGT also depends
Fig. 7. Coir (CGT) and Jute geotextiles (JGT) along with the geometrical characteristics (Adapted with permission from ref. [137,141] Copy­
rights, Elsevier).
11
Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606
on the mass per-unit area of geotextile, weaving pattern, the number of
yarns in warp and weft directions, thickness, gauge length, strain rate
[134,136,137,139,146,147]. The failure strain of CGT and JGT in warp
direction increases with the increase in mass per unit area, as shown in
Figs. (9a & 9b) with an 80 % confidence band. A clear increasing trend is
obtained for both CGT and JGT in the warp direction; however, no clear
trend of failure strain could be obtained in the weft direction. Failure
strain is approximately constant in the weft direction, such variations
may be expected as the power looms used in cottage industry (especially
non-mechanized) may not maintain the same level of tension in the warp
and weft direction [145].
7.2. Primary functions of geotextiles and the associated mechanism
behind resisting distresses in rural road construction
The four essential functions of geotextiles generally recognized when
used for rural road applications are separation, filtration, drainage and
reinforcement [148–150]. When geotextiles are placed at the top of the
subgrade, it prevents the penetration of aggregates from the subbase
into the subgrade (separation) and restricts the entry of fines from
subgrade to subbase (filtration). This could prevent the critical distress
that occurs in the pavement system due to heavy vehicular movement
and high pore pressure generated during the monsoon season, respec­
tively. Studies confirmed that the entry of fines into the subbase from the
saturated subgrade could lead to durability issues due to a decrease in
the shear strength & resilience modulus and these parameters thus have
to be considered when designing the pavements in special terrains/ re­
gions [151,152]. Geotextiles can also help in managing flood/ rainwater
removal from the pavements without allowing the loss of fines from the
system [153]. In addition, they also act as a reinforcement thereby
improving the load-bearing capacity of the pavement system [148,154].
Both CGT and JGT can deliver the above-mentioned functions to a great
extent. Generally in the field, the CGT and JGT are placed between the
subgrade and base course layer to maximize the benefits in terms of
enhanced performance. The mechanism involved in strength enhance­
ment by virtue of geotextiles could be classified in three folds viz,
restrainment of aggregate movement in the lateral direction, change of
failure mode from conventional punching shear to general shear, and
resisting the vertical strain through membrane action [82,155,156].
These mechanisms are explained schematically in Fig. 10a-10c. The
shearing action due to wheel loads pushes the base course in the lateral
direction which is restrained by the presence of geotextiles. The high
stiffness provided by these interfacial layers acts as lateral confinement
N. Kumar et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606

Fig. 8a. Variation in tensile strength of coir geotextiles with increasing mass per unit area [139,141,145].

Fig. 8b. Variation in tensile strength of jute geotextiles with increasing mass per unit area [138].

which limits the lateral strains of the base layer (Fig. 10a) to an extent.
The CGT and JGT can reduce the shear stresses transferred to the sub­
grade by increasing its failure surface area shown in Fig. 10b. Further,
due to the continuous wheel path, rutting can exert tensile stresses in the
geotextile placed over the subgrade thus partially supporting the wheel
load and reducing the stress coming onto the subgrade shown in
Fig. 10c. CGT and JGT reinforced roads could enhance the performances
and load-carrying capacity by mitigating various distresses, as shown in
Table 5.
7.3. Laboratory studies carried out on CGT reinforced section
Laboratory studies conducted on lignocellulosic fibres based geo­
textiles as reinforcement revealed significant improvements in the
bearing pressure, CBR, and dry density of the subgrade soil and corre­
sponding reductions in plastic deformation, water content and overall
settlement of paved/ unpaved roads [134,139,147]. A detailed analysis
of these studies with respect to improvement in the pavement properties
is discussed below:

12
N. Kumar et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606

Fig. 9a. Variation in failure strain of coir geotextile with increasing mass per unit area [139,141,145].

course layers. Similarly, CGT reinforced subgrade and base could exhibit
comparatively higher CBR value (up to 121 % higher than unreinforced)
under both soaked and unsoaked conditions [147]. This is basically due
to an increase in the soil’s dry unit weight and the spreading of plunger
load over a wider area [139]. The use of CGT could considerably reduce
the elastic–plastic settlement by 15 % to 87 % [134], and plastic
deformation by 40 % to 60 % [139]. Similar to bearing capacity trends,
the improvement in these parameters is also dependent on the mass per
unit area of CGT. This finding recommends preferring CGT of higher
mass per unit area (greater than 700 g/m2) for improving the strength of
fine-grained soils. Table 6 summarizes the improvement in various pa­
rameters of paved/unpaved roads before/after the inclusion of CGT.

8. Field performance of CGT and JGT reinforced roads ─ case

studies

As discussed previously, there are numerous advantages of consid­

ering coir and jute geotextiles in road construction. The United Nations
International Trade Centre is presently involved in the promotion of jute
fibres based geotextile for many civil engineering applications. Many
Fig. 9b. Variation in failure strain of jute geotextile with increasing mass
western countries such as USA, France, West Germany, Switzerland, and
per unit area [138].
UK have started using these natural geotextiles for erosion control and
highway slope protection. However, very limited studies are available
7.3.1. Bearing pressure, laboratory CBR and settlement
on the reinforcement applications of CGT and JGT to improve the
The results of the monotonic and cyclic load tests conducted on the
bearing and shear resistance of subgrade. Most of the studies are con­
CGT reinforced substrate revealed increased bearing capacity compared
ducted in the tropical and sub-tropical countries where these fibres are
to the unreinforced substrate [134,136,139,146]. The percentage
abundantly available. Tropical countries in South Asia have already
increment in the bearing capacity of the reinforced section was between
started using CGT and JGT in rural roads and strengthened about 100 to
48 % and 75 % compared to the unreinforced one. The magnitude of
150 km of such roads, and more than 300 km have already been sanc­
improvement depends on numerous parameters primarily the types of
tioned. Further, several field trials have been conducted to explore the
subgrade soil, geotextile placement position, mass per unit area of
potential of JGT for reinforcing weak subgrades in countries like China,
geotextile, etc. For instance, when CGT are placed within the base of the
India, Thailand, and Bangladesh [158,159]. This section will discuss the
test model instead of the base-subgrade interface could offer around 75
main findings and current state of research in different regions and
% higher bearing strength [139]. Also, Subaida et al. [139] observed the
under different climatic conditions.
magnitude of improvement in bearing capacity of CGT reinforced sec­
Typically, the performance of existing pavements could be related to
tion inversely depends on the thickness of base and sub-base courses ─
the deflection of the layers; the higher the deflection under the load, the
percentage improvement found was higher for thinner base courses than
lower the strength characteristics. The load–deflection data could be
thicker courses indicating better effectiveness of CGT for thin base

13
N. Kumar et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606

Fig. 10. (a) Restraining the lateral movement of aggregates, (b) Preventing local shear failure, (c) Prevents rutting failure by membrane action [148].

Sayida et al. [82,134] carried out DCP tests on a CGT-reinforced sub­

Table 5 grade during different seasons, the percentage reduction in the DCP
Mitigation of various distresses in flexible pavements after reinforcing it with
index for reinforced subgrade varies from 22 % to 62 %. This decrement
CGT & JGT [134,146,157].
in the DCP indices could be due to the additional resistance offered
Types of failure Geotextile reinforced road Unreinforced road against penetration by CGT reinforced subgrade and base course. Along
Alligator cracking – – with the CBR and DCP values, the performance of flexible pavements is
Block cracking £ ✓ closely related to the elastic deflection that it undergoes under traffic
Transverse cracking – –
loading. This elastic deflection depends on the type of pavement struc­
Longitudinal cracking £ ✓
Patching – – ture, climatic conditions, axle loading and tyre pressure. The BBD test
Polished aggregates – – conducted on various test sections showed a reduction in the rebound
Potholes – – deflection for CGT reinforced roads [134,136,146], the percentage
Corrugations & Shoving – – decrement in rebound deflection of the reinforced section ranges from
Depression
18 % to 70 % [82]. In another study, a similar trend in the values of BBD
£ ✓
Rutting £ ✓
Stripping – – (27 %–34 %) [134] was recorded further confirming the potential of
Edge breaking – – CGT as a reinforcing element. Interestingly, due to the reduction in
Reflection cracking £ ✓ rebound deflection, the additional overlay required over the period of
Note: [×] Mitigation of defects, [✓] Presence of defects, [-] Data not available time for the reinforced subgrade/sub-base course is comparatively less
than the unreinforced road. Decrement in rebound deflection of rein­
assessed through the Benkelman beam deflection (BBD) method or forced road sections could be due to dissipation of pore water pressure
falling weight deflectometer (FWD) tests. Also, for evaluating the in-situ which gets accelerated due to the presence of CGT resulting in an
characteristics (subgrade/ base strength/ modulus), in-situ tests such as increased rate of consolidation. The results obtained from various
dynamic cone penetration (DCP), field CBR, geogauge and plate load literature as discussed above show that variation in the BBD value be­
tests are performed. The performance of roads in terms of the above tween the reinforced and unreinforced roads was significant immedi­
parameters reinforced with CGT and JGT is discussed below: ately after the construction of the pavement; however, as the time
elapsed due to the surcharge load of traffic vehicles, both reinforced and
unreinforced roads sections get consolidated and reached a critical state
8.1. Design parameters based on field studies where the differences are minimal. As far as the stiffness and elastic
modulus is concerned, geogauge and plate load test conducted on
Similar to the laboratory behaviour, CGT reinforcement in rural road different road layers reveals that road sections reinforced with CGT have
construction results in an increase in CBR in the range of 29 % to 178 % higher stiffness and elastic modulus [142,146]. In CGT reinforced sec­
[82]. Other studies conducted by Anusudha et al. [146]; Rao et al. [136]; tions, subgrade stiffness increased by 20 % to 40 %, whereas elastic
Sayida et al. [134] in CGT reinforced rural roads observed a similar modulus increased by 16 % to 41 % [142]. However, their percentage
trend in percentage increment of CBR. Khan et al., [158] evaluated increment also depends on the thickness, number of yarns and mass per
several rural road sections reinforced with JGT in Bangladesh. It was unit area of geotextiles. Geotextiles with higher mass per unit area yield
found that the road sections with JGT reinforcement offered around 10 % to 15 % higher stiffness and elastic modulus than the geotextile
seven times higher CBR value than the unreinforced subgrade sections. with low mass per unit area [142]. In addition to this, a plate load test
Since CBR values play a vital role in pavement design, an increase in the conducted on CGT reinforced subgrades yielded 23 % to 48 % higher
CBR could significantly reduce the required thickness which in turn elastic modulus [146]. This increment could be due to the higher lateral
reduces the cost of construction by about 58 % [134,142]. In addition to confinement and improved drainage layer due to the placement of CGT
that, many studies showed that the DCP indices for CGT reinforced roads and JGT. The above analysis based on available literature confirms the
are comparatively less than unreinforced roads [82,134,136,142].

14
N. Kumar et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606

potential and effectiveness of CGT and JGT in improving the strength

10.25
Mass per unit area g/m2

7.21
and deformation characteristics of pavement layers in both dry and wet

1252

1.8

34
conditions.

Reinforced CBR%
It is to be noted that, the results obtained from the laboratory studies

33.55
7.94

1.75

6.91
are slightly different from the field investigations. This difference is

690
attributed to the ideal boundary conditions, scaling factors, not repli­
cating the field compaction conditions, small size test tank, thickness of

7.08

1.67

5.47
31.35
365
layers, loading rate, variation in water content and dry density in the
model tests. Table 7 summarizes the important aspects of field studies on
the basis of research conducted in different regions.
Unreinforced

9. Conclusions and suggestions for future sustainable road

construction
CBR%

4.62

0.92

3.65
18.2

The comprehensive review attempts to scientifically quantify and

Layered soil provide evidence on the successful methodology for the usage of
Soil type

Kuttanad

Kaolinite

lignocellulosic fibre-based geotextiles for low-volume rural road con­

Laterite

struction. Among various lignocellulosic fibres available, coir and jute

clay

are the two abundantly used fibres which fulfil all the requisite prop­
erties for pavement applications. The studies revealed that CGT and JGT
have a promising future in enhancing the structural and functional
Paved road

Settlement

behavior of rural roads. The following conclusions and suggestions have

Plastic deformation (mm)

been drawn from the review carried out here in this study.
(mm)

38
16
14
6

• The amount of cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose and pectin content

Geotextile above

determines the overall physical and mechanical properties of ligno­

Unpaved road

cellulosic fibres. Primarily, the middle sub-layer of secondary wall S2

Placement

plays a predominant role in governing the mechanical properties of

UR– Unreinforced soil, CGT– Coir geotextile reinforced soil, CBR– California bearing ratio test, SG- Subgrade, BC- Base course.
75–77
50–52
28–30
layer

these fibres. In addition to the chemical constituents, the specific

BC

environmental conditions and the soil type also affect the properties
of fibres
Settlement (mm)

Placement layer

Geotextile within

• Among the various lignocellulosic fibres, jute and coir are best suited
for fabricating geotextiles due to their high strength and durability
Paved road

characteristics. Compared to other lignocellulosic fibres, coir has

more resistance against microbial degradation, which makes it the
base
38
30
11

most durable lignocellulosic fibre. Hence, coir fibre-based geotextile

5

(CGT) could be used for pavements to be constructed in rural areas

Plastic deformation

(low-volume roads), especially in tropical regions where durability is

Settlement (mm)

the prime concern

Unpaved road

Unpaved road

• Acid treatment, ferric hydroxide treatment, and grafting techniques

could enhance the strength as well as the durability characteristics of
Summary of various laboratory studies on CGT reinforced road. Ref: [134,139,147].

60–62
45–48
75–77

lignocellulosic fibres. Further, the other chemical treatments such as

(mm)
26
22
18
11

alkali, silane, acetic anhydride, benzoylation, and permanganate

treatments are relatively economical and very effective in removing
Geotextile above SG

the hydroxyl groups and surface impurities present over the cell wall
Placement layer

Placement layer

Geotextile above

of these lignocellulosic fibres. These methods could also increase the

fibres’ surface roughness and durability, which helps in increasing
subgrade

the dimensional stability, and bonding between the fibres and the
surrounding matrix
• The parameters that govern the strength of CGT and JGT are the
thickness of geotextiles, the number of yarns in warp & weft direc­
tion, mass per unit area (GSM), aperture size, weaving patterns,
No of load

No of load

gauge length, and strain rate

cycles

cycle

• The primary functions of lignocellulosic fibre-based geotextiles are

100
100
100
100

100
100
100

separation, filtration, drainage, and reinforcement. Because of the

tubular structure of coir and jute yarns, CGT & JGT restrains the
Mass per unit area

Mass per unit area

aggregate movement in the lateral direction thereby providing

additional confinement. It is also observed that the presence of
geotextiles could change the soil failure wedge from punching shear
(g/m2)

(g/m2)

to general shear and provide vertical support by membrane action.

1200

1286
700
900

710

Thus, mitigating rutting and other modes of failure due to the

excessive settlement of subgrade
• Factors affecting the strength and deformation characteristics of the
section
Types of

subgrade are bearing pressure, CBR, dry density, and the subgrade
Type of
section
Table 6

CGT1
CGT2
CGT3

CGT4
CGT5

moisture content. The inclusion of a geotextile layer over the sub­

UR

UR

grade could improve the CBR and dry density, thereby decreasing the

15
N. Kumar et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128606

Table 7
Summary of various field studies on CGT and JGT reinforced road.
Type of Physical properties Placement Subgrade Location Subgrade CBR Settlement of Required References
geotextile layer properties pavement thickness of
road
Mass per Thickness Types of soil Place of CBR% CBR%
unit area (mm) used in construction (Before) (After)
(g/m2) subgrade

JGT 629 1.79 Above Silt, Clay Bangladesh Below 3.0 3.0 % to 21 Decreases Decreases [158]
Woven subgrade % %
730 2.43
JGT 600 – Above Soft Clay Kakinada, Below 2.10 4.78 % to Decreases Decreases [159]
Woven subgrade India % 6.03 %
CGT 1200 8.35 Above Silt, Sand (Non Kerala, India 22 to 33 % 36 to 40 % Decreases Decreases [134]
Woven 900 8.66 subgrade plastic soil)
700 7.56
CGT 700 7.56 Above Clay, silt, & Kerala, India Minimum Increased Decreases Decreases [82]
Woven subgrade sand 14 % upto 178 %
CGT 740 9.0 Above Silt, sand Kerala, India 5.11 % 9 % to 16 % Decreases Decreases [142]
Woven subgrade
365 7.57

pavement deformation; this scenario results in the reduction of the
required pavement thickness owing to the enhanced subgrade
properties. The ideal position for placing the CGT and JGT beneath
the pavement surface is between the base and subbase course or
above the subgrade. This study recommends using the geotextile
layer above the subgrade which helps the soil to consolidate at a
much faster rate
• The CGT and JGT reinforced test model exhibited increased CBR
value upto 121 %, bearing capacity 48 % to 75 % and reduced set­
tlement by 15 % to 87 % indicating subgrade soil improvement. More
improvement of subgrade CBR is likely to occur over time. Thus, CGT
and JGT can strengthen soft subgrades having low CBR values
• BBD test results showed a reduction in characteristic deflection by
70 % due to improvement in the dry density of soil for reinforced
pavements compared to unreinforced ones. This soil improvement
due to the inclusion of CGT and JGT reduces the thickness of the
bituminous Macadam overlay and minimizes the maintenance cost
which results in a decrement of the overall cost of the project
On the whole, various field and laboratory studies on the usage of
CGT and JGT for rural roads show that these lignocellulosic fibres-based
geotextiles will be a valuable component for the weak subgrade and
have immense potential for application in rural roads.
10. Future perspectives
• Numerous studies have been carried out to find the effectiveness of
lignocellulosic fibre geotextile in the low-volume rural roads; how­
ever, there is no proper study quantifying the degradation rate of
CGT and JGT under realistic conditions i.e., with different soil type at
various environmental conditions. A comprehensive study on
degradation rate will help the field engineers and practitioners to
find its efficacy in high-volume roads, especially on highways and
urban roads
• One can further extend the study to determine the optimum subbase/
base course thickness reduction percentage and cost benefits in low-
volume rural roads reinforced with CGT and JGT
• Based on the available literature on laboratory studies, it is very
difficult to analyze the behavior and performance of geotextile
reinforced roads. Hence laboratory investigations need to be planned
which can exactly simulate the in-situ condition by controlling all the
critical parameters such as boundary conditions and scaling factors
in order to fundamentally understand the behavior of CGT and JGT
reinforced roads
• A comprehensive study is required on the effect of weaving patterns
forms and prestressing on the interfacial and pull-out characteristics
of lignocellulosic fibre-based geotextiles
• Extensive cost benefit analysis and life cycle assessment (LCA) need
to be carried out for sustainable usage of these natural fibres for road
applications.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
The first author would like to thank Manish K, Selvam M and Kalyan
NSSP for providing motivation and feedback while writing the paper.
The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the financial support
received from the Coir Board, “India” under project nos.
SP21221167CECBOA008478 and SP21221170CECBOA008952, Minis­
try of Road Transport and Highways of India (MoRTH) under project no.
SB22230326CEIITM008953 and TLC2, IIT Madras.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear
in the submitted article.
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