MTH1114 Computer Mathematics

UNIT 1
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF COUNTING
Zaharin Yusoff (Prof Dr)

SCHOOL
◆ UNIT 1 – Fundamental Principles of Counting
 Rule of Sum
 Rule of Product Chapter 1:
 Permutation 1.1 → 1.4
 Combination pg 3 → 36
― Binomial Theorem
― Combinations with repetition

◆ UNIT 2 – Properties of the Integers

 Mathematical Induction
 Recursive Definitions Chapter 4:
 The Division Algorithm: Prime Numbers 4.1 → 4.5
 The Greatest Common Divisor: The pg 193 → 241
Euclidean Algorithm
 The Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic (product of primes)

◆ UNIT 3 – Fundamentals of Logic

Chapter 2:
 Basic Connectives and Truth Tables 2.1 → 2.4
 Logical Equivalence: Laws of Logic Pg 47 → 103
 Logical Implications: Rules of Inference
 Use of Quantifiers
◆ UNIT 1 – Fundamental
Principles of Counting
 Rule of Sum
 Rule of Product DISCRETE STRUCTURES
BASICS
 Permutation
 Combination
◆ Numbers
◆ Counting Possibilities  Operators
― Binomial Theorem  Sequence of numbers/characters
― Combinations with repetition  Express in terms of primes
 Arrange
 Choose ◆ Sets
 Operators
◆ Expressing Statements  Related to sequences, series
 Basic – propositions
◆ UNIT 2 – Properties of Integers  Compound statements ◆ Relations and Functions
 Mathematical Induction  Determine truth values  Types of relations
 Recursive Definitions  1st Order Logic Statements  Functions
 The Division Algorithm: Prime Numbers  Operators
 ◆ Recursion Process
The Greatest Common Divisor: The ◆ Mathematical Structures
Euclidean Algorithm  Induction
 Properties
 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic  Loops
 Matrices
(product of primes)  Directed Graphs

◆ UNIT 3 – Logic ◆ UNIT 4 – Sets

 Connectives and Truth Tables
 Logical Equivalence: Laws of
Logic
 Logical Implications: Rules of
Inference
 Use of Quantifiers
 Sets and Subsets ◆ UNIT 6 – Relations
◆ UNIT 5 –
 Set Operations and the  Properties of Relations
Laws of Set Theory Functions ― Binary, Reflexive,
― Double complement  Cartesian Products Symmetric, Transitive
― DeMorgan’s Law  Functions: Plain and  Zero-One Matrices and
― Commutative One-to-One Directed Graphs
― ….  Onto Functions  Trees
 Function Composition
and Inverse Functions
UNIT 1 – Fundamental Principles of Counting
 UNIT 1 – Fundamental Principles of Counting

◆ Arranging, Choosing, … → knowing the number of possibilities

 Rule of Sum (for 2 independent events)
 Rule of Product (for one event dependent on the other)
 Permutation
 Combination
— Binomial Theorem
— Combinations with repetition

(1) PERMUTATION (Arranging)

What is available
How many positions How many positions
of interest not interested in

P( n, r )

m1!, m2!, …, ms! For all repeats within the n available

 (2) COMBINATION (Choosing)

What is available

Because we are not

How many positions interested in the order
of interest

(3) The rest are working things out based on:

▪ Rule of Sum (for 2 independent events)
▪ Rule of Product (for one event dependent on the other)
▪ … etc… like the following:
 Number of possibilities for E
Probabilities P( E) =
Total number of possibilities
 (4) Computer Representation

– This chapter is still on mathematics, for counting possibilities … but it will be applied to computing

– In any case, we are still essentially dealing with numbers, and thus the basic computing operations
(arithmetic) are adequate (which are readily available in any computer language)

– In fact, these are single numbers, and thus not even ordering is required → a point (0-dimensional),
as compared to a line (with order, 1-dimensional), and matrices (2-dimensional), etc. (see later Units)

– The computer representation for numbers is essentially a single variable (with Type, Length, etc.)

◆ Discrete Structures ◆ Data Structures

 Numbers  Variables
 Linked lists
 Arrays
 …
1.1 The Rules of Sum and Product
(pg. 3→ 5)
 The Rule of Sum

The Rule of Sum: If a first task can be performed in m ways, while a second task
can be performed in n ways, and the two tasks cannot be performed simultaneously
(i.e. they are independent of each other, or disjoint)

then performing either (1) task can be accomplished in any one of m + n ways

Example 40 textbooks on physics

50 textbooks on biology

By the rule of sum, a student can select among 40 + 50 = 90 textbooks in

order to learn more about one or the other of these two subjects (1 book).

The rule applies to more than two tasks as long as no pairs of the tasks
can occur simultaneously

Example 7 books each on Java, C++, Perl

How many ways can a student select a book (1 book)?

7 + 7 + 7 = 21 ways
 The Rule of Product

The Rule of Product (or Principle of Choice): If a procedure can be broken down into
first and second stages, and if, for each of these outcomes (2 tasks are performed),
− there are m possible outcomes for the first stage and if, for each of these outcomes
− there are n possible outcomes for the second stage,
then the total procedure can be carried out, in the designated order, in m x n ways

Example A drama club of a university is holding an audition to select a

hero and a heroine for a play.

If 6 men and 8 women came for the audition, how many ways can we select a
hero and a heroine? 6 × 8 = 48 ways

Example If the drama club is looking to select a star and then a co-star
irrespective of male or female

If 14 people came for the audition, then there will be 14 × 13 = 182 ways
(because once the star is chosen, s/he cannot be the co-star)
Example A typical PIN (Personal Identification Number) is a sequence of any
four symbols chosen from the 26 letters in the alphabet and the ten
digits (including 0). How many different PINS are possible?
a) With repetitions of letters and digits allowed.
36 x 36 x 36 x 36 = 364
b) If no letter or digit can be repeated
36 x 35 x 34 x 33

Example Some license plates consist of 2 letters followed by 4 digits

a) With repetitions of letters and digits allowed
26 x 26 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
= 6,760,000 different possible license plates
b) If no letter or digit can be repeated
26 x 25 x 10 x 9 x 8 x 7
= 3,276,000 different possible license plates
c) Same as (b), but only vowels (A, E, I, O, U) and even digits (0 is an even integer)
52 x 54 different possible license plates
Example (Sum & Product)
The menu at a cafe has: six (6) kinds of muffins, eight (8) kinds of sandwiches and
five (5) beverages (hot coffee, hot tea, iced tea, cola and orange juice).

A boss sends her assistant to the cafe to get her lunch, either a muffin and a hot
beverage, or a sandwich and a cold beverage.

Possibilities:
A muffin and a hot beverage: 6 x 2 = 12 ways
A sandwich and a cold beverage: 8 x 3 = 24 ways

There are thus 12 + 24 ways to buy the boss’ lunch

Example Counting passwords with three or fewer letters.

A computer access password consists of from one to three letters
chosen from the 26 in the alphabet with repetitions allowed. How many
different passwords are possible?

There are four disjoint cases (not counting the case of no password at all)
− If three digits, there are 26 x 26 x 26 = 263
− If 2 digits, there are 26 x 26 = 262
− If 1 digit, there are 26 = 261
→ 263 + 262 + 261 different passwords possible (from rule of sum)
Example In how many ways can we select two books from different subjects
among five distinct computer science (CS) books, three distinct
mathematics (M) books, and two distinct art (A) books?

There are 3 possible pairs of books, these being disjoint cases (and for each, we use
the rule of product):
− We can select two books, one from CS & one from M: 5 x 3 = 15 ways.
− Similarly we can select two books, one from CS & one from A: 5 x 2 = 10 ways
− We can also select two books from M & one from A: 3 x 2 = 6 ways.

→ 15 + 10 + 6 = 31 ways selecting two books from different subjects

(from rule of sum)
1.2 Permutations
(pg. 6 → 14)
 Permutations

A permutation of a set of distinct objects is an ordered arrangement of these objects.

The key word here is order (or arrangement).

Example Consider the set of elements a, b , c

abc acb bac bca cab cba
The number of permutations of 3 elements are
3! = 3 x 2 x 1 = 6 permutations

Note: For an integer n ∈ Z, n factorial (denoted n!) is defined by

0! = 1, for n = 0
n! = (n)(n-1)(n-2)...(3)(2)(1), for n ≥ 1.

One finds that 1! = 1, 2! = 2, 3! = 6, 4! = 24, and 5! = 120.

In addition, for each n ≥ 0, (n + 1)! = (n + 1) (n!).
In general, if there are n distinct objects, denoted a1, a2, …, an, and r is an
integer, with 1 ≤ r ≤ n, then by the rule of product, the number of permutations
of size r (r positions) for the n objects is

n × (n - 1) × (n - 2) × … × (n – r + 1)
1st 2nd 3rd rth
position position position position

= (n) (n - 1) (n - 2) … (n – r + 1) × (n - r) (n – r - 1) … (3) (2) (1) = n! .

(n - r) (n – r - 1) … (3) (2) (1) (n - r)!

We denote this number by P(n, r) or nP

r

For r = 0, P(n, 0) = 1 = n!/(n - 0)!,

so
P(n, r) = n! . for 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
(n - r)!

Note
P(n, r) counts (linear) arrangements in which the objects cannot be repeated.
However, if repetitions are allowed, then by the rule of product there are nr
possible arrangements with r ≥ 0
Example The word COMPUTER has 8 letters, none repeated.
a) The number of permutations of the letters in the word COMPUTER is 8!
a) If only 3 of the letters are used, the number of permutations (of size 3) is

P(8, 3) = 8! . = 8! . = 8.7.6 = 336

(8 - 3)! 5!

c) If repetitions of letters are allowed, the number of possible 12-letter sequences is

812 = 6.872 x 1010 .

Example Unlike in the above, the number of (linear) arrangements of the four
letters in BALL is 12 (i.e. not 4! = 24).
This is because the L is repeated, and there are 2! ways to do this.
As such, we have to divide the total number of ways by this amount:
4! . = 24. = 12
2! 2

Example The word PEPPER has 6 letters, with P repeated 3 times, and E twice
There are 3! ways for repeats of P, and 2! for repeats of E.
As such, we have to divide the total number of ways by these amounts:
6! . = 6.5.4 = 60
(3! 2!) 2
Example The MASSASAUGA is a brown and white venomous snake indigenous
to North America.
The word has 10 letters, with 4 A’s, 3 S’s, and M, U, G.

❑ The total number of ways to arrange the letters are:

10! . = 10.9.8.7.6.5 = 25,200
(4! 3!) 3.2.1

❑ If all 4 A’s are to be arranged together, then we consider AAAA as one

symbol, and so we have:
7! . = 7.6.5.4 = 840
3!

❑ For the same reason if all 4 A’s are to be arranged together, and the 3 S’s
are to be arranged together as well, we have 5! = 120 permutations
1.3 Combinations: The Binomial Theorem
(pg. 14 → 26)
 Combinations

In general, if we start with n distinct objects, each selection of r of these objects,

with a reference to order, corresponds to a permutation of size r from the n objects,
namely P(n,r) = n!/(n−r)!

Now, if there is no reference to order, in the sense that we are not concerned about
the order of the r elements chosen, we need to take into account the r! ways of
arranging the r chosen objects (just like the number of repeats) – hence to divide
the permutations by r!. This kind of selection is called a combination.

Thus the number of combinations of size r from a collection of size n is denoted

C(n, r) or nCr, where 0 ≤ r ≤ n, which is given by:
C(n, r) = P(n, r) = n! , 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
r! r!(n – r)!

C(n,r) or nCr is sometimes denoted by and is also called a binomial coefficient,

or referred to as n choose r.

Important note: When dealing with any counting problem, we should ask ourselves
about the importance of order in the problem. When order is relevant, we think in
terms of permutations and arrangements and the rule of product. When order is not
relevant, combinations could play a key role in solving the problem.
Example A hostess is having a dinner party for some members of her charity
committee. Because of the size of her home, she can invite only 11 of
the 20 committee members.

20C = 20! . = 20.19.18.17.16.15.14.13.12 = 167,960

11
11! 9! 9.8.7.6.5.4.3.2.1

Example A student taking a history examination is directed to answer any seven

of 10 essay questions.
a) In any way: 10C = 10! . = 10.9.8 = 120
7
7! 3! 3.2.1

b) 3 from first 5 and 4 from second 5:

5 C × 5C = 5! . × 5! . = 5.4 × 5 = 10 × 5 = 50
3 4
3! 2! 4! 1! 2.1 1!

c) If answer 7 of 10 questions, with at least 3 are from the first 5 → 3 cases:

i. 3 from first 5 and 4 from second 5: 5C3 × 5C4 = 10 × 5 = 50
ii. 4 from first 5 and 3 from second 5: 5C4 × 5C3 = 5 × 10 = 50
iii. 5 from first 5 and 2 from second 5: 5C5 × 5C2 = 1 × 10 = 10

→ by rule of sum: 50 + 50 + 10 = 110 ways

Example The number of arrangements of the letters in TALLAHASSEE is
(11 letters, with 3 A’s, 2 E’s, 2 L’s, 2 S’s, and T, H
11! . = 831,600
3! 2! 2! 2!

How many have no adjacent (consecutive) A’s?

With no A’s 8! . = 5,040
2! 2! 2!

There are 9 possible locations for the 3 A’s in between the other 8 letters

To choose 3 places out of these 9: 9C = 9! . = 84

3
3! 6!

Hence by rule of product, we have: 5,040 × 84 = 423,360 arrangements

 The Sigma notation

Just an example ….

(5C3 × 5C4) + (5C4 × 5C3) + (5C5 × 5C2)

= ∑5i=3 (5Ci × 5C7−i)
= ∑4j=2 (5C7−j × 5Cj)
 Bionomial Theorem

Binomial Theorem: If x and y are variables and n is a positive integer, then

In view of this theorem, is often referred to as a binomial coefficient.

Notice that it is also possible to express the result of the theorem as:

Example From the binomial theorem it follows that the coefficient of x5y2 in
the expansion of (x + y)7 is:
7C = 7C2 = 7! . = 7.6 = 21
5
(5! 2!) 2
 PROBABILITY

• MTH1114
• ComputerMaths

March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 26

Week 7: Probability Theory
 Discrete Probability
•Everything you have learned about counting constitutes
the basis for computing the probability of events to
happen.
•In the following, we will use the notion experiment for a
procedure that yields one of a given set of possible
outcomes.
•This set of possible outcomes is called the sample space
of the experiment.
•An event is a subset of the sample space.

March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 27

Week 7: Probability Theory
 Discrete Probability
•If all outcomes in the sample space are equally likely, the
following definition of probability applies:
•The probability of an event E, which is a subset of a finite
sample space S of equally likely outcomes, is given by
p(E) = |E|/|S|.
•Probability values range from 0 (for an event that will
never happen) to 1 (for an event that will always happen
whenever the experiment is carried out).

March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 28

Week 7: Probability Theory
 Discrete Probability
•Example I:
•An urn contains four blue balls and five red balls. What is
the probability that a ball chosen from the urn is blue?
•Solution:
•There are nine possible outcomes, and the event “blue ball
is chosen” comprises four of these outcomes. Therefore,
the probability of this event is 4/9 or approximately
44.44%.

March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 29

Week 7: Probability Theory
 Complementary Events
•Let E be an event in a sample space S. The probability of
an event ¬E, the complementary event of E, is given by
•p(¬E) = 1 – p(E).
•This can easily be shown:
•p(¬E) = (|S| - |E|)/|S| = 1 - |E|/|S| = 1 – p(E).
•This rule is useful if it is easier to determine the
probability of the complementary event than the
probability of the event itself.

March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 30

Week 7: Probability Theory
 Complementary Events
•Example I: A sequence of 10 bits is randomly generated.
What is the probability that at least one of these bits is
zero?
•Solution: There are 210 = 1024 possible outcomes of
generating such a sequence. The event ¬E, “none of the
bits is zero”, includes only one of these outcomes, namely
the sequence 1111111111.
•Therefore, p(¬E) = 1/1024.
•Now p(E) can easily be computed as
p(E) = 1 – p(¬E) = 1 – 1/1024 = 1023/1024.

March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 31

Week 7: Probability Theory
 Complementary Events
•Example II: What is the probability that at least two out of
36 people have the same birthday?
•Solution: The sample space S encompasses all possibilities
for the birthdays of the 36 people,
so |S| = 36536.
•Let us consider the event ¬E (“no two people out of 36
have the same birthday”). ¬E includes P(365, 36) outcomes
(365 possibilities for the first person’s birthday, 364 for the
second, and so on).
•Then p(¬E) = P(365, 36)/36536 = 0.168,
so p(E) = 0.832 or 83.2%
March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 32
Week 7: Probability Theory
 Discrete Probability
•Let E1 and E2 be events in the sample space S.
Then we have:

•p(E1  E2) = p(E1) + p(E2) - p(E1 E2)

Does this remind you of something?

Of course, the principle of inclusion-exclusion.

March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 33

Week 7: Probability Theory
 Discrete Probability
•Example: What is the probability of a positive integer
selected at random from the set of positive integers not
exceeding 100 to be divisible by 2 or 5?

•Solution:
•E2: “integer is divisible by 2”
E5: “integer is divisible by 5”
•E2 = {2, 4, 6, …, 100}
•|E2| = 50
•p(E2) = 0.5

March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 34

Week 7: Probability Theory
 Discrete Probability
•E5 = {5, 10, 15, …, 100}
•|E5| = 20
•p(E5) = 0.2

•E2  E5 = {10, 20, 30, …, 100}

•|E2  E5| = 10
•p(E2  E5) = 0.1

•p(E2  E5) = p(E2) + p(E5) – p(E2  E5 )

•p(E2  E5) = 0.5 + 0.2 – 0.1 = 0.6

March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 35

Week 7: Probability Theory
 Conditional Probability
•If we toss a coin three times, what is the probability that
an odd number of tails appears (event E), if the first toss
is a tail (event F) ?
•If the first toss is a tail, the possible sequences are TTT,
TTH, THT, and THH.
•In two out of these four cases, there is an odd number of
tails.
•Therefore, the probability of E, under the condition that F
occurs, is 0.5.
•We call this conditional probability.
March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 36
Week 7: Probability Theory
 Conditional Probability
•If we want to compute the conditional probability of E
given F, we use F as the sample space.
•For any outcome of E to occur under the condition that F
also occurs, this outcome must also be in
E  F.

•Definition: Let E and F be events with p(F) > 0.

The conditional probability of E given F, denoted by p(E |
F), is defined as

•p(E | F) = p(E  F)/p(F)

March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 37

Week 7: Probability Theory
 Conditional Probability
•Example: What is the probability of a random bit string of
length four to contain at least two consecutive 0s, given
that its first bit is a 0 ?
•Solution:
•E: “bit string contains at least two consecutive 0s”
•F: “first bit of the string is a 0”
•We know the formula p(E | F) = p(E  F)/p(F).
•E  F = {0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100}
•p(E  F) = 5/16
•p(F) = 8/16 = 1/2
•p(E | F) = (5/16)/(1/2) = 10/16 = 5/8 = 0.625
March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 38
Week 7: Probability Theory
 Independence of events
•Let us return to the example of tossing a coin three times.
•Does the probability of event E (odd number of tails)
depend on the occurrence of event F (first toss is a tail) ?
•In other words, is it the case that
p(E | F)  p(E) ?
•We actually find that p(E | F) = 0.5 and p(E) = 0.5,
so we say that E and F are independent events.

March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 39

Week 7: Probability Theory
 Independence of events
•Because we have p(E | F) = p(E  F)/p(F),
p(E | F) = p(E) if and only if p(E  F) = p(E)p(F).

•Definition: The events E and F are said to be independent

if and only if p(E  F) = p(E)p(F).

•Obviously, this definition is symmetrical for E and F. If

we have p(E  F) = p(E)p(F), then it is also true that p(F |
E) = p(F).

March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 40

Week 7: Probability Theory
 Independence of events
•Example: Suppose E is the event of rolling an even
number with an unbiased die. F is the event that the
resulting number is divisible by three. Are events E and F
independent?
•Solution:
•p(E) = 1/2, p(F) = 1/3.
•|E  F|= 1 (only 6 is divisible by both 2 and 3)
•p(E  F) = 1/6
•p(E  F) = p(E)p(F)
•Conclusion: E and F are independent.
March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 41
Week 7: Probability Theory
 Bayes’ Theorem

March 12, 2013 MTH2102 Discrete Mathematics 42

Week 7: Probability Theory
 example
• Let's say a certain disease, called Disease X, affects 1% of the population.
There is a diagnostic test available to detect the disease, but it's not perfect.
The test correctly identifies a person with Disease X 95% of the time and
incorrectly identifies a person without the disease (false positive) 2% of the
time.
• Given this information, suppose a randomly selected person tests positive for
Disease X. What is the probability that the person actually has the disease?
 solution
• Let D be the event that a person has Disease X, and let T be the event that a person tests
positive for Disease X.
• We are given: P(D) = 0.01 (prevalence of the disease in the population), P(T|D) = 0.95
(probability of testing positive given that a person has the disease), P(T|¬D) = 0.02
(probability of testing positive given that a person does not have the disease).
• We need to find P(D|T), which represents the probability that a person has the disease
given that they tested positive.
• Using Bayes' theorem: P(D|T) = (P(T|D) * P(D)) / P(T)
• To calculate P(T), we can use the law of total probability: P(T) = P(T|D) * P(D) +
P(T|¬D) * P(¬D)
• Given: P(D) = 0.01 (prevalence of the disease in the population), P(T|D) = 0.95 (probability of testing
positive given that a person has the disease), P(T|¬D) = 0.02 (probability of testing positive given
that a person does not have the disease).
• We need to find P(D|T), the probability that a person has the disease given that they tested positive.
• Using Bayes' theorem: P(D|T) = (P(T|D) * P(D)) / P(T)
• To calculate P(T), we use the law of total probability: P(T) = P(T|D) * P(D) + P(T|¬D) * P(¬D)
• First, let's calculate P(¬D): P(¬D) = 1 - P(D) = 1 - 0.01 = 0.99
• Now, let's calculate P(T): P(T) = P(T|D) * P(D) + P(T|¬D) * P(¬D) = (0.95 * 0.01) + (0.02 * 0.99) =
0.0095 + 0.0198 = 0.0293
• Finally, substitute the values into Bayes' theorem: P(D|T) = (P(T|D) * P(D)) / P(T) = (0.95 * 0.01) /
0.0293 = 0.0095 / 0.0293 ≈ 0.324
• Therefore, the probability that a person actually has the disease given a positive test result is
approximately 0.324, or 32.4%.
 Pigeonhole Principle

If N objects are placed into k boxes, then

there is at least one box containing at
least ⌈N/k⌉ objects.
 The Pigeonhole Principle
•The pigeonhole principle: If (k + 1) or more objects are
placed into k boxes, then there is at least one box containing
two or more of the objects.

•Example 1: If there are 11 players in a soccer team that

wins 12-0, there must be at least one player in the team who
scored at least twice.

•Example 2: If you have 6 classes from Monday to Friday,

there must be at least one day on which you have at least
two classes.

47
 The Pigeonhole Principle
•The generalized pigeonhole principle: If N objects are
placed into k boxes, then there is at least one box containing
at least N/k of the objects.
•Example 1: In a 60-student class, at least 12 students will
get the same letter grade (A, B, C, D, or F).
•Example 2: In a 61-student class, at least 13 students will
get the same letter grade.

48
 The Pigeonhole Principle
•Example 3: Assume you have a drawer containing a
random distribution of a dozen brown socks and a dozen
black socks. It is dark, so how many socks do you have to
pick to be sure that among them there is a matching pair?

•There are two types of socks, so if you pick at least 3

socks, there must be either at least two brown socks or at
least two black socks.

•Generalized pigeonhole principle: 3/2 = 2.

49
 Computer Representation

Data increases in complexity

• 0-dimensional: numbers, text, …
• 1-dimensional: sets, sequences, strings, ….
• 2-dimensional: matrices, trees, graphs, …
 Number of possibilities for E
Probabilities P( E) =
Total number of possibilities
THANK YOU TERIMA KASIH
MERCI ARIGATO/ OKINI
GRAZZIE GO MA SSEUM NI DA
GRACIAS SHUKRIYA
SPASIBA XIE-XIE NI
DANKE KAMSIAH / MMKOI
MANGE TAK JABAI INAU
NAN DHRI NGGO BUTE KABU
CAM ON KOP KUN KAH